DOCSLIB.ORG

Below C Level:An Introduction to Computer Systems Norm Matloff University of California, Davis

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Below C Level:An Introduction to Computer Systems Norm Matloff University of California, Davis Below C Level: An Introduction to Computer Systems Norm Matloff University of California, Davis This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States Li- cense. Copyright is retained by N. Matloff in all non-U.S. jurisdictions, but permission to use these materials in teaching is still granted, provided the authorship and licensing information here is displayed. Tux portion of above image drawn by [email protected] using The GIMP. 2 Author’s Biographical Sketch Dr. Norm Matloff is a professor of computer science at the University of California at Davis, and was formerly a professor of mathematics and statistics at that university. He is a former database software developer in Silicon Valley, and has been a statistical consultant for firms such as the Kaiser Permanente Health Plan. Dr. Matloff was born in Los Angeles, and grew up in East Los Angeles and the San Gabriel Valley. He has a PhD in pure mathematics from UCLA, specializing in probability theory and statistics. His current research interests are parallel processing, analysis of social networks, and regression methodology. Prof. Matloff is a former appointed member of IFIP Working Group 11.3, an international committee concerned with database software security, established under UNESCO. He was a founding member of the UC Davis Department of Statistics, and participated in the formation of the UCD Computer Science Department as well. He is a recipient of the campuswide Distinguished Teaching Award and Distinguished Public Service Award at UC Davis. Dr. Matloff is the author of two published textbooks, and of a number of widely-used Web tutorials on com- puter topics, such as the Linux operating system and the Python programming language. He and Dr. Peter Salzman are authors of The Art of Debugging with GDB, DDD, and Eclipse. Prof. Matloff’s book on the R programming language, The Art of R Programming, is due to be published in 2010. He is also the author of several open-source textbooks, including From Algorithms to Z-Scores: Probabilistic and Statistical Mod- eling in Computer Science (http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/probstatbook), and Program- ming on Parallel Machines (http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/˜matloff/ParProcBook.pdf). Contents 1 Information Representation and Storage 1 1.1 Introduction . 1 1.2 Bits and Bytes . 1 1.2.1 “Binary Digits” . 1 1.2.2 Hex Notation . 2 1.2.3 There Is No Such Thing As “Hex” Storage at the Machine Level! . 4 1.3 Main Memory Organization . 4 1.3.1 Bytes, Words and Addresses . 4 1.3.1.1 The Basics . 4 1.3.1.2 Word Addresses . 5 1.3.1.3 “Endian-ness” . 5 1.3.1.4 Other Issues . 7 1.4 Representing Information as Bit Strings . 9 1.4.1 Representing Integer Data . 9 1.4.2 Representing Real Number Data . 12 1.4.2.1 “Toy” Example . 13 1.4.2.2 IEEE Standard . 13 1.4.3 Representing Character Data . 15 1.4.4 Representing Machine Instructions . 16 i ii CONTENTS 1.4.5 What Type of Information is Stored Here? . 17 1.5 Examples of the Theme, “There Are No Types at the Hardware Level” . 18 1.5.1 Example . 18 1.5.2 Example . 19 1.5.3 Example . 19 1.5.4 Example . 20 1.5.5 Example . 21 1.5.6 Example . 22 1.6 Visual Display . 22 1.6.1 The Basics . 22 1.6.2 Non-English Text . 23 1.6.3 It’s the Software, Not the Hardware . 23 1.6.4 Text Cursor Movement . 24 1.6.5 Mouse Actions . 25 1.6.6 Display of Images . 25 1.7 There’s Really No Such Thing As “Type” for Disk Files Either . 25 1.7.1 Disk Geometry . 25 1.7.2 Definitions of “Text File” and “Binary File” . 26 1.7.3 Programs That Access of Text Files . 27 1.7.4 Programs That Access “Binary” Files . 28 1.8 Storage of Variables in HLL Programs . 28 1.8.1 What Are HLL Variables, Anyway? . 28 1.8.2 Order of Storage . 29 1.8.2.1 Scalar Types . 29 1.8.2.2 Complex Data Structures . 30 1.8.2.3 Pointer Variables . 31 1.8.3 Local Variables . 33 CONTENTS iii 1.8.4 Variable Names and Types Are Imaginary . 33 1.8.5 Segmentation Faults and Bus Errors . 35 1.9 ASCII Table . 37 1.10 An Example of How One Can Exploit Big-Endian Machines for Fast Character String Sorting 38 1.11 How to Inspect the Bits of a Floating-Point Variable . 39 2 Major Components of Computer “Engines” 41 2.1 Introduction . 41 2.2 Major Hardware Components of the Engine . 42 2.2.1 System Components . 42 2.2.2 CPU Components . 