Natural History Museums NEWSLETTER No. 6 1980 Contents/Table des matieres
1. Conference Programme 1. Programme du colloque
2. Report of the Business Sessions 2. Rapport sur les questions administratives and Resolutions et resolutions
3. Papers Presented 3. Textes des dissertations presentees
4. List of Participants 4. Liste des participants
International Committee of Natural History Museums - ICOM
Comite international des }fusees d'Histoire naturelle - ICOM
Chairman/President * Dr. Louis Lemieux - Canada
Vice-Chairman/ Dr. Boris Saveliev - USSR/URSS Vice-President
Secretary/Secretaire F. Hugh Schultz -Canada
Programme Chairman '80 President du Comite du Programme '80 Heather Shannon - Canada
Host Committee Chairman/ President du Comite d'Acceuil Dr. Gonzalo Halffter - Mexico/Mexique
* Chairman Elect/President elu Dr. Kjell Engstrom - Sweden/Suede Notes
This publication has been prepared as a special edition of the Newsletter of the International Committee of Natural History Museums of ICOM to record the proceedings of the committee meeting held in Mexico City from October 28 to November 4, 1980. All papers have been published as received from the authors. Abstracts or summaries have been prepared for each item in the other official language of ICOM solely for the assistance of our readers. Pictorial materials were used in the presentations in many instances, or were provided by authors to accompany their written texts. These were not used in this publication because of the expense and difficulty of printing. If these materials are of interest, please communicate directly with the authors.
Notes
La presente publication a ete preparee a titre de numero special du Bulletin du Comite international des musees d 1 histoire naturelle de 1 1 ICOM pour rendr.e compte des deliberations de l 1 assemblee du Comite tenue au Mexique, du 28 octobre au 4 novembre, 1980. Toutes les communications sent presentees dans le texte integral des auteurs.
Un resume de chaque article a ete prepare dans 1 I autre langue Qfficielle de 1 I ICOM dans 1 1 unique but d'aider nos lecteurs. Des representations visuelles ont servi, dans bien des cas, a illustrer les presentations initiales ou avaient ete fournis par les auteurs pour accompagner le texte de leurs communications. Nous n'avons pu les utiliser dans la presente publication a cause des difficultes et des frais d'impression. Ceux que ces documents interessent pourront s'adresser directement a l'auteur.
CONlSEtL. §f'i ·~· Ehi'•,;ATIONA.f. o~s MUSEES Programme
INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE OF NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS OF ICOM COMITE INTERNATIONAL DES MUSEES D'HISTOIRE NATURELLE D'ICOM
October 28/le 28 octobre Conference Opening/Ouverture du Collogue Dr. Louis Lemieux - Chairman of the Committee/ President du Comite
Welcoming addresses/Mats de bienvenue Dr. Gonzalo Halffter, Director/Directeur Museo de Historia Natural de la Ciudad de Mexico Host Committee Chairman/President du Comite d'acceuil
Session/Seance
Paper/Texte No. 1 An International Code of Ethics for Natural Histo Museums/Code international d'ethigue pour les musi d'histoire naturelle Dr. Harold Mahan, U.S.A.
Session/Seance
Paper/Texte No. 2 Los Museos de Historia Natural: Alternatives Actuales para la Prot~ci~n del Patrimonio Natural Dr. Gonzalo Halffter Museo de Historia Natural de la Ciudad de Mexico
Session/Seance
MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS/SUJETS DIVERS
Chairman/President: F. Hugh Schultz National Museum of Natural Sciences, Canada
Paper/Texte No. 3 The Campus Natural History Museum: Responsibilit] and Problems Dr. Bryce B. Brown, Baylor University, Waco, Texas
Paper/Texte No. 4 The World's Heritage: The Museum's Responsibility Anthony Tynan, Hancock Museum, Newcastle, England Natural History Exhibits in the Museum of India Paper/Texte No. 10 Dr. S.M. Nair, National Museum of Natural History New Delhi, India
Session/Seance
THE MUSEUM AND THE ADULT
Chairman/President Dr. Malcolm Arth American Museum of Natural History, New York, U.S.A.
Paper/Texte No. 11 A New Visitor Resource Centre Anne Clarke, British Museum of Natural History London, England
Paper/Texte No. 12 Free-Ranging Monkey Parks - An Outdoor Museum? Dr. S. Hirose Japan Monkey Centre Aichi, ·Japan
Session/Seance
MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS/SUJETS DIVERS
Continued/Continue
Paper not available/ La Conservacion del Germoplasma Mundial (un proyecto Texte non disponible MAB-UNESCO) Gonzalo Halffter, Pedro Reyes-Castillo, Ma. Eugenia Maury, Sonia Gallina, Exequiel Ezcurra Institute de Ecologia, Mexico
Paper not available/ The Guration of Palaeontological Collections and Texte non disponible Recommendation for ICOM Policy Statement by the Palaeontological Association of Great Britain, read by Peter J. Morgan, Cardiff, Wales Paper not available/ The Development of a Museum of Natural History Texte non disponible in Nigeria N. M. Adediran, Nigerian Museum, Lagos, Nigeria
Paper not available/ Los Museos de Historia Natural y su Funcion en Texte non disponible pro de los Recursos Naturales Jorge A. Ibarra, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Guatemala
Paper/Texte No. 13 Curation of Biological Collections of Museums Statement by ESRC/ESF working group on Taxonomy, Systematics and Biological recording Read by Peter J. Morgan, Cardiff, Wales
/ Paper/Texte No. 14 Le role du Museum d'Histoire naturelle. "Grigore Antipa" dans l'education des masses" Dr. Dan Dumitrescu, Bucarest, Rumanie
Session/Seance
REPORT OF THE ICOH-IUCN PROJECTS/RAPPORT DU PROJET ICOM-IUCN
Chairman/President Dr. Louis Lemieux, Director, National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa, Canada
Paper/Texte No. 15 Exhibition on the use of the Tropical Rain Forest Anne Clarke, British Museum of Natural History London, England, and Dr. S.M. Nair, National Museum of Natural History, New Delhi, India.
Caribbean Project J. S. Whiting, National Museum of Natural Sciences Ottawa, Canada
Session/Seance
Business Meeting/Questions administratives Dr. Louis Lemieux, National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa, Canada REPORT OF THE BUSINESS SESSION
Dr. Lemieux chaired the session which was held in the Museo de Historia Natural de la Ciudad de Mexico. Dr. Lemieux reported on his activities during the past year and a half and offered his thanks to the Executive and principals of the committee for their fine work. He also thanked Heather Shannon for again taking on the task of being Programme Chairman for the meeting in Mexico. The project "Directory of Natural History Museums" was discussed. It was the general feeling that the project was a useful one and it was suggested that the new executive should contact Dr. Rydzewski and determine its progress. A project involving the preparation of a list of type specimens of the world was discussed. Various suggestions were made for a sensible approach to the problem. Anthony Tynan, Hancock Museum in Newcastle, England offered to be a point of contact for the project and would be pursuing possibilities of coordination with discipline-oriented groups. Several new projects were presented by Dr. Lemieux. The committee agreed that it would be a valuable thing to have a basic design for a museum of natural history for use in many ways. Dr. Lemieux offered to pursue the matter in conjunction with the Committee on Architecture. Dr. Lemieux also discussed the need for the development of a handbook on specimen preparation and preservative techniques. He offered to pursue that matter and would investigate possible financial assistance from UNESCO. The secretary was asked to report. He indicated that the position is one of maintaining a business-like but informal administration of the affairs of the committee and of reacting to the requirements of ICOM and the me mbership. He indic ated that he had represented the Chairman at meetings of the Advisory Committee, maintained regular correspondence, and reacted to the needs of the Chairman and to the needs of the members. He reported on membership. Through a mail survey sent to about 400 persons we established a firm membership of 175 persons with an "interested" group of about 125 persons. All facts were sent to ICOM Headquarters in Paris. He also reported on financial matters. We do not collect fees, r arely spend money in a direct way, and do not have or need a treasurer. He indicated that the Government of Canada through the National Museum of Natural Sciences supported his time, travel expenses, publishing costs, office and other normal expenses associated with his office. He thanked the committee for the challenge, stimulation and great friendships that resulted from the work. The "Newsletter" project under the editorship of Dr. Rydzewski of Poland was discussed. He was complimented for doing a good job with few available resources. It was generally concluded that a newsletter was a very desirable vehicle for communicating with members. Hany things were suggested for inclusion in newsletters, such as expositions, travelling exhibits, personnel matters, publications, etc. It was suggested that assista nce for the editor would be useful. Karl Meyer, Huseum Directo r, Staatliches Museum fur Naturkunde und Vorgeschichte, Oldenburg, West Germany indicated that he would help as an editorial assistant. Francisco Pabon Flores of Puerto Rico also offered to assist. Another project suggestion was made by Francisco Pabon Flores. He suggested that, if the committee agreed, he would be happy to pursue the development of the history of natural history museums of the world. The next meetings of the committee were discussed. An offer to meet in New Delhi, India in 1982 was offered by Dr. Nair, subject to discussion with his government. Plans for the associated meetings of the Committee in England on the occasion of the next general assembly of ICOM in London, England in 1983 were considered. It was suggested that the new executive should resolve the details. Dr. Lemieux then asked for the report of the Resolutions Committee. The committee consisted of Chris Haglund, Chairman, and members Arminta Neal and Kjell Engstrom. The resolutions presented by Chris Haglund and adopted at the meeting are presented in total immediately following this report. Special thanks from the committee were also extended to the staff of the museum who had worked hard and effectively in support of the meetings held at the museum and to the translators who had a great range of accents to interpret and translate. Dr. Lemieux then asked the Secretary to report on nominations for the new executive. The secretary tabled the following written nominations: 1. Chairman: Kjell Engstrom, Sweden 2. Vice Chairman: S.M. Nair, India 3. Vice Chairman: Anthony Tynan, England Following discussion on the subject, the above-noted nominees were elected to the positions indicated. The meeting then voted affirmatively to authorize the new Chairman to select and appoint a new Secretary to the Committee. * (*The following day, the Committee was informed by Dr. Engstrom, that after discussion with the Secretary-General of ICOM on the applicability of the "two-term" designation to the position of Secretary, Hugh Schultz had been asked and had agreed to continue to serve as Secretary.) Finally, in addition to Resolution #13, Dr. Engstrom added his personal thanks to Louis Lemieux, outgoing Chairman, for the outstanding contribution that he had made to the work and organization of the committee and to ICOM in general during his two terms as Chairman. He indicated that he looked forward to continuing to work with Dr. Lemieux for many years for the good of ICOM. RESOLUTIONS
Adopted at the meeting of the International Committee of Natural History Museums in Mexico City on October 29, 1980.
Resolution #1 Be it resolved that the International Committee of Natural History Museums of ICOM continue its efforts to develop an International Code of Ethics for Natural History Museums throughout the world, and specifically that the basic document, presented at this meeting, be more widely distributed so that additional comments can be sought from museum colleagues not able to attend this meeting; that all who took part in this meeting be encouraged to prepare, in writing, specific comments for the use of the sub-committee on ethics in their effort to revise the document; and, finally, that this sub-committee, after considering all comments, present a final draft of an International Code of Ethics for Natural History Museums at the next meeting of this ICOM Committee.
Resolution #2 Recognizing the urgency of the present and projected loss of the world's heritage of natural habitats and species, described and undescribed;
Recognizing the vital role museums have in monitoring that loss;
Realizing that sound environment management is essential to the future welfare of all people;
Recognizing that such environmental management, determined from ecological studies, can be biologically sound only if based on adequate taxonomic and systematic studies;
Recognizing that a number of reports have recently been published in various countries drawing attention to serious gaps in our knowledge of the biotas of major geographical regions and of habitats being destroyed or adversely affected;
Recognizing that the same reports note that the teaching and training of taxonomists is seriously insufficient for present and future requirements; and
Recognizing the essential and fundamental role of Natural History Museums and departments in providing adequate facilities through the collections and libraries for the present and future training of curators, taxonomists and systematics;
8 Be it resolved that the International Committee of Natural History Museums of ICOM: 1. Establish a working group to examine anew and to coordinate existing information on collections and future curatorial needs, especially those pertinent to the conservation of the world's natural resources,
2. Urges all countries to institute or expand training programs in their natural history museums, departments and research institutes; and
3. Urges countries to provide greater employment opportunities for biological taxonomists and systematists, especially in museums.
Resolution 113 The International Committee of Natural History Museums of ICOM resolves that: 1. Palaeontological collections should be in the charge of specialist curators. Museums without such staff should seek advice, and should consider passing important collections to institutions where they will be properly curated.
2. Organizations, such as Museums Associations and the International Council of Museums (ICOM), should be urged to establish courses for specialist training in all aspects of geological curating and specimen conservation.
3. Type and other described and cited fossil specimens should be deposited in a reputable and publicly accessible museum, and Editors of journals should accept papers for publication only when this condition is satisfied. Types should be made freely available for research purposes; in some cases preparation of such specimens may be necessary and if curators are in any doubt about granting permission they should consult other specialists in the field for advice.
4. Museums with stated acquisition policies should be encouraged to make them widely known.
s. Palaeontological sites and especially type sections, should be treated with respect through following recommended Codes of Conduct; where necessary sites should be protected by legislation to prevent over-collecting.
6. In addition to computer technologies and data-formats, terminology and hierarchies require standardization if computerized cataloguing techniques are to become widely used and effective for indexing and data-exchange in palaeontology.
Resolution ff4 Recognizing that museums have a fundamental role to play in environmental education, especially with respect to promoting the objectives of the World Conservation Strategy; and Recognizing that there are an increasing number of museums that are developing exhibitions and education programs in the field of environmental education and that many more are keen to do so; )
Be it resolved that the Natural History Committee expresses its support of the working group on Environmental Education formed at the May, 1979 meeting in Vienna whose role is to support and promote the work of museums in environmental education.
The working group's objectives include: 1. Development of ways to encourage natural support and exchange of ideas,
2. Promotion of cooperation and coordination between museums and other organizations involved in environmental education, e.g. the IUCN.
3. Preparation of a series of brief guidelines to help those initiating projects of environmental education in museums.
4. Encouragement of the development of joint proposals between museums in the field of environmental education.
5. Provision of consultancy service to museums where needed.
Resolution 115 Recognizing that many environments and biota of the world are undergoing destruction, and that the role of natural history museums is to preserve examples of such biota for the future.
Be it resolved that the International Committee of Natural History Museums of ICOM recommends that:
1. ICOM, UNESCO and other pertinent world organizations establish as an urgent priority the conservation of natural resources in endangered environments of the world;
2. Natural History Museums and their programs be established in those areas where destruction constitutes a threat to natural patrimony;
3. When the formation of new natural history museums is impossible, action be taken to implement the international cooperation necessary for salvaging representative collections of flora and fauna for permanent preservation in pre-existing museums of natural history.
1\0 Resolution 116 That the International Committee of Natural History Museums adopt as a continuing project the compilation and dissemination of the histories of natural history museums in ICOM's participating countries, each history to feature a narrative historical account, to include accompanying illustrations, diagrams of the "model(s)" of the museums showing the relationship between collecting, exhibiting, and educating; and a schematic synopsis of its initial design and execution, and projected plans for the future.
Resolution 117 Be it resolved that special thanks be extended to the Mexican Government and especially Mario Vasquez, through whose offices the meeting of the 1980 International Council of Museums has been organized, for the cordial welcome and hospitality extended to delegates attending this conference in Mexico City October 25 - November 4, 1980.
Resolution 118 Be it resolved that special thanks be extended to Senior Gonzalo Halffter, Director of the Natural History Museums in Mexico City, and to his staff, in particular Yani Herreman, Mercedes Ramiriz-Figuerroa and Pedro Reyes-Castillo, as well as to la Directora General del Accion Social de Cultural Distrito Federal de Mexico.
Our thanks also to Bodegas de Santo Tomas for the· white and red refreshments that accompanied the meals.
Resolution 119 Be it resolved that the International Committee of Natural History Museums of ICOM Extends its sincere appreciation to Dr. Halffter for arranging for a number of the Committee's delegates to visit the desert ecology research station at Durango on November 1st and 2nd, 1980.
Resolution 1110 Be it resolved that the International Committee of Natural History Museums of ICOM extends its sincere thanks for the fine lunch and warm hospitality accorded it by the Cultural Unit and Botanical Garden of the City University on October 31, 1980.
Resolution lfll Be it resolved that the International Committee of Natural History Museums of ICOM extends its sincere appreciation to Hugh Schultz for his long and continuing service as Secretary to the Committee.
Resolution lfl2 Be it resolved that the International Committee of Natural History Museums of ICOM extends its sincere appreciation to Heather Shannon for the development and coordination of the Committee's program, October 28th and 29th, Mexico City.
Resolution #13 In appreciation for his years of service and for his fine leadership which has made this Committee one of the best International Committees of ICOM, be it resolved that the International Committee of Natural History Museums of ICOM extends its sincere gratitude to its current Chairman, Dr. Louis Lemieux. COMPTE RENDU DE LA REUNION D'AFFAIRES
M. Lemieux preside la reunion, organisee au Museo de Historia Natural de la Ciudad de Mexico. Il rend compte de ses activites au cours des dix-huit derniers mois et remercie de leur bon travail le bureau et les principaux membres du comite, ainsi que Heather Shannon pour avoir accepte de nouveau la presidence du programme, a la reunion de Mexico. On discute du projet de repertoire des musees d'histoire naturelle, que tous les membres jugent utile, et l'on propose au nouveau bureau de communiquer avec M. Rydzewski pour apprendre ou en sont les travaux a cet egard. On discute d'un projet sur la preparation d'une liste de specimens types du monde. Diverses suggestions sont presentees en vue d'aborder rationnellement le probleme. Anthony Tynan, du Musee Hancock de Newcastle, Angleterre, propose d'assumer la responsabilite du projet et d'examiner les possibilites de coordination avec des groupes orientes vers les disciplines particulieres. M. Lemieux presente plusieurs nouveaux projets. Le comite convient qu'il serait fort utile de posseder un plan fondamental de musee d'histoire naturelle, aux usages multiples. Il offre de donner suite au projet, conjointement avec le Comite de l'architecture. Il mentionne aussi la necessite d'etablir un manuel sur la preparation des specimens et les techniques de preservation. Il offre de donner suite a la question et de se renseigner sur une aide financiere eventuelle de l'UNESCO. Appele a presenter son rapport, le secretaire stipule que son poste consiste a administrer, a la maniere d'une entreprise mais de fa~on non officielle, les affaires du comite et a repondre aux besoins exprimes par l'ICOM et les membres. Il a represent€ le president a des reunions du comite consultatif, tenu une correspondance reguliere et repondu aux besoins du president et des membres. Apropos du nombre de ces derniers, une enquete postale envoyee a environ 400 personnes a permis d'etablir qu'il y avait 175 membres officiels ainsi qu'un groupe d'environ 125 personnes ayant manifeste leur interet. Tous les renseignements ont ete envoyes a l'administration centrale de l'ICOM, a Paris. Au sujet des finances, le secretaire precise que nous ne percevons pas d'honoraires, depensons rarement des sommes directes et n'avons nul besoin d'un tresorier. C'est le gouvernement canadien, par le biais du Musee national des sciences naturelles, qui assume les frais du temps consacre a ses fonctions, les couts de ses deplacements et d'edition, les frais de bureau et les autres depenses normales connexes. Il remercie le comite des perspectives, de la stimulation et des grandes amities qu'a fait naitre le travail. On discute du projet de bulletin sous la direction de M. Rydzewski, de Pologne, que l'on complimente pour avoir fait du bon travail, malgre le peu de ressources disponibles. On conclut en general qu'un bulletin est un tres bon moyen de communiquer avec les membres. De nombreux elements (expositions fixes ou itinerantes, questions du personnel, publications, etc.) pourraient y figurer. Le redacteur aurait peut-etre besoin d'aide: Karl Meyer, directeur du Staatliches Museum fur Naturkunde und Vorgeschichte, Oldenburg, RFA, offre ses services, de meme que Francisco Pabon Flores de Porto Rico. M. Flores declare aussi qu'avec l'assentiment du comite, il poursuivrait volontiers l'etude de l'histoire des musees d'histoire naturelle a travers le monde. Qu'en est-il de la prochaine reunion du comite? M. Nair propose qu'elle ait lieu a New Delhi, Inde, en 1982, sous reserve de !'approbation de son gouvernement. On envisage egalement des reunions du comite a l'occasion de l'assemblee generale de l'ICOM a Londres, Angleterre, en 1983. On propose au nouveau bureau d'en resoudre les details. M. Lemieux demande alors le rapport du comite des resolutions, constitue de Chris Haglund (president), Arminta Neal et Kjell Engstrom (membres). Les resolutions, presentees par Chris Haglund et adoptees a la reunion figurent integralement apres le present compte rendu. Le comite remercie specialement le personnel du Musee qui a consacre beaucoup d'efforts et s'est montre tres efficace pour appuyer les reunions tenues au Musee, ainsi que les traducteurs et interpretes qui ont eu a comprendre une multitude d'accents. M. Lemieux demande alors au secretaire de faire rapport sur les candidatures au nouveau bureau. Le secretaire depose les noms des candidats suivants, proposes par ecrit: 1. President: Kjell Engstrom, Suede 2. Vice-president: S.M. Nair, Inde 3. Vice-president: Anthony Tynan, Angleterre Apres quelques discussions, ces personnes sont elues aux postes indiques. Les membres acceptent alors d'autoriser le nouveau president a choisir et a nommer un nouveau secretaire au comite.* (*Le lendemain, M. Engstrom annonce au comite qu'apres s'etre entretenu avec le secretaire general de l'ICOM sur la pertinence d'un "double mandat" au poste de secretaire, il a demande a Hugh Schultz et obtenu de lui qu'il continue a assumer les fonctions de secretaire.) Finalement, en plus de la resolution n° 13, M. Engstrom remercie personnellement M. Louis Lemieux, president sortant, de sa contribution exceptionnelle au travail et a l'organisation du comite et de l'ICOM en general, durant ses deux mandats. Il exprime 1 'espoir que H. Lemieux continuera a oeuvrer avec lui pendant de longues annees pour le bien de l'ICOH. RESOLUTIONS
Adoptees a la reunion du Comite international des musees d'histoire naturelle, a Mexico, le 29 octobre 1980
Resolution no 1 Que le Comite international des musees d'histoire naturelle de l'ICOM continue a elaborer un code international d'ethique pour les musees d'histoire naturelle a travers le monde, et, plus particulierement, que le document de base presente a cette reunion soit plus largement distribue, afin de susciter des commentaires additionnels aupres des collegues des musees n'ayant pu y assister; que tous les participants a cette reunion soient encourages a formuler par ecrit des remarques precises qui aideront le sous-comite de l'ethique a reviser le document; et finalement, que ce sous-comite, apres avoir examine toutes les observations, presente un projet definitif de code d'ethique international pour les musees d'histoire naturelle, a la prochaine reunion du present comite de l'ICOM.
Resolution n° 2 Attendu que la perte actuelle et prevue du patrimoine mondial, pour ce qui est des especes et des habitats naturels decrits et non decrits, constitue une situation urgente;
- que les musees jouent un role essentiel dans le controle de cette perte;
- qu'une saine gestion de l'environnement est essentielle au bien-etre futur de tous;
que ladite gestion, determinee par des etudes ecologiques, ne peut etre biologiquement saine que si elle est fondee sur des etudes adequates en taxonomie et en systematique;
que bon nombre de rapports ont recemment paru dans divers pays pour attirer l'attention sur de graves lacunes dans nos connaissances des biotes de grandes regions geographiques ainsi que des habitats detruits ou compromis;
-que les memes rapports soulignent que l'enseignement et la formation des taxonomistes sont largement insuffisants pour les besoins actuels et futurs; et
que le role essentiel et fondamental des musees et des sections d'histoire naturelle consiste notamment a favoriser, par des collections et des bibliotheques adequates, la formation actuelle et future des conservateurs, taxonomistes et systematiciens; il est resolu que le Comite international des musees d'histoire naturelle de l'ICOM:
1. etablira un groupe de travail charge de reexaminer et de coordonner les renseignements actuels sur les collections et les besoins de conservation futurs, specialement ceux qui touchent la conservation des ressources naturelles du monde;
2. incitera fortement tous les pays a etablir ou a accroitre leurs programmes de formation clans leurs musees et sections d'histoire naturelle, et leurs instituts de recherche en sciences naturelles; et
3. incitera fermement les pays a favoriser l'emploi des taxonomistes et systematiciens en biologie, specialement clans les musees.
Resolution n° 3 Il est resolu par le Comite international des musees d'histoire naturelle de l'ICOM que: 1. les collections paleontologiques doivent normalement etre confiees a des conservateurs specialistes. Les musees qui en sont depourvus devraient demander des conseils a cet egard et envisager le transfert de collections importantes vers des etablissements qui en prendront soin;
2. des organisations comme les associations de musees et le Conseil international des musees (ICOM) devraient etre encourages a etablir des cours de formation specialisee clans tous les aspects de l'entretien et de la conservation des specimens geologiques;
3. les exemplaires typiques et autres specimens fossiles decrits et cites devraient etre deposes clans un musee repute et accessible au public, et les revues specialisees ne devraient accepter de publier des communications que si cette condition est respectee; les exemplaires typiques devraient etre largement disponibles aux fins de recherche; dans certains cas, il peut etre necessaire de preparer ces specimens et, si les conservateurs hesitent a accorder une telle permission, ils devraient consulter d'autres specialistes en ce domaine;
4. les musees qui ont defini leur politique d'acquisition devraient etre encourages a la faire connaitre au public;
5. les sites paleontologiques et, plus particulierement, les sections typiques devraient etre traites avec respect, selon les codes de conduite recommandes; au besoin, les sites devraient etre proteges par des lois pour empecher les abus clans le prelevement des vestiges; 6. outre les techniques informatiques et la disposition des donnees, la terminologie et les hierarchies doivent etre normalisees si l'on desire utiliser largement et efficacement les techniques de catalogage informatiques pour indexer et echanger des donnees en paleontologie.
Resolution n° 4 Attendu que les musees ont un role fondamental a jouer clans l'enseignement de l'ecologie, notamment par rapport aux objectifs de la strategie mondiale de conservation; et
- qu'un nombre croissant de musees elaborent des expositions et programmes dans ce domaine, et que beaucoup d'autres sent desireux de le faire;
Il est resolu que le Comite des musees d'histoire naturelle donne son appui au groupe de travail pour l'enseignement de l'ecologie, forme a la reunion de mai 1979, a Vienne, et charge d'appuyer et de favoriser le travail des musees en ce domaine.
Les objectifs du groupe de travail consistent a:
1. trouver des moyens d'encourager la protection de la nature et l'echange d'idees;
2. promouvoir la cooperation et la coordination entre les musees et d'autres organismes qui participent a l'enseignement de l'ecologie (par exemple l'UICN);
3. preparer une serie de breves lignes directrices pour aider ceux qui, dans les musees,
lancent des projets d 1 enseignement de l'ecologie;
4. encourager la collaboration entre les musees, sous forme de propositions conjointes, clans ce domaine;
5. le cas echeant, offrir des services de consultation aux musees.
Resolution n° 5 Attendu que de nombreux environnements et biotes du monde sont en voie de destruction, et que le role des musees d'histoire naturelle consiste a preserver des echantillons de ces biotes pour l'avenir; il est resolu que le Comite international des musees d'histoire naturelle de l'ICOM propose: 1. que l'ICOH, l'UNESCO et les autres organismes mondiaux competents considerent comme prioritaire la conservation des ressources naturelles dans les milieux naturels menaces du monde;
2. qu'on etablisse des musees d'histoire naturelle et leurs programmes dans les regions ou la destruction menace le patrimoine naturel;
3. lorsqu'il est impossible de constituer un nouveau musee d'histoire naturelle, que l'on s'efforce d'instaurer la cooperation internationale necessaire pour preserver des collections representatives de la flore et de la faune en vue d'une conservation permanente dans les musees d'histoire naturelle actuels.
Resolution n° 6 Que le Comite international des musees d'histoire naturelle adopte un projet permanent consistant a rassembler et diffuser, dans les pays participants a l'ICOM, des ouvrages sur l'histoire des musees d'histoire naturelle comprenant, outre un texte historique, des illustrations, des diagrammes sur les "modeles" de musees indiquant les relations entre la collecte des specimens, !'exposition des collections et l'education; ainsi qu'un resume schematique de son plan et de son execution initiales, et des projets formules pour l'avenir.
Resolution nO 7 Que le Comite remercie specialement le gouvernement mexicain et surtout Hario Vasquez, grace a qui l'assemblee du Conseil international des musees de 1980 a pu etre organisee, pour l'accueil cordial et l'hospitalite offerts aux delegues qui ont participe a cette conference, a Mexico, du 25 octobre au 4 novembre 1980.
Resolution nO 8 Que le Comite remercie specialement H. Gonzalo Halffter, directeur des Musees d'histoire naturelle de Mexico, et son personnel, et particulierement Yani Herreman, Hercedes Ramiriz-Figuerroa et Pedro Reyes-Castillo, ainsi que la Directora General del Accion Social de Cultural Distrito Federal de Mexico.
Nous remercions egalement les Bodegas de Santo Tomas pour les boissons qui accompagnaient les repas.
Resolution n° 9 Que le Comite international des musees d'histoire naturelle de l'ICOH remercie sincerement M. Halffter d'avoir permis a un certain nombre de delegues du Comite de visiter la station de recherche sur l'ecologie du desert, a Durango, les 1er et 2 novembre 1980.
Resolution n° 10 Que le Comite international des musees d'histoire naturelle de l'ICOM remercie sincerement pour sa chaleureuse hospitalite et pour !'excellent dejeuner qu'elle lui a offert le 31 octobre 1980, la section culturelle et le Jardin Botanique de l'universite de la Cite.
Resolution n° 11 Que le Comite remercie sincerement Hugh Schultz d'avoir assume fidelement les fonctions de secretaire du Comite.
Resolution n° 12 Que le Comite remercie sincerement Heather Shannon d'avoir elabore et coordonne le programme du Comite, les 28 et 29 octobre, a Mexico.
Resolution n° 13 En reconnaissance de ses longues annees de service et de son excellente direction qui a fait de notre Comite l'un des meilleurs comites internationaux de l'ICOM, il est resolu que le Comite international des musees d'histoire naturelle de l'ICOM exprime sa sincere gratitude a son president actuel, M. Louis Lemieux. Paper/Texte No. 1
A NOTE REGARDING THE ATTACHED DOCUMENT
The attached document, "An International Ethics Code for Natural History Museums"' follows the outline of Museum Ethics published by the American Association of Museums, and in many instances expressions and even whole sections have been drawn from that document.