45 2.2.2.1 Intel/Generic Components . 45 2.2.2.2 History of Intel CPU Structure . 48 2.2.3 The CPU Fetch/Execute Cycle . 49 2.3 Software Components of the Computer “Engine” . 50 2.4 Speed of a Computer “Engine” . 51 2.4.1 CPU Architecture . 51 2.4.2 Parallel Operations . 52 2.4.3 Clock Rate . 53 2.4.4 Memory Caches . 54 2.4.4.1 Need for Caching . 54 2.4.4.2 Basic Idea of a Cache . 54 2.4.4.3 Blocks and Lines . 55 2.4.4.4 Direct-Mapped Policy . 56 2.4.4.5 What About Writes? . 56 2.4.4.6 Programmability . 57 2.4.4.7 Details on the Tag and Misc. Line Information . 57 iv CONTENTS 2.4.4.8 Why Caches Usually Work So Well . 58 2.4.5 Disk Caches . 58 2.4.6 Web Caches . 58 3 Introduction to Linux Intel Assembly Language 61 3.1 Overview of Intel CPUs . 61 3.1.1 Computer Organization . 61 3.1.2 CPU Architecture . 62 3.1.3 The Intel Architecture . 62 3.2 What Is Assembly Language? . 63 3.3 Different Assemblers . 64 3.4 Sample Program . 64 3.4.1 Analysis . 65 3.4.2 Source and Destination Operands . 70 3.4.3 Remember: No Names, No Types at the Machine Level . 70 3.4.4 Dynamic Memory Is Just an Illusion . 71 3.5 Use of Registers Versus Memory . 72 3.6 Another Example . 72 3.7 Addressing Modes . 76 3.8 Assembling and Linking into an Executable File . ..
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Common Object File Format (COFF)
    Application Report SPRAAO8–April 2009 Common Object File Format ..................................................................................................................................................... ABSTRACT The assembler and link step create object files in common object file format (COFF). COFF is an implementation of an object file format of the same name that was developed by AT&T for use on UNIX-based systems. This format encourages modular programming and provides powerful and flexible methods for managing code segments and target system memory. This appendix contains technical details about the Texas Instruments COFF object file structure. Much of this information pertains to the symbolic debugging information that is produced by the C compiler. The purpose of this application note is to provide supplementary information on the internal format of COFF object files. Topic .................................................................................................. Page 1 COFF File Structure .................................................................... 2 2 File Header Structure .................................................................. 4 3 Optional File Header Format ........................................................ 5 4 Section Header Structure............................................................. 5 5 Structuring Relocation Information ............................................... 7 6 Symbol Table Structure and Content........................................... 11 SPRAAO8–April 2009
    [Show full text]
  • Virtual Memory - Paging
    Virtual memory - Paging Johan Montelius KTH 2020 1 / 32 The process code heap (.text) data stack kernel 0x00000000 0xC0000000 0xffffffff Memory layout for a 32-bit Linux process 2 / 32 Segments - a could be solution Processes in virtual space Address translation by MMU (base and bounds) Physical memory 3 / 32 one problem Physical memory External fragmentation: free areas of free space that is hard to utilize. Solution: allocate larger segments ... internal fragmentation. 4 / 32 another problem virtual space used code We’re reserving physical memory that is not used. physical memory not used? 5 / 32 Let’s try again It’s easier to handle fixed size memory blocks. Can we map a process virtual space to a set of equal size blocks? An address is interpreted as a virtual page number (VPN) and an offset. 6 / 32 Remember the segmented MMU MMU exception no virtual addr. offset yes // < within bounds index + physical address segment table 7 / 32 The paging MMU MMU exception virtual addr. offset // VPN available ? + physical address page table 8 / 32 the MMU exception exception virtual address within bounds page available Segmentation Paging linear address physical address 9 / 32 a note on the x86 architecture The x86-32 architecture supports both segmentation and paging. A virtual address is translated to a linear address using a segmentation table. The linear address is then translated to a physical address by paging. Linux and Windows do not use use segmentation to separate code, data nor stack. The x86-64 (the 64-bit version of the x86 architecture) has dropped many features for segmentation.