The document is strictly a draft statement or working copy for those attending the 12th. General Conference of the International Council of Museums, and is not to be published or offered for publication elsewhere.
2o -~. Paper/Texte no. 1
AN INTERNATIONAL ETHICS CODE FOR NATURAL MUSEUMS
/ By Dr. Harold Mahan, Cleveland, Ohio 'V INTRODUCTION
The world's natural history museums constitute a diverse group of institutions that serve as depositories for the scientific treasures of the earth. They have as their primary functions the collection, preservation, and interpretation of natural objects for the present and future benefit of mankind. Because of this important mission, natural history museums, their collections, programs, and staff must serve society not only in an effective and legal fashion but in an ethical fashion as well. The intent of this document is to address such ethical matters associated with such institutions. In order to not only provide broad guidelines concerning natural history museum ethical issues, however, an effort has been made in certain sections of this document to also provide practical details in order to achieve more precise understanding. Basically, though, it is hoped that this document will serve the world's natural history museums as a guideline rather than absolute rules of conduct.
THE COLLECTION
Management, Maintenance and Conservation The collections should be the heart of natural history museums, and each museum's obligation to its collections is of paramount importance. Each object is an integral part of a cultural or scientific composite which also includes a body of information (including catalogues, photographs, field notebooks, descriptions, reprints of scientific papers, etc.) about the object which establishes its proper place and importance without which the value of the object is diminished. The maintenance of this information in orderly and retrievable form is critical to the collection and is a central obligation of those charged with collection management. An ethical duty of museums is to transfer to our successors when possible in enhanced form, the material record of human culture as well as objects from the natural world. They must be in control of their collections and know the location and the condition of the objects that they hold. Procedures must be established for the periodic evaluation of the condition of the collections and for their general and special maintenance. The physical care of the collection and its accessibility must be in keeping with professionally accepted standards. Failing this, museum governance and management are ethically obliged either to effect correction of the deficiency or to dispose of the collection, preferably to another similar institution or educational or cultural facility which will provide adequate care. Acquisition and Disposal All natural history museums must weigh carefully the interests of both the present and future public and the scientific community for which it holds collections in trust. Every institution should develop and make public a statement of its policy regarding the acquisition and disposal of objects. Objects collected by the museum should be relevant to its purposes and activities and be accompanied by documents (such as field notebooks, signed correspondence, or bill of sale) to indicate valid legal title to the objects. Objects donated to the museum, especially, should have adequate documents from donors so th~t the museum at least can legally claim to have title to the objects. All museums, then, should insist that an effort will be made to identify the legal owner of any object donated. All donors should be made to affirm that they complied with all laws of foreign governments in the case of objects clearly collected in other countries and, when possible, provide legal documents or other instruments of. conveyance indicating ownership. Objects collected should be carefully catalogued, conserved, stored or exhibited. Museums must remain free to improve their collections through selective disposal and acquisition and intentionally to sacrifice or remove specimens for well-considered analytical, educational or other purposes. In general, objects should be kept as long as they retain their physical integrity, authenticity and usefulness for the museum's purposes. Natural history museums should develop definite accession priorities in regard to scientific specimens. Such priorities should include strengthening the already existing collections where the museum has current specialization and specialists; adding materials for present or projected research or in current educating or exhibition programs; adding materials of higher quality or when needed to fill collection gaps; adding material from regions threatened by man's activities, including voucher specimens; adding synoptic material from other institutions and/or specialists; and adding materials that will fill out the museum's other areas of broad interest. Natural history museums should support all efforts to halt the continuing degradation of the world's natural history resources and should take great care, especially to ensure that any species listed on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora list be given special attention, including care that all formalities are met concerning export and import of such specimens. Museums should never encourage the illicit trade in objects. Such trade encourages the destruction of sites, the violation of national exportation laws, and contravention of the spirit of national patrimony. Museums must acknowledge the relationship between the marketplace and the initial and often destructive taking of an object for the commercial market and they must not support such illicit markets. Each institution must develop policies that allow it to conduct its activities within the complexities of existing legislation and with the reasonable certainty that its approach is consistent with the spirit and intent of these programs. Each institution should be knowleadgeable about the laws governing the taking of specimens in other
:;;;: _ _ ,2:_-. countries and should conform to these laws governing the taking of specimens in other countries and should conform to these laws both in their own as well as in foreign countries, especially in regard to import and export regulations. Museums that discover that a specimen has been unlawfully obtained from another institution, inside or outside his own country, should attempt to acquire the specimen and return it to the museum which has lawful title to it. In this regard, museum officials should encourage their country's governments to intervene in the case of illegal collecting and dealing in natural history specimens. When disposing of an object, the museum must determine that it has the legal right to do so. When mandatory restrictions accompany the acquisition they must be observed unless it can be clearly shown that adherence to such restrictions it impossible or substantially detrimental to the institution. Attempts to consult with donors or heirs of donors should be made. The museum must not allow objects from its collections to be acquired privately by any museum employee or others affiliated with the museum. Any objects offered for sale must be sold publicly with complete disclosure of their history. Such specimens, however, should first be offered to other departments within the museum, or to other museums or educational and cultural institutions. Following this effort, objects which have no scientific, educational or exhibit value may be given away, sold, or destroyed. The legal aspects of all disposal of specimens should be carefully respected. The trading of specimens between museums should be encouraged. While the governing authority must bear final responsibiity for both the acquisition and disposal of objects, the curatorial and administrative staff together with their technical associates are best qualified to assess the pertinence of an object to the collection or the museum's programs. An object should never be disposed of against the advice of the museum's professional staff.
Appraisals and Authentications A useful function for the scientific community as well as to society in general is that of providing identifications of and authentications for natural history objects. Because of a possible conflict of interest, however, museums staff should never offer monetary appraisals for an object that may be donated to the museum, especially in situations where tax relief is afforded someone who donates an object to the museum. Allowances should be made, however, for staff to make such appraisals for objects to be donated to other institutions.
Commercial Use Museums must avoid making replicas of specimens which do not belong to their own institutions without prior permission from the museum which owns the originals. All replicas should contain a label clearly noting the museum of origin. In arranging for the commercial use of items adapted from an object in a museum's collection, all aspects of the commercial venture must be carefully executed in a manner that will not discredit either
23 the integrity of the museum or the intrinsic value of the original object. Every effort should be made to produce replicas of high quality and accuracy. Definite policies should be developed for natural history gift shops to ensure that no objects sold are of threatened or endangered animals or plants and gift shops should be so organized and oriented that they perform as part of the educational function of the museum. Gift shop personnel (with the advice of the curatorial staff) should never offer for sale any scientific specimen, especially of an artifactual nature, or any specimen that will encourage its commercial exploitation. Museums should demand the same high level of professionalism of its gift shop personnel as it does of other professional staff, Such staff should be equally knowledgeable of all national and international laws relating to wildlife and cultural properties.
Availability of Collections Although the public must have reasonable access to the collections on a non-discriminatory basis, museums assume as a primary responsibiity the safeguarding of their materials and therefore must regulate access to them. Some parts of the collections may be set aside for the active scholarly pursuits of staff members, but normally only for the duration of an active research effort. When a staff member involved in scholarly research moves to another institution, the museum should give special consideration to the need he may have of objects or materials that remain in the collections. Such needs should be accommodated, where possible, by loans to the staff member's new institution. The judgement and recommendation of professional staff members regarding the use of the collections must be given utmost consideration. In formulating recommendations the staff member must let his judgement be guided by two primary objectives: the continued physical integrity and safety of the object or collection, and high scholarly or educational purposes. Definite policies must be established regarding the accessibility of collections to non-curatorial staff,
Truth in Presentation Museum professionals have an obligation to interpret and disseminate new knowledge about the materials in its collections. Intellectual honesty and objectivity in the presentation of objects is the duty of every professional. Natural history museums may address a wide variety of scientific issues if approached objectively and without prejudice. The museum professional must ensure that exhibits are honest and objective expressions of scientific fact. All exhibits should be the product of objective judgement.
Human Remains and Sacred Objects In those museums that contain collections of human remains and sacred objects it is important that research not be arbitrarily restricted, that such objects be carefully housed, maintained, and available to qualified researchers. The study of skeletal material and sacred objects must be achieved with dignity and with respect for the various beliefs of other humans living today. In this area, particularly, the care and research on such objects must take into account human dignity and the beliefs of those in the cultures in which the objects originated. Exhibits of human remains and sacred objects, too, must be done with tact and with respect for the feelings for human dignity held by all peoples.
THE STAFF
General Deportment Employment by a museum, whether privately or governmentally supported, is a public trust involving great responsibility. In all activities museum employees must act with integrity and in accordance with the most stringent ethical principles as well as the highest standards of objectivity. Every museum employee is entitled to a measure of personal independence equal to that granted comparable professionals in other disciplines, consistent with his professional and staff responsibilities. While loyalty to the museum must be paramount, the employee also has the right to a private life independent of the institution. But museums enjoy high public visibility and their employees a ge~erous measure of public esteem. To the public the museum employee is never wholly separable from his institution. He can never consider himself or his activities totally independent of his museum despite disclaimers that he may offer. Any museum-related action by the individual may reflect on the institution or be attributed to it. He must be concerned not only with the true personal motivations and interests as he sees them but also the way in which such actions might be construed by the outside observer.
Conflict of Interest Museum employees should never abuse their official positions or their contacts within the museum community, impair in any way the performance of their official duties, compete with their institutions, or bring discredit or embarrassment to any museum or to the profession in any activity, museum related or not. They should be prepared to accept as conditions of employment the restrictions that are necessary to maintain public confidence in museums and in the museum profession. To protect the institution and provide guidance to its employees, each museum should issue a comprehensive and well-understood policy covering ethical questions related to personal activities and conflicts of interest. That statement must define the procedures essential to the implementation of and compliance with stated policy. Responsibilities to the Collections and other Museum Property Museum employees should not acquire objects from the collections owned or controlled by their museums unless such transactions have been subjected to a formal disclosure procedure by the individual and the institution, and were available through a disposal process totally public in nature. No staff member should use in his home or for any other personal purpose any object or item that is a part of the museum's collections or under the guardianship of the museum, or use any other property, supplies or resources of the museum except for the official business of the institution. To the extent that factual circumstances or special policies warrant exceptions to this principle, the circumstances or policies should be a matter of written record. The reputation and name of a museum are valuable assets and should not be exploited either for personal advantage or the advantage of any other person or entity. Information about the administrative and nonscholarly activities of the institution that an employee may acquire in the course of his duties, and that is not generally known or available to the public, must be treated as information proprietary to the museum. Such information should not be used for personal advantage or other purposes detrimental to the institution.
Personal Collecting Natural history museum personnel should not create private collections that conflict in any way with the collection efforts of the museum. No museum employee may use his museum affiliation to promote any associate's personal collecting activities or engage in any buying or selling for profit any objects represented in the museum's collection or desired by the museum. In the case of private collections, museums should attempt to know about and even catalogue such collections.
Outside Employment and Consulting Definite rules should be established regarding outside employment, including self-employment and paid consulting activities by museum staff. In the case of full-time museum employees, the fundamental premise that the employee's primary responsibility is to his institution should be kept in mind. Museum professionals should conduct themselves so that their activities on behalf of community or public service projects do not reflect adversely on the reputation or integrity of their museum.
Gifts, Favors and Dispensations Museum employees and others in a close relationship to them must not accept gifts, favors or other dispensations that are available to them in connection with their duties for the institution, except that such things as meals, accommodations and travel services while on official museum business may be accepted if clearly in the interest of the museum. Teaching, Lecturing, Writing and Other Creative Activities Museum staff should be encouraged to teach, lecture and write, as desirable activities that aid professional development. Museums should facilitate such activities so long as there is no undue interference with performance of regular duties, and employees do not take advantage of their museum positions for personal monetary gain or appear to compromise the integrity of their institution. The employee must recognize that when an outside activity is directly related to his regular duties for the institution he is obliged to reach an agreement with the institution concerning all aspects of that activity. Employees should obtain the approval of the institution of plans for any significant amount of outside teaching, lecturing, writing or editing. Any contemplated uses of the museum's research facilities, staff assistance and property such as copying machines, slides or objects from the collections should be described, and approvals should be obtained for uses of museum property in connection with such outside efforts. The proprietary interest of both museum and invididual in copyrights, royalties and similar properties should be a part of stated general institutional policy supplemented, through mutual agreement, to conform to the needs of the specific project. Museums should encourage the staff to continue and even upgrade their level of professional competency.
Field Study and Collecting Field exploration, collecting and excavating by museum workers present ethical problems. Such efforts, especially in foreign countries, present situations that can result in difficult interpersonal and international problems. Being a member of a scientific team and having authority to collect, does not absolve a museum worker from observing the principles of good conservation (for example, in the case of animal collecting, animals should not be wasted and an effort should be made to preserve all that can be preserved), nor permit him to behave in a callous or inhumane fashion. Actions of individuals engaged in field work must be guided by good jugement, tasteful deportment and current knowledge. Every field program must be preceeded by careful investigation, disclosure and communications sufficient to ascertain that the activity is legal; is pursued with the full knowledge, approval, and, when applicable, the collaboration of all individuals and entities to whom the activity is appropriately of concern; and is conducted for scholarly or educational purposes. A statement of the nature of the objects to be collected, the purposes they are intended to serve and their final disposition must be prepared and should be fully understood by all affected parties. Any field program must be executed in such a way that all participants act legally and responsibly in acquiring specimens and data; that they discourage by all practical means unethical, illegal and destructive practices associated with acquiring, transporting and i~orting objects; and that they avoid, insofar as possible, even the appearance of engaging in clandestine activity, be it museum-related or not. Normally no specimens should be acquired that cannot be properly cared for and used. In both acts and beliefs participants must honor the beliefs and customs of host individuals and societies. General deportment must be such that future field work at the site or in the area will not be jeopardized. On completion of field work, full and prompt reporting of the activity should be made to all appropriate parties; all precatory and mandatory agreements must be fulfilled or the failure to do so fully explained; and all material and data collected made available to the scholarly community as soon as possible. Materials legally obtained and incorporated into permanent collections should be treated in a manner consistent with recommendations and restrictions developed for their care and use by all discipline-specific groups (i.e., zoologists, botanists, et al). In the case of general environment field studies, voucher specimens should be obtained and museums should encourage governmental agencies as well as commercial environmental planning companies that make such studies to carefully document such material and deposit it in their institutions. Governments should be made aware of the need to avoid creating unnecessary difficulties at scientific meetings.
MUSEUM MANAGEMENT POLICY
Professionalism Museums of natural history should employ only accredited professionals for the care of museum collections and the provision of dependable and accurate information relating to those collections. Members of the museum's administration and governing entities must respect the professional expertise of the staff. Because collectively the staff professionals are most familiar with the museum, its assets and its constituency, they should be heard by museum management in governance on matters affecting the general long-term direction of the institution. Staff members should not be required to reverse, alter or suppress professional judgements in order to conform to a management decision.
Personnel Practices Ability in the relevant discipline should be the guiding principle in regard to the hiring practices of natural history museums. Museum administration should seize and even create opportunities whenever possible to encourage employment opportunity and the accessibility of the institution as a resource to all people.
Volunteers Although opportunities for volunteer participation in natural history museums will vary from country to country and even institution to institution within each country, the paid staff should be supportive of volunteers where such people are allowed to participate in museum activities. Appropriate training and opportunity for the volunteer's intellectual enrichment should be provided. Definite guidelines, however, should be developed regarding the access volunteers should have to museum collections and to any sensitive program within the museum. Volunteer activities should be treated as a privilege and volunteers should be obligated to look out for the museum's well being in a fashion similar to that demanded of the regular staff.
Interpersonal Relationships The professional museum worker always must be dedicated to the high standards and discipline of his profession, but he also must remain mindful that he is an employee as well as an independent expert. While he must strive for professional excellence in his own specialty, he must simultaneously relate productively to his colleagues, associates and fellow employees. The wisdom and experience of a professional can be lost to the institution if they are not made to act constructively within the total context of the institution.
Interinstitutional Cooperation Natural history museums should strive to cooperate fully with other natural history museums throughout the world. Larger, more sophisticated and developed museums should assist smaller, less advanced museums in the attainment of greater professionalism and the sharing of their own museological and technical expertise. Collection loan policies should be established and museums should encourage the exchange of specimens between institutions in order to expand the breadth of comparative material available for study. It is ethical to expect that a specimen will be donated to an institution that performs identification of that species for the former if more than one specimen is available.
Ownership of Scholarly Material The object, its documentation and all additional documentation accrued or developed subsequent to its acquisition are the property of the institution. Both the institution and the individual who has generated such material should have at least one copy of all scholarly material generated during the period of the individual's employment. Subsequent publication of such material should be permitted for either party as long as acknowledgement of the rights and contributions of the other party is made known. In the case of biological or paleontological type specimens, all information relative to them legally should be the property of the institution. Those who care for such specimens should regard them as being held in trust for science as a whole and such materials should be freely available to all other scholars for study, but care should be taken to adequately provide for the object's safety. In describing a new species, or selecting a lectotype or neotype, the professional should select as this specimen one that will best serve science, not one that will increase the collection of types in his own museum. It is not ethical for museums publishing scholarly papers to require, as a condition of publication, that type specimens described from material not already in their collections be deposited in the institution. Such decisions should only be made on scientific grounds.
MUSEUM GOVERNANCE The governing body of a museum is accountable to the general public that the museum serves as well as to the institution. Such bodies generally act as the ultimate legal entity for the museum and usually develop and oversee its general policies, standards, conditions, as well as work to ensure its operational continuity. Those who are legally responsible for a museum's operations must understand, respect, and devote time and attention to the affairs of the institution. All action by such bodies should be taken collectively, as a single entity, and no member of such a body should act as an advocate for particular activities or only certain departments of the museum. Governing bodies must especially act in accordance with ethical principles as well as with their legal mandates. Generally the governing board holds the ultimate fiduciary responsibility for the museum and for the protection and nurturing of its various assets. It is obliged to develop and define the purposes and related policies of the institution and to ensure that all museum's assets are properly and effectively managed. The governing board especially is obligated to provide for the proper environment for the security and preservation of the collections and for the museum's continuing overall wellbeing. In the case of the collections, the governing board is responsible for seeing that a collections management policy is developed and faithfully executed. ihe governing board has a critical responsibility to the institution's chief executive, the Director. This responsibility cannot be delegated to the staff or others outside the museum. The governing board should be especially mindful of all possibilities of conflict of interest for themselves and the staff. They should never make personal use or cake personal advantage of the museum or its programs, nor should they take advantage of their special relationship to the museum's staff. Paper/Texte no. 1
NOTE SUR LE DOCUMENT Cl-JOINT
Le document ci-joint, "Code d'ethique international pour les musees d'histoire naturelle", suit dans ses grandes !ignes le texte Museum Ethics, publie par !'American Association of Museums et, dans plusieurs cas, des expressions et meme des articles entiers sont extraits de ce document.
Il s'agit uniquement d'un projet, d'un document de travail destine a faciliter la tache des participants a la douzieme conference generale du Conseil international des Musees; il ne doit pas etre publie ni transmis pour publication ailleurs. Paper/Texte no. 1
CODE INTERNATIONAL D'ETHIQUE POUR LES MUSEES D'HISTOIRE NATURELLE
INTRODUCTION
Les musees d'histoire naturelle du monde constituent un groupe disparate d'etablissements qui conservent les tresors scientifiques de la Terre. Ils ont pour taches essentielles de recueillir, preserver et interpreter les objets naturels pour le benefice actuel et futur de l'humanite. A cause de cette importante mission, les musees d 1 histoire naturelle, leurs collections, leurs programmes et leurs personnel doivent se mettre au service de la societe, non seulement de maniere efficace et legale, mais egalement dans un souci d'ethique. Le present document a pour objet d'aborder les questions d'ethique ayant trait a ces etablissements. Cependant, pour ne pas nous en tenir a de vagues directives en la matiere, nous nous sommes efforces, dans certaines sections de ce document, de donner des details pratiques pour mieux faire comprendre les principes en cause. Neanmoins, nous esperons que les musees d'histoire naturelle du monde le considereront comme un guide et non comme un code strict.
LES COLLECTIONS
Gestion, entretien et conservation Les collections doivent @tre le coeur des musees d'histoiie naturelle et les obligations de chacun d'eux envers elles rev@tent une importance primordiale. Chaque objet est une partie integrante d'un ensemble culturel ou scientifique assorti d'une documentation (catalogues, photographies, notes prises sur le terrain, descriptions, tires a part de communications scientifiques, etc.) qui en etablit la place et !'importance et sans laquelle l'objet perd de sa valeur. Le maintien de cette documentation sous une forme ordonnee et propice a la consultation est indispensable a une collection et constitue une obligation primordiale pour les responsables. L'ethique oblige les musees a leguer a leurs successeurs, si possible sous une forme amelioree, les temoignages materiels de la culture humaine ainsi que du monde naturel. Les musees doivent controler leurs collections et connaitre l'emplacement et l'etat des objets qu'ils detiennent. Il faut prevoir une evaluation periodique de l'etat des collections, ainsi que leur entretien general et special. Les soins materiels apportes a la collection et son accessibilite doivent @tre conformes aux normes professionnelles reconnues, faute de quoi les responsables et administrateurs du musee sont moralement obliges de corriger les lacunes ou de ceder la collection, de preference a un autre etablissement similaire ou organisme a vocation educative ou culturelle qui prendra les dispositions necessaires. Acquisition et cession Tous les musees d'histoire naturelle doivent evaluer soigneusement les interets du public actuel et futur et de la communaute scientifique, qui ont un droit moral sur les collections. Chaque etablissement doit elaborer et publier une declaration de sa politique sur 1 'acquisition et la cession d'objets. Les articles recueillis par le musee doivent etre appropries a ses fins et activites et accompagnes de documents (comme des notes prises sur le terrain, des lettres signees ou un contrat de vente) attestant le titre de propriete de l'objet. Les articles donnes au musee doivent tout specialement etre assortis de documents fournis par les donateurs, pour que le musee puisse au mains justifier de la propriete legale des objets. Tousles musees doivent done s'efforcer d'identifier le proprietaire legal de tout objet donne. Il faut demander a tous les donateurs d'affirmer qu'ils se conferment a toutes les lois des gouvernements etrangers (dans le cas d'articles manifestement importes de l'etranger) et, si possible, fournir des documents legaux ou autres pieces de transport qui en indiquent la propriete. Les objets recueillis doivent etre catalogues, conserves, entreposes ou exposes avec soin. Les musees doivent rester libres d'ameliorer leurs collections par des eliminations et acquisitions selectives et de sacrifier ou d'eliminer intentionnellement, apres mure reflexion, des specimens a des fins d'analyse, d'education, etc. En general, les objets doivent etre gardes tant qu'ils conservent leur integrite physique, leur authenticite et leur utilite pour les buts du musee. Les musees d'histoire naturelle doivent elaborer des priorites d'acquisition precises en ce qui concerne les specimens scientifiques, et notamment se soucier de consolider les collections actuelles quand ils possedent les specialistes necessaires; d'acquerir des articles pour les recherches actuelles ou prevues ou pour les programmes d'education ou d'exposition en cours; d'acquerir des articles de meilleure qualite ou les.pieces necessaires pour completer une collection; d'acquerir des specimens emanant de regions menacees par les activites de l'homme, y compris des specimens temoins; ajouter du materiel synoptique provenant d'autres etablissements et/ou specialistes; et ajouter des articles correspondant aux autres secteurs d'interet general du musee. Les musees d'histoire naturelle devraient appuyer tous les efforts accomplis pour mettre un terme a la degradation constante des ressources mondiales d'histoire naturelle, et surtout accorder une attention speciale a toutes les especes qui figurent sur la liste de la convention sur le commerce international des especes de faune et de flare menacees de disparition et veiller notamment a observer toutes les formalites d'exportation et d'importation concernant ces specimens. Les musees ne doivent jamais encourager le commerce illicite d'objets, car celui-ci favorise la destruction des sites, la violation des lois nationales d'exportation et contrevient a l'exprit du patrimoine national. Les musees doivent reconnaitre les rapports qui existent entre le marche et le prelevement initial et souvent destructeur d'un objet a des fins commerciales et ils ne doivent pas appuyer ces pratiques illicites. Chaque etablissement doit elaborer des politiques lui permettant de mener a bien ses activites conformement aux complexites des lois en vigueur et avec la certitude raisonnable que son attitude est conforme a 1 1 esprit et au but de ces programmes. Chaque etablissement doit connaitre les lois qui gouvernent le prelevement de specimens dans d 1 autres pays et respecter ces lois, tant dans leur pays qu 1 a 1 1 etranger, specialement les reglements d 1 importation et d 1 exportation. Si un musee decouvre qu 1 un specimen a ete soustrait illegalement a un autre etablissement, au pays ou a 1 1 etranger, il doit tenter d 1 acquerir le specimen et de la retourner au musee qui est est le legitime proprietaire. Par ailleurs, les responsables du musee doivent encourager les gouvernernents de leur pays a intervenir dans le cas de prelevement et de commerce illegaux de specimens d 1 histoire naturelle. Avant d 1 elirniner une piece, le musee doit s 1 assurer qu 1 il en a le droit. Lorsque des restrictions obligatoires accompagnent 1 1 acquisition, il faut s 1 y conformer, a mains de pouvoir clairement dernontrer que cela est impossible ou nuirait fortement a l 1 etablissement. Il faut s 1 efforcer de consulter les donateurs ou leurs heritiers. Il faut interdire a tout employe de musee ou toute autre personne affiliee au musee d 1 acquerir a titre personnel un article d 1 une collection. Tout objet ainsi mis en vente doit etre offert au public et son origine doit etre revelee integralement. De tels specimens doivent cependant etre d 1 abord offerts a d 1 autres sections du musee, ou a d 1 autres musees ou etablissements educatifs et culturels. Ensuite, les objets sans valeur scientifique ou educative et sans interet pour les expositions peuvent etre donnes, vendus ou detruits. Il faut respecter soigneusement les aspects juridiques de toutes les cessions d 1 articles.
L 1 echange de specimens entre musees doit etre encourage. Bien que les pouvoirs competents doivent assumer la responsabilite finale de
l 1 acquisition et de la liquidation des objets, le personnel de conservation et le personnel adm.inistra tif, ainsi que leurs collaborateurs techniques, sont le mieux en mesure d 1 evaluer la pertinence d 1 un objet par rapport a la collection ou aux programmes du musee. Un objet ne doit jamais etre cede contre 1 1 avis des specialistes du musee.
Appreciation et authentifications Les musees assument, par rapport au milieu scientifique et a la societe en general, un role utile en identifiant et en authentifiant des specimens d 1 histoire naturelle. Toutefois, par crainte d 1 eventuels conflits d 1 interets, le personnel d 1 un musee ne doit
jamaiS faurnir d I eValuatiOnS d I Ob jetS pOUVant et re danneS aU mUSee > Specialement danS leS situations ou le donateur beneficierait d 1 avantages fiscaux. Il faut cependant permettre aU personnel d I evaluer leS ObjetS devant etr,e dOlllleS a d I aut reS etablissementS o
Usage commercial Les musees doivent eviter de fabriquer des copies de specimens qui n'appartiennent pas a leur~ propres etablissements, a mains d'avoir au prealable obtenu la permission du musee proprietaire des originaux. Toutes les copies doivent comporter une etiquette identifiant clairement le musee d'origine. Lorsqu'on prevoit utiliser a des fins commerciales un article adapt€ d'une piece de collection, tous les aspects de l'entreprise commerciale doivent s'effectuer de maniere a ne discrediter ni l'integrite du musee ni la valeur intrinseque de l'article original. Dans la mesure du possible, les copies doivent etre precises et de haute qualite. Les points de vente des musees d'histoire naturelle doivent etre regis par des politiques determinees, de maniere a ce que les specimens vendus ne constituent pas des animaux ou plantes en voie d'extinction; par ailleurs, les points de vente doivent etre
organises et orientes de fa~on a favoriser la fonction educative du musee. Les responsables des points de vente (conseilles par le personnel de conservation) ne doivent jamais offrir en vente un specimen scientifique, surtout un objet fabrique, ou quelque specimen qui encouragerait son exploitation commerciale. Le musee doit exiger du personnel de ses points de vente la meme conscience professionnelle que celle qu'il attend des autres employes, et des connaissances equivalentes de toutes les lois nationales et internationales sur la faune et les biens culturels.
Disponibilite des collections Bien que le public doive avoir acces aux collections, raisonnablement et sans discrimination, la principale responsabilite des musees consiste a assurer .la securite de leurs specimens et done a reglementer l'acces a ceux-ci. Certains elements de la collection peuvent etre mis de cote pour des etudes scientifiques effectuees par le personnel, mais normalement seulement pour la duree d'une recherche active. Lorsqu'un membre du personnel, ayant entrepris une telle recherche, passe au service d'un autre etablissement, le musee doit tenir compte de ce qu'il pourrait avoir besoin d'objets ou de documents demeurant dans la collection. Lorsque c'est possible, il faudrait resoudre la situation par des prets au nouvel etablissement de l'interesse. Il faut tenir compte au plus haut point du jugement et des avis formules par le personnel professionnel sur l'usage des collections. En donnant ainsi son avis, l'employe doit baser son jugement sur deux objectifs principaux: l'integrite et la securite permanentes de l'objet ou de la collection, et des objectifs eleves en matiere de recherche ou d'education. Il faut etablir des politiques determinees sur l'accessibilite des collections au personnel autre que les preposes a la conservation.
Integrite dans la presentation Les professionnels du musee ont le devoir d'interpreter et de diffuser les nouvelles connaissances acquises sur les pieces de leurs collections. Chacun d'entre eux doit faire preuve d'honnetete et d'objectivite intellectuelles dans la presentation des objets. Les musees d'histoire naturelle peuvent toucher une grande variete de domaines scientifiques si l'on adopte une attitude objective et denuee de prejuges. Les professionnels du musee doivent s'assurer que les pieces exposees representent des expressions honnetes et objectives de faits scientifiques, et sont le produit d'un jugement objectif.
Restes humains et objets sacres Dans les musees qui renferment des collections de restes humains et d'objets sacres, il importe de ne pas restreindre arbitrairement les recherches, d'entreposer et conserver soigneusement ces objets et de les mettre a la disposition de chercheurs qualifies. L'etude des ossements et des objets sacres doit s 1 effectuer avec dignite et avec le respect du aux differentes croyances des personnes humaines encore vivantes. Dans ce domaine surtout, les soins et les recherches apportes a ces objets doivent respecter la dignite humaine et les croyances des representants des cultures qui ont produit ces objets. De meme, les expositions de restes humains et d'objets sacres doivent s'effectuer avec tact et avec le respect du au sentiment de dignite humaine qu'eprouvent tous les peuples.
LE PERSONNEL
Comportement general Travailler pour un musee, qu'il soit finance par des interets prives ou par l'£tat, est une tache publique comportant une grande responsabilite. Dans toutes les activites, les employes du musee doivent faire preuve d'integrite et se conformer aux principes d'ethique les plus stricts, ainsi qu'aux plus hautes normes d'objectivite. Chaque employe de musee a droit a une independance personnelle egale a celle que l'on accorde aux membres d'autres professions comparables, et conforme a ses responsabilites professionnelles et administratives. Bien que sa loyaute envers le musee soit primordiale, il a egalement droit a une vie privee independante de l'etablissement. Neanmoins, les musees sont largement exposes aux jugements du public et leurs employes jouissent d'une certaine autorite. Aux yeux du public, l'employe du musee n'est jamais entierement distinct de son etablissement et, quoi qu'il affirme, ne peut jamais considerer sa personne et ses activites comme totalement independantes du musee. Toute action relative au musee et accomplie par un employe peut avoir des consequences sur l'etablissement ou etre attribuee a celui-ci. L'employe doit tenir compte, non seulement de ses veritables motivations et interets personnels, mais aussi de la fa~on dont ses actions peuvent etre per~ues par l'observateur exterieur.
Conflits d'interets Les employes des musees ne doivent jamais abuser de leurs postes officiels ni de leurs contacts avec le milieu des musees, ni compromettre l'execution de leurs fonctions officielles, ni concurrencer leurs etablissements, ni' discrediter ou embarrasser un musee ou la profession par quelque activite que ce soit, relative ou non au musee. Ils doivent etre disposes a accepter comme condition d'emploi les restrictions necessaires pour maintenir la confiance du public envers les musees et envers leur profession. Pour proteger l'etablissement et guider ses employes, chaque musee doit diffuser une politique detaillee et bien comprise sur les questions ethiques relatives aux activites personnelles et aux conflits d'interets. Le texte de cette politique doit definir les modalites essentielles d'application et d'observance des principes enonces.
Responsabilites envers les collections et autres biens des musees Les employes des musees ne doivent pas acquerir des pieces de collection que possede ou controle leur musee, a mains que ces transactions n'aient ete revelees officiellement par la personne et l'etablissement et a mains que ces pieces n'aient fait l'objet d'une offre de cession entierement publique. Aucun membre du personnel ne doit utiliser chez lui ou a toute autre fin personnelle quelque objet ou article faisant partie d'une collection du musee ou confie a la garde de celui-ci, ni employer les biens, fournitures ou ressources du musee autrement que pour des activites officielles de l'etablissement. Si des circonstances ou des politiques speciales justifient une derogation a ce principe, elles doivent etre consignees. La reputation et le nom du musee representent des valeurs precieuses et ne doivent etre exploites ni pour un avantage personnel, ni au profit d'une autre personne ou entite. Les renseignements concernant les activites administratives et non scientifiques de l'etablissement qu'un employe peut obtenir dans l'exercise de ses fonctions et qui ne sont generalement pas connus du public ni offerts a celui-ci doivent etre tenus pour confidentiels. Ils ne doivent pas servir a des fins personnelles ni a d'autres buts prejudiciables a l'etablissement.
Collections personnelles Les employes d'un musee d'histoire naturelle ne doivent pas constituer des collections privees qui nuisent de quelque fa~on que ce soit a l'effort de collectionnement du musee. Aucun employe du musee ne peut utiliser son affiliation a celui-ci pour promouvoir l'activite d'un collectionneur particulier, ou pour acheter ou vendre a titre lucratif quelque objet represente dans la collection du musee ou que ce dernier souhaite acquerir. Dans le cas des collections privees, les musees doivent tenter de se renseigner a leur sujet et meme de les cataloguer.
Emplois secondaires et consultations 11 faut etablir des regles definies sur les emplois secondaires des membres du personnel d'un musee, y compris le travail autonome et les consultations remunerees. Les employes a temps plein feront bien de ne jamais oublier qu'ils se doivent avant tout a leur etablissement. Les specialistes du musee doivent se conduire de maniere a ce que les activites charitables ou d'interet public auxquelles ils se livrent ne portent aucun prejudice a la reputation ou a l'integrite de leur musee.
Cadeux et faveurs Les employes d'un musee et leurs proches ne doivent pas accepter de cadeaux ou de faveurs inspires par leurs fonctions envers l'etablissement; cependant, des services comme les repas, l'hebergement et le transport durant les deplacements professionnels peuvent etre acceptes s'ils sont clairement dans l'interet du musee.
Enseignement, conferences, redaction et autres activites creatrices Le personnel du musee doit etre encourage a enseigner, a donner des conferences et a ecrire, puisque ce sont la des activites souhaitables qui favorisent le developpement professionnel. Les musees doivent faciliter de telles initiatives dans la mesure ou elles ne nuisent pas indument aux fonctions habituelles et ou les employes ne profitent pas de leurs postes au musee pour acquerir des avantages financiers personnels ou compromettre l'integrite de leur etablissement. Les employes doivent reconnaitre que, lorsqu'une activite exterieure a directement trait a leurs fonctions habituelles pour le compte du musee, ils doivent s'entendre avec l'etablissement sur tous les aspects de cette activite. Ils doivent faire approuver par celui-ci les projets de quelque importance touchant l'enseignement, les conferences, les ecrits ou les publications. Il faut preciser et faire approuver toutes les ressources du musee (services de recherche, aide du personnel et biens materiels comme les photocopieurs, les diapositives et pieces des collections) employees pour de pareilles entreprises exterieures. La participation, tant du musee que du particulier, aux droits d'auteur, redevances et autres formes de propriete intellectuelle doivent etre prevus par une section de la politique generale du musee adaptee, par accord mutuel, aux besoins du projet determine. Les musees doivent encourager leurs employes a maintenir et meme a ameliorer leur competence professionnelle.
Etudes et prelevements sur le terrain Les travaux d'exploration, les prelevements et les fouilles effectuees par les specialistes des musees posent des problemes ethiques. Ils presentent, surtout a l'etranger, des situations qui peuvent susciter de graves problemes humains et internationaux. Le fait d'appartenir a une equipe scientifique et d'etre autorise a prelever des specimens ne dispense pas un employe des musees d'observer les principes d'une bonne conservation (par exemple, dans le cas des animaux, il ne faut pas en gaspiller, mais plutot s'efforcer de preserver tous ceux qui peuvent l'etre), ni ne l'autorise a se comporter de maniere rude et inhumaine. Les actions de ceux qui travaillent sur le terrain doivent etre guidees par un bon jugement, un bon gout et des connaissances appropriees. Chaque programme de travaux sur le terrain doit etre precede par une enquete, des revelations et des communications suffisantes pour s'assurer que l'activite est legale; que taus les particuliers et entites interesses sont parfaitement au courant du programme, l'approuvent et, le cas echeant, y collaborent; que les activites s'effectuent a des fins scientifiques ou pedagogiques. Un enonce de la nature des objets a prelever, des motifs de cette demarche et de !'utilisation prevue des specimens recueillis doit etre redige et bien compris de toutes les parties interessees. Tout programme de travaux sur le terrain doit etre execute de maniere a ce que tous les participants travaillent legalement et de fa~on responsable a acquerir des specimens et des informations; qu'ils decouragent par tous les moyens possibles les pratiques non ethiques, illegales et destructrices ayant trait a !'acquisition, au transport et a !'importation d'objets; et qu'ils evitent, dans la mesure du possible, de donner ne serait-ce que !'impression d'une activite clandestine, reliee ou non au musee. Normalement, il ne faut acquerir que des specimens que l'on peut convenablement entretenir et employer. Tant dans leurs actes que dans leurs propos, les participants doivent respecter les croyances et coutumes des particuliers et societes qui les accueillent. Leur comportement ne doit pas compromettre les travaux futurs qui pourraient avoir lieu sur les lieux ou dans la region. Au terme des travaux sur le terrain, il faut presenter rapidement un compte rendu fid~le des activites a toutes les parties ~nteressees; tous les accords precatifs et obligatoires doivent etre honores, ou leur non-execution enti~rement expliquee; tous les specimens ou objets et tous les renseignements recueillis doivent etre, le plus tot possible, mis a la disposition des milieux scientifiques. Les artaicles legalement obtenus et integres dans des collections permanentes doivent etre traites conformement aux recommandations et restrictions etablies, pour leur soin et leur usage, par tous les groupes specialises (c'est-a-dire, zoologistes, botanistes, etc.). Dans le cas des etudes ecologiques generales sur le terrain, il faut prelever des specimens temoins; par ailleurs, les musees doivent encourager les organismes publics, de meme que les compagnies commerciales de planification ecologique chargees de ces etudes, a documenter soigneusement ces specimens et a les deposer dans leurs etablissements. Les gouvernements doivent etre sensibilises a la necessite d'eviter la creation de difficultes inutiles aux reunions scientifiques.
POLITIQUE DE GESTION DES MUSEES
Professionnalisme Les musees d'histoire naturelle ne doivent employer que des specialistes accredites pour prendre soin des collections et donner des renseignements fiables et precis a leur sujet. Les administrateurs et les conseils d'administration des musees doivent respecter la competence professionnelle des membres de leur personnel. Puisque, collectivement, les travailleurs intellectuels d'un musee connaissent l'etablissement, ses ressources et sa client~le, ils doivent etre consultes par les administrateurs sur les questions influant sur !'orientation a long terme de l'etablissement. Les membres du personnel ne doivent pas etre forces de renverser, de modifier ou de supprimer un jugement professionnel pour se conformer a une decision administrative. Recrutement du personnel Dans les musees d'histoire naturelle, le recrutement doit se fonder principalement sur la competence dans la discipline appropriee. Les administrateurs du musee doivent saisir et meme creer si possible les occasions d'encourager la creation d'emplois et l'accessibilite de l'etablissement a tous.
Benevolat Bien que les occasions de travail benevole dans les musees d'histoire naturelle varient d'un pays a l'autre et meme d'un etablissement a l'autre dans chaque pays, le personnel remunere doit accorder son appui aux benevoles autorises a participer aux activites du musee. Il faut donner aux benevoles une formation appropriee et favoriser leur enrichissement intellectuel. Cependant, leur acces aux collections et a tout programme important du musee doit faire l'objet de lignes directrices determinees. Les activites benevoles doivent etre considerees comme un privilege et les benevoles tenus de veiller aux interets du musee, au meme titre que le personnel regulier.
Relations professionnelles Le travailleur intellectuel du musee doit toujours se conformer aux normes et a la discipline strictes de sa profession, mais sans oublier qu'il est a la fois un employe et un specialiste independant. En tendant vers l'excellence professionnelle dans sa propre specialite, il doit simultanement entretenir des relations productives avec ses collegues, ses collaborateurs et les autres employes. La sagesse et l'experience des travailleurs intellectuels peuvent etre perdus pour un etablissement s'ils ne sont pas astreints a un travail constructif dans l'ensemble de l'etablissement.
Cooperation entre etablissements Les musees d'histoire naturelle doivent s'efforcer de cooperer entierement avec d'autres musees d'histoire naturelle a travers le monde. Les grands etablissements avances doivent aider les musees plus modestes a atteindre un plus grand professionnalisme et a partager leurs competences techniques et museologiques. Il faut etablir des politiques concernant le pret des pieces de collection et encourager l'echange de specimens entre les musees pour accroitre la gamme de matiere comparative offerte a l'etude. Si un etablissement confie a un autre l'identification d'une espece, dont il possede plus d'un specimen, l'ethique commande d'en donner un au musee charge de l'identification.
Propriete du materiel scientifique L'objet, la documentation connexe et tous les renseignements supplementaires recueillis ou elabores apres son acquisition appartiennent a l'etablissement. Ce dernier, de meme que la personne ayant etabli ces documents, doivent posseder au moins un exemplaire de toute la documentation etablie durant la carriere de cette personne a l'etablissement. L'une ou l'autre partie doit etre autorisee a publier ulterieurement ces renseignements, clans la mesure ou elle reconnait les droits de la contribution de l'autre. Dans le cas de specimens biologiques ou paleontologiques, tous les renseignements pertinents doivent etre la propriete legale de l'etablissernent. Ceux qui ont la garde de ces specimens doivent les considerer comme appartenant a la science et les mettre volontiers a la disposition de tous leurs collegues aux fins d'etude, mais prendre soin de proteger adequatement la securite de ces objets. En decrivant une nouvelle espece, ou en choisissant un lectotype ou un neotype, le specialiste doit choisir le specimen le plus utile a la science et non celui qui augrnentera la collection de son propre musee. L'ethique interdit aux musees qui publient des communications scientifiques d'exiger que les exemplaires typiques decrits dans ces textes et ne figurant pas clans leurs collections scient deposes dans leurs etablissements. Pareille decision ne peut se fender que sur des motifs scientifiques.
DIRECTION DU MUSEE
Le conseil d'administration d'un musee est comptable au grand public autant qu'a l'etablissement lui-meme. D'ordinaire, il constitue l'ultime entite juridique du musee, elabore et supervise ses politiques, normes et conditions generales, et veille a la continuite des operations. Les personnes qui sont legalement responsables d'un musee doivent comprendre et respecter les affaires de l'etablissement, et y consacrer leur temps et leur attention. Toutes leurs interventions doivent s'effectuer collectivement, comme une seule entite, et aucun membre d'un tel conseil ne peut favoriser des activites particulieres ou seulement certains secteurs du musee. Les conseils d'administration doivent tout particulierement respecter les principes de l'ethique et leurs mandats legaux. En general, le conseil d'administration d'un musee assume l'ultime responsabilite fiduciaire de celui-ci, ainsi que la protection et le developpement de ses biens divers. Il est tenu d'elaborer et de definir des buts et politiques connexes pour l'etablissement, et de s'assurer que les biens du musee sont administres convenablement et efficacement. Le conseil d'administration est tout particulierement tenu d'assurer la securite et la preservation des collections, et de veiller en general, a titre permanent, aux interets du musee. Dans le cas des collections, il lui incombe de faire definir et appliquer fidelement une politique de gestion. ll est tout particulierement responsable envers le cadre superieur de l'etablissement, le directeur: cette responsabilite ne peut etre deleguee au personnel ou a quelqu'un de l'exterieur du musee. Le conseil d'administration doit prendre specialement garde a toutes les possibilites de conflits d'interet chez ses propres membres et au sein du personnel. Ses membres ne doivent jamais recourir personnellement au musee ou a ses programmes ou en retirer un avantage personnel, pas plus que de leurs relations speciales avec le personnel du musee.
Harold D. Mahan, directeur Musee d'histoire naturelle de Cleveland Wade Oval, University Circle Cleveland, Ohio 44106 Paper/Texte no. 2
LOS MUSEOS DE HISTORIA NATURAL: ALTERNATIVAS EN NUESTROS DIAS.l j ~_( por: Gonzalo Halffter.2
En los ultimos 20 anos se plantea a las Ciencias Naturales la necesidad de pasar de una larga y productiva juventud a la madurez. Madurez que realmente no sabemos - como va a ser, ni tampoco si nos va a gustar. Los investigarodres que conozco estan brumados. No por el trabajo de camp o de laboratorio, sino por la cantidad de publicaciones que deben revisar, el correo y la - communicacion con sus colegas, la elaboracion de programas y la preparacion de presupuestos, en general, la administracion de su propia investigacion. Es un fenomeno presente en muchos paises y en muy diferentes instituciones, que el tiempo que los investigadores tienen disponible para una verdadera labor creadora ha disminuido, pese al aumento de medias para el traba jo y de personal auxiliar o quiza por esos mismos incrementos. Tenemos dos alternativas: seguir con la tendencia que t£ davia hoy es imperante en la mayor parte de las instituciones y que se refleja en un crecimiento cuantitativo, sin una modificacion de la estructura base de los centros de investigacion, o bien cambiar a un sistema total mente nuevo. Este dilema, ahora actual en la Ecologia y otras ramas- de las Ciencias Biologicas, hace tiempo que es critico en los museos. Quiza porque los museos nacen coma un derivado del trabajo taxonomico y este es, historicamente h~ blando, la primera actividad que adquiere organizacion - cientifica dentro de la Biologia.
El Museo Taxonomico. En la segunda mitad del siglo XVIII, cuando los museo - de Historia Natural nacen como consecuencia del desarrollo del estudio taxonomico de los seres vivos, de la expansion exploradora que aporta material exotico, asi como de nuevas condiciones sociales, las galerias de organismos raros, conservados por su apariencia extrana, ce den el lugar a colecciones de plantas, animales y fosi - les en las que se pretende basar el conocimiento de los seres vivos. Ciento cincuenta anos despues, a medida que la taxonomia abandona la concepcion lineana y es penetrada por las - ideas de variacion y evolucion, difundiendose el
1. Conferencia presentada en la XII Conferencia General del ICOM, Octubre 1980. Mexico.
2. Director del Instituto de Ecologia y del Museo de Historia Natural de la ciudad de Mexico. .I I
gusto- por los estudios comparativos, los grandes museos ven - cambiar sus pequenas
colecciones sinopticas a grandes s~ries. Tenemos asi, y esta situacion se mantiene hasta - nuestros dias, museos con colecciones que crecen fuera - de todo calculo y plan, sin experimentar un cambio en su organizacion y propositos. El museo asi concebido es en primer termino un deposita, secundariamente, un centre - de investigacion. Su mision es atesorar y en ello llega a veces a extremes absurdos, al acumular material que facilita con dificultad a los centificos que no son de la propia institucion. Ya avanzado este siglo y como consecuencia del propio - desarrollo cientifico, en unas
pocas de las instituciones de mas larga tradicion se presenta una fuerte tende~cia al cambio hacia un tipo de institucion en la que - el estudio del material es mas importante que su acumulo. Todos estos museos corresponden a lo que llamaremos el - Museo Taxonomico, institucion en la cual la importancia de la investigacion varia mucho de un lugar a otro, pero donde siempre es elemento dominante el acumulo de colecciones. Lejos de criticar la existencia de este tipo de museos, pensamos que son indispensables. Conservan una muestra de los biota que existen o alguna vez vivieron en distintos lugares de la tierra. Sus colecciones son punto de referencia indispensable no solo para el trabajo taxonomico en si, sine para estudios de tipo filetico y comparative, asi como biogeografico.
Los Museos hoy en dia. Surge la pregunta: Es este el unico tipo de museo posible you en dia? La respuesta es un claro NO. Si entendemos por Museo de Historia Naturgl una institucion solidaria en un sistema cuyos objetivos son proteger, conse£var, estudiar y divulgar la informacion
sobre el patrim~nio natural de la humanidad, aun dentro de las restricciones que el sentido tradicional de museo trae consigo, existen posibilidades que corresponden a propositos y estructuras muy diversos, aunque complementarios. Ademas de los grandes museos taxonomicos de corte tradicional que hemos senalado,
estan los museos de tipo ped~gogico. Hay otro tipo de centres dedicados al estudio - de la fauna o flora de una determinada region, o a un- cierto grupo de seres vivos, centres en los cuales la i_g_vestigacion es mucho mas importante que el acumulo en si de colecciones, pero donde estas son conservadas con esmero, sin detrimento de hacerlas servir. Existen, ademas, y esta es quiza la principal innovacion, toda una - gama de instituciones cuyo objective principal es la conservacion de la riqueza genetica, del material biologico vivo.
El Huseo Pedagogico. Desde la creacion de los primeros museos ha existido un - cierto afan pedagogico que ha llevado a mostrar al publico algunos ejemplares de las colecciones. En los museos taxonomicos de corte tradicional este interes no paso mas alla del gusto del coleccionista por ensenar sus mejores piezas. Indudablemente esta posicion no es buena ni para las colecciones, muchos de cuyos mejores ejemplares - expuestos a la luz, al polvo y al mal
trato se han perd~do para la ciencia, ni para los pretendidos fines pedago gricos, ya que pocas coas pueden resultar roenos atractivas que una exposicion polvorienta de ejeroplares mal disecados. No conozco con exactitud en donde surge la idea de que - la labor pedagogica tiene un valor en si roisroa. Para - desarrollarla, varias instituciones adquieren una estructura dual, ya que conservandose el rouseo taxonoroico, se desarrolla otro tipo de museo, con personal, organizacion y objetivos distintos: lo que llaroaremos el Museo Pedagogico, cuyo fin es la corounicacion. Muchos rouseos de Estados Unidos tienen esta doble estructura, en general desarrollada con buen exito, tanto en el aspecto taxonoroico coroo en el pedagogico. Es no solo deseable sino indispensable, que el museo pedagogico este asociado a un grupo cientifico activo. Si esto no ocurre, corre el peligro de que sus exposici~nes, su plantearoiento roisroo, queden obsoletos. Este apoyo puede lograrse roediante el rouseo de estructura dual antes roencionado, pero tarobien a traves de la asociacion de das instituciones independientes, pero estrechamente relacionadas e interactuantes. Este es el - caso del Museo de Historia Natural de la Ciudad de Mexico y del Institute de Ecologia. El primero es un museo pedagogico, disenado coroo una leccion aroena de lo que son el Universo, la Tierra y los seres vivos. Museo que tiene una fuerte influencia en los grupos escolares de la - ciudad y que encuentra su apoyo cientifico en el Instit~to de Ecologia. El Institute es un centro de investigacion en ecologia, asi coroo en coroportaroiento y taxonomia de algunos grupos de aniroales, que ha creado tres grandes reservas de la biosfera, de las que sigue dirigiendo dos y esta en proceso de establecer una roas.
En nuestra organizacion, arobas instituciones son indepe~dientes y tienen propositos propios, pero se coroplementan. Parte del personal es coroun, lo que unido a la coexistencia en un mismo lugar, asi coroo a proyectos coropartidos, hace que se trabaje coroo una sola unidad.
Posibilidades para el futuro Que posibilidades tienen los dos tipos de rouseo: el taxonomico y el pedagogico? El museo taxonoroico tradicional presenta en deroasiadas QCasiones un aspecto senil poco atractivo. Al no haber carobiado sus objetivos y roetodos, este tipo de rouseo hasido rebasado. Rebasado por las condiciones creadas - por un nuevo estilo de trabajo taxonomico y, tarobien por la cantidad de material acuroulado a lo largo de los anos. Como los dinosaurios, rouchos de estos rouseos estan a - punto de ser aplastados por su propio gigantismo. Hace tieropo que rouchos de ellos han perdido el papel de centros pioneros de investigacion, que tuvieron en el - siglo XIX. Varios son poco consultados por especialistas, para los que la consulta es una inmersion en el polvo y a veces en el desorden y, lo que es roas grave, en el desinteres y la burocracia. En todas las circunstancias estos rouseos se quejan por falta de presupuesto. Son estos museos instituciones vigentes que deben continuar? Deben crearse en aquellos paises en los que no existen? I I
La taxonomia es parte fundamental de las Ciencias Biolog~cas y la taxonomia no es posible sin colecciones. Es i~dispensable conservar las colecciones, pero no forzosamente las instituciones de estructura anquilosada, donde la consulta del material resulta dificil. Si las cole~ciones zoologicas Y botanicas son parte del legado cult~ral de la humanidad y como tal deben usarse y conservarse, que tipo de institucion debe albergarlas? Surge la posibilidad de una modificacion substancial del museo taxonomico tradicional, modificacion mucho mas deseable en la veintena de grandes museos que reunen algo asi como el 90% de las colecciones. Modificacion que en una u otra forma en varies lugares ya se ha iniciado. Indudablemente el cambio no puede presentarse mas que en instituciones fuertes que cuenten con presupuesto y pers~nal adecuados. El cambio debe incluir tanto a la estructura fisica del museo, como a su filosofia. El nuevo m~seo taxonomico tiene que ser un lugar abierto; ante todo un centro de investigacion para propios y extranos, en - donde las colecciones sean el material con el cual se - trabaja y no el botin del coleccionista. Aquellos paises que puedan mantener museos de este tipo, son depositaries de anos de esfuerzo, no solamente de sus nacionales sino de generaciones de especialistas que con su tr~bajo han dabo valor e interes a las colecciones. Compre~damos que en una coleccion cientifica el esfuerzo de captura y preparacion representa una porcion minima de la inversion. La parte fundamental es el sedimiento que qu~da del trabajo de generaciones de investigadores, muchos de ellos grandes figuras de la ciencia y, en buena parte, ajenos a la institucion depositaria. En el futuro, los museos taxonomicos deberan contar no - solo con personal tecnico adecuado que mantenga en buen estado las colecciones, sino con personal cientifico que ademas de una produccion propia, ayude a la consulta por especialistas del extertor. Ninguna restriccion a esta consulta es valida por razones de nacionalidad o rivalidad institucional. El unico limite debe de ser la adecuada preparacion cientifica de aquel que va a utilizar las colecciones, preparacion que justifique el riesgo i~dudable que corre todo material que se maneja, riesgo que debe estar compensado por la calidad de los frutos que se esperan. Los museos deben crear un sistema de intercomunicacion e intercambio facil de informacion, para lo cual es necesario pensar en bancos de datos y en sistemas de computar~zacion que permitan el rapido conocimiento de las colecciones que existen en cada lugar, pudiendose asi saber - donde y como encontrar el material que el especialista necesita. Como ya lo hemos senalado, es indudable que el tipo de - museo taxonomico suscintamente descrito, solo puede ser planteado y mantenido por algunas grandes instituciones en unos pocos paises. Si los cientificos pudieramos prescindir de vanidades y posiciones derivadas de un nacionalismo anacronico, seria conveniente fortalecer y modernizar aquellos grandes museos que sean capaces de adoptar esta nueva fisonomia, siempre y cuando estos museos acepten la premisa de la universalidad y se mantegan abiertos a todos los investigadores capacitados, de cualquier nacionalidad. Creo que en los paises que en e~te momento no tienen grandes museos taxonomicos, pero si grupos de taxonomos trabajando, o en aquellas instituci~nes universitarias o de investigacion que tienen grupos importantes de investigadores, en lugar de la creacion - de museos de intencion universal, tanto por la amplitud taxonomica del material que contienen, como por su origen geografico, se dabe plantear un nuevo tipo de museo, condos alternativas. La primera contempla el desarrollo de colecciones taxonomicas de faunas o floras r~gionales o de areas especificas, colecciones que pueden ser de gran valor e interesante consulta, sin abrumar por su extension. La restriccion geografica o ecologica es lo que - hace atractiva la coleccion, que puede ser cientificamente muy significativa, sin plantear su conservacion y manejo, problemas excesivos de costo y personal. Por otra parte, este tipo de colecciones promueven los estudios regionales que los paises en vias de desarrollo necesitan para - conocer bien su fauna y flora, sus recursos bioticos.
La segunda alternativa se ha seguido por varios museos ~niversitarios. Es la creacion de colecciones restringidas, pero en este caso en sentido taxonomico. Colecciones que corresponden a los intereses de un grupo de esp~cialistas que trabajan en la institucion. El primer tipo de colecciones, las geograficamente limitadas, tienen su existencia y continuidad aseguradas.
Las colecciones creadas en torno a un grupo, siendo de ~norme utilidad en un periodo determinado corren el peligro de desintegrarse al desaparecer el grupo de investigadores por muerte, jubilacion o simple disgregacion. Habra que preveer que en este momento se incorporen a los grandes museos taxonomicos generales.
Son repetidos los casos en que las colecciones se disgr~gan o se pierden bien porque las instituciones universitarias en donde el especialista trabajo ya no tiene interes en ellas o bien en el caso de colecciones particulares, porque los familiares no saben que hacer con las mismas. Este fenomeno es universal, pero especialmente critico en paises en desarrollo como Mexico. Sintetizando, consideramos que los museos taxonomicos se encuentran en un punto de crisis, un punto de crisis pr~vocado por su propio desarrollo y que solo puede supera£Se mediante una nueva concepcion mas internacional, mas madura y en la cual el sentido fundamental sea el de ser depositarios de una parte del patrimonio cientifico de - la humanidad. Un sistema internacional de museos que asegure una buena conservacion del material zoologico, botanico y paleont~logico, necesita de la renovacion de los grandes museos taxonomicos depositarios de la mayor parte de las colecciones, formadas a traves de cientos de anos de trabajo continua y del esfuerzo de centenares de cientificos. Estos museos son parte importantisima de un sistema global en el que tambien participarian museos nacionales o regionales dedicados a la fauna o flora de un area geograficamente limitada, museos que deberian recibir un - fuerte apoyo en los paises en vias de desarrollo. Tambien incluye esta renovacion del sistema de colecciones la creacion de colecciones restringidas a determinagos grupos, en aquellos lugares en donde existen especi~list~s, siempre y cuando se prevea el destino que van a tener estas colecciones cuando estos especialistas desaparezcan. Indudablemente un sistema global como el que estamos esbozando es muy dificil sino se sustenta en una intensa colaboracion y en una eficiente intercomunicacion, basada en las posibilidades que la electronica pone a - nuestra disposicion.