    [Show full text]
  • Address Translation
    CS 152 Computer Architecture and Engineering Lecture 8 - Address Translation John Wawrzynek Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences University of California at Berkeley http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/~johnw http://inst.eecs.berkeley.edu/~cs152 9/27/2016 CS152, Fall 2016 CS152 Administrivia § Lab 2 due Friday § PS 2 due Tuesday § Quiz 2 next Thursday! 9/27/2016 CS152, Fall 2016 2 Last time in Lecture 7 § 3 C’s of cache misses – Compulsory, Capacity, Conflict § Write policies – Write back, write-through, write-allocate, no write allocate § Multi-level cache hierarchies reduce miss penalty – 3 levels common in modern systems (some have 4!) – Can change design tradeoffs of L1 cache if known to have L2 § Prefetching: retrieve memory data before CPU request – Prefetching can waste bandwidth and cause cache pollution – Software vs hardware prefetching § Software memory hierarchy optimizations – Loop interchange, loop fusion, cache tiling 9/27/2016 CS152, Fall 2016 3 Bare Machine Physical Physical Address Inst. Address Data Decode PC Cache D E + M Cache W Physical Memory Controller Physical Address Address Physical Address Main Memory (DRAM) § In a bare machine, the only kind of address is a physical address 9/27/2016 CS152, Fall 2016 4 Absolute Addresses EDSAC, early 50’s § Only one program ran at a time, with unrestricted access to entire machine (RAM + I/O devices) § Addresses in a program depended upon where the program was to be loaded in memory § But it was more convenient for programmers to write location-independent subroutines How
    [Show full text]
  • Lecture 12: Virtual Memory Finale and Interrupts/Exceptions 1 Review And
    EE360N: Computer Architecture Lecture #12 Department of Electical and Computer Engineering The University of Texas at Austin October 9, 2008 Disclaimer: The contents of this document are scribe notes for The University of Texas at Austin EE360N Fall 2008, Computer Architecture.∗ The notes capture the class discussion and may contain erroneous and unverified information and comments. Lecture 12: Virtual Memory Finale and Interrupts/Exceptions Lecture #12: October 8, 2008 Lecturer: Derek Chiou Scribe: Michael Sullivan and Peter Tran Lecture 12 of EE360N: Computer Architecture summarizes the significance of virtual memory and introduces the concept of interrupts and exceptions. As such, this document is divided into two sections. Section 1 details the key points from the discussion in class on virtual memory. Section 2 goes on to introduce interrupts and exceptions, and shows why they are necessary. 1 Review and Summation of Virtual Memory The beginning of this lecture wraps up the review of virtual memory. A broad summary of virtual memory systems is given first, in Subsection 1.1. Next, the individual components of the hardware and OS that are required for virtual memory support are covered in 1.2. Finally, the addressing of caches and the interface between the cache and virtual memory are described in 1.3. 1.1 Summary of Virtual Memory Systems Virtual memory automatically provides the illusion of a large, private, uniform storage space for each process, even on a limited amount of physically addressed memory. The virtual memory space available to every process looks the same every time the process is run, irrespective of the amount of memory available, or the program’s actual placement in main memory.