No quisiera terminar sin por lo menos esbozar la importa~cia creciente de los diversos sistemas que tienen como - objeto la conservacion del material genetico, el germopla~ma, material que solo puede conservarse mediante muestras capaces de reproducirse de las especies de plantas y animales. No cabe duda de que el hombre esta destruyendo fauna y - flora a un ritmo que se incrementa dia a dia. Hay calc~los que senalan que para fin del siglo, el 20% de las especies de aves y mamiferos habran desaparecido. La situacion es mucho mas grave en muchas islas y paises tropicales. En el pasado proximo, la expansion de la agricultura y la industria en las tierras templadas del hemisferio norte no tuvo caracteristicas tan desastrosas. Principalmente por las caracteristicas de las comunidades templadas, c~aces de guardar su riqueza genetica en areas pequenas y regenerarse a partir de ellas. Tambien porque la riqueza de especies era mucho menor y --en general-- su di~tribucion geografica mas amplia. El problema adquiere aspectos criticos con la colonizacion de islas o su desarrollo turistico, acompanado de - una indiscriminada invasion de especies extranas y el - desmonte rapaz y torpe de las selvas tropicales. No es el memento para discutir si hay otras alternativas de desarrollo que no destruyan nuestros ecosistemas, las que indudablemente existen. Simplemente anotemos que seria un pobre interes el que mostramos por el patrimonio - natural de la humanidad, si al mismo tiempo que analizamos el futuro de las colecciones no contemplamos el serio riesgo en que se encuentra la continuidad de muchis~mas especies animales y vegetales. Consideramos prioritario y digno de las mas energicas a£ciones, a niveles nacional e internacional, la creacion no de uno, sino de varies sistemas que complementandose aseguren la continuidad --por lo menos en areas o pobl~ciones restringidas-- de nuestra actual riqueza en pla~tas y animales. Dentro de los esfuerzos que con este fin se hacen, es de especial interes al sistema mundial de reservas de la - biosfera. Manana tendremos ocasion de presentar lo que pretende y representa. NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS PRESENT - DAY ALTERNATIVES
ABSTRACT
The "Taxonomic Huseum" arises in the second half of the XVIII century, an institution devoted to preserve plant, animal and fossil collections for systematic study of living beings. In the XIX century, collections extend their collected geographic ranges due to numerous travels made by naturalists. They augment their specimen numbers at the end of the century and during this one, because of increased interest in variation and comparative and biogeographical studies. Nevertheless the main goal of the Taxonomic Huseum has not changed. Nowadays research importance and quality level varies from one museum to another, but collections still are the prevailing element. In several cases this accumulation has everstepped functional limits, since the same systems of old are still being used. As a consequence, several museums are losing the important role they have fifty years ago for the natural sciences development. The "Pedagogic Huseum" instructs and informs the general public, it divulges among children and adults basic knowledge of natural sciences in a clear and pleasant way. It is not just the mere exhibition of museum pieces, but a way to establish communication with the visitor. In several cases the Pedagogic and Taxonomic Huseum are part of the same institution. Sometimes the former is an independent center, which always needs the support of a research institution. Knowing the existence of this two types of museums and of composite institutions, we have to answer the following question: Which institution fulfils the needs of our time, particularly in developing countries? The great Taxonomic Huseums preserve an important part of the existing scientific collections, including a great number of type material. This material has to be preserved not only for taxonomic study, but for comparative, phylogenetic and biogeographic research. In order to give an efficient service according to modern scientific research needs, the museum requires sufficient and qualified personnel, so that national and foreing researches can study the collections; being scientific quality the only limitation that justifies the necessary risk of handling and shippings scientific material. Adequate archives and information use and a close communication with other museums would greatly improve consultation of collections. The creation of international mechanisms that facilitate the use of material, bibliography and general information and all measures that tend to improve the relations between museums, universities and research centers, should receive support of international organizations, such as UNESCO and ICOH: since this means a profitable longterm investment that will have influence on scientific research, specially in developing countries. Far from considering the Taxonomic Huseum as obsolete, we bj:lieve that great ··museum institutions should be renewed in order to recover their role as first class research centers and at the same time to foster institutional and international cooperation. Taxonomic Museums are indispensable, since the understanding of Nature is the best guarantee for its preservation and this is absolutely essential for our own survival. We do not think suitable to develop taxonomic research as a copy of classic European museums in developing countries, which the exception of a few cases, are not efficient and do not have adequate collections, libraries and research groups. There are easier solutions, which can support research in shorter time and with lesser expenses. Among these solutions is the creation of geographically limited collections, that without great needs of substructure, can be very useful. It is also possible to create collections restricted to the institution specialists' needs. This last alternative of great "i scientific efficiency, should foresee the future of collections beyond the present existence of specialists' research groups.
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I . .iI I Paper/Texte no. 3
THE CAMPUS NATURAL HISTORY HUSEUM - RESPONSIBILITIES AND PROBLEMS
By Bryce c. Brown Strecker Museum Baylor University, Waco, Texas
A "full service" or true campus museum must have a variety of educational outreach programs as well as the traditional exhibits, research, collections, and scholarly activities. The prime challenge of the university museum in the 1980's in this time of diminishing budgets and changing priorities is to successfully compete with other academic departments. The museum must aggressively educate the groups necessary to its survival, the university faculty administration, and trustees. They must be made to agree that a good campus museum can provide the student with a broad cultural background not obtained from specialized and technical course work. The negative attitude of some university administrators may be caused by the museum staff making little effort to make the museum relevent to the university's purpose and direction. The staff of the university museum with a little thought can show professors of all departments in the university, how the museum can improve their teaching. If this is done, the administration would more readily recognize the museum as the equivalent of an academic department and provide it with a proportional share of the university's resources. A continuing problem of university museums is how to persuade students to use the museum on their own. The successful campus museum has developed many subtle ways to attract students. One of the ways is through exhibits. The exhibits of the university museum can be developed for multi-use purposes with something for everyone satisfying the most casual visitor to the university scholar. Another area of concern of university museums is attracting and maintaining a competent staff. The museum staff should be trained in museology and be primarily responsible to the Museum. Many other problems and responsibilities facing the campus museums in the 1980's are noted. These will be minimized if the campus museum will change from its traditional static role to that of a dynamic force in the university community. Paper/Texte no. 3
~~THE CAMPUS NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM- RESPONSIBILITIES AND PROBLEMS
By Bryce c. Brown Strecker Museum Baylor University, Waco, Texas
Ladies and gentlemen, I have been associated with a private university natural history museum for nearly thirty years. I have watched the museum grow from a group of unused collections to an active, nationally accredited museum. During that time I have experienced most of the problems and responsibilities associated with any campus museum. All campus museums share some common characteristics. They are part of a university environment and are all subject to the whims of the administration. In the 1980's they are facing additional challenges and responsibilities as campus museums. The term 'campus museum' is applied to many university facilities ranging from specialized one room collections kept behind locked doors to large internationally known complex organizations housed in several buildings. To qualify as a true campus museum the university facility should be a 'full service' institution serving the entire university community. By a 'full service' museum I mean having not only exhibition halls, research collections and scholarly publications but also a wide variety of educational and other programs. The programs must be directed towards all segments of the university community. The university community in its broadest sense includes not only the students' faculty and others on campus. It also includes off-campus students, scholars, alumni, and local community residents who look to the university as a cultural, intellectual, research, and educational resource. Not all of these groups should have equal claim on the resources of the campus museum but their needs and desires must be considered in planning the museum's programs. To survive on campus and to successfully compete with other academic departments are prime challenges of university museums in the 1980's. In this rapidly changing world of diminishing budgets and changing priorities the campus museum must demonstrate its relevance to the needs of its university audience. The university museum can no longer afford to maintain a passive role on campus and shirk its responsibility of aggressively educating the campus groups important to its survival, namely the university faculty, the university administration, and the university trustees. These groups, all too often, are not well informed about or ignore the potential of the campus museum as an educational resource. They must be convinced that through use of the campus museum both students and faculty can obtain a more general knowledge and cultural understanding. The university administrators and trustees are aware that a well educated individual must understand much more than the specialized subject matter of the modern class room. They usually are not aware that good campus museums can provide the student with a broad general cultural background that cannot be obtained from their more specialized and technical course work. I believe the university museum can and should be utilized by all academic departments involved in the university's teaching programs. I cannot think of any academic department that cannot add new dimensions to its teaching by including object and research related instruction through proper use of the campus museum. The variety of possible educational uses of the campus museum by professors of biology, geology, anthropology, and other museum related disciplines is obvious. With a little thought on the part of the museum's staff, professors in unrelated disciplines can be shown ways their teaching can be enhanced through use of the campus museum's facilities. For instance, an instructor in latin names using fossil or biological specimens in the museum's collections. Education or communications students might participate in the museum's docent activities. Music students might trace the development of their music instrument in the collections of the museum to understand mechanical limitations imposed by their instruments on music of the past. Law students can find the campus museum's teaching collections useful as evidence in practice trials. The administration of the university, although the smallest portion of the museum's audience, is in terms of influence, the most important to the museum. The perception of the museum's role and performance by the university's administration is crucial to the support the campus museum must have to become or continue as a 'full service' museum. Unlike museum boards of trustees the university's administrators will seldom encourage or direct the campus museum to provide any particular program or activity. Neither will they propose an expanded budget to provide for additional services that the museum should offer. It is the campus museum's responsibility to win the administration's support by diligently demonstrating and documenting that it is responsive to the educational goals of the university. Also the campus museum should show that it deserves to be recognized as the equivalent of an academic department and should be provided a proportional share of the university's resources. The university administration must also take an active role in convincing trustees and others financially important to the university to provide the additional capital funds the campus museum must have to expand its facilities and employ and maintain an adequate professionally trained staff. It is important, therefore, that the campus museum communicate with the top university administrators and be directly responsible to the chief administrative officer not to a vice-president, dean or lessor administrator. The surrounding public community is another portion of the university audience that the campus museum must consider in designing its programs. The public expects the exhibit halls of the campus museum to be open to off-campus visitors. They also expect the staff of the campus museum to be available to provide answers to specific questions. Sooner or later they will request that the museum provide some sort of outreach program for the community. These outreach activities can be both advantageous and disadvantageous to the museum. Good outreach programs can bring substantial community support and additional funds to the museum. If allowed to get out of hand, however, the number of additional outreach programs can grow to the point where they will detract from the academic emphasis of the museum. The involvement with the community seems to be greatest in those cities without public museums. The outreach programs of the campus museum, whatever their magnitude, should be financed by the community not the university. The use of university funds for strictly non-university purposes is, in my experience, detrimental .to the following year's museum budget. The more traditional responsibilities of the university museum can be grouped under the following headings: The preservation of artifacts and other materials already accumulated. The acquisition of new materials within the museum's field. The interpretation of the museum's collections through exhibits and lectures. The utilization of the collections in scholarly activities.
The training of students in museology and the disciplines relative to the mus~um's endeavors. The dissemination of information by every means available to the museum. These responsibilities are well documented elsewhere. They are perhaps common to most university museums. They also account for some of the basic reasons universities have established and maintain campus museums. Other responsibilities of the campus museum seem to depend on the size and nature of the parent university and how the museum is perceived by the administration and those individuals influencing the administrators. The perception of the museum as having an essential educational function now seems to be generally accepted in the United States. Agencies of the United States government how officially recognize museums as being essentially educational institutions. Seversl state legislatures are now taking the same view. Not all state and local governmental agencies, however, recognize museums as being educational. For example, only last year the governor of Texas vetoed the budgets of seven state-supported university museums. He implied that the operation of the museums was not essential to the institution's educational mission. Only two state campus museums were spared, apparently because they offered academic courses. Other.campus museums are now realizing they also have serious problems. The continued spiraling inflation and reduced student enrollments have generated questions on the part of the university administration about the stated or implied purposes of the museum. In some instances these have been changed with each change of university administration. Some university administrators are even questioning the economic necessity of the existence of a museum on their campus. Others seem to regard the campus museum as a frivolous expense or at best only a cultural liability. Few campus administrators understand the complexities of museum operation nor regard their museums as essential educational facilities of the university. The negative attitude some university administrators have about their campus museum is not entirely their fault. Their campus museum staffs seem to be unconcerned about how their museum is perceived by the university community and make little effort to make their museum relevent to the university's purpose and direction. Campus museums with strong programs aimed particularly towards student education continue to be supported. How to persuade students to utilize the museum on their own without being pressured by professors is a continuing problem. Public lectures and other activities of an academic nature seem generally to be avoided, especially by undergraduate students. Some campus museums are seeking more subtle ways to win student participation and support. A number of ideas have been tried at various campus museums with some success. Among them are: special evening openings of the museum just for students; participation in student social life such as serving as a center of club pledging activities; promoting student contests of various types, such as identifying unusual objects or turtle races; special exhibit openings or 'open houses' with refreshments just for students; furnishing meeting rooms and other facilities for relevant student clubs; placing topical exhibits at different places on campus for special occasions. Another area of continuing concern to 'full service' campus museums is attracting and holding competent professionally trained staff sympathetic to the museum's role in the university community. The museum staff should be on an equal basis with the instructional staff of the university. They should receive comparable benefits and responsibilities in respect to rank, tenure, research opportunities and teaching assignments. This is not the case, in many instances, at this time. A related problem concerns professors who are assigned part time to the museum's staff but whose loyalty is to another department of the university. This can result in the museum's resources being drained for personal research or 'home' department programs with little or no benefit to the museum. It is paramount that the staff of the museum have its best interests at heart, be professionally trained in museology, and be responsible to the director of the museum. The campus museum has an opportunity not usually available to non-university museums. It has the opportunity to and should utilize the wide variety of expertise available on the university campus for developing its programs. How to bring this expertise to focus on the museum's needs remains largely unsolved. One campus museum has a 'consultant's fund' which it uses to generate interest in a problem it needs help on. The nature of the exhibits to be presented by the campus museum seem to be constantly debated. Many diverse ideas have been suggested. One extreme idea is that exhibits should be rather technical visual text books for university students. An opposite view is the idea that campus museum exhibits should be simple enough for young children to understand. The idea of the visiting public seems to be that the exhibits should display what ever the viewer wishes to see. In my experience the exhibits of the campus museum can be developed for multiuse purposes with something for everyone. Labels can be written simple enough for the layman yet scientifically correct and relevant to the scientist. The materials to be exhibited can be arranged and illustrated in such a manner that the casual viewer can grasp their significance while at the same time the purposes of the specialist are also served. By the way, the specialist becomes a layman when the subject matter of the exhibit is outside of his area of expertise. Many other problems and responsibiities will undoubtedly be facing the campus museum in the 80's. These will be minimized if the campus museum has changed from its traditional static role to that of a dynamic force in the university community. It takes planning and commitment on the part of the museum staff, the faculty and the administration. The staff of the museum is· the catalyst for this change, otherwise it will not happen. Fully realizing the potential of the campus museum is a continuing and ardous task. All too often this task remains unstarted or is not continued on the modern university campus.
Thank you. Paper/Texte no. 3
LES RESPONSABILIT~S ET PROBLEMES DES MUSEES UNIVERSITAIRES D'HISTOIRE NATURELLE PAR BRYCE C. BROWN, MUS~ES STRECKER, UNIVERSITE BAYLOR, WACO, TEXAS
Un musee universitaire veritable, c'est-a-dire dote de tous les services necessaires, doit compter divers programmes de diffusion et d'education, en plus des elements traditionnels: expositions, recherche, collections et etudes savantes. La tache la plus difficile a laquelle doivent faire face les musees universitaires des annees 1980,' a notre epoque de budgets decroissants et de priorites changeantes, consiste a soutenir la concurrence des autres secteurs universitaires. Le musee doit faire preuve de dynamisme afin de persuader les groupes necessaires a sa survie: corps enseignant, administrateurs et conseil d'administration, qu'un bon musee peut fournir a l'etudiant une vaste culture qui depasse la portee des cours specialises e't techniques. L'attitude negative de certains administrateurs d'universites est peut-etre imputable au fait que le personnel du musee fait peu d'efforts pour adapter celui-ci au but et a !'orientation de l'universite. Avec un peu d'imagination, il est possible de montrer aux professeurs de tous les departements de 1 'universite comment le musee peut ameliorer leur enseignement. L'administration reconnaitrait alors plus facilement le musee comme !'equivalent d'un departement universitaire et lui confererait une portion proportionnelle des ressources de l'universite. Les musees universitaires se heurtent a un probleme permanent: comment persuader les etudiants d'utiliser d'eux-memes leurs services? Ils existe plusieurs fa~ons subtiles de les attirer. L'une d'entre elle consiste a organiser des expositions polyvalentes susceptibles d'interesser tout le monde, du simple curieux jusqu'au savant repute. Une autre difficulte consiste a attirer et a conserver un personnel competent: celui-ci doit posseder une formation en museologie et relever surtout du musee. Bon nombre d'autres problemes et responsabilites du musee universitaire des annees 1980 sont a signaler. Ils s'attenueront si celui-ci delaisse son role traditionnellement statique pour devenir une force dynamique dans le milieu universitaire. Paper/Texte no. 4
ICOM '80 -MEXICO THE WORLD'S HERITAGE: THE MUSEUMS RESPONSIBILITY
) By A.M. Tynan, Curator
Natural scientists~ in museums find themselves perhaps in a little difficulty when they analyse the theme of this conference. The traditional roles of museums are widely accepted as collecting and conserving. In terms of human artefacts such policies raise few problems although even here one could dream up situations, however unlikely, where the collection and removal from general circulation of e.g. a cult object, might interfere with the practice of that cult. In the main, however, it is unlikely that the removal to the (assumed) safe keeping of a museum of an artefact could be anything but good. By the same token, on-site conservation of an artefact by a museum would contribute towards the welfare of that object. To return however to the special problem facing natural scientists working in museums. They also, traditionally assemble collections of all manner of life forms. In so doing these life-forms are killed. This is a fine contribution towards protecting the world's wildlife heritage! Before we are accused of hypocrisy and double talk we must clearly define the functions of our collections, and state the end which justifies the means.* The functions are three-fold, firstly to establish a datum-line for a recognised species, the specimens collected and conserved can be related to the description of the type specimen. The second function of the collection is as a resource for research and this may proceed in a wide variety of directions. The third function is broadly educational and is achieved by displaying the specimen publicly, an exercise now dignified as 'interpretation'. The all-pervading aim is the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge via objects: I believe that this should be in order to spread a wider understanding of the life on our planet which could-or-should-but must - lead to the development of management policies which give greater hope for our long-term survival. We are, in fact pursuing the ultimate .conservation ethic. There are several valid reasons why the human animal should have regard for the other forms of life with which he shares the globe; aesthetic, ·scientific etc., but in the final cynical analysis one reason alone would remain. impregnable; as we systematically plod our way up the extinction league the question must arise, when will our turn come? This is perhaps a silly hyperbole, but there have been situations when the first we knew of a possible hazard to human health was when, for example through the use of ill-tested agricultural chemicals, wild birds dropped dead in their hundreds at our feet. Our non-human neighbours on this planet are useful monitors of its environmental safety for all of us. We would be wise to understand them. One is tempte~ to pursue these flights of fantasy into more philosophical thoughts about the world and its problems, about burgeoning populations, the third world, food production and distribution and so on, but these are areas without my theme which I must avoid, I will merely repeat that a role of the museum should be to explain to our public the complex nature of our planet, its possibilities and limitations and why we should manage it with great care. From generalities to particulars. I wish to describe how my museum has promoted the protection of our heritage, in other words, the nature conservation movement, in our part of the U.K. First a little sketching in of the national backdrop. Nature Conservation in the U.K. is carried out both by Government and by 'the people' through several voluntary organisations. By Government, through the Nature Conservancy Council, established early in 1949, by Royal Charter, drawing its powers from legislation passed by Parliament later that year, based often upon information assembled before, during and immediately after the Second World War. Pressures had been mounting for longer than 20 years that Government should legislate comprehensively for wildlife and ultimately that it should establish a scientific body to advise on the whole question, this was it. This wing of government which operates from a central H.Q. with a system of regio,nal offices, maintains 168 National Nature Reserves covering 408,207 acres (the equivalent of 20,000 football pitches!) and with its sister organisation, the I.T.E., which is now responsible for the research activities of the organisation, acts as adviser to government on all issues where there is a nature conservation question. This does not mean that the advice is heeded, there are, on the record incidents beyond number where other, more powerful ministries, like Agriculture have won the day. Nevertheless, they, the NCC and I.T.E. are there and other statutory bodies must at least ask them for opinions, even if they have' no intention of listening to the replies. In this way government seeks to allay the anxieties of the electorate. To a certain extent this works, but the small minority of the population which is not completely convinced remains, in various groups as "the voluntary movement", some parts of it with origins in the 19th century. There are many organisations large and small which take an interest in the countryside and its welfare but for our purposes there are three which play an important part in wildlife conservation by acquiring land and managing it as nature reserves. The bodies are: the National Trust, the R.S.P.B. and the S.P.N.R., The National Trust, founded in 1885, owns 400,000 acres of land, controls a further 71,000 acres through protective covenants, including 400 miles of coastline and by the end of 1980 expects to have a million members. These may sound impressive figures and so they are, but under its charter the Trust undertook to preserve "Places of Historic Interest as well as those with Natural Beauty" and there is little doubt that splendid buildings attract greater interest within the Trust than sites of great wildlife interest, which do not always, in the eyes of the architectural historian appear to be of great natural beauty. A large percentage of the land holding is represented by estates associated with important buildings so, to a certain extent, nature conservation is an added bonus which comes almost by accident. Coincidentally, areas of great landscape beauty acquired by the Trust mostly have a parallel wildlife interest. Lest it be thought that the National Trust is not a powerful beneficial force, it must be added that when important wildlife sites are identified on their estates, far greater sympathy is given than would be expected from the hard-headed commercial landowner. There is also, I believe, within the Trust a recognition of the problem and they have recently initiated ecological surveys into some of their estates, to establish, without too much further prompting, conservation management policies on important sites. The second body is the R.S.P.B., granted its Royal Charter in 1904 and based on a
Society founded in }~nchester in 1889 to prevent the slaughter of various birds whose plumage was destined for the personal adornment of human beings. Legislation had already started to appear on the statute book much earlier in the,19th century to curb the wholesale massacre of birds for fun, and cruelty to animals of other kinds was also coming under control. Today the RSPB has 320,000 members, nearly 100,000 junior members, and controls 78 nature reserves, primarily for birds, which cover 86,000 acres. The society has an active research team, a law enforcement officer, lobbies Parliament on bird protection matters and operates 8 regional offices. Although its main concern is with bird protection, clearly other forms of wildlife benefit from its activities. The third and final body to consider is the SPNR, and it is here that the museum plays it's most active role. The Society was formed in 1912, and its name clearly indicates its objectives "the Promotion of Nature Reserves". There was no plan to hold land itself but to identify important sites and persuade other people to do the rest, they had the National Trust especially in mind. One of the original leaders in the Society, N.C. Rothschild came from an extremely prosperous and influential family and the hope must have been that much good would derive from his network of rich business associates and landowing aristocracy. The outbreak of the first world war and the economic depression of the decades which followed seriously hindered real progress but these years were spent valuably in bringing together the most active professional and amateur naturalists and maintaining a wildlife interest in the fast-growing movement which was seeking to protect rural amenities and at the same time improve access to the countryside for the city-dwellers whose mobility and recreational demands were growing. In spite of this growth there was still insufficient vigour and recognition of the mounting threat to wildlife from urban sprawl etc., etc., to bring real action - with one exception - in Norfolk. Here in 1912 and again 1923 the National Trust had accepted two areas of great natural beauty -but when offered a third - declined, a group of local naturalists promptly created their own local Trust and acquired the area as a nature reserve. Moving from strength to strength by 1941 a further six reserves had been established. Twenty years after the establishment of the Norfolk Trust a similar situation arose in Yorkshire, and the day was saved. A local learned Society was persuaded to purchase a large boggy area near the city of York. Shortly afterwards the Society, with advice from Norfolk established a county Trust. Two years later Lincolnshire followed suit. Eight years passed before other Counties established their own Trusts and then in the late fifties and early sixties, the floodgates opened and soon the whole country was "covered" by a County Trust. Some smaller, or less populous counties joined with their neighbours. The stimulus frequently came from the county naturalists society, very few of which because of their constitution were legally able to hold land, nor had the money to acquire and manage it. Throughout these formative years, SPNR played a leading role, providing advice, guidance and frequently money to aid in the costs of formation
(oo Representatives from each Trust were given a place on the Society's Council which in 1965 established a permanent Secretariat to help service the County Trust movement. By 1973 the process of integration was complete, in 1975 the Society revised its Charter to formalise the situation, henceforth its main function was to service the County Trusts, attracting money from national charitable foundations and from central government and helping the Trusts in a wide variety of other ways. At the same time, to underline its new role, the Society changed it's name, announcing to the world that it now promoted "Nature Conservation", with wider implications than "Nature Reserves". Now, with a total membership of over 130,000 the forty Trusts manage 1200 nature reserves covering over 100,000 acres, much of which is officially recognised as being of the highest quality. Returning now to my region, the Northumberland Trust was established jointly with County Durham in 1963, following a meeting held in the Hancock Museum, the headquarters of the county natural history society. To it we invited interested naturalists and representatives of all the smaller local natural history societies, bird clubs etc. It was essential to get their support right from the start. Nature Conservation was not a widely understood concept but we argued that it was more likely to gain support from those with a known interest in natural history. The secretary of SPNR attended the meeting and the Curator of the Museum was elected secretary, a post which he still holds. Seven years later in 1970 when membership of 1400, it was agreed to set up two separate Trusts. In 1980 the Northumberland Wildlife Trust has 4, 400 members and controls 42 nature reserves, selected to represent the habitats typical of the county, but with some near the major connurbations especially set up as teaching areas for schools. It is interesting to note that some 40 years earlier, my predecessor had called a similar meeting in the Museum to form an association which bought a group of Islands off the Northumberland Coast as a bird sanctuary. These were later given into the safe keeping of the National Trust. The Wildlife Trust is now the most influential conservation body in the county. Originally the , Trusts office and stores were housed in the main museum building, but as the operation grew, and more space was needed, permission was granted to erect a large sectional building in the museum grounds to provide offices for the staff of four, stores and a large meeting room. How has the museum contributed to this organisation? In the first place, in collaboration with the Natural History Society, a meeting place was provided for all the preliminary gatherings and discussions. Secretarial help was always to hand and the Trust was provided subsequently with office space and a telephone. Much money is raised through the sale of a wide range of goods specially manufactured by SPNR, these are sold in the Museum "shop". Although the offices have been moved out of the main building, it is always available, at a nominal cost for meetings, lectures and fund raising events. All this help is given with the full approval of the museums committee of management which adopted, some years ago the idea that the museum should promote wildlife c9nservation in its widest sense. The National Trust and the RSPB also use the museum lecture theatre for their meetings on the same liberal terms, and free publicity is given whenever requested. In this way the museum becomes, in the public eye, the major regional focus for all voluntary bodies concerned in any way with nature and nature conservation. Which leads me, next to why a natural history museum should support a County Wildlife, Trust. In my opening passages I stated our objective, in the public galleries of preaching, ultimately a conservation ethic, it is clear that in educational terms, the two bodies have comparable objectives, and this in my view is reason enough for our current involvement in the Trusts activities. Finally, what is in it for us? Philosophically any organisation which fosters an interest in natural history is good for the welfare of the museum, providing, indirectly, greater resources for our other activities. Just as we respond rapidly to any request for help or information by the local press, radio or television. Publicity is important, that goes without saying, it can only do us good to be associated with a popular rapidly growing nature conservation organisation -we even share the same postal address! There are other benefits, the Trust, through its nature reserve surveys produces a great deal of data concerning the distribution of plants and animals, and details of geological exposures. Recently the Trust with financial aid from a Government anxious to reduce the unemployment problem employed a team of young graduates who systematically scoured the County for sites of biological and geological interest. The results have been made available to the planning authorities so that when some development is proposed which might change or damage a notified site, consultations take place. Besides such temporary staff, the Trust draws advice and information from many amateur and professional naturalists. Invariably the museum staff are able to develop these contacts, draw upon their expertise and receive specimens collected during their surveys. All this information is systematically stored in the museums computerised data-bank, so supplementing and enriching the resource which it is our duty to maintain and increase. The museum, through its collections and field observations maintains the "species" data-bank, whereas the Trust provides the more general "habitat" information. In the educational field there is a further advantage. Many museums have informal "clubs" for children, which provide lectures, film shows, field trips etc., etc. They have an undoubted value, helping to promote and develop the childrens interest in natural history, the environment and, of course the need for nature conservation. In recent years SPNC, in conjunction with one of the major "quality" S;mday newspapers has established a young peoples club, "Watch" and. encouraged County Trusts to establish their own local branches. The Hancock Museum Club promptly adopted "Watch" and became its local branch. This has brought endless benefits, both to the Museum and to the Club. In the first place, the task of organising and arranging programmes no longer falls onto Museum Staff, although they are still involved in policy-making. The Club still meets in the museum but all day-to-day administration is the responsibility of the Trust staff. The Club benefits insofar as SPNC and the newspaper together provide a regular quality magazine for members, features in the newspaper, handbooks for group leaders etc., etc., a service which very few provincial museums could hope to match. To recapitulate. It is my belief that the most important single role of a natural history museum is to promote nature conservation. This is done in a variety of ways, by assisting research, by maintaining collections, by education through the appropriate display -of these collections and by giving help to all kinds of bodies which count nature conservation as their primary aim. Since my museum is essentially county-based, our greatest ally is the county-based nature conservation Trust, I believe that the vigorous support which we give it enables us to do a better job, in the museum of protecting our heritage. Paper/Texte no. 4
LE PATRIMOINE MONDIAL - LA RESPONSABILITE DES MUSEES
Apres quelques commentaires quant au bien-fonde de la mise sur pied des collections de musee et aux repercussions de ces activites sur l'environnement, l'auteur presente brievement les fonctions des collections, leur role educatif et la pertinence de la deontologie de la conservation. Il esquisse ensuite l'historique et le developpement des mouvements pro-conservation et decrit les liens qui se sont crees entre le musee et les groupes de conservation locaux, ainsi que les avantages que chacun en retire. Paper/Texte no. 5
PROBLE~~S DE LAS COLECCIONES CIENTIFICAS EN LOS PAISES EN DESARROLL01/
Pedro Reyes-Castillo .~ J' Museo de Historia Natural de la Ciudad de Mexico e Institute de Ecologia, Mexico, D.F.
Los problemas inherentes al establecimiento y la evolucion de las colecciones cientificas, en paises como Mexico, esta en estrecha relacion con su desarrollo cientifico y tecnologico. Mexico, come pais en desarrollo, posee una commun!dad cientifica seriamente preocupada por lograr "liberarse del colonialismo cultural a traves de la autosuficiencia en las esferas intelectu~les y de elevar el nivel cultural de sus habitantes mediante la educacion", la ciencia que estamos desarrollando persigue contribuir a la "elevacion de la cultura" universal y del "potencial economico" de nuestro pais (opinion expresada por el Comite de Ciencias Biologicas, 1975).
Las colecciones cientificas son un valioso instr~mento que contribuye a alcanzar las metas antes propuestas, dentro de la esfera de la biologia sistematica. La formacion de colecciones cie~tificas, en consecuencia, debe considerarse como una forma de enriquec!miento del patrimonio nacional y fuente permanente de informacion. Informacion que debe estar disponible y abierta a la comunidad cientifica mundial. La formacion de colecciones cientificas en Mexico, historicamente esta ligada a la creacion y reestructuracion de las inst!tuciones de investigacion cientifica, los centros de educacion superior y el Museo de Historia Natural. Desgraciadamente, este ultimo no ha side una institucion permanente, con continuidad en sus actividades. Aunque desde 1825 se decreta la creacion de un museo de historia natural, es hasta 1865 cuando se instala como un departamento mas del Museo Naci~nal y es en 1909 cuando se constituye en forma independiente con el no~bre de Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, para desaparecer 50 anos mas tarde (Beltran 1971). El actual Museo de Historia Natural de la Ciudad de Mexico nace hace 16 anos (octubre 1964), come centro de divulgacion de las ciencias naturales y de accion educativa, no come un centre de investigacion. El proceso no podria ser mas desalentador, las vicisitudes por las que las colecciones cientificas de Mexico han pasado, estan ligadas a la falta de continuidad de nuestras instituciones de historia natural, lo cual se ha reflejado en su destruccion y desap~ricion. El esfuerzo de quienes han dedicado gran parte de su vida a la formacion de colecciones cientificas no es mas que una "dolorosa narracion de perdidas de tan valioso patrimonio por falta de recursos, de interes y de comprension" (Barrera, 1974). Lo mejor que ha podido pasar con algunas de ellas es su deposita en instituciones extranjeras, en
l/ Conferencia presentada en la XII Conferencia General del ICOM, octubre de 1980. Mexico. D.F. donde al menos es hoy posible consultarlas. Un camino paralelo han seguido las bibliotecas anexas a estas colecciones sistematicas. Entonces no es de extranar, que sean en los Museos europeos y norteamericanos donde este mejor representada la biota de nuestro pais. Hecho ampliamente conocido por todos aquellos que nos hemos enfrentado al estudio sistematico de algun grupo de organismos. Situacion que por otra parte, es la imperante en gran parte de los paises en desarrollo. El interes despertado por conocer, aunque sea en parte, los recursos con que contamos, tanto de colecciones cientificas como de taxonomos en activo, ha producido desde hace algunos anos una serie de catalogos sobre las colecciones zoologicas y los herbarios. Estas publicaciones, aunque escasas y parciales en su contenido, ofrecen una idea objetivo del material biologico depositado en las principales instituciones mexicanas.
En el caso de las colecciones zoologicas existen d~versos catalogos sobre los insectos del Institute Nacional de Investigaciones Agric6las (Gibson y Carrillo 1959; Carrillo, Ortega y Gibson 1966; Dominguez y Carrillo 1976; Pacheco 1978; Anguamea y Pacheco 1979) y del Museo de Historia Natural de la Ciudad de Mexico (Barrera 1966 y 1969; Barrera y ~mrtin 1968; Hartin Frias 1971), asi como sobre los nematodes del Institute de Biologia de la Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (Bravo Hollis y Caballero Deloya 1973). El catalogo debido a Rzedowski (1976), sin lugar a duda el mas completo que sobre el tema existe, trata de los herbarios mexicanos e incluye los principales herbarios extranjeros que conservan i~portante material de plantas mexicanas. Ademas Rzedowski incluye las c~lecciones de fosiles, las xilotecas y los bancos de germoplasma. En mi opinion este trabajo constituye un ejemplo a seguir, es una valiosa y util contribucion en donde se aprecia el valor de las colecciones cientificas. A lo anterior deben sumarse las reuniones que sobre colectas y colecciones se han organizado en los ultimos anos, de las cuales las pioneras han sido las realizadas hace apenas siete anos (1973). Una general efectuada en los recintos de este Museo de Historia Natural y otra sobre herbarios en la Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biologicas del Instituto Politecnico Nacional. Hoy en dia a traves de una serie de instrumentos de apoyo a la ciencia, creados por el Gobierno Federal, Mexicano, como son el Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia, y la Subsecretaria de la Investigacion Cientifica, existe la posibilidad de obtener ayuda para
incr~mentar la formacion de taxonomos, reforzar nuestros actuales cuadros de investigacion e incrementar sustancialmente nuestras colecciones. Esta ayuda, que bien es cierto no es en forma directa, esta siendo aprovechada por varias instituciones responsables de colecciones cientificas. Todas estas acciones estan ayudando al desarrollo de la taxonomia y a reforzar las
colecciones existentes. Creo que el optimi~mo ha renacido, la aparicion de colecciones zoologicas y de "herbarios en Mexico se vislumbra prolifico en los anos venideros" (Sous a 1976). En Mexico existen basicamente dos tipos de colecci~nes cientificas: (1) las institucionales y (2) las particulares. Las primeras son de tipo mas general y diversificado en el material que contienen, poseen cierto apoyo en equipo, materiales y personal humano. Las s~gundas, son en general pequenas colecciones, especializadas en un grupo (principalmente de insectos o de a caros), y su creacion, mantenimiento y crecimiento depende de un investigador o pequeno grupo de investigadores en active. Estas colecciones particulares, al menos en el campo de la e~tomologia sistematica, son las mas activas, las mas productivas y a diferencia de algunas de las colecciones institucionales las que ofrecen mayor liberalidad al intercambio y la consulta por parte de los especialistas. Par otra parte, las colecciones particulares son las que mas riesgos corren con respecto a su futuro. Un error en el que hemos. caido los responsables de colecciones cientificas en Mexico es pensar que la falta de fondos o los limitados presupuestos existentes, impiden el desarrollo y crecimiento de tales colecciones. Sin embargo, un intercambio de opiniones con algunos de mis colegas entomologos mexicanos ha resultado en que si bien un pre-supuesto mayor ayudaria a mejorar nuestras colecciones, el problema baslco es la escasez de material humano. Es decir de verdaderos profesionales dedicados al manejo y mantenimiento de las colecciones, asi coma lograr formar una masa critica de buenos taxonomos. Un problema general al que nos venimos enfrentando, desde hace varios anos, los responsables de colecciones y taxonomos, se r~fiere a los requisites que hay que cumplir dentro del sistema aduanal me~cano, que eleva costos en el envio y la recepcion de paquetes, difuculta~do cada vez mas el intercambio y los prestamos de material biologico con las instituciones extranjeras. Ahora quisiera tratar algunos aspectos que creo de gran interes. Huchos de los responsables de colecciones y taxonomos hemos estado o estan aun, preocupados en comparar nuestras incipientes colecciones con las ricas colecciones existentes en los grandes museos de Norteamerica y Europa. Pienso que este tipo de comparaciones es mala e irrelevante. Por nuestra situacion como pais en desarrollo, nuestra meta debeser buscar calidad mas que cantidad, nuestra tendencia debe ser hacia el estudio del material mas que hacia el acumulo de este material, debemos transformar nuestras colecciones en centros actives de investigacion y formacion de recursos humanos (Halffter 1980).
Actualmente, dadas las f~cilidades creadas por nue~tro gobierno para el fomento de la actividad cientifica, es relativamente facil que un buen taxonomo viaje al extranjero para trabajar en las colecciones existentes en los principales museos del mundo. El viajar y trab~jar en el extranjero, son actividades propias del moderno taxonomo profesional. La situacion alcanzada por las colecciones cientificas de Mexico es el fruto de la actividad desarrollada por los llamados por Halffter (1980) "cientificos abrumados" que pasan la mayor parte de su tiempo en la administracion de su propia investigacion. Cientificos abrumados que a mi modo de entender tienen una vision muy real de nuestros defectos y carencias, al mismo tiempo que miran al futuro desde una perspectiva universal. Son estos cientificos abrumados, junto con los grupos de trabajo que estan formando, el material biologico mas valioso que existe en nuestras colecciones. Hoy en dia, es indudable el incremento de nuestras colecciones cientificas, incremento del cual no hemos realizado una evaluacion real. Por lo tanto, sin dejar de promover la formacion de nuevas colecciones y de apoyar, mantener y enriquecer las actualmente existentes, se hace necesario planificar en forma efectiva el futuro desarrollo de las colecciones cientificas de Hexico, con el fin de no duplicar esfuerzos y evitar en lo posible desperdiciar los pocos recursos con los que actualmente contamos. Por otra parte, es preciso ampliar la capacidad de adquisicion de nuestras instituciones, de estrechar las relaciones entre los encargados de colecciones tanto particulares como institucionales, y de establecer mecanismos interinstitucionales que permitan la recuperacion, rapida y efectiva de la informacion contenida en las colecciones cientificas. Para lograr establecer estas relaciones y mecanismos es imprescindible realizar una real labor de comunicacion entre los interesados, a traves de comites, reuniones tecnicas y eventualmente la publicacion de catalogos de conjunto.
Par otra parte, dada la revaloracion que la sistem~tica biologica ha tenido en los ultimos anos, es indispensable reforzar e incrementar nuestros actuales cuadros de taxonomos. No debemos soslayar el hecho que el desarrollo de las colecciones cientificas esta en estrecha relacion con la formacion de taxonomos en las ramas de la botanica y la zoologia. El Museo de Historia Natural de la Ciudad de Mexico, conciente del valor que representan las colecciones cientificas, se ha pre~cupado por reforzar sus actividades en relacion con la Coleccion Nacional de Insectos, fomentando el intercambio a nivel nacional e internacional, enriqueciendola con el material proveniente de los diversos proyectos de investigacion que realiza el Institute de Ecologia en diferentes partes del pais y relacionandose con taxonomos de reconocido prestigio. La actual politica de nuestro Museo de Historia Natural es no solo de incrementar las colecciones de insectos a su cargo, sino reforzar, de acuerdo con sus posibilidades, las colecciones de vertebrados y vegetales existentes en otras instituciones. Les collections scientifigues dans les pays en voie de developpement
ABSTRACT
The founding and evolution of scientific collections in developping countries, like Mexico, is directly related to its scientific and technological advances. Within the frame of biological systematics, biological collections are an invaluable source of progress that contribute to raise the level of basic scientific research and they produce in the last instance valuable knowledge for universal culture. Collections are therefore a form of national inheritance enrichment and a permanent source of information open to the world scientific community. Historically in Mexico, scientific collections have suffered great losses due to the lack of continuity and permanence of natural history institutions, specially the Natural History Museum. Nevertheless measures have been taken during the last years in order to evaluate, although in a limited and partial way, the existing human and material resources for achieving an harmonius development in our scientific collections. These efforts have been spread by mean of publishing catalogues and by technical meetings arranged by several scientific associations. Furthermore federal government institutions exist that support scientific research and have increased the number of trained taxonomists and reinforced our incipient research groups, which will eventually lead to an increase of the already existing scientific collections. In this way the near future of scientific collections in Mexico suggest a prolific increase. The actual increase of scientific collections in Mexico means a necessary planning in order to prevent wasting efforts and resources. Likewise, the acquiring possibilities of these institutions must be enlarged, connections between curators of scientific collections have to be improved and efficient information retrieval systems must be established for receiving all the information. storaged in a scientific collection.
Pedro Reyes-Castillo Museo de Historia Natural de la Ciudad de Mexico Instituto de Ecologia Apartado Postal 18-845 Mexico 18, D.F. MEXICO Paper/Texte no. 6
INTRODUCTION TO SESSION ON EXHIBITS
ICOM INTERNATIONAL CO~fMITTEE OF NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS
Mexico City, 1980
We have discussed this morning, among other things, what we consider to be the traditional responsibilities of museums regardless of discipline - that is to say, collection, documentation, and interpretation. We have not always agreed about the relationship of these responsibilities. From a personal viewpoint I would only say that without the collection, there is little to document and nothing to interpret. Again, as a personal statement, I view interpretation as including such activities as publication, educational programming, and exhibition. The exhibition is one of our prime means of communication. Through exhibition the interests and concerns of specialists - curators - may be interpreted for the non-specialist - the layman. To be successful, we must develop clearly defined objectives and have a good idea about those for whom we are preparing the exhibit. It is useful to compare the way our colleagues in other countries have addressed the problems of exhibitions and to that end I have asked people in widely separated areas of the world to share with us their experiences.
Arminta Neal
7o Paper/Texte no. 6
INTRODUCTION A LA REUNION CONSACREE AUX EXPOSITIONS ICOM - COMITE INTERNATIONAL DES MUSEES D'HISTOIRE NATURELLE
Mexico 1980
Ce matin, les discussions ont porte entre autres sur les responsabilites traditionnelles des musees, independamment des disciplines: les collections, la documentation et !'animation. Nous ne sommes pas parvenus a un concensus quant a la connexite de ces responsabilites mais, selon moi, sans les collections il n'y aurait guere lieu de rassembler de la documentation et aucune animation ne serait possible. A mon avis, !'animation regroupe des activites comme les publications, les programmes educatifs et les expositions. L'exposition est un de nos principaux modes de communication. Par ce moyen, les interets et les preoccupations des specialistes, les conservateurs, peuvent etre interpretes pour le benefice du non-specialiste, l'homme de la rue. Pour reussir, nous devons nous fixer des objectifs clairement definis et cerner assez precisement le public auquel s'adressent les expositions. La comparaison des methodes mises en oeuvre par nos collegues d'autres pays pour aborder les problemes lies a !'exposition est pleine d'enseignements. C'est la raison pour laquelle j'ai invite des specialistes de divers points du globe a venir nous faire part de leur experience.
Arminta Neal
.. Paper/Texte no. 7
ICOM '80 -MEXICO ~J BIRD ROOM - HANCOCK MUSEUM By Anthony Tynan, Newcastle, England
The Hancock Museum, Newcastle upon Tyne had its origin, like many provincial museums in the U.K. in the enthusiasms of a natural history society founded in the early 19th century. The society's museum was built around the nucleus of the "cabinet of curiosities assembled by a local squire in the 18th century. A few of these specimens including some mounted birds have survived. The Society's collections grew steadily through the succeeding decades until by the 1870's, in spite of substantial additions to their existing rooms, new accessions had to be stored in warehouses in the town and were not readily available for the members study. The Hancock brothers, John and Albany had always been active members of the Society, John an "all-rounder" naturalist with vertebrates as his special love, and Albany, his older brother a famous marine zoologist. Albany died in 1873 whereupon John successfully proposed to the Society that a completely new museum building should be erected in his brother's memory. In fact the New Museum was renamed to commemorate the brothers after John's death in 1890. Tyneside, in those days was beginning to feel the benefits of the industrial revolution, mainly from coal and iron, rich men were not hard to find. Amongst them was William Armstrong, lawyer, engineer, inventor, a rich man destined to be richer, and John Joicey, coal-owner, these and other less generous benefactors promised enough money to buy a plot of land and commence building. The site acquired was almost on the outskirts of Newcastle in the 1880's, and was big enough to leave a buffer zone of gardens, trees and shrubbery between this temple for the workship of nature and the busy highways on each side. John Hancock's eminence as a naturalist was equalled by his skill as a taxidermist, and he had assembled a collection which contained over 1,000 British and foreign mounted birds. As work progressed on the New Museum he formally offered his whole collection to the Society - so long as they provided the necessary cases. This was readily agreed and in 1884 when the Prince and Princess of Wales solemnly declared the museum open, John Hancock's magnificant collection was suitably installed. So the room, 100' x 50' with a surrounding gallery stayed for over ninety years, with hardly one significant change. Newcastle University, after a long flirtation with the Society finally assumed control of the museum in 1970 and promised up to £13,000 towards a guestimate of £26,000 for the upgrading of displays. By 1976, £11,000 had been spent, or committed on two major schemes, the Bird Room however remained unaltered. As inflation soared the real value of the £2,000 fell and we were preparing to spend our remaining funds on a few cans of floor polish when - out of the blue came Aunty Kitty. This little old lady, great-niece of John Hancock had returned to her native Tyneside for a last look at her Uncle's collection. Returning to the south coast, she sent us a cheque for £20,000 and died. The scene had changed overnight. Tyneside, booming in 1884 was,
j
II with the rest of the country, deeply depressed in the late 1970's, Government striving to ease the pain of unemployment would pay the wages of personnel employed on approved schemes which would provide benefits to the local community. This source of free labour was already being used on other schemes in the museum. We debated whether, with our tiny full-time staff we could supervise another major protect but as rumours began to circulate that Government planned to scrap their job creation programme we hurriedly submitted an application. For nearly three years, teams of zoologists, designers and craftsmen were drawn from the queues of the unemployed, Aunty Kitty's gift would pay for the materials, timber, glass and paint. First, however, the philosophy, how would we tackle the job. Bird-watching is one of our few growth industries, and for decades the Hancock Collection has been used, almost daily by these enthusiasts to check their field identifications. In the new displays this function must be retained. (RSPB) What, however, should be the area covered by this bird-watchers 3D handbook? Ideally we would have liked to deal with birds of the Palaearctic Region, but soon realised that we just did not possess enough material. As a compromise we aimed at "Birds of Europe", but were rather vague about where that was! The logic was quite simple. As a nation the British are heartily sick of miserable wet summers, and as more and more are escaping to warmer continental countries for their holidays, it makes sense to broaden the range of systematic displays to provide the answers to their questions. Easier foreign travel has made it possible for the keen birdwatcher to extend his list and the spread of bird-ringing stations continuously adds new species to the recorded British avifauna. In practice we aimed at displaying as many European birds as we had, if possible both sexes, in as many plumage stages as available. A series of new cases would be built on the gallery and the specimens arranged systematically with enough simple "habitat" material to soften the scientific blow for the general public. Special standard labels would be prepared to include a distribution map and give the kind of basic information to be found in the better field-guides.
What then of the rest of the room?
Birds, we thought, are beautiful, fascinating· the often musical animals, we wanted to help our visitors to agree with us. We would pick out a few important "topics" about birds and create displays around them. The arrangement of these units would be random so that the visitor could wander about until something caught his eye, and his concentration would lock onto that particular topic. This freedom to select at will would be more enjoyable for the visitor than being driven around a systematic 3D text book. Having set the guidelines we began to select our team. To begin with, a pair of zoology graduates with a proven interest in birds. Their first task was to "assess the resource", in other words to create a card-index catalogue of every mounted bird in our collections, whether displayed or stored, noting species, sex,' plumage, size, condition and posture. Two furniture designers joined them and started work on the "Birds of Europe" problem. When working drawings for these display cases were nearly completed six joiners were added to the team to clear the site, a section at a time and begin construction. Seven graphic designers joined the team and with the furniture specialists and the zoologists began to analyse the problem of the layout on the ground floor. It soon became evident that we were very short of space. We hired an architect to suggest solutions and he proposed building two mezzanine "shelves" at each end of the room. This was accepted and a further team of unemployed youngsters with supervisors descended upon us to carry out the construction.
Mildly organised bedlam reigned for a further two years until, on 4th June 1980 ~t 7.00 p.m. a "television personality" well-known for his wild-life programmes drew back the curtains and John Hancocks birds were again revealed to a delighted audience. This is what they saw
HANCOCK MUSEUM BIRD ROOH COLLECTION Number of specimens
Entrance 101 Evolution and Natural Selection 46 Colourful Aliens 47 Symbiosis (Partners & parents) 36 Migration 25 Reproduction 108 Extinct birds 15 Flight 32 Exotics 20 Ecology 65 Pesticides 4 The Gods had Wings 18 (including 14 sk.ins) Hancock Shrine 3 Behaviour 132 SPECIAL DISPLAYS Sparkie Williams 1 Percy Pelican l Emus 2 Moa (skeleton) Albatross 1
East Mezzanine 65 West Mezzanine 82 Systematic Series on Gallery 952
Total number of specimens 1757
Total cost: about El20,000 (about E90,000 of this in salaries) Paper/Texte no. 7
SALLE D'ORNITHOLOGIE - MUSEE HANCOCK
Ce musee, simple vitrine de collection d'un proprietaire terrien du XVIIIe siecle a l'origine, enrichie par une societe d'histoire naturelle locale, porte le nom des freres Hancock, deux des membres les plus eminents de la societe au XIXe siecle. John, le cadet etait un excellent taxidermiste qui fit don de toute sa collection (plus de 1000 oiseaux naturalises) au musee en 1881. Un programme de modernisation, applique de 1977 a 1980, devait en modifier la conception fondamentale. Au niveau de la galerie, au premier etage, la nouvelle salle adopte une presentation systematique des "Oiseaux d'Europe", pour le benefice de l'observateur d'oiseaux. Au rez-de-chaussee, une exposition sur les oiseaux retient !'attention du simple curieux et, au balcon, deux etageres illustrent les relations homme-oisesau et oiseau-homme.
I Paper/Texte no. 8
THE MONTOSO ECOHUSEUM OF THE RAIN FOREST & THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PUERTO RICO
j J By Francisco Pabon Flores, Santurce, Puerto Rico
My name is Francisco Pabon Flores, Director of the Urayoan Parque Museo de Historia Natural of Puerto Rico, an emerging institution dedicated to the interpretation of the interface between natural and cultural history through educational exhibits and documentary films. I am here because there is a need in Puerto Rico to collect and preserve and to use and interpret the natural and cultural heritage of our island and its people. For our institution this is a challenge and this challenge is what we bring to this International Committee of Natural History Museums and to ICOM in general. This is our response to the call of this XII General Conference in Mexico: the World's Heritage and the Responsibility of Museums. We want to be responsible to that heritage. We need your expertise and technical assistance to help us implement the responsibility which we all share in being stewards of the world's heritage. I wish to thank both the President and the Secretary of this International Committee for the opportunity to deliver this progress report as an occasional paper at these proceedings. I am speaking from notes that I have been taking during this working session and will forward an edited transcription to the Secretary. Our institution is currently working under a Self Study grant from the Museums Program of the National Endowment for the Humanities in Washington and volunteer support from our local community to design an outdoor museum park that interprets the changing patterns of plant, animal and human life in the Puerto Rican Rain Forest from prehistoric times to the modern era. Here at ICOM 80 we have already come into contact with a set of concepts, colleagues, friends and potential resources that certainly broaden our horizons as to the diversity of techniques and philosophies in the field of contemporary museum work. I certainly hope that this is a prelude to the kind of magic that ICOH hopes to spark and promote. I would like to mention in particular the friendship and deep conceptual rapport that I have been able to establish with M. Georges Henri Riviere. His concept of the ecomuseum suggests to us the intersection between social discourse and poetry that we were searching for in a forest of contemporary and ancient mythologies. This presentation sketches in random images the development of our Montoso Outdoor Ecomuseum of the Rain Forest and the Trees of Life & Knowledge and attempts to place our institution within the locus of ideas expressed in keynote speeches delivered at the opening session of the G~neral Assembly of ICOM 80 in Mexico City, as well as in relevant discussions that followed in the working meetings of the International Committee of Natural History Museums, and in the light of the contemporary need for a new educational taxonomy in museum work in the future. The keynote speeches to which I refer were delivered by Peter Raven, Director of the Missouri Botanical Gardens, Fernando Solana Morales, Minister of Public Education of Mexico, Pedro Ramirez Vazquez, Secretary of State of Mexico and Gonzalo Halffter, Director of the Museum of Natural History and the Institute of Ecology of Mexico. The essential ideas which their position papers embody are reviewed in my following introductory statements. The "tropical Apocalypse" described by Peter Raven establishes the fact that: "Of the estimated three million kinds of tropical organisms, perhaps as many as a third--a million species, of which roughly three-quarters have not yet been given a name--are likely to become extinct during the next thirty years. This amounts to the extinction of quarter of the diversity of life on earth during the lifetime of a majority of those people who are alive today." This is the dramatic background reality of the Puerto Rican tropics today. Our ecosystem is a vanishing frontier of the plant and animal life on the planet and by extension of the cultural life of its inhabitants, all of which constitutes a real threat to human existence on earth. By the year 2000 the tropical planet explodes. The earth's biosphere begins to .·_., greenhouse out of existence. Nobody knows my name becomes the indictment that nearly a ! million plant and animal souls and the human life they sustain can launch against us for not meeting adequately our responsibility towards our natural and cultural heritage. In Puerto Rico our museum is a modest beginning to a direct response to the principal concern of ICOM 80: the World's Heritage and the Responsibility of Mu_seums. Our understanding has been that it is critical at this juncture of history to draw the attention of the public to the known and unknown tropical universe that surrounds us. The lost worlds of these species are infinite cosmos in our own garden and our lack of knowledge about them suggests that something is also missing in our own lives, not to mention how critical their importance is to the web of life and to human survival. It is in this sense that we further understand that our museum's responsibility is to disseminate to the public interfacing images of our natural and cultural heritage. For this to happen a nation and a community need to adopt the kind. of cultural politics outlined by Fernando Solana Morales in his address regarding the obligation of the State to safeguard the freedom of expression and to support the delivery of that expression: "Creations of the spirit are inherently free, and the State explicitly recognizes that freedom ••• For that reason, the first fundamental principle of our government in the realm of culture is absolute respect for creative freedom ••• It is not enough to respect free cultural expression. Creating cultural properties requires support. The State should encourage talent, lend support to artistic creation and promote the development of science and technology." But it is not enough to channel the delivery of cultural expression through only those agencies that usually represent the government or a political party in power, as it usually happens in countries like Puerto Rico. There must be a policy of significant support to private, independent, non-affiliated institutions whose very concern is precisely the preservation of our natural and cultural heritage and making the public aware of the need for a global conservation ethic. This is an investment in a long-term social health insurance policy, since this kind of cultural politics promotes initiatives from the citizenry itself, in whom resides ultimately the only viable mechanism to preserve that heritage: the will to survive on this planet. The compelling rationale and moral imperative that all our museums have for protecting and managing the world's heritage was clearly underscored by Pedro Ramirez Vazquez in his integrated image of the past-present-future responsibiity we all share in this universal curatorship. Yes, we must collect the past. Yes, because we are deeply committed to the present. But, yes, most emphatically because we need images of the future in order to guarantee our survival and, in fact, to better appreciate the past and understand the forces operating in the present. The future is really the interface of the past and present we can see now. The experience that our museum seeks to nourish in our public is one that ellicits images of possible futures by recapitulating the experience of our past and present history. From discussions in the International Committee of Natural History Museums it has become apparent that the future course steered by museums and perhaps their ability to survive may depend on the way they integrate collecting, exhibiting and educating into a broad-based institution that is uniquely prepared to accomplish its own historical mission: to be a catalyst for cultural improvement and social enlightenment. This means that we must clearly understand the origins and development of ·the museum as an institution and as a mode of expression and discourse in order to better assess its possibilities of meeting its responsibility as steward of the world's past, present and future heritage. At the heart of this problem is the question of the model of the museum, in other words, that structural relationship between collection, exhibition and education which reveals to us the priorities of that institution's commitment to scientists, educators, the private sector and the public at large. Finally, these perspectives--the state of the world's heritage, the policies that manage it, and the philosophy of museums--all intersect at the juncture of the historical role of museums past, present and future. As expressed in Gonzalo Halffter's concept of combining the research of an ecological institute and the educational exhibits program of a museum, our institution sees the need to develop a new educational taxonomy as the basis of the future work of museums as scientific and cultural communicators committed to the global preservation, management and interpretation of the world's heritage.
Planning in a Developing Country We are presently in the planning stage designing an outdoor museum park as a response to the question, "What are we as a people going to do with the natural and cultural heritage of Puerto Rico?" To answer that question we first have to do a historical interpretation of our site, tell the story of the Rain Forest to reveal the changing patterns of its plant, animal and human life since prehistorical times, and suggest a course for future preservation and use of our natural and cultural resources. To implement the work and exhibits program of such a museum in Puerto Rico we ;must keep in mind the following prevailing objective conditions: 1) There is no museum of natural history in the island. Until the advent of our museum, the only thought of establishing one was back in 1882, when our leading taxonomist, Dr. Agustin Stahl, proposed the creation of a Provincial Museum of Natural History. Our museum is dedicated to realizing that hundred-year old dream and, in fact, to honor the memory of Dr. Stahl we are producing a film that depicts his journey of discovery of the flora, fauna and natural history of Puerto Rico. 2) There is practically no public-wide museum experience in Puerto Rico. There are only a few fledging museums in the San Juan metropolitan area, a Museum of Anthropology at the University of Puerto Rico, an Art Museum in the southern city of Ponce, a Taino Ceremonial Center at Caguana in the central highlands and no museums in the rest of the island. No museum in Puerto Rico is known for any significant public impact or access and "hands-on" experiences are totally foreign to their plans or philosophy. 3) Government and oligarchical control of culture has become a burning issue. On the other hand, a virtual stalemate in the 1980 elections forecasts an impasse between conflicting partizanship ideologies. All of this will make it practically impossible for those existing museums to carry out the reforms that are obviously needed or to explore necessary alternatives for the future.
The Site: A Geographical, Historical & Spiritual Location Our site is located in the Western Rain Forest of Puerto Rico in a small municipality that has the least population in the island. It is a place called Montoso and it means, "mountainous terrain." In a sense, Montoso suggests Macondo, that very mythical and real place of One Hundred Years of Solitude, one of our leading contemporary Latin American novels. And we probably face the fate of the same dialectics of solitude described in that unusual work of narrative fiction. That is, that we are bound to repeat the very best and the very worst of those lOO years of solitude, unless we overcome our own need to resolve the future of that heritage, especially given the scarcity of resources and constant emigration in a country that has lost its sense of rational objectives. Montoso is half hour away from the principal city of the West and two and a half hours from the capital of the island. At the same time it is light years away from the rampant consumerism and the urban shopping centers that have replaced the village plazas as the center stage for cultural and social exchange in Puerto Rican life. Keeping in step with the Joneses of a buy-now, pay-later paylovian re~ponse market of changing fads and fashions, a credit-deluged island population is flocking to shopping centers which are proliferating and quickly changing the face of the land and the spirit of the people. And nothing seems to stem the tide--not the educational system or the cultural institutions or the corporate sector of the public agencies. Montoso today is an island in a sea of future shock. Historically, on the other hand, Hontoso, like the mythical Macondo, developed in isolation; at first in sacred isolation, as the ritual magic mountain that housed the spirits of the wind and the rain for early Han; and then in forced isolation, as the last refuge for the Indians and runnaway Africans victimized by Conquest and Slavery. In fact, Hontoso is located in the heart of the Hountains of Urayoan, the Taino cacique chiefly remembered today for ordering the death of the Conquistadores as false gods who, contrary to popular belief, were not really immortal. So that for millenia Man and the forest lived in harmony, exchanging food and shelter for a kind of benevolent stewardship. Then under the system of XIX century plantation economics and indentured servitude, Montoso was transformed into a coffee mine which collapsed as a result of the War of 1898 and the Hurricane of 1899 to become an abandoned Rain Forest that now shows a patchwork recovery of 30-80 years. Like in the mythical Macondo, however, something of ambigious but transcendental value has survived in Montoso: everyone believes that there is ''gold in them there hills." Miraculously, everyone remembers the entierros, the gold buried by our ancestors during the "time of Spa in," when there were no banks or mattresses and coffers were stashed underground in the forest. These entierros are fixtures in the landscape of the imagination of the people of Montoso and in a sense suggest to our museum the need we have to unearth from the collective consciousness beliefs and objects which lie buried in the living memory and are cherished, albeit privately and as an act of faith, in the hearts and minds of Puerto Ricans, irrespective of consumer future shock and the active forces that continue to mine our land, labor and language. Montoso, therefore, is a place located in the geography of the island and in the historical, cultural and spiritual topography of the imagination of the people of Puerto Rico with ancestral and contemporary significant coordinates.