    [Show full text]
  • CS 351: Systems Programming
    Virtual Memory CS 351: Systems Programming Michael Saelee <[email protected]> Computer Science Science registers cache (SRAM) main memory (DRAM) local hard disk drive (HDD/SSD) remote storage (networked drive / cloud) previously: SRAM ⇔ DRAM Computer Science Science registers cache (SRAM) main memory (DRAM) local hard disk drive (HDD/SSD) remote storage (networked drive / cloud) next: DRAM ⇔ HDD, SSD, etc. i.e., memory as a “cache” for disk Computer Science Science main goals: 1. maximize memory throughput 2. maximize memory utilization 3. provide address space consistency & memory protection to processes Computer Science Science throughput = # bytes per second - depends on access latencies (DRAM, HDD) and “hit rate” Computer Science Science utilization = fraction of allocated memory that contains “user” data (aka payload) - vs. metadata and other overhead required for memory management Computer Science Science address space consistency → provide a uniform “view” of memory to each process 0xffffffff Computer Science Science Kernel virtual memory Memory (code, data, heap, stack) invisible to 0xc0000000 user code User stack (created at runtime) %esp (stack pointer) Memory mapped region for shared libraries 0x40000000 brk Run-time heap (created by malloc) Read/write segment ( , ) .data .bss Loaded from the Read-only segment executable file (.init, .text, .rodata) 0x08048000 0 Unused address space consistency → provide a uniform “view” of memory to each process Computer Science Science memory protection → prevent processes from directly accessing
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 9: Memory Management
    Chapter 9: Memory Management I Background I Swapping I Contiguous Allocation I Paging I Segmentation I Segmentation with Paging Operating System Concepts 9.1 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002 Background I Program must be brought into memory and placed within a process for it to be run. I Input queue – collection of processes on the disk that are waiting to be brought into memory to run the program. I User programs go through several steps before being run. Operating System Concepts 9.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002 Binding of Instructions and Data to Memory Address binding of instructions and data to memory addresses can happen at three different stages. I Compile time: If memory location known a priori, absolute code can be generated; must recompile code if starting location changes. I Load time: Must generate relocatable code if memory location is not known at compile time. I Execution time: Binding delayed until run time if the process can be moved during its execution from one memory segment to another. Need hardware support for address maps (e.g., base and limit registers). Operating System Concepts 9.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002 Multistep Processing of a User Program Operating System Concepts 9.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002 Logical vs. Physical Address Space I The concept of a logical address space that is bound to a separate physical address space is central to proper memory management. ✦ Logical address – generated by the CPU; also referred to as virtual address. ✦ Physical address – address seen by the memory unit. I Logical and physical addresses are the same in compile- time and load-time address-binding schemes; logical (virtual) and physical addresses differ in execution-time address-binding scheme.
    [Show full text]
  • One Physical Address Space Per Machine – the Size of a Physical Address Determines the Maximum Amount of Addressable Physical Memory
    Virtual Memory 1 Virtual and Physical Addresses • Physical addresses are provided directly by the machine. – one physical address space per machine – the size of a physical address determines the maximum amount of addressable physical memory • Virtual addresses (or logical addresses) are addresses provided by the OS to processes. – one virtual address space per process • Programs use virtual addresses. As a program runs, the hardware (with help from the operating system) converts each virtual address to a physical address. • the conversion of a virtual address to a physical address is called address translation On the MIPS, virtual addresses and physical addresses are 32 bits long. This limits the size of virtual and physical address spaces. CS350 Operating Systems Winter 2011 Virtual Memory 2 What is in a Virtual Address Space? 