A Sacred Grove to House the Muses
Montoso is also the Forest of the Original Mythologies of ~~n. In Hontoso Man first cleared a magic dance circle in the forest--the Sacred Grove--and entered into a permanent and continuing dialogue with nature. And in the Sacred Grove there was buried an oracle and he spoke for the Spirit of the Earth. So for us in Puerto Rico, surrounded by a turbulent sea of shifting sands and beliefs, listening to the Spirit of the Earth is one of the essential ideas to be explored by our ecomuseum. We know that at the root of museum is the notion that it was once the house of the Muses and that the Huses were the nine daughters of Hemory and Order. In that sense the museum in the classical tradition was really a place dedicated to the living memory of the culture. A few thousand years of intervening Western European history transformed the museum into an institution dedicated to the consacration of objects produced by materialistic societies. With the modern era objects of material production became the currency of museums and the institution was transformed into private co.llections, gardens and cabinets. And yet, operating out of a kind of ironical contradiction, museums of natural history usually first introduce visitors to exhibits of the World of Spirits, spirits which a materialistic culture has buried deeply out of sight in the collective unconscious. In the light of the historical role of the museum our Urayoan Parque Huseo de Historia Natural hopes to be a Sacred Grove that houses the Trees of Life & Knowledge and the Living Memory of the spirit of our culture. Our is in fact a living collection of plant, animal and human life in an endangered natural and cultural environment of the planet: the earth's tropical Rain Forest.
Man's Journey to the Climax Forest This is another form of storytelling. Our exhibits program is based on a simple proposition: a journey along a path in a forest of time & space, where man travels to the past, returns along the same trail to the point of departure of the present, and having recapitulated the experience of the intervening history, finds himself at the crossroads of the future, confronting the eternal choice between the soft path that leads to the Climax Forest of Life & Tommorrow or the hard path that leads to the death of the planet and the end of the race. "Nel mezzo di camin di nostra vita," we all find ourselves lost in the woods, unable to discern the trees of expediency and vested interests from the forest of historical processes and moral imperatives. This is the essential proposition that we wish to examine as we journey into the history of our life experience in the world of nature and culture. Our walk in the Montoso forest reenacts man's journey through the planet as a metaphor for the essential diaspora of humankind that springs forth from Africa across Asia, Europe, the Western Hemisphere and to the most remote areas of the globe. Everywhere and as it was in the Beginning there is a soft encounter between man and the Climax Forest which establishes the premises and propositions of a social contract with nature between people and the Spirit of the Earth. This journey is not only a concept or a metaphor for an ecomuseum. It is a compelling rationale for understanding the geological, biological and human time line against which can be viewed and interpreted the past, present and future life experience of people and the earth. At the same time and as an ideal ecosystem of lowest energy and highest production the Climax Forest is a scientific fact of earth history and the obscure object of our collective unconscious desire for a solution to the crisis faced by the world's natural and cultural heritage. This is the seed of a dream that sees the genetic futures of an ecomuseum of time & space in the primeval Rain Forest of the Original Hythologies of Nan and the Planet. "The major advances in civilization are processes that all but wreck the societies in which they occur." (Whitehead) With this truth as the background space that surrounds the objects of our historical experience, we look at hunters and farmers and explore the unquestioned cultural and social changes that took place as life on the planet shifted from the Neolithic World to the Cultivated Garden of the Agricultural Revolution and then to the Urbanization of the Modern Era. "Imagination is more important than knowledge." (Einstein) Our journey in the forest begins by going into a Time Tunnel of flowering passion fruit vines that recreates the sounds of the Primeval Night of the Rain Forest and magically transports visitors to the Sacred Grove. This is the Beginning and as it was in the Beginning Man first cleared a magic circle in the forest and danced around the Trees of Life & Knowledge. Here was the origin of the Word. Here was developed the first science, language, as the original taxonomy for naming and describing things and the order of things in the universe. Here people can hear the Oracle of the Sacred Grove conveying the earth songs of nature and the human imagination. The ritual of passage into time & experience continues through another enramada canopy of intertwined passion fruit into the Cave of Origins. Here petroglyphs and stone works from caves in Puerto Rico and the other islands tell the story of the Creation and the origins of the sun and the moon, the wind and the rain, and of the men and women who now populate the land. As people squeeze out "from under this cavern's roof" (thinking of Plato's cave) through a tight opening, they are born again and emerge to the light of another day along the path of Time. This is the Stream of the Neolithic Age, where man fished and hunted, discovered the secret of fire, invented tools and structured kinship. This is the Dawn of History and the beginnings of the diaspora. From here we as people shall roam the planet and sow the seeds of genetic futures. Time & the River move us along the path to the Cultivated Garden of the Agricultural Revolution. The rows of corn, yucca and yams are the fruists of a lost freedom of hunters and the security of farmers organized as a labor force under a theocratic society of an ever-increasing sedentary population that produces storegeable food, like pan de casabe, our daily bread and transubstantiation of work. The path continues to an interpretive exhibit of a Taino village organized around a thatch bohio hut and a batey ceremonial dance circle. The bohio is the embodiment of the architectural living space of the peoples of the islands of the Caribbean & the original archon of much of the New World and the rest of the planet. The batey is the ancestral ceremonial space dedicated to the representation of the epic songs of the areyto, or poetic dance theater of the Taino people. The bohio and the batey, then, stand in the forest as the essential spaces and artefacts that embody the living memory of our earliest ancestors. To these sacred living spaces soon come people from Africa with retentions of similar original habitats, as well as Spaniards and other Europeans whose roots, though more removed, were no less akin in their universal experience. The wooden atambor of the Tainos is replaced by the African bomba drum and a new dance syncretizer with an ancient kindred spirit in the same space and under the same enramada canopy. For more than 300 years this magic mountain as well as the rest of the island is populated predominantly by Africans and their descendants, free and slave. The original and separated paths of the diaspora of humankind has intertwined in time in this Rain Forest to become one journey into the future of the Puerto Rican people, much in the image of the enramada vines that tunnels us through ritual passages into the unconscious experience of our time and place in this planet. This is truly the passion fruit of our earthly history, depicted as an experience reenact~d in our walk through the living woods of the Urayoan Montoso Ecomuseum of Nature and Culture. All these are new-found images that were lost in our Rain Forest and which shed light into the historical and cross-cultural ethnic processes of Puerto Rican life. And so from the Taino and African village we arrive on the backs of black labor to the XIX century world of coffee, interpreted by a glacis or drying bed, and an hacienda which integrates warehouse, tool shed and dwelling under one roof. For one hundred years prople will mine the black gold of the highlands and dance and work around the coffee tree to produce the fruits of Puerto Rican life, labor, language, music, dance and rituals. This is the world of the jibaro peasant whose culture has become the trademark of our folk and whose true roots are only now being truly unravelled from an enramada network of intersecting ethnic origins and syncretisms. The rest of our history takes us out of the forest and into familiar though stereotyped and less understood "west side" stories of one of the most unusual shuttle migration cultures of modern times. So that at Montoso this is the end of the time line of our recent past. The return to the point of departure along the same path brings us back to the present and allows us to recapitulate the highlights of our historical experience, from our prehistorical beginnings to the evolution of our culture and mythylogy and the foundations of our social institutions and customs. This is Montoso, a magic mountain, a rural community, a Rain Forest ecosystem with 30-80 years of recovery from intensive coffee farming, and a natural amphitheater for the representation of our living memory. Our journey has brought us to the crossroads of the present. The. future lies ahead. The soft path leads to the Climax Forest. The hard path leads to the end of the species and the death of the planet. Once more we are faced with the eternal dilemma of ~~n at the crossroads of Life & Tomorrow. This time the choice is ours to make. Our journey through the outdoor world of the Urayoan Ecomuseum of Time & Space at the Montoso Rain Forest of the Original Mythologies of Man & the Planet is now complete. Our ritual passage to the future has been fulfilled. We remember. We travelled. We are prepared. The Forest awaits. Thank you. Voici un resume de la communication faite par M. Francisco Pabon Flares, directeur du musee d'histoire naturelle du pare d'Urayoan, a l'ICOM reuni a Mexico en octobre 1980, et intitulee THE MONTOSO ECOMUSEUM OF THE RAIN FOREST & THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PUERTO RICO.
Figuriez-vous que, dans un sens, nous sommes perdus dans la foret pluviale,
"nel mezzo del cammin 1 di nostra vita" (au milieu du chemin de not re vie). Nous suivons un sentier qui conduit aux grandes fresques du passe et a la source de la vie et aux origines de la planete. A la fin est le commencement, et, comme nous retournons au point de depart au moment present, nous recapitulons l'experience du passe et nous commen~ons a regarder les images d'avenirs en train de se constituer.
Nous avons pour sujet essentiel la foret pluviale -- ecosysteme menace sous le siege de l'apocalypse tropicale qui attend la planete. L'experience fondamentale que nous voulons en tirer tient aux messages affectifs et cognitifs des mondes perdus de nos "tristes tropiques"*· Notre philosophie et nos techniques museales sont evoquees sous forme d'images panchroniques dans lesquelles notre population locale peut se reconnaitre et mieux comprendre son passe, son present et son avenir. Notre musee doit reprendre son role originel: un bosquet sacre pour abriter la memoire vivante de notre culture et l'ordre des chases dans l'univers. Tel est le defi que nous lan~ons a l'ICOM. Aidez-nous.
*En fran~ais dans le texte. Paper/Texte no. 9
MUSEUM EXHIBITS AND CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS PRESENTATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS IN TEHPORARY ~J AND TRAVELLING EXHIBITIONS. Dr. Kjell Engstrom Swedish Huseum of Natural History, Stockholm, Sweden
In 1965, the Swedish Huseum of Natural History was reorganized and a special department set up for exhibitions and educational activities (such a department had not existed before in this museum). This happened during a period which was very dramatic in the field of nature conservation. In 1962, the public interest in,questions concerning the risks of the increasing use of pesticides and poisons in industry, agriculture and forestry had been aroused by Rachel Carson in her book "Silent Spring", and in Sweden it was found that the populations of birds of prey and of many seed-eating birds were drastically decreasing. At the same time, new methods made it possible to analyze, in the collections of the museum, the content of mercury in the feathers of birds collected during the last 150 years. The results did show a rapidly increasing content of mercury, correlated with the introduction of an alkyl-mercury substance for seed disinfection. These and other findings resulted in the authorities taking a number of measures, including the prohibition of alkyl-mercury as a seed disinfectant in 1966. Other studies following the same idea have followed, dealing with e.g. accumulation of DDT and PCB in different animals and ecosystems, the changes in thickness of egg shells and the accumulation of lead and other heavy metals in mosses taken from the herbarium collections. Thus, we had a very interesting and dynamic situation which proved that museum collections and museum research has a stronger and closer connexion with public well-being than is generally realized. In this situation, it was the task of the new public department to inform people as effectively as possible about these new findings and to explain the application of these results to the actual problems of nature conservation, fauna protection, public health etc. We found very soon that this was not a normal exhibition work. Making an exhibition 'upon traditional biological subjects, you know that the majority of the public has heard about bears, squirrels, hawks, salmon, cactuses etc. Facing the problem of informing about environmental problems of today, you will find a different situation - the public has very little or no knowledge at all of such things as DDT, PCB, alkyl-mercury, parts per million, ecosystem, trophic levels and other concepts you have to use or introduce, and at that time they were to a great extent now known outside the research laboratories and scientific institutions. So, we had to find methods of presenting the problems at very different levels. At first, we had to find an approach which appeals to the experience and personal interests of the public and which links the environmental problems to their own everyday life. We also had to find easily understood methods of illustrating ecological concepts such as ecosystems, food chains, energy flow etc as a necessary base for understanding the problem. As many of the principles, processes, problems and results are very abstract and theoretical and more easily illustrated by diagrams and tables than by traditional museum objects and models, we also had to find out new methods of presentation. We tried to find the solution of this problem in creating a team of curators, designer and technicians, working together with discussions, often of the character of "brainstorming", where all kinds of ideas were set forth, discussed, tried, refused or accepted. In this way a synopsis was produced in which at the same time the scientific, pedagogical and technical problems were solved. The paper given was illustrated by some photos from some temporary and travelling exhibitions. The first exhibition "Are we Poisoning Nature" - contained e.g. a stuffed pheasant in the convulsed altitude typical of mercury poisoning, specimens representing food chains, specimens of the threatened birds of prey together with· the most recent figures about the size of the populations, samples of the poisonous compounds sold to farmer etc. In the second example, some pictures from the exhibition "Survival" were shown. In one part of the exhibition you could do like the poachers in the jungle - shoot against two eyes in the darkness like in a tivoli. Cost 1 Crown, which was given to the WWF. When shooting you got the information about how poaching threatens a lot of species by extinction. In another part of the exhibition, pollution and poisoning of the Baltic were illustrated. Against a background of an idyllic coastal scene, transparent plastic signs bearing the names of poisons threatening the Baltic appeared and disappeared. By winding the lines of some fishing-gears the visitors could catch-not fisk but abandoned cars, waste from ships, dumped ammunition, birds killed by oil etc. On adjacent screens, maps and diagrams explained the situation in the Baltic. In another part of this exhibition, the dependence of a population on the limited natural resources was demonstrated by means of three bottles with living fruit flies and a limited amount of food - one with eggs and larvae, one with a young and sound population and one with a dying population .suffering from lack of food and too much waste products. Some other examples were also shown. Exhibitions of this kind will give the museum an opportunity to immediately incorporate in the exhi.bition the findings of the museum's research division, where a special research team is working on these problems. This makes it necessary to change the exhibition continuously, which might be a problem when an exhibition is travelling around the country. But it also gives an opportunity to present the exhibition and its content in a more actual and direct way to the public. When the exhibition "Are We Poisoning Nature?" visited an agricultural district, discussions with farmers and the general public were arranged on the use of pesticides in agriculture. In some coastal towns where the sale of fish from near-by waters had been forbidden on account of its high mercury content, fishermen were given an opportunity to discuss the question with representatives of industry, research and administration. In many other places, study visits, courses, excursions, sampling etc were organized, and in some places smaller exhibitions on local problems were added to ours. The experience from our work with temporary and travelling exhibitions in the field of environmental information has convinced us of the value of exhibitions as means of education and information. But I am also convinced that the exhibition itself will not be able to awaken the interest of the public. Only by adding activities of different kinds where the exhibition can form the basis for discussions and other programs, the whole exhibition project will make its full impact and fulfil! its aim - a better knowledge and understanding in environmental problems among the public. Paper/Texte no. 10
NATURAL HISTORY ~ EXHIBITS IN THE MUSEUMS OF INDIA
AJ .. By Dr. S.M. Nair ;'1. Head, National Museum of Natural History, New Delhi-India
Introduction
The first institution, which could formally be called a Museum, came into existence in India in the year 1814 in Calcutta. This Museum, which later on developed into the Indian Museum, Calcutta, basically consisted of a collection of natural history materials made by Dr. Nathaniel Wallich a Danish Botanist who became the first Curator of the Museum. In spite of the beginning made with Natural History exhibits, the course of museum movement in India heavily leaned on archaeological materials, on account of the rich cultural heritage of the country, the study of which was promoted by British scholars and administrators, joined later on by competent Indian archaeologists. The development of Natural History collections in Indian museums depended mainly on the collections made by the ex-rulers of the erstwhile princely states who were interested in game hunting, study collections made by university departments of Zoology, Botany and Geology, specimens accumulated by European naturalists who were interested in studying the flora and fauna of the country and the research collections made by the Zoological, Botanical and Geological surveys of Indian. These gave rise to the development of natural history sections in several state and regional museums such as the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay and State Museums in Lucknow, Madras, Patna, Bangalore, Nagpur, Trivandrum etc. Most of these sections, barring one or two represented natural history in a fragmented manner with the type of animal and bird trophies they had accumulated. The situation remained more or less unchanged even up to a decade ago. Some museum curators who got exposed to modern museums of natural history in
Western countries attempted modernising their natural hstory sections by introduci~g dioramas. In most cases these dioramas did not represent the natural habitat of,the animals and plants in question, but only presented attractive exhibits with internal lighting, background painting, foreground modelling and an assortment of beautiful looking animals, birds and plants which never lived together in nature, except in the case of the Prince Wales Museum in_Bombay and a small Natural History Museum in Darjeeling. The main reason for the backwardness of natural history exhibitions in Indian Museums has been the fact that most of the museums had a predominant collection of archaeological material and the curators in charge were archaeologists or art historians with little interest in natural history. Biologists in the country were rarely attracted to the museum profession and preferred fields of research or teaching. Unlike the archaeologists who had to depend upon original objects available only in museum collections, the natural scientists could acquire fresh specimens from nature for their research and study. The development of Museology Departments for training museum personnel, first at the university of Baroda in 1952 and later in Calcutta in the year 1958 together with the Museums Association of India brought about new thinking and approach in the area of museum I . work as a whole. Several young trainees produced by the departments of Museology (a few more of them came into existence later) provided personnel to museums who could consider the requirements of developing them more objectively and comprehensively. This generation of museum personnel have largely been responsible for creating a fresh outlook in so far as the development of natural history museums are concerned.
The National Huseum of Natural History The establishment of the National Museum of Natural History in New Delhi in the year 1978 was a major break-through in this area of museum work. With a group of young personnel that the Museum has been fortunate to gather, train and motivate the National Museum of Natural History took shape on entirely new directions as compared with the existing sections of Natural History in India. In its approach to exhibit design and presentation techniques bold new steps were incorporated. With a view to developing a non-formal centre of educational communication depicting the flora and fauna of the country and emphasizing the importance of conservation of the environment, the museum made a modest but effective beginning. With only the first phase of its development completed and with an embitions expansion programme focussed on environmental education on hand, it provides several examples of what can be achieved under the Indian situation in the field of exhibit preparation, presentation and educational communication. A brief account of the salient features of this museum, with particular reference to exhibit design and presentation techniques is given below.
The general approach to presentation One of the main considerations of the museum in developing exhibits was a 'thematic approach' as opposed to presenting exhibits which do not depict a connected story. The gallery developed under the first phase of the project presents a basic introduction to Natural History depicting the variety, diversity and progression of life as its basic theme. Within this overall theme, individual exhibits or groups of exhibits are designed in such way as to present several sub-themes. In selecting such sub-themes several considerations were kept in view, such as, information to be provided to the general public, exhibits that enrich the school biology curricullum, exhibits that create an understanding of the natural heritage of the country and an awareness for its protection.
A variety of design and exhibitions techniques In the ultimate analysis of what has been achieved under the first phase of the development of the Museum, one can count a variety of design and exhibition techniques never used before in other museums in India. These include the use of flourescent colours and ultraviolet lights, touch exhibits, experience oriented presentations, dioramic displays based on on-the-spot ecological studies, use of inclined mirrors for 'two-in-one' exhibits, simple techniques for water effect in dioramas, special methods to explain theme like photosynthesis, camouflage etc., live corners at appropriate places and the use of several types of audio-visual aids, animation techniques and so on. The entire display is a blend of audio-visual presentation involving visitors' interaction in several ways. There is also a 'Discovery Room' for children with facilities to handle objects, participate in creative activity and quiz programmes, interact with live animals, discovery boxes etc.
Exhibit Fabrication Several techniques are used in the preparation of exhibits. The selection of the media for fabricating these depend upon the objects in question. Thus a variety of materials like wax, plaster of paris, paper mache, latex, polyester resins and fibre glass go into the preparation of animal and plant models, apart from traditional methods of preservation and preparation such as taxidermy and other dehydration techniques. The Museum will soon add to its fairly well established technical facilities as Freeze-Dry Preservation Laboratory. To take care of all types of exhibit fabrication, design and display requirements, the Museum has technical units for Carpentry, Modelling, Painting, Taxidermy, Photography, Preservation of specimens etc.
Expansion Programme Having completed the first phase of its development, the Museum has now embarked upon a programme of expansion. Realising the fact that a Natural History Museum of today has to be relevant to the immediate needs of the society and in view of the enormous importance attached to the creation of public awareness in the preservation and conservation of our natural heritage, the emphasis of the expansion programme of the Museum is on environmental education. This is also in keeping with the policies of the Government with regard to environmental conservation. It is recognised that the Museum can play a vit~ role in the dissemination of information and in creating an awareness, understanding and sense of participation on the part of the public through its exhibits and activities. Under this expansion programme plans have already been made for two major galleries, one dealing with the theme 'Understanding Ecology' and the other dealing with the topic, "Protection and Forests Heritage". In the first case, the exhibits would depict all aspects of how nature works - different biomes of the world, energy flow in an ecosystem, food chains, food weds, food pyramids, inter-relationships such as symbiosis, commensalism, predator-prey relationships etc. and the influence of man on the natural environment. This is aimed at creating an understanding of the delicate net work of nature, which is essential in appreciating how disturbing this net work will affect the entire eco-system. Under the second proposed gallery i.e. 'Protection of our Forest Heritage' it is envisaged to give a dramatic presentation of the richness of tropical rain forests, how man has destroyed and depleted the rich flora and fauna through indiscriminate profit-oriented activities and to give emphasis to the immediate corrective steps to be taken. This gallery is being planned as a simulated walk-through forest. In both the cases a multi media presentation system is envisaged. Along with these new galleries the Museum will also step up its educational activities for the benefit of the general public, the school children, the teenagers and the handicapped people.
Organisation of Regional Centres It is realised that the creation of public awareness relating to environmental conservation cannot be achieved only through a national institution situated in the Capital. It has, therefore, been decided to revitalize existing natural history sections in Museum at the State and regional levels and also to build up a few more centres were none exists. The organization of such regional facilities will be guided, controlled and financed by the National Museum of Natural History in New Delhi. Apart from. this, independent schemes are already under way to develop natural history museums in several indian cities such as Lucknow, Ahmedabad, Mysore, Bangalore, Bhopal etc. where the staff of the National Museum of Natural History are involved in an advisory capacity.
Travelling Exhibitions Encouraged by the Vienna meeting of the Natural History Museum Committee and the ICOM-IUCN proposals for developing travelling exhibitions to promote environmental education, the National Museum of Natural History has already initiated steps to develop several travelling exhibitions on selected themes related to the conservation of wild life and similar other environmental issues outlined in the World Conservation Strategy. One of the first travelling exhibitions being developed as a mobile exhibition is a joint project between the British Museum (Natural History), London and the National Huseum of Natural History, New Delhi entitled "The Protection of Tropical Forests" •
. Training Programme The. development of Natural History Huseums require trained personnel in such diverse fields of work such as curatorship, exhibit fabrication, design and display, taxidermy, educational work etc. With the momentum gained for the development of Natural History Museums in the country, both at national and regional levels it has become necessary to institute a specialized training facility to cope up with this requirement. It is, therefore, proposed to start a training programme at the National Museum of Natural History in New Delhi to attract and train young talents in museum techniques as applied to Natural History. It is hoped that advantage of this will be taken also by other nations in the Asian region which are now served by the Museum by organising informal internship programmes.
Future Prospects With the support that is being received from the Government of India for promoting environmental education and the plans and projects already in hand, the prospect of the
development of natural history museums in India appears to be bright. Adequate fi~ancial provisions are made in the 6th Five Year Plan, the national plan frame work of the country for the next five years. This effort of creating environment awareness among the masses through Natural History Museums is expected to gain further momentum with the setting up of a 'Department of Environment' as a Central Coordinating Ministry under the charge of the Prime Minister to consolidate and promote activities inthe area of environment including environmental safeguards for developmental activities, creation of public awareness etc. LES EXPOSITIONS D'HISTOIRE NATURELLE DANS LES MUSEES DE L'INDE
RESUME
Le premier musee de l'Inde, l'Indian Museum de Calcutta, a ete cree en 1814. Il contenait, mis a part les antiquites et les oeuvres d'art, des collections en botanique, en biologie et en zoologie. Plus tard, des sections d'histoire naturelle furent mises sur pied dans plusieurs musees regionaux ou d'Etat, grace a l'apport des souverains des principautes de l'Inde d'antan, des societes d'histoire naturelle, des expeditions scientifiques officielles (zoologiques, botaniques et geologiques) et des initiatives privees. A de rares exceptions pres, la presentation de l'histoire naturelle dans ces sections procedait d'une vision fragmentaire. De pair avec la creation de departements de museologie dans certaines universites indiennes, tous axes sur la formation du personnel des musees, les activites de
!'Association des musees de l'Inde modifierent les idees et les fa~ons de voir repandues dans le monde des musees, y compris le secteur de l'histoire naturelle. La fondation du Musee national d'histoire naturelle de New Delhi, en 1978, constitua un fait sans precedent dans !'evolution des musees d'histoire naturelle de l'Inde. Ce musee con~oit la presentation de ses expositions dans un esprit thematique et utilise des techniques de conception et d'exposition tres variees que n 1avaient jamais employees les autres musees de l'Inde. Les elements d'exposition sont fabriques avec toutes sortes de materiaux: cire, platre de Paris, papier mache, latex, resine de polyester et fibre de verre., Les presentations audio-visuelles, les techniques d'animation et les dispositifs presse-houton rendent plus accessibles les expositions du Musee tout en leur conferant plus d'attrait. Le Musee possede une division de l'education, tres dynamique, qui s'occupe d'activites diverses: programmes a l'intention des ecoliers, realisation de trousses destinees aux ecoles' "salle de decouvertes" pour enfants' programmes a 1' intention des enseignants' programmes speciaux pour les adolescents, les visiteurs handicapes, etc. Le Musee a un programme d'expansion ambitieux, axe sur le developpement des expositions et des activites, qui en fera un centre d'animation peu orthodoxe, voue a !'initiation au monde qui nous entoure. Paper/Texte no. 11 THE MUSEUM AND THE ADULT A NEW VISITOR RESOURCES CENTRE
By Anne Clarke, London, England
INTRODUCTION
We have been very fortunate at the Natural History Museum to have been involved over the last two years in developing a new style of education service, one that caters not just for children in school parties but also for casual visitors, both children and adults, and I would like to take this opportunity to share with you a few of our ideas - how they have evolved, how we are trying to put them into practice and how we aim to get the feedback which will'help us continue to develop our services. As with many other museums, the Natural History Museum developed around its collections. Vast numbers of specimens were collected as the fruits of numerous safaris and scientific expeditions. When the time came that the general public were allowed to view the collections, it was decided that it would be a good idea if people were around to interpret the collections~ This is how the Museum education service came into being - very much as an afterthought, tacked on at the end. Perhaps not surprisingly, therefore, our edJcation service has evolved alongside recent developments in the Museum's galleries. So it is pertinent to first take a brief look at these developments. The outside of the building looks much the same as it did when it first opened its doors to the public a hundred years ago, but inside some major changes have recently begun to take place. The old galleries, some/many of which still exist, look somewhat like this Fossil Fish Gallery - serried ranks of cases containing specimens with somewhat indigestible labels. Perhaps fascinating to those with prior knowledge but little more than a jumble of artefacts for those with little or no background in the subject. In contrast, the new exhibitions aim to present biology as a series of interconnected ideas. Each exhibition tells a story and is designed to help visitors form a framework of knowledge into which they can fit new ideas. I will use our most recently opened exhibition 'Man's Place in Evolution' to indicate some of the aspects of our new exhibitions. As well as looking quite different from the old galleries the exhibitions are developed in an entirely new way. And this is perhaps the most fundamental change. The process of developing an exhibition begins with a brief which outlines the story to be told. Working partnerships each of a scientist and a des~gner then work on sections of the brief to transform the story into exhibits which will communicate the message to our visitors. They are heled by a member of the Visitor Resources Section to develop proportion of our visitors?
2. What kind of service can we provide which caters for the diverse needs of people who do not belong to this group?
3. How can we evaluate the successes and failures of whatever service we provide?
4. How can we develop our understanding of our audience and discover more about their needs and expectations? Clearly the service must be a flexible one - catering for the wide range of interests of our visitors and easily adapted as we discover more about our audience's needs. Clearly one based round public lectures cannot provide the necessary flexibility. It must also encourage contact between Museum staff and visitors which will enable us to evaluate what we do and, thus, provide feedback for future developments. Without feedback, new ideas can only develop in an arbitrary manner. With all these things in mind we decided on a Visitor Resources Centre where people could come and talk with staff about their plans for a visit and where a variety of written materials could be available for those who would find them helpful (as they visited the galleries). The Centre would also be in contact with the scientific departments so any specific queries that arise can be immediately passed on to an expert in the field. Through this kind of service we hope also to gain the feedback from our visiturs which will be so vital for planning future developments. We decided to open the Centre as soon as we had a space allocated and some basic written materials to give visitors~ We didn't want to commit ourselves to too much before having the chance to talk to visitors and build up an idea of what their needs might be. This is the stage we are at now, having been open only 2 months.
The Centre I will now briefly describe the Centre as it is at the moment, show you some of the written materials and then briefly mention some of the feedback we have had so far. The Centre is situated in the North Hall of the Museum. Not ideal, but fairly central, and the warding staff are very good at directing people to us. At the entrance, a board explains briefly what we are there for. Display cases on either side show the range of written materials available and a dispenser rack at one end provides copies for people to browse through. The desk always has someone there and forms the focal point of the area where people go for advice. The display cases enable people to get a feel of the kind of materials available before asking advice. Our first range of resources, aimed at the non-specialist visitor wishing to have a general introduction to the Museum, are a series of Gallery Guides. The idea behind them is that a good way of making a general tour of the galleries more meaningful and less bewildering is to follow a theme. The central pages of the leaflet introduce the theme and the reverse of the leaflet has a map of the Huseum on which are highlighted the galleries in which exhibits related to the theme appear. Also included are suggestions for topics that might form a subject for further study or give parents some ideas of how to develop the subject with their children. A list of literature and related organisations is given to help those who wish to follow up their interest after the visit is over. The first four themes are currently available in draft form. They are Hammals, Insect, Birds and Seashore Life. Another four are on the way- Reptiles, Plants, The Fossil Record and Wildlife in Danger. These are small beginnings but most important of all, we are getting the opportunity to talk to people to discover what materials they might find useful. In order to do this we have been keeping records of all the questions we are asked. Although it is still early days certain things have come across quite strongly. Only 3% of queries were of a specialised nature and these were very varied. 1. Most people want to have a general look round but realise there is a lot to see. They ask for advice, or a map, or background information to help them. Clearly there is a need for some way of telling people briefly what is in the Huseum so that they can decide what to see.
2. Those people who have children are most likely to ask for something for the children, rather than for themselves. Perhaps the way to help parents is through the children, maybe by providing parents sheets to parallel some of the childrens sheets and help parents answer questions that the children may have.
To provide the background information that most people would find useful for planning their visit, we aim to develop a pictorial map with key sentences about each gallery. We feel the emphasis must be on something which communicates an immediate message with as little wordage as possible. Hore detailed enquiries can be answered by the person on the desk. The pictorial map will be in the Centre and also available as something to take around the galleries. Even in the short time the Centre has been open we all feel we have come to understand much more about our visitors and feel much more confident in designing materials for them. Our experience also makes us much more able to help the partnerships who develop exhibitions. We have learnt to try and put away all preconceived ideas about who our audience are and to design our services to build in as much opportunity for evaluation and feedback as possible. From the very beginning in the development of our new services, we have been committed to providing a service for our casual visitors because, after all, they make up the largest proportion of our visitors (only t million of our 3 million annual audience come in school parties). We also feel that the greatest strength of a museum is that it is a place where
qg understanding can develop long after school is over. Our pilot studies have only served to confirm in our minds how vital it is to make every effort to discover just who our audience is and what their expectations are. Only in this way can we hope to develop a service that is really effective. UN NOUVEAU CENTRE DE RESSOURCES POUR LES VISITEURS
RESUME
Pour accompagner sa nouvelle exposition, le British Museum (histoire naturelle) met au point actuellement un nouveau service pedagogique destine a la fois aux groupes d'ecoliers et aux visiteurs occasionnels. Dans notre enquete sur ces dernierss, le releve des visites 'annuelles sI est revele tres precieux pour tracer un profil du public. L' enquete a revele qu'une grande partie de celui-ci est constituee de parents accompagnes de leurs enfants, qui disposent d'un temps limite et souhaitent avoir une vue d'ensemble de tout le Musee. Pour eux et pour les autres visiteurs, nous avons ouvert un centre ou le personnel peut les aider a choisir un itineraire et leur offre une documentation a consulter dans les salles. Ce contact direct avec nos visiteurs nous est indispensable pour recueillir leurs observations et mettre au point ces nouveaux services en consequence. Paper/Texte no. 12
FREE-RANGING MONKEY PARKS - AN OUTDOOR MUSEUM?
By Dr. S. Hirose, Aichi, Japan
There needed many supports by ecological research, museological direct advices, and organization for facility and educational methods. The natural history museums are very few in Japan that if the completion of museum function take place, the science educational activities will grow up more. More than 10 years ago to the municipality, we have been demanded to open the working museum for further long education in free ranging monkey parks. And also year by year the recognition of monkey park is obtaining reputation. The characters of monkey park was indeed BEHAVIOUR MUSEUM. Of course it is very necessary to have whole supports from the users of monkey parks with earnest supports of mind.
Development of Free Ranging Japanese Monkey Park Free ranging monkey parks have been started since 1948 in Koshima after the completion of provisioning for monkey and after successes of individual discrimination of monkey at Takasakiyama that are expected as kind of natural history museum from the beginning. Japan Monkey Centre already worked his preliminary function to lead the other parks for the purpose of education.
Japanese Culture and Recognition of Japanese Monkey Value Generally all most of Japanese people have strong interest in Japanese monkey. It is estimated so much through the tremendous remains of the art and cultures in Japan. We Japanese people able to know the vitality and adaptability of Japanese monkey that had survived and long lived for 300,000 years in Japan. Japanese culture produce the traditional anecdotes of man and none human primates.
The Present Function of Honkey Parks as Natural History Huseum Each monkey parks should have functions of natural museum as long as nature is kept and wildness of monkey was left. These environment with wild monkey is unique natural history museum under the well controllings. Japanese monkeys are good objects of museum educations, and there natural lives themselves bring us the results of primate ecology.
Wild Preservation as Natural Monument and Present Situation of Japanese Monkey It is the most important people that can appreciate monkeys wildness and vivid lives of them. Expariment for Co-Existence with Wild Japanese Monkey The subject of co-existence with Japanese monkey and people is connection with protective of forest and preservations of species. Especially endangered monkey of northern limit was recognizing in population of only 18 animals in 1960, so efforts for feeding started and the Government finally nominated them as special natural monument. Paper/Texte no. 13
CURATION OF BIOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS IN MUSEUHS
By R.B. Clark, Chairman, Zoology Section, ESRC/ESF ,working Group on Taxonomy, Systematics and Biological Recording September 1980.
The Committee of European Science Research Council (ESRC) is a Standing Committee of the European Science Foundation (ESF). In 1975, ESRC established an ad hoc Working Group on Taxonomy, Systematics and Biological Recording. The Working Group published an In~erim Report in 1977 (Taxonomy in Europe, ESRC Review No. 13, 1977) and recently met to confirm the contents of its Final Report, which it is anticipated will be published towards the end of 1980. In both the Interim Report and the Final Report, the Working Group has expressed its concern about the conservation and curation of biological collections in museums in countries represented in the Group. The Group was not competent to comment on the situation in other countries or on non-biological collections. Museums vary widely in size and scope and may be financed by national or regional governments, by municipal authorities, or by universities, Research Councils or by private foundations, or by other means. Even small museums often contain biological collections which are scientifically important and the Interim Report of the Working Group listed the more significant collections that had been identified at that time, although the list is by no means comprehensive. Museum collections contain material which has been described in the scientific literature and deposited in the museum for safe keeping for future reference, and, even if not previously described, the material may represent an important biological archive of historical and regional, national or occasionally international importance. The collections are therefore a vital record for scientists working on the taxonomy and systematics of plants and animals, and they require access to this material for the persuance of their studies. At the very least, the material in these collections must be adequately conserved so that it does not suffer deterioration or actual destruction, and museums have traditionally sent specimens in their care on loan to relevant scientists for study and, when that is not practicable, they have provided the facility in the museum for the scientist to study the specimens. The Working Group is aware that a situation has developed with regard to some collections which causes great concern. There is apprehension that in some cases the standard of curation has fallen to the point that the preservation of the material in 'the collections is endangered. Increasingly it appears that material in the collections cannot be located, catalogues of type material do not exist, material can no longer be sent on loan to appropriate researchers, and even minimal facilities for study by visiting scientists cannot be provided. The Working Group is aware that a variety of causes underlie this situation: erosion of curatorial posts, decline of training facilities for new curators, financial constraints, etc. The Group has not examined them in detail and cannot comment further on them. The chief concern is that a basic biological archive, on which the fundamental aspects of taxonomy and_ systematics rest, is increasingly at risk or is not, in any practical sense, available to the scientists who need to consult it. The Working Group has drawn the attention of the Research Councils, which finance much of the taxonomic research, to this problem. Itis grateful for this opportunity to draw the attention of the International Council of Museums and its International Committee of Natural History Museums to the anxieties of the Working Group. ENTRETIEN DES COLLECTIONS BIOLOGIQUES DANS LES MUSEES
Le comite des conseils europeens de recherche scientifique (CERC) est un comite permanent de la Fondation europeenne de la science (FES). En 1975, il a lui meme constitue un groupe de travail special sur la taxonomie, la systematique et les releves biologiques. Le groupe a publie un rapport provisoire en 1977 sur la taxonomie en Europe, (ESRC Review No 13, 1977) et s'est recemment reuni pour confirmer la teneur de son rapport final, qui devrait paraitre vers la fin de 1980. Dans les rapports provisoire et final, le groupe de travail se dit preoccupe de la conservation et de l'entretien des collections biologiques dans les musees de ses pays membres. Le groupe n'est pas competent pour se prononcer sur la situation dans d'autres pays ou a propos des collections non biologiques. Les musees sont de tailles et d'envergures fort differentes et peuvent etre finances par des gouvernements nationaux ou regionaux, des administrations municipales, des universites, des conseils de recherche, des fondations privees, etc. Meme les petits musees renferment souvent des collections biologiques scientifiquement importantes; le rapport provisoire du groupe de travail enumere les principales collections alors reconnues, bien que la liste ne soit aucunement exhaustive. Les collections des musees renferment des specimens decrits dans la documentation scientifique et deposes au musee pour y etre conserves et consultes; par ailleurs, meme s'ils ne sont pas deja decrits, les articles exposes peuvent presenter une importante valeur historique et biologique sur les plans regional, national ou (a !'occasion) international. Les collections sont done des documents essentiels pour les scientifiques etudiant la taxonomie et la systematique des plantes et des animaux, et ils doivent y avoir acces dans le cadre de leurs etudes. Ces specimens doivent, a tout le moins, etre preserves de la deterioration ou de la destruction pure et simple; en outre, les musees pretent traditionnellement leurs pieces aux savants interesses et, quand c'est impossible, leur permettent d'etudier les specimens sur les lieux. Le groupe de travail est au fait d'une situation qui, pour certaines collections, cause de grands soucis: on craint que, dans certains cas, la qualite de l'entretien ne s'affaiblisse au point de compromettre la preservation des collections. De plus en plus, il semble que certains elements des collections soient introuvables, qu'il n'existe pas de catalogues d'exemplaires typiques, que les specimens ne puissent plus etre pretes aux chercheurs competents, et qu'on ne puisse meme pas offrir des conditions d'etude rudimentaires aux scientifiques qui se rendent sur les lieux. Le groupe de travail reconnait que pareille situation peut etre attribuable a bien des causes differentes: erosion des postes de conservateurs, declin des services de formation de nouveaux conservateurs, restrictions financieres, etc. Ne les ayant pas examines en detail, le groupe ne peut done formuler d'autres remarques. Ce qui est preoccupant au premier chef, c'est le fait que les documents biologiques de base, sur lesquels reposent les fondements de la taxonomie et de la systematique, sont de plus en plus menaces ou, pratiquement, inaccessibles aux savants qui ont ·besoin de les consulter. Le groupe de travail a attire, sur ce probleme, l'attention des conseils de recherche, qui financent une grande partie des recherches taxonomiques. Il profite volontiers de l'occasion pour exprimer ses inquietudes au Conseil international des Musees et son Comite international des musees d'histoire naturelle.
Septembre 1980 R.B. Clark, President, section de la zoologie Groupe de travail CERS/FES sur la taxonomie, la systematique et les releves biologiques Paper/Texte no. 14
LE ROLE DU MUSEUM D'HISTOIRE NATURELLE "GRIGORE ANTIPA" DE BUCAREST L'EDUCATION DES MASSES
J Par Dr. Dan Dumitrescu, Bucarest, Rumanie ~ "Antipa a voulu creer une Institution culturelle oil puisse s'instruire les grands et les humbles, les intellectuels et les illettres, les vieillards et les enfants"
Victoria Iuga-Ganea
Le musees d'histoire naturelle, comme tous les musees en general, ont une double fonction: celle de recherche et celle d'education. En Roumanie, les principes de !'organisation des musees sur une base scientifique ont ete enonces par ANTIPA dans plusieurs travaux publies dans la periode de 1918 a 1934. Pour cette raison, nous considerons comme un devoir d'honneur de souligner !'importance et en meme temps l'actualite de certaines de ses idees et preoccupations en ce qui concerne !'education des masses. Cela s'impose d'autant plus que dans differents travaux parus, consacres a la feconde activite scientifique d'ANTIPA (oil sont mentionnees aussi ses contributions en zoologie, en ichthyologie, en oceanographie etc.) son apport en museologie est limite presqu'en exclusivite a !'organisation de !'exposition publique. Dans le present article, nous nous sommes proposes de presenter premierement ses idees portant sur le role du Museum d'Histoire naturelle de Bucarest dans l'educa·tion des masses (en notant aussi quelques-unes de ses conceptions sur !'exposition publique); deuxiemement, nous mentionnons differentes activites deployees dans le musee, activites continuant et developpant les idees d'ANTIPA. 1. Les idees museologique d'ANTIPA concernant !'education. La lecture attentive de son oeuvre museologique nous a permis de saisir et de grouper ses idees liees a !'education du grand public de la maniere suivante:
1.1 Le role des musees d'histoire naturelle. Dans son travail publie en 1934 (b), ANTIPA met un accent particulier sur le ·role des musees d'histoire naturelle qui doivent devenir "de vraies usines pour !'exploration et l'etude de la nature sur notre planete" (p. 374). Selon le savant roumain, une des taches fondamentales des musees d'histoire naturelle est celle de devenir aussi "des institutions de vulgarisation par leurs collections publiq~es, accompagnees par des preparations, des modeles et des explications selectionnees, utiles tant aux necessites de l'enseignement que pour la diffusion de la science dans les larges masses populaires" (1934,a, p. 33). Se referant en general au role du Museum d'Histoire naturelle de Bucarest dans !'education, ANTIPA fait les mentions suivantes dans deux de ses travaux: "Le musee a pour but: ••• d'exposer toutes les collections necessaires pour les recherches scientifiques, pour les besoins de l'enseignement de tous les degres et categories et pour la vulgarisation de la science" (1923, p. 179); "On doit; ajouter a la batisse actuelle du musee de nouvelles salles de collections et des salles de conferences ••• tant pour pouvoir continuer l'activite scientifique que pour deployer une vaste activite culturelle, didactique et educative dont le centre soit le musee" (p. 42).
1.2 Le role de !'exposition publique. ANTIPA (1923) note que les collections publiques doivent etre organisees et presentees d 'une maniere autant systematique que possible afin de "servir a la vulgarisation de la science et du developpement du sentiment de l'amour pour la patrie" (p. 180). Nous pensons que pour avoir une image reelle de la conception d'ANTIPA quant a !'exposition publique il est important de retenir le fragment suivant: "Les collections publiques peuvent done, reellement, servir comme un puissant moyen de culture- instructif et educatif- de la maniere que le museologue a la possibilite d'appliquer, par ses moyens, un programme systematique pour la popularisation des sciences ••• Dans les collections d'un Musee, la nature, dans sa simplicite, offre a tout visiteur la possibilite d'apprendre, au moins autant que lui permettent son instruction et intelligence, sans qui ter les salles avec le sentiment que ce qu'il a vu depasse sa comprehension" (1934,b, p. 403).
1.3 Le role du guidage De !'analyse des travaux museologiques d'ANTIPA ressortent deux aspects relatifs au role du guidage. Le premier met en evidence son importance pour le museologue, tandis que le deuxieme indique !'importance du guidage pour les visiteurs. En ce qui concerne le premier aspect, il est necessaire de souligner qu'ANTIPA accorde
Une attentiOn particuliere a 1 I etUde de la pSyChOlogie du publiC qui entre dans le mU See j dans ce sens il ecrit: "Ein Museumsdirektor hat genau wie ein Professor eine padagogische Aufgabe Zu erfullen, und er muss genau wie dieser mit der Psychologie seines Publikums rechnen" (1918, p. 14). Les nombreux guidages qu'il a effectues lui ont permis d'avancer l'idee que "c'est le public qui doit enseigner au museologue l'art d'organiser les collections: ••• je les condui (les visiteurs, n.n.) en leur donnant des explications et retenant toutes leurs observations et questions pour me conformer dans le mode d'exposition, d'etiquetage etc., a leurs exigences" (1934,b, P• 420). Dans le Projet du reglement de fonctionnement du musee (ANTIPA, 1923) on souligne qu'une des t~ches des scientifiques est de donner des explications aux eleves ou aux autres categories qui sollicitent certaines informations. En meme temps, !'experience acquise par ANTIPA lors des guidages faits dans le musee lui offre la possibilite d' affirmer "que 20 est le nombre maximum de visiteurs qui peuvent etre tenus attentifs par une explication" (1934,b, p. 420). Si l'on considere aussi le nombre extremement reduit des scientifiques dans le musee a cette epoque (2-5), (Bacescu, 1967), nous nous ~endons mieux compte de la valabilite de la mention d'ANTIPA qui considerait comme insignifiante la valeur educative du guidage pour !'ensemble des visiteurs en groupes du musee. 1.4. Le role des textes explicatifs et des guides publies. La valeur educative reduite du guidage a conduit ANTIPA a mettre un accent special sur "la composition des textes explicatifs" qui "represente la plus difficile charge du museologue. Ces textes doivent etre tres concis, depourvus de tout pedantisme scientifique et de termes techniques pour ne pas devenir fatigants et incomprehensibles pour tout le monde" (1934, b, p. 41 9) • Des 1934, ANTIPA envisageait la publication d'un guide du musee, "contenant une introduction generale et un resume pour chaque section que le visiteur puisse lire tranquillement a la maison et qui le stimule a revenir au musee; ••• tous les objets ont une egale importance dans le systeme dont ils font partie et la distinction de certains objets aura pour effet que le visiteur "presse" qui n'a pas le temps de regarder que "ce qui est important" sacrifiera justement l'essentiel." (1934,b, p. 419).
1.5. Le role des conferences publiques. L'idee de donner des conferences publiques au Museum d'Histoire naturelle de Bucarest a ete avancee par ANTIPA (1923) qui mentionne: "Le directeur peut organiser dans les salles du Musee des conferences publiques, des cours, des projections cinematographiques ayant comme but la vulgarisation de la science. Lorsque les conditions materielles permettront la construction d'une salle a conferences, le directeur.doit organiser, chaque annee, dans une certaine periode, un cycle de conferences, qui peuvent etre faites par des personnalites scientifiques de toutes les branches des sciences naturelles du pays ou de l'etranger" (p.39). En ce qui concerne !'importance de ce genre d'activite museologique, ANTIPA ( 1934, b) note:" Un reel service rendent les conferences publiques donnees dans les amphitheltres des Musees, accompagnees par certaines demonstrations pratiques, des planches, des photographies et surtout des projections cinematographiques. Pourtant, celles-ci doivent etre organisees d'apres un plan et divisees suivant les capacites intellectuelles de chaque categorie d'auditeurs" (p. 56).
1.6 Le role du Museum d'Histoire naturelle de Bucarest dans l'enseignement. Selon leurs buts, ANTIPA (1923) distingue trois categories de musees: "musees populaires ou publics, musees universitaires (Lehrungsammlungen) et musees scolaires". En revanche, "les grands musees peuvent servir en meme temps a tous les trois buts, comprenant done des collections publiques, des collections didactiques et des collections scientifiques, pour chacun existant des sections avec une organisation speciale" (p. 149). 11 nous semble important de preciser que pour arriver a une conception propre quant a !'organisation du Museum de Zoologie (le premier nom du musee de Bucarest), ANTIPA a dii etudier "les necessites et les programmes de l'enseignement des sciences naturelles dans les ecoles de notre pays - ecoles inferieures, superieures professionnelles, speciales etc." (1934,a, P• 38-39). En outre, ANTIPA faisait partie aussi des commissions destinees pour rediger ces progrdmmes, etant charge d'organiser les collections scolaires. Selon le savant roumain, aux musees revient !'obligation d'avoir un "important role didactique et de constituer le principal auxiliaire des le~ons et cours enseignes" (1934,b, P• 397). Se referant specialement au Museum d'Histoire naturelle du Bucarest, ANTIPA (1934,a) precise que: "Les etudiants de l'enseignement superieur travaillent ici chaque jour en grand nombre, trouvant tout le materiel didactique necessaire, tandis que les eleves des ecoles secondaires et inferieures de tout le pays sont diriges vers le musee par leurs professeurs pour voir en nature ce qu'ils apprenent a l'ecole d'apres les livres" (p. 15). Toutes le idees d'ANTIPA enumerees ci-dessus sont en fait le resultat d'une tres solide documentation museologique acquise, en premier lieu, a l'occasion des differentes visites qu'il a faites dans les plus grands musees de l'Europe et des Etats-Unis; a cela s'ajoute encore sa remarquable capacite de synthese illustree par la selection appropriee des elements theoriques et pratiques saisis lors de ses voyages, elements qu'il a utilises pour la reorganisation du musee de Bucarest. Cependant, nous pouvons constater que quelques-unes de ses idees concernant l'education des masses n'ont pas depasse le stade de projet. Le fait nous parait d•ailleurs facilement explicable, premierement par l'immense energie intellectuelle et physique qu'il a depensee pour la reorganisation de plus grand musee d'histoire naturelle de Roumanie, avec toutes ses riches collections publiques et scientifiques. Deuxiemement, nous devons tenir compte du fait qu'ANTIPA a eu comme but (et il a reussi) de creer dans le musee un institut de recherches faunistiques, hydrobiologiques, oceanographiques, ethnozoologiques etc., un grand nombre de ses travaux scientifiques portant sur certains de ces domaines. Troisiemement, on doit ajouter aussi son inlassable activite d'organisateur qui a eu comme resultat la creation d'un service de biologie de la Peche (1924), de la premiere Station de Recherches Hydrobiologiques de Roumanie (Tulcea, 1926), de l'Institut Bio-oceanographique de Constanta (1932) etc.; enfin, il faut mentionner encore son activite dans le cadre de l'Academie roumaine (etant elu membre des 1910) et celle d'administrateur des Pecheries de l'Etat (jusqu'en 1914).
2. Differences activites deployees au Museum d'Histoire naturelle de Bucarest, continuant et developpant les idees d'ANTIPA Apres la reouverture du musee de Bucarest vers la fin de l'annee 1947, les activites destinees a l'education des masses ont ete considerablement diversifiees. Beaucoup des idees d'ANTIPA ont commence a etre appliquees dans l'activite museologique; a celles-ci s'ajoutent d'autres, dictees par les imperatifs du nouveau systeme social et politique de notre pays. Il nous parait interessant de mentionner dans ce sens une idee avancee par HUDSON (1979): "Dans les pays socialistes, la culture est consideree commeune entite qui appartient au peuple entier ••• Les musees des pays socialistes integres d'une maniere magnifique et avec un programme extremement bien defini, offrent une image fort attrayante" (p. 94). Vraisemblablement, a cause d'une assez restreinte circulation a l'etranger des information museologiques de notre pays, les donnees concernant la Roumanie font completement defaut dans ce travail. Dans ce qui suit nous presenterons les activites d'education des masses suivant l'ordre des idees mentionnees dans la premiere partie de cet article. 2.1. Le developpement de !'exposition publique. Au cours de son histoire de 72 ans d'existence dans !'edifice actuel, le Museum d 'Histoire naturelle de Bucarest a ete gravement endommage a trois r.eprises: les tremblements de terre du 10 novembre 1940 et du 4 mars 1977, ainsi que les bombardements aeriens pendant la Seconde Guerre Mondiale (4 avril et 23 aout 1944). Pendant trois annees (de 1944 a 1947) le musee fut ferme pour le public; ces annees coincident avec une periode de differentes modifications dans !'exposition publique: l'amenagement de diverses salles, !'arrangement de la faune de Roumanie dans des salles speciales etc. Apres la reouverture du musee en octobre 1947, on a continue d'augmenter l'espace des tine a 1' exposition publique par "la construction de deux nouveaux corps a 3 ni veaux, annexes au corps central de !'edifice" (PAPADOPOL, 1979, p. 639). Ainsi, a-t-on realise la visite de !'exposition publique en sens unique, fait qui a permis aux visiteurs (apres un arrangement prealable des pieces) de saisir le critere phylogenique dans le musee. Parmi les principales realisations museologiques qui ont contribue aussi au developpement de !'exposition publique nous mentionnons: !'organisation de !'exposition "L'Origine de la vie", l'amenagement d'une salle oa l'on presente certains aspects ecologiques dans la mer Noire, la construction de 17 microdioramas illustrant !'evolution des animaux pendant les eres et les periodes geologiques, la construction d'une grotte artificielle et de deux nouveaux dioramas (ceux-ci avec du materiel collect€ par la premiere expedition scientifique du Museum "Grigore Antipa" a l'etranger- 1973-1974). Dans !'intention d'une meilleure connaissance du public qui visite le Musee, a partir de 1971 ont ete publiees differentes analyses portant sur la composition des visiteurs, et en particulier de ceux venus en groupes organises. (PAPADOPOL, 1971; DUMITRESCU et al. 1 9 77; GALDEAN et NEGOESCU, 1 977; DUMITRESCU et al. 197 9, 1980).
2.2. L'organisation des expositions temporaires. Selon le travail publie par MARINESCU (1979), dans la periode de 1957 a 1978 ont ete organisees dans le musee de Bucarest 17 expositions temporaires; a celles-ci s'ajoutent encore deux, organisees en 1979 et, ~espectivement en 1980.
Ainsi, grace aux expositions .temporaires, le grand public a re~u des informations portant sur: la vie et l'oeuvre de divers savants roumains (Emile Racovitza, Grigore Antipa), l'historique du musee, les collections scientifiques du musee et le m~teriel collecte par les chercheurs du musee a !'occasion de leur participation a diverses expeditions scientifiques, l'ethnographie etc. Il nous parait utile de souligner aussi que dans le cadre de la collaboration intermuseale, certainles pieces des collections scientifiques du musee de Bucarest ont ete presentees dans des expositions temporaires organisees par les Musees des Sciences naturelles de Bacau et de Galati.
2.3. Le guidage des groupes de visiteurs. Dans les registres de proces-verbaux dresses par les museologues (apres chaque jour de visite), c'est a partir de l'annee 1962 seulement, que les informations concernant les groupes de visiteurs qui ont ete guides lors de leur visite deviennent utilisables. Une analyse attentive de la composition des groupes guides, faite par ANDREESCU et GALDEAN (1979), met en evidence que les eleves, et notamment ceux des ecoles generales, representent les taux les plus eleves des categories guidees. Ce fait doit etre correle avec le pourcentage maximum atteint par les eleves des ecoles generales (60,85%-82,58%) qui ont visite le musee (a partir de 1953). 11 nous parait important de souligner que dans un travail tres recent (GALDEAN, 1980) on discute certaines formes et methodes de guidage des visiteurs dans le Museum "Grigore Antipa", un accent special etant mis sur la methode pedagogique moderne, selon laquelle l'eleve est oblige de participer activement au processus de reception des connaissances. Cette proeoccupation nous semble particulierement notable car elle demontre l'interet accru du museologue pour que les masses des visiteurs (dans ce cas, les eleves) re~oivent des informations tant accessibles que durables.
2.4. L'edition par le Museum d'Histoire naturelle "Grigore Antipa" des guides et des depliants. Par l'intermediaire des guides imprimes, le grand public est informe d'une maniere accessible sur les principales pieces exposees dans le musee et, ce qui nous parait tres important - sur les principes d'organisation du musee en general et de l'exposition publique en particulier. En meme temps, les masses larges sont introduites dans des problemes de l'evolution du regne animal, de la variabilite, dans differents aspects concernant la biologie et l'ecologie des diverses especes. 11 faut noter encore que le dernier guide (BACESCU et MAYER, 1967) imprime aussi en fran~ais et en anglais a elargi considerablement les possibilites de diffusion des connaissances scientifiques parmi les visiteurs etrangers. Selon NEGOESCU (1979), dans la periode de 1948 a 1967 ont ete imprimes quatre guides et un album du Museum "Grigore Antipa". 11 est important de souligner aussi que des 19 expositions temporaires organisees dans le musee a partir de 1957, pour sept ont ete edites des depliants mis en vente ou offerts gratuitement au public.
2.5. Les conferences publiques. Les conferences publiques peuvent etre groupees en deux categories: la premiere, comprenant celles organisees periodiquement dans le cadre de divers cycles et, la deuxieme, celles donnees occasionnellement par les museologues sur la demande des ecoles, de diverses entreprises, de divers musees des sciences naturelles du pays etc. La premiere categorie de conferences a commence a etre organisee par le Museum "Grigore Antipa" a partir de 1953. L'etude effectuee par DUM1TRESCU et al. (1979) pour la periode 1953-1978 a permis de grouper les conferences publiques en:
Conferences dominicales, organisees soit en exclusivite par le musee dans les periodes de 1953 i 1956 et de 1962-1978, soit en collaboration avec l'Universite culturelle scientifique, de 1958 a 1962. Conferences donnees le jeudi, organisees dans le cycle "Zoopanorama", en collaboration avec l'Universite culturelle scientifique de 1974 a 1978. L'etude de la composition des auditeurs de ces cycles de conferences effectuee pour les annees 1973-1974, 1975-1976 et 1977-1978 (DUMITRESCU et al., 1975; DUMITRESCU, 1976 et DUMITRESCU et al., 1979) demontre que les categories dominantes sont representees par les eleves et notamrnent par les retraites. Conferences consacrees a l'histoire de la biologie roumaine, donnees en deux cycles ("Mon chemin en biologie", 1973-1974 et "Mon maitre, 1974-1975). Le premier a compris les exposes faits par quelques-uns des plus renomrnes biologistes roumains contemporains qui ont present€ leur activte scientifique; le deuxieme a ete constitue par les exposes faits par differentes personnalites scientifiques qui ont evoque la vie et l'activite de leurs maitres (MARINESCU, 1977). Ce genre de conferences ayant un caractere plus limit€ a attire, en premier lieu, les scientifiques et les etudiants de divers instituts et facultes de Bucarest. Quant aux conferences donnees occasionnellement par les museologues a Bucarest ou en province, sur la demande des ecoles, de diverses entreprises etc., on doit mentionner qu'en general le theme a ete choisi par les organisateurs.
2.6. Activites clans le cadre de la relation musee-ecole. Les differentes activites de la relation musee-ecole deployees clans le Museum "Grigore Antipa" ont ete analysees par SERAFIM (1979). Au cours des annees, la direction du musee a accord€ une attention particuliere aux activites incluses dans cette relation avec l'ecole. Des activites mentionnees par SERAFIM
(op. cit.), nous notons: les visites-le~ons au musee, organisees par les professeurs de biologie; la pratique productive des classes speciale de biologie (1971-1974, 1978-1980) dont le but est de former chez les eleves des habitudes pratiques de travail et de produire des equipements scolaires ou des collections necessaires pour la dotation des laboratoires des ecoles (DUMITRESCU et al., 1975); les rencontres des eleves avec des personnalites scientifiques, les tables rondes, les symposiums et les sessions scientifiques des eleves, toutes avec la participation des specialistes du musee etc. A toutes ces formes d'activite, nous ajoutons encore les concours avec les eleves "Qui sait, gagne", organises en 1979 et en 1980, manifestations qui ont reuni les meilleurs ecoliers des maisons des pionniers de Buca-pest.
2.7. La vulgarisation des connaissances par l'intermediaire de la presse, de la radio et de la television. De !'article publie par MIHAI-BARDAN (1979) il ressort que le poids des mass-media clans la popularisation du Museum "Grigore Antipa" est: la presse 84%, la TV 10% et la radio 6%. En ce qui concerne la presentation du musee, certains themes ont parte sur: l'histoire du musee, le role de facteur de culture et d'education du musee, le centenaire de la naissance de Grigore Antipa, la collection de Lepidopteres "Aristide Caradja" etc. Les donnees se referant a !'exposition publique et a l'activite de recherche des museologues representent 39% et respectivement 27% des information diffusees a l'aide des mass-media. Nous devons preciser encore que dans differentes emissions transmises a la radio, reunies sous le titre "Nous repondons aux auditeurs", beaucoup de problemes de biologie sont expliques par les specialistes du Museum "Grigore Antipa".