0x00400000 − 0x00401b30 text (program code) and read−only data growth 0x10000000 − 0x101200b0 stack high end of stack: 0x7fffffff data 0x00000000 0xffffffff This diagram illustrates the layout of the virtual address space for the OS/161 test application testbin/sort CS350 Operating Systems Winter 2011 Virtual Memory 3 Simple Address Translation: Dynamic Relocation • hardware provides a memory management unit which includes a relocation register • at run-time, the contents of the relocation register are added to each virtual address to determine the corresponding physical address • the OS maintains a separate relocation register value for each process, and ensures that relocation register is reset on each context
    [Show full text]
  • CS61 Section Notes Week 7 (Fall 2010) Virtual Memory We Are Given a System with the Following Properties
    CS61 Section Notes Week 7 (Fall 2010) Virtual Memory We are given a system with the following properties: • The memory is byte addressable. • Memory accesses are to 4-byte words • Physical addresses are 16 bits wide. • Virtual addresses are 20 bits wide. • The page size is 4096 bytes. • The TLB is 4-way set associative with 16 total entries. In the following tables, all numbers are given in hexadecimal. The contents of the TLB and the page table for the first 32 pages are as follows: TLB Page Table Index Tag PPN Valid VPN PPN Valid VPN PPN Valid 03 B 1 00 7 1 10 6 0 07 6 0 01 8 1 11 7 0 0 28 3 1 02 9 1 12 8 0 01 F 0 03 A 1 13 3 0 31 0 1 04 6 0 14 D 0 12 3 0 05 3 0 15 B 0 1 07 E 1 06 1 0 16 9 0 0B 1 1 07 8 0 17 6 0 2A A 0 08 2 0 18 C 1 11 1 0 09 3 0 19 4 1 2 1F 8 1 0A 1 1 1A F 0 07 5 1 0B 6 1 1B 2 1 07 3 1 0C A 1 1C 0 0 3F F 0 0D D 0 1D E 1 3 10 D 0 0E E 0 1E 5 1 32 0 0 0F D 1 1F 3 1 Question 1a: The box below shows the format of a virtual address. Indicate (by labeling the diagram) the fields that would be used to determine the following: 1 VPO The virtual page offset VPN The virtual page number TLBI The TLB index TLBT The TLB tag 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 VPN VPO TLBT TLBI Question 1b: The box below shows the format of a physical address.
    [Show full text]
  • CS420: Operating Systems Paging and Page Tables
    CS420: Operating Systems Paging and Page Tables YORK COLLEGE OF PENNSYLVANIA YORK COLLEGE OF PENNSYLVANIA YORK COLLEGE OF PENNSYLVANIA YORK COLLEGE OF PENNSYLVANIA 'GHI<GJHK&L<MNK'GHI<GJHK&L<MNK 'GONJHK&P@JJHG 'GONJHK&P@JJHG MFIF&'<IJ@QH&'@OK MFIF&'<IJ@QH&'@OK !<GR%&'@ !<GR%&'@ James Moscola 'HGPOJ&N<F&012 'HGPOJ&N<F&012 !"#$%&'())*+,-.)/.&0123454670!"#$%&'())*+,-.)/.&0123454670 YORK COLLEGE OF PENNSYLVANIA Department of Physical Sciences 'GHI<GJHK&L<MNK 8.9:;*&<:(#.="#>&1015?26511??8.9:;*&<:(#.="#>&1015?26511?? @A9/**/")*&<B!&C(>&1015?2D50633@A9/**/")*&<B!&C(>&1015?2D50633'GONJHK&P@JJHG York College of Pennsylvania 05?3352775?30? 05?3352775?30? MFIF&'<IJ@QH&'@OK EEEF+C:F(A; EEEF+C:F(A; !<GR%&'@ 'HGPOJ&N<F&012 !""#$%%&'$#()*$&+$,-$%.$"!""#$%%&'$#()*$&+$,-$%.$" !"#$%&'())*+,-.)/.&0123454670 8.9:;*&<:(#.="#>&1015?26511?? @A9/**/")*&<B!&C(>&1015?2D50633 05?3352775?30? EEEF+C:F(A; !""#$%%&'$#()*$&+$,-$%.$" CS420: Operating Systems Based on Operating System Concepts, 9th Edition by Silberschatz, Galvin, Gagne COLLEGE CATALOG 2009–2011 COLLEGE CATALOG COLLEGE CATALOG 2009–2011 COLLEGE CATALOG COLLEGE CATALOG 2009–2011 COLLEGE CATALOG College Catalog 2009–2011College Catalog 2009–2011 College Catalog 2009–2011 !""#$%&'()*+,--.../ 012$1$"..."34#3$4.56 !""#$%&'()*+,--.../ 012$1$"..."34#3$4.56 !""#$%&'()*+,--.../ 012$1$"..."34#3$4.56 Paging • Paging is a memory-management scheme that permits the physical address space of a process to be noncontiguous - Avoids external fragmentation - Avoids the need for compaction - May still have internal fragmentation
    [Show full text]
  • Virtual Memory and Linux