2.8. L'elaboration par les museologues du Huseum "Grigore Antipa" de brochures et de livres a caractere de vulgarisation. En dehors de l'activite de recherche scientifique des divers groupes d'animaux de la faune de Roumanie et de la faune etrangere, quelques museologues du Museum "Grigore Antipa" ont redige aussi une serie de brochures et de livres de vulgarisation pour differentes categories de lecteurs, abordant des sujets d'interet general. Du travail que nous avons publie recemment (DUHITRESCU, 1979) il ressort qu'un nombre de 20 brochures et livres s'adressent aux masses larges du public, dont 11 ont ete publies a !'intention des enfants et des eleves. Les sujets de ces travaux portent sur: le milieu aquatique (rivieres, lacs, mers et oceans), la vie de Grigore Antipa, les Oiseaux, les Poissons etc. Les livres adresses aux autres lecteurs se laissent groupes en trois categories: des journaux de voyage ecrits,par les specialistes du musee qui ont participe aux differentes expeditions scientifiques internationales ou aux voyages de documentation a l'etranger (3 titres); des biographies de savants roumains de renommee mondiale (2); dans la troisieme categorie sont inclus les livres adresses surtout aux lecteurs attires par differents aspects des sciences naturelles, pour la connaissance de divers groupes d'animaux ou de l'origine de l'homme (4). Apres avoir mentionne tant les iddees museologiques de GRIGORE ANTIPA concernant le role du Huseum d'Histoire naturelle de Bucarest dans !'education que les activites deployees dans le musee continuant et developpant les idees du savant roumain, il nous parait important d'avancer quelques recommandations a !'intention de contribuer a une meilleure connaissance de l'oeuvre museologique d'ANTIPA, a l'accroissement du role educatif du musee de Bucarest. 1. En tenant compte de la valeur des principes enonces par ANTIPA pour la reorganisation des musees d'histoire naturelle (bien que certains d'entre eux aient ete repris dans plusieurs de ces travaux) nous proposons la reedition (en fran~ais ou en anglais) de son entiere oeuvre museologique. 2. Nous voudrions que notre travail soit le depart d'une analyse plus approfondie des idees d'ANTIPA concernant la relation musee-public qui est parfois negligee dans les travaus de specialite. 3. Comme nous l'avons deja mentionne dans des travaux publies anterieurement, l'accroissement du nombre des visiteurs du musee, done implicitement !'augmentation du niveau culture! des masses, serait assure, a notre avis, par une collaboration plus etroite, d'une part entre le musee et l'ecole et, d'autre part, entre le musee et !'Office national du tourisme (et les offices departementaux du tourisme). Dans le meme sens, nous pensons que l'edition de depliants concernant !'exposition publique en roumanie ainsi qu'en diverses langues etrangeres assurerait une diffusion encore plus efficace des connaissances scientifiques. 4. Compte tenu des riches collections scientifiques du Museum "Grigore Antipa", serait souhaitable une collaboration plus etroite avec les autres musees des sciences naturelles du pays en ce qui concerne !'organisation des expositions temporaires. 4. Nous revenons une fois de plus sur l'utilite d'une idee avancee par le Prof. MIHAI BACESCU portant sur la necessite de faire imprimer certaines conferences donnees dans le cadre des cycles organises par le musee. Selon notre opinion, !'impression de ces conferences sera l'un des meilleurs moyens tant de vulgariser les connaissances scientifiques que de populariser cette forme d'activite deployee dans le Museum "Grigore Antipa." Sous la forme de brochures ayant un theme general, comprenant plusieurs conferences ou chacune des conferences constituant une brochure, ces exposes peuvent etre mis en vente pour les visiteurs a l'entree du musee de meme que pour le grand public, dans diverses librairies de Bucarest ou de province.
REMERCIEMENTS Nous prions Mlle Corina Clisu de bien vouloir accepter nos vif remerciements pour la lecture critique de ce travail ainsi que pour avoir verifie le texte fran~ais.
Bibliographie selective Antipa (GR.), 1918- Die Organisationsprinzipien des Naturhistorischen Museums in Bukarest. Ein Beitrag zur Museumskunde. pp. 1-16 (XVI pl.). Bucuresti Antipa (GR.), 1923- Organizarea muzeelor in Romania. Mem. Sect. stiint., Acad. rom., Ser. III, 1 (9), pp. 145-188. Antipa (GR.), 1934a- Darea de seama a Directorului, Dr. Gr. Antipa despre dezvoltarea, organizarea si activitatea Muzeului. In: ANTIPA (GR.), Muzeul national de istorie naturala "Grigore Antipa" 1893-1933, PP• 7-20. Bucuresti.
Antipa (GR.), 1934b- Principes et moyens pour la reorganisation des musees d 1 histoire naturelle. Mem. Sect. stiint. Acad. rom. Ser. Ill, 9 (12), pp. 365-422 (XII pl.). Bacescu (M.), 1967a- Grigore Antipa- organizatorul Muzeul central de zoologie si intemeietorul hidrobiologiei romanesti. Revta Muz. 4 (6), PP• 501-506. Bacescu (M.), 1967b- Grigore Antipa 1867-1967. Anniversaires de !'UNESCO. Commision nationale de la R.S. de Roumanie pour l'UNESCO, pp. 1-31 (10 pl.). Bacescu (M.), Mayer (R.), 1967- Le Musee d'Histoire naturelle "Grigore Antipa", 1-54 (64 fig.). Bucarest Dumitrescu (D.), 1979- Brochures et livres a caracteres de vulgarisation et scientifique elabores par les specialistes du Museum d'Histoire naturelle "Grigore Antipa" pendant la periode 1946-1978. Trav. Mus. Hist. nat. "Grigore Antipa", 20, pp. 749-758 (11 fig.). Dumitrescu (D.), Manoleli (D.), Nalbant (T.), 1975- Un nouvel aspect de la relation musee-public: la pratique productive des classes speciales de biologie. Trav. Mus. Hist. nat. "Grigore Antipa", 16, pp. 391-397. Dumitrescu (D.), Murariu (D.), Galdean (N.), Manoleli (D.), 1979- Les conferences publiques donnees au Museum d 'Histoire naturelle "Grigore Antipa" durant les annees 1953-1978. Trav. Mus. Hist. nat. "Grigore Antipa", 20, pp. 687-718. Dumitrescu (D.), Galdean (N.), Negoescu (Ileana), Cacoveanu (Iona), Serafim (Rodica), 1979- Considerations sur la visite d Museum d'Histoire naturelle "Grigore Antipa" dans la periode 1948-1977. Trav. Mus. Hist. nat. "Grigore Antipa", 20, pp. 653-677. Galdean (N.), 1980- Aspects pedagogiques concernant les formes et les methodes de guidage des visiteurs dans le Museum d'Histoire naturelle "Grigore Antipa". I. Considerations generales. Trav. Mus. Hist. nat. "Grigore Antipa", 21, pp. 343-347. Hudson (K.), 1979- 0 istorie sociala a muzeelor, pp. 1-206. Bucuresti. Iuga-Ganea (Victoria), 1938- L'organisateur du Musee national d'Histoire naturelle "Grigore Antipa". In: Grigore Antipa. Hommage a son oeuvre. 1.0 decembre 1867- 10 decembre 1937, pp. 61-73. Bucuresti. Marinescu (A.), 1977- Cycles de conferences consacres a l'histoire de la biologie roumaine. Trav. Mus. Hist. nat. "Grigore Antipa", 18, pp. 395-399. Marinescu (A.), 1979- Expositions temporaires organisees au Museum d'Histoire naturelle "Grigore Antipa" pendant la periode 1957-1978. Trav. Mus. Hist. nat. "Grigore Antipa", 20, PP• 645-651 (21 fig.). Mihai-Bardan (Alina), 1979- La popularisation du Museum d'histoire naturelle "Grigore Antipa" par l'intermediaire de la presse, de la radio et de la television pendant la periode 1960-1977. Trav. Mus. Hist. nat. "Grigore Antipa", 20, pp. 745-747.
Negoescu (Ileana)~ 1979- Materiels de popularisation - publications et cartes postales illustrees - edites par le Museum d'Histoire naturelle "Grigore Antipa". Trav. Mus. Hist. nat. "Grigore Antipa" 20, pp. 739-744 (4 fig.). Papadopol (A.), 1979- L'evolution et le developpement de !'exposition publique du Museum d'Histoire naturelle "Grigore Antipa". Trav. Mus. Hist. nat. "Grigore Antipa", 20, pp. 637-644 (46 fig.). Serafim (Rodica), 1979- Le role du Museum d'Histoire naturelle "Grigor Antipa" dans !'education de la jeune generation. Trav. Mus. Hist. nat. "Grigore Antipa", 20, PP• 719-727, (8 fig.). Paper/Texte no. 15
REPORT OF THE ICOM-IUCN PROJECTS/RAPPORT DU PROJET ICOM-IUCN
Report on a collaborative project between the National Museum of Natural History, New Delhi and the British Museum (Natural History) to produce a mobile exhibition on the Wise Use of Tropical Forests
By Anne Clarke, British Museum of Natural History, London, England. And By Dr. S.M. Nair, National Museum of Natural History, New Delhi, India
I, and I think many others too, left the ICOM Natural History Committee Conference in Vienna with the message of Dr. Munro's speech one of the uppermost thoughts in my mind. Not only did he emphasize the enormous and urgent problems that we must face if we are to conserve our natural environment but he presented us with a challenge. The challenge to use our skills iri exhibition development and education to play a role in environmental education - to help foster in people an understanding of the need to conserve our natural heritage. At the Conference, Dr. Nair and I agreed that we would like to initiate a collaborative venture between our two institutions that would lead to the production of an exhibition on some aspect of conservation. A month later we exchanged views on the idea of basing it around the theme of Tropical Forests, this seeming to us to be one of the most urgent global problems. By August we had a first draft of a proposal and circulated it to colleagues in the Environmental Educational Working Party and at IUCN for comment. Unfortunately, it was not until seven months later, in March, that it proved possible to arrange a meeting at which Dr. Lemieux, John Whiting, Adrian Philips from IUCN, and myself were able to discuss the document. However, during the interim period, Dr. Nair had arranged through the British Council for me to visit India. The purpose of the visit was not primarily to discuss the proposed exhibition, but nevertheless the limited time that we did have was the time when the most significant developments in the project took place. I left for India the day after meeting Dr. Lemieux, John Whiting and Adrian Philips in London. In the light of their comments I discussed the project with Dr. Nair and his staff and we began to develop the general proposals into a working document. I would like to outline the way we went about this. Having decided on our general theme, we needed to decide to whom we should be communicating our message - who was to be. our audience. The World Conservation Strategy identifies five important target groups for educational activities: Legislators and admnistrators Development practitioners, industry, commerce and trade unions Professional bodies and special interest groups -
Communities most affected by conservation projects Schoolchildren and students We felt that the role of Museums should be with the last two of these groups, and in India, the communities most likely to be affected by conservation projects are those in rural areas. Our challenge then was to communicate our message to the people who live in the villages of rural India. Drawing on the experiences of my colleagues at the Delhi Museum, we tried to build up a picture in our minds of the kinds of people we were aiming to develop our exhibition for. A number of important points came to mind: The people rarely move far from their village. So we must take the exhibition to them. Their level of literacy is generally low. So the exhibition should make as much use as possible of visual and audio techniques. On the whole, the children are more literate than adults. Perhaps we can communicate with the adults via the children. The people will have almost no formal knowledge of biology, although probably a wealth of experience of natural phenomena gleaned through living close to the land. These experiences should form our starting points from which to develop new understanding. Having now chosen a theme and built up some kind of 'audience profile', we set about deciding what form of exhibition would be most effective. We decided after considerable discussion that a mobile exhibition would be the most appropriate. The exhibition·must travel from village to village so it must either be sent from one place to another or it must travel in its own vehicle. The second option seemed by far the best as it avoided such problems as where would the exhibition be set up, who would set it up, who would co-ordinate sending the exhibition from place to place, and so on. There are also considerable advantages to be gained from having a purpose-built exhibition site and the facility for a technician and an educationalist to travel with the exhibition. In deciding on the type of vehicle, Mr. Khaze, Curator of Design at Delhi, took into account the experience of the Science Museums in Calcutta and Bangalore, both of whom have travelling exhibition programmes. As well as having exhibits built into the vehicle, some to be viewed from inside and some from outside, Mr. Khaze has incorporated a series of screens that fold against the sides of the vehicle and when opened out can be used to enclose a space for additional exhibits, discussion groups, audio-visual presentations and so on. The following paragraphs give some indication of the content we would hope to cover in the exhibition. At this stage we have not transformed the ideas into exhibits nor worked out how we will link them to the existing knowledge and experience of our audience. Summary of proposed content: l. THE FOREST ECOSYSTEH This section should serve to remind people of some of the more common plants and animals in the forests. It should portray the diversity and complexity of forest life and should emphasize the interdependence of plants and animals in search fo food, living space etc. etc. The importance of trees as a source of energy for the ecosystem should be mentioned as should the action of these as a 'Nutrient Bank' for the ecosystem.
2. THE FOREST AS A RESOURCE FOR HUHANS This section should contain both local and global examples of the use of trees and other forest life by human beings. The local examples could be provided in part by specimens collected from the village/town being visited to enable the people to relate easily to the exhibit. On the global scale emphasis should be placed on the explanation of forests for timber, paper etc.
3. THE EXTENT OF FOREST DESTRUCTION This should be portrayed in a way that is easy for people to relate to ie. it should not comprise of endless figures. Local examples should be included wherever possible.
4. THE RESULT OF OVER-EXPLOITATION Here again local examples should be displayed in addition to general areas if at all possible. Hention should be made of the threat to species arising from habitat destruction and the ill-effects caused by soil erosion resulting from logging on an excessive scale eg. silting and resultant flooding.
5. A STRATEGY FOR UTILISING THE FOREST WITHOUT DESTROYING IT In this section particular emphasis should be laid on local possibilities for improvement but the importance of a global approach should also be evident. Emphasis should be placed on the need for planned exploitation of the forest resource on a scheme which takes account of the needs of the local inhabitants. The exhibition might end with quotations from prominent figures such as Hrs. Gandhi speaking of the need for conservation. The latest news of our project is that Dr. Louis Lemieux put forward our proposal to the Education Committee of IUCN at their conference in Sweden in August in the hope that they will provide some financial assistance. Also, Dr. Nair has heard that the Department of the Environment have agreed to grant him finances to go ahead with having a vehicle built. We hope if all goes well that the exhibition will be built and in operation by the end of 1982. To end my report I would like to share with you some thoughts that have arisen during my experience of working on this project and as a result of discussing the role of museums in environmental education with those I have met during the course of my work.
A2o It seems that many colleagues in museums throughout the world are keen to develop the museum's role in environmental education. Some are actively involved in projects, others would like to be but are unsure how to beging. It seems that the initial hurdle of getting things under way is where so many projects fail and I wonder if one role of the Environmental Education Working Party might be to help people over these initial problems and to facilitate the interchange of ideas between those actively involved in conservation projects. This could be done in part through the Committee Newsletter, and perhaps the working party could also develop some basic guidelines to help those wishing to initiate projects~ I feel that museums have a vital role to play in environmental education. They are perhaps the only institutions to combine the potential to communicate with all members of communities with an expertise in producing exhibitions - and when done well an exhibition must be one of the most powerful media for communication. Depuis la reunion de Vienne en mai 1979, j'ai travaille avec M. Nair a ce projet, au Musee national d'histoire naturelle de New Delhi. 11 s'agit d'organiser une exposition mobile montee dans un vehicule specialement amenage, et destinee aux regions rurales de l'Inde. Le present rapport motive ce choix et resume la matiere de !'exposition. Si tout va bien, celle-ci debuterait a la fin de 1982. Paper/Texte no. 16 REPORT TO THE NATURAL HISTORY COMMITTEE I C 0 H MEXICO CITY, OCTOBER 1980 ~J By John S. Whiting Introduction It was,my privilege during the past 18 months to work on the Task Force that was established at the Natural History Committee meeting in Vienna, in order to develop pilot projects that would promote the IUCN message of conservation as enunciated in their "World Conservation Strategy". As you have heard, Anne Clarke of the British Huseum of Natural History and Dr. Nair, Director of the Natural History Huseum in New Delhi, were also appointed. After the Vienna meeting we dispersed back home and proceeded with developing concepts for practical pursuit on a trial or pilot project basis. It was decided that the British Museum of Natural History and the Natural History Huseum in India would focus on an East-West liaison and that I would focus on a North-South relationship based on contacts we have in the Caribbean. What I will do then is outline briefly what has happened over the last 18 months (with this particular North-South orientation) in following the terms of reference for the Task Force as established in Vienna. Peter Raven's keynote address and others subsequently, including Dr. Lemieux, emphasize the need for this sort of work.
Chronology Immediately following the Vienna meeting I went to Paris to visit the ICOH Documentation Centre to do a literature search for information on the role of Natural History Huseums in preservation of the environment, as well as a review of literature relative to the overall museum's involvement and status in the Caribbean. Paulette Olcina, , Head of the UNESCO ICOH Documentation Centre prepared a bibliography and uncovered a great deal of useful material. This served as a starting point along with the IUCN' s World Conservation Strategy which had just been published, which was to serve as the basic source of information we wished to disseminate. I was also invited to participate in a meeting in Bern, Switzerland, by Dr. Lemieux last Spring which was the first meeting of the revitalized IUCN Education Commission at which~ proposal for a small travelling exhbition was discussed as the vehicle for spreading the need for conservation. The idea of proceeding along these lines was generally agreed to. I also attended the 2nd European Conference on Environmental Education which helped provide an up-to-date overview of the issues around the wDrld that relate to environmental education which also emphasized the complexity of environmental education and the multitude of needs and the urgency that exists. On the basis of what I reviewed and weighing various qptions, I prepared a more detailed proposal for consideration by the National Huseum of Natural Sciences in Ottawa, in which I outlined a plan to prepare and circulate a small travelling exhibition for the Caribbean that would convey the message of conservation. The topic chosen was a resource we both (Canada and the Caribbean) share, namely, Birds, and more specifically the birds that spend the summers in Canada and then migrate south into or through the Caribbean for the winters. The proposal was approved in principle and a small budget was set aside. This proposal became a point of discussion on the occasion of a visit to Ottawa by Adrian Phill,ips, IUCN's Caribbean representative. He recommended that we involve the potential users of the exhibit in the Caribbean in the early planning stages and suggested we participate in a proposed meeting of NGO's in the Caribbean to put forward the proposal to them and develop ideas further. Unfortunately that meeting did not materialize but a comparable one did that I was fortunate enough to attend in Barbados at the offices of the c.c.A. I outlined the proposal to the various conservationists and administrators assembled and it was agreed that it would be a good thing to pursue and if it worked in its pilot project format then a proposal should ultimately be made to UNESCO to expand the idea. After the meeting in Barbados I stopped off in Kingston, Jamaica to meet with the people of the Department of Education who are involved in a Canadian sponsored project (IDRC) to develop educational resource materials that I thought the proposed exhibit might complement, and people in museums at the Jamaica Institute. There I met Hr. Roderick Ebanks who had chaired a 6 day workshop on "Huseums, Monuments and Historic Sites" held in 1978, which provided the most up to date information on Caribbean museums. Generally, museums in the Caribbean are severely hampered by an almost total lack of resources or they only exist in future plans for development by some of the smaller Caribbean countries. While in Barbados and Jamaica I was also able to see some of their Huseums.
Philosophy A few notes now about the feelings and philosophical stance of the Caribbean countries with respect to museums is in order to illustrate the fact that we are not simply proceeding on a northern brand of intuition. There are some rather good recommendations stemming from literature and meetings that confirm the need for the sort of action we are initiating. Two or three examples will suffice to illustrate this. First In his book, published last year, "Cultural Action and Social Change" The Honourable Rex Nettleford of Jamaica says "International Organizations like the OAS and UNESCO which are concerned with culture and development in the Caribbean and Latin America region now need to place greater emphasis on effecting delivery systems for the promotion of-cultural intergration in the region. The hundreds and thousands of words expressed annually in declaration after declaration do reveal a grasp on the part of such organizations of the imperatives of cultural development. Now, appropriate programmes need to be forged to effect cultural action on all levels of operation". Second - There was an important Intergovernmental Conference on Cultural Policies in Latin American and the Caribbean which was held in Bogata, Columbia in 1978 and among the series of recommendations which stemmed from it was the following recommendation (No. 35) with respect to the subject of museums. "The Conference, Considering the increasingly important role that museums should play in the promotion of creativity and its education, as well as the cultural life of the community, Bearing in mind that in spite of efforts that have been made, the needs of Latin America and the Caribbean far exceed existing achievements, 1. Recommends that Member States of Latin America and the Caribbean: include in their cultural programmes the improvement of museums through qualitative and quantitative increases in museum staff and equipment; 2. Requests the Director-General: to increase, in so far as possible, technical assistance in the field of museology and museography, particularly with a view to improving the technical standards of museum personnel in the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean." Hopefully the circulation of Travelling Exhibitis would stimulate these. Further and perhaps of more significance - related to the above, the recommendation (No. 46) on the circulation of cultural property is perhaps even more relevant and reads as follows:
"The Conference, Bearing in mind that one of the basic conditions for the preservation of peace and the elimination of every kind of political, racial, religious or cultural discrimination is the promotion of the mutual familiarity of peoples with each other's values and creations,
Considering that the circulation of cultural property among the peoples of the region and of other regions of the world is limited by the shortage of sources of finance for that purpose and by the lack of an appropriate administrative and technical structure to guarantee and arrange such circulation, without which the region's cultural events, goods and services should not be put to use and enjoyed by many of the national communities,
Bearing in mind that the rights to culture has been accepted as one of the basic human rights and that this concept covers not only man's freedom to create and the democratization of cultural life in all its aspects, but also the duty of States to promote the development and dissemination of culture,
Stressing the need for States to promote the circulation of publicly-owned or government-sponsored cultural property and cultural events and to include not only works of the past but also contemporary creations,
Recalling that both the Meeting of Experts on the Provisional Agenda of the Intergovernmental Conference on Cultural Policies in Latin America and the Caribbean, held in Panama in 1976, and the Preparatory Consultation for the Intergovernmental Conference on Cultural Policies in Latin America and the Caribbean, held in Paris in 1977, recognized the need to establish a programme for and stimulate the circulation of cultural property as a basis for a richer and more fruitful society and for a more balanced international cultural co-operation.
1. Recommends that the Member States of Latin America and the Caribbean: (a) Do everything possible to eliminate the legal barriers that impede or hinder the circulation of publicly-owned or government-sponsored cultural property and cultural events; (b) Increase budgetary allocation for the dissemination of their cultural values in other countries and regions and take more effective part in the cultural life of the world community;
2. Recommends to the Director-General: (a) That as soon as possible and within the limits of the funds already available or to be allocated by the General Conference for international co-operation and cultural development, it carry out or contract others to carry out a feasibility study for the establishment of a programme to facilitate, from the finance, technical and administrative point of view, the circulation of cultural goods, shows and services in accordance with the needs and peculiarities of the different countries of the region; (b) That once the feasibility study has been carried out, it convene a meeting of governmental experts to determine the technical aspects of the programme, which should be submitted to the governments of Member States for their consideration; (c) That is subsequently take the necessary steps to establish the programme;
3. Finally Recommends to UNDP: That it collaborate technically and financially in the establishment of the programme.
Pilot Project It is on this background of chronology and philosophy that a pilot project for the circulation of a travelling exhibit (Bird Migration - The Canadian Caribbean Connection) has been created and that I would like to briefly describe. The resources to undertake this pilot project are entirely from the National Museum of Natural Sciences, National Museums of Canada. We have had to pay heed to severe constraints on size and weight to ensure travelability which, for the most part, will be by air. To do so meant adopting space-age technology. A self supporting wall, which is 7t feet high x 10 feet wide - with attached panels and cases, was selected as the basic structure. Thus~ with 2 such units, a sizeable exhibit can pack into 2 cases for travel. It has just been completed and is now locked up in the Mexican Customs here before going to Barbados and an itinerary is being developed for further circulation. The bird specimens are mounted on vegetation that is being now preserved for museological purposes by space-age chemical methods. A team of researchers has found techniques for preserving plant and animal tissues so that hopefully some traditional modelmaking will no longer be required especially for plants to go into museum exhibits and dioramas for what will undoubtedly be considerable financial savings • I have brought samples of Canadian Maple Leaves that you may have and that have been preserved by the new method. The progress, or lack of progress, of the exhibition will be followed closely now by our International Exhibits Coordinator to assess the feasibility and impact of the exhibit as it travels. It is interesting to note that the birds in this travelling exhibition had to have import papers, export papers, papers from the Canadian Wildlife Service iri order to cross international boundaries - a real contrast to the freedom the live birds hav.e in crossing borders as they migrate!
Recommendations A report such as this would not be complete without mention being made of the things that I feel ought to be pursued further on the basis of experience to date. (1) Monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of this travelling exhibition as it circulates in the Caribbean. (2) Seek additional funding through UNESCO or others to prepare improved copies of this prototype exhibit based on feedback from its initial use. (3) Seek additional funds to develop other portable didactic exhibits on other topics for designated target audiences in developing countries in other parts of the world. (4) Develop accompanying resource material for school use for exhibits to impress upon youth the need for a world conservation strategy. (S) That such work continue to be undertaken by the NMNS as a participant on the Task Force, as previously established, given the capability and experience it has to date in this field. (6) That the potential for ecomuseums be assessed in developing countries as the best means of furthering the principles of Conservation using museological methods. "LA CONNEXION ANTILLES-CANADA" A CE JOUR
Par J.W. Whiting
Cree lors de la reunion du Comite d'histoire naturelle tenue a Vienne, le Groupe de travail s'est serieusement mis a l'ouvrage en vue d'elaborer des projets pilotes du Musee d'histoire naturelle qui serviront a appuyer les efforts de l'IUCN dans le domaine de la conservation. 11 avait ete decide que mon role et celui du M.N.N.S. des Musees nationaux du Canada serait de nous concentrer sur une liaison Nord-Sud basee sur les contacts que nous avons dans les Antilles. Axee sur le role des musees d'histoire naturelle dans !'education ecologique, une recherche bibliographique au Centre de documentation de l'ICOM a servi de point de depart et a permis d'etablir une liste d'ouvrages sur le sujet. En fonction de l'examen susmentionne de "l'etat des connaissances" ainsi que d'une / evaluation de nos capacites et de nos politiques au M.N.N.S., il a ete propose de mettre sur pied a !'intention des Antilles et de faire circuler une petite exposition itinerante. On a retenu comme sujet la migration des oiseaux, car les oiseaux sont une ressource que le Canada et les Antilles se partagent: de nombreux oiseaux passent l'ete au Canada, puis emigrent vers le sud pour passer l'hiver aux Antilles. L'idee a ete favorablement re~ue par un echantillonage de museologues et d'ecologistes. C'est dans ce contexte psychologique que le Musee national des sciences naturelles (l'un des Musees nationaux du Canada), a mis au point un projet pilote portant sur la circulation d'une petite exposition itinerante intitulee "Migration des oiseaux - la Connexion Antilles-Canada". Cette exposition sera desormais en voyage sous not re oeil attentif. Il a de plus ete recommande qu'on cherche a obtenir des fonds supplementaires, qu'on prepare des documents pedagogiques a 1 I intention des ecoles, que le M. N. N. s. continue ce trava11 et qu'on evalue les possibilites des musees ecologiques comme autre moyen d'atteindre le meme objectif. DELEGATES/DELEGUES
ADDIDIRAN, Nath Mayo National Museum, Onikan, Lagos, Nigeria.
AELLEN, Villy Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, 1211 Geneve 6, Suisse
ANDUAGA, Sofia Instituto de Ecologia, Apartado Postal 18-845, Mexico, 18, D.F.
AL-ATEEQI, Hamad Ministry of Education, Science and Natural History Museum, Kuwait
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ARTH, Dr. Malcolm Department of Education, American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, New York, 10024, U.S.A.
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BROWN, Dr. Bryce Strecker Museum Baylor University Waco, Texas 76703 U.S.A.
CANELHAS, McGraca Museu Nacional de Historia Natural Faculada de Ciencias 1200-Lisbon, Portugal
CLARKE, Mrs. Anne British Museum of Natural History Cromwell Road London, SW 7, England
CRUISE, Dr. James E Royal Ontario Museum Toronto, Ontario Canada, M5S 2C6
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GARCIA, Eduardo Rivera Instituto de Ecologia A.c. Apartado Postal 18-845 Mexico 18, D.F.
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GOMEZ, Luis Museo Nacional Costa Rica POB 749 San Jose, CA
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IBARRA, Jorge A. Museo Nacional de Historia Natural Guatemala, 987, Guatemala Central America
LAMMERS, Dr. George E. Manitoba Museum of Man and Nature Winnipeg, Manitoba Canada R3B ON2
LEMIEUX, Dr. Louis National Museum of Natural Sciences Ottawa, Ontario Canada KlA OM8
LEONARD, Diana University of Colorado Boulder, Colorado U. S.A.
LLORENTE-BOUSQUETS, Jorge Museo de Zoologia, Fac. Ciencias, UNAM, Ciudad Universitaria, Apartado Postal 70-399, Mexico 20, D.F.
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MAHAN, Dr. Harold D. The Cleveland Museum of Natural Wade Oval, University Circle Cleveland, 44106, Ohio, U.S.A.
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MIER, Ricardo Berlin 16-A Mexico, D.F.
MORGAN, Peter National Museum of Wales Cardiff, Wales CF1 3NP
NAIR, Dr. SoM. National Museum of Natural History Ficci Building, Barakhamba Road New Delhi, 110001, India
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PAGET, Oliver E. Naturhistoriches Museum Burgring 7 1014 Wien, Austria
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PERLINGIERI, Ilya Sandra San Diego Museum of Natural History P.O. Box 1390, C.A. 92ll2, U.S.A.
POTZTAL, Dr. Eva Botanisches Museum, Berlin Dahlem, D-1000 Berlin 33, West Germany
PRAYURA, Boonsondhi Directorate of Education and Research Prakanong, Bangkok 11 Thailand
QUINN, James L. Neville Public Museum Green Bay, Wisconsin 54301, u.s.A.
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SCHEI, Ben Tromso Huseum University of Tromso Tromso N-9000, Norway
SCHULTZ, F. Hugh National Museum of Natural Sciences Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A OH8
SCHULTZ, Hrs. F. Hugh 2247 Reeves Crescent Ottawa, Ontario, Canada KlH 7H3
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WHITING, John National Museum of Natural Sciences Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, KlA OM8