    Virtual Memory and Linux Matt Porter Embedded Linux Conference Europe October 13, 2016 About the original author, Alan Ott ● Unfortunately, he is unable to be here at ELCE 2016. ● Veteran embedded systems and Linux developer ● Linux Architect at SoftIron – 64-bit ARM servers and data center appliances – Hardware company, strong on software – Overdrive 3000, more products in process Physical Memory Single Address Space ● Simple systems have a single address space ● Memory and peripherals share – Memory is mapped to one part – Peripherals are mapped to another ● All processes and OS share the same memory space – No memory protection! – Processes can stomp one another – User space can stomp kernel mem! Single Address Space ● CPUs with single address space ● 8086-80206 ● ARM Cortex-M ● 8- and 16-bit PIC ● AVR ● SH-1, SH-2 ● Most 8- and 16-bit systems x86 Physical Memory Map ● Lots of Legacy ● RAM is split (DOS Area and Extended) ● Hardware mapped between RAM areas. ● High and Extended accessed differently Limitations ● Portable C programs expect flat memory ● Multiple memory access methods limit portability ● Management is tricky ● Need to know or detect total RAM ● Need to keep processes separated ● No protection ● Rogue programs can corrupt the entire system Virtual Memory What is Virtual Memory? ● Virtual Memory is a system that uses an address mapping ● Maps virtual address space to physical address space – Maps virtual addresses to physical RAM – Maps virtual addresses to hardware devices ● PCI devices ● GPU RAM ● On-SoC IP blocks What is Virtual Memory? ● Advantages ● Each processes can have a different memory mapping – One process's RAM is inaccessible (and invisible) to other processes.
    [Show full text]
  • Codewarrior Development Studio for Starcore 3900FP Dsps Application Binary Interface (ABI) Reference Manual
    CodeWarrior Development Studio for StarCore 3900FP DSPs Application Binary Interface (ABI) Reference Manual Document Number: CWSCABIREF Rev. 10.9.0, 06/2015 CodeWarrior Development Studio for StarCore 3900FP DSPs Application Binary Interface (ABI) Reference Manual, Rev. 10.9.0, 06/2015 2 Freescale Semiconductor, Inc. Contents Section number Title Page Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Standards Covered............................................................................................................................................................ 7 1.2 Accompanying Documentation........................................................................................................................................ 8 1.3 Conventions...................................................................................................................................................................... 8 1.3.1 Numbering Systems............................................................................................................................................. 8 1.3.2 Typographic Notation.......................................................................................................................................... 9 1.3.3 Special Terms.......................................................................................................................................................9 Chapter 2 Low-level Binary Interface 2.1 StarCore Architectures......................................................................................................................................................11
    [Show full text]
  • Address Translation
    Address Translaon Main Points • Address Translaon Concept – How do we convert a virtual address to a physical address? • Flexible Address Translaon – Base and bound – Segmentaon – Paging – Mul+level translaon • Efficient Address Translaon – Translaon Lookaside Buffers – Virtually and physically addressed caches Address Translaon Concept Virtual Address Raise Processor Translation Invalid Exception Valid Physical Memory Data Physical Address Data Address Translaon Goals • Memory protec+on • Memory sharing – Shared libraries, interprocess communicaon • Sparse addresses – Mul+ple regions of dynamic allocaon (heaps/stacks) • Efficiency – Memory placement – Run+me lookup – Compact translaon tables • Portability Bonus Feature • What can you do if you can (selec+vely) gain control whenever a program reads or writes a par+cular virtual memory locaon? • Examples: – Copy on write – Zero on reference – Fill on demand – Demand paging – Memory mapped files – … A Preview: MIPS Address Translaon • SoVware-Loaded Translaon lookaside buffer (TLB) – Cache of virtual page -> physical page translaons – If TLB hit, physical address – If TLB miss, trap to kernel – Kernel fills TLB with translaon and resumes execu+on • Kernel can implement any page translaon – Page tables – Mul+-level page tables – Inverted page tables – … Physical A Preview: MIPS Lookup Memory Virtual Address Page# Offset Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB) Virtual Page Page Frame Access Physical Address Matching Entry Frame Offset Page Table Lookup Virtually Addressed Base and Bounds Processor’s View
    [Show full text]