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Susceptibility to Ebbinghaus and Müller-Lyer Manning et al. Molecular Autism (2017) 8:16 DOI 10.1186/s13229-017-0127-y RESEARCH Open Access Susceptibility to Ebbinghaus and Müller- Lyer illusions in autistic children: a comparison of three different methods Catherine Manning1* , Michael J. Morgan2,3, Craig T. W. Allen4 and Elizabeth Pellicano4,5 Abstract Background: Studies reporting altered susceptibility to visual illusions in autistic individuals compared to that typically developing individuals have been taken to reflect differences in perception (e.g. reduced global processing), but could instead reflect differences in higher-level decision-making strategies. Methods: We measured susceptibility to two contextual illusions (Ebbinghaus, Müller-Lyer) in autistic children aged 6–14 years and typically developing children matched in age and non-verbal ability using three methods. In experiment 1, we used a new two-alternative-forced-choice method with a roving pedestal designed to minimise cognitive biases. Here, children judged which of two comparison stimuli was most similar in size to a reference stimulus. In experiments 2 and 3, we used methods previously used with autistic populations. In experiment 2, children judged whether stimuli were the ‘same’ or ‘different’, and in experiment 3, we used a method-of- adjustment task. Results: Across all tasks, autistic children were equally susceptible to the Ebbinghaus illusion as typically developing children. Autistic children showed a heightened susceptibility to the Müller-Lyer illusion, but only in the method-of- adjustment task. This result may reflect differences in decisional criteria. Conclusions: Our results are inconsistent with theories proposing reduced contextual integration in autism and suggest that previous reports of altered susceptibility to illusions may arise from differences in decision-making, rather than differences in perception per se. Our findings help to elucidate the underlying reasons for atypical responses to perceptual illusions in autism and call for the use of methods that reduce cognitive bias when measuring illusion susceptibility. Keywords: Autism, Vision, Visual illusions, Perception, Cognitive bias, Response bias, Global processing, Context Background sensory functioning in autism is therefore of critical Along with impaired social communication and inter- import. action, autism is characterised by restricted, repetitive Vision is perhaps the sensory modality that has been patterns of behaviour and interests, including atypical most extensively studied in autistic individuals (see [6] responses to sensory information (Diagnostic and Statis- for review). The first study to use visual illusions to tical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5) characterise autistic perception was conducted by Happé [1]). Sensory symptoms are common in autistic indivi- [7]. She selected six illusions purported to result from duals [2] and impact many aspects of everyday function- the integration of features with their surrounding ing, including behaviour in educational settings [3], daily context: the Ponzo illusion, Ebbinghaus illusion (or living skills [4] and family life [5]. Understanding atypical Titchener’s circles), Kanisza triangle, Müller-Lyer illusion, Hering illusion and Poggendorff illusion (see Table 1). The illusions were displayed on cards, and participants were * Correspondence: [email protected] 1Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, 9 South Parks asked to make simple judgments for each illusion (e.g. Road, Oxford OX1 3UD, UK Müller-Lyer: ‘are the lines the same size or different Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s). 2017 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Manning et al. Molecular Autism (2017) 8:16 Page 2 of 18 Table 1 Summary of previous studies assessing susceptibility to visual illusions in autistic individuals Illusion and example Study Method Summary of group differences in susceptibility Ebbinghaus (or Titchener circles) Happé [7] Same/different AUT < CONa,b Ropar and Mitchell [10] Method-of-adjustment AUT = CON Ropar and Mitchell [10] Same/different AUT = CON Ropar and Mitchell [12] Method-of-adjustment AUT ≈ CONc Schwarzkopf et al. [16] Forced choice AUT = CON Müller-Lyer Happé [7] Same/different AUT = CONa,b Ropar and Mitchell [10] Method-of-adjustment AUT > CON Ropar and Mitchell [10] Same/different AUT = CON Ropar and Mitchell [12] Method-of-adjustment AUT = CON Ishida et al. [13] Method-of-adjustment AUT = CON Ponzo Happé [7] Same/different AUT < CONa,b Ropar and Mitchell [10] Method-of-adjustment AUT = CON Ropar and Mitchell [10] Same/different AUT = CON Ropar and Mitchell [12] Method-of-adjustment AUT = CON Ishida et al. [13] Method-of-adjustment AUT < CON Illusory (Kanisza) figures Happé [7] “How many triangles?” AUT < CONa Milne and Scope [15] Forced choice AUT = CON Poggendorff Happé [7] “Which line joins up with which?” AUT < CONa,b Hering Happé [7] “Are lines straight or curvy?” AUT < CONa,b Horizontal-vertical (or Hat) Ropar and Mitchell [10] Method-of-adjustment AUT < CON Ropar and Mitchell [10] Same/different AUT = CON Ropar and Mitchell [12] Method-of-adjustment AUT < CON Manning et al. Molecular Autism (2017) 8:16 Page 3 of 18 Table 1 Summary of previous studies assessing susceptibility to visual illusions in autistic individuals (Continued) Shepard’s tables Mitchell et al. [14] Method-of-adjustment AUT < CON AUT autism group, CON control group aIllusion used by Hoy, Hatton and Hare [8] but individual results for each illusion not reported bIllusion used by Bölte et al. [9] but individual results for each illusion not reported cIndividuals with Asperger’s syndrome and typically developing children aged 11 were less susceptible to the illusion than those with autism, typically developing children aged 8 and children with moderate learning difficulties sizes?’; Ebbinghaus: ‘are the circles the same size or differ- difficulties and typically developing children and adults. ent sizes?’). In the size illusions (Ebbinghaus, Müller-Lyer, Interestingly, however, the autistic children did not Ponzo), the sizes of the features were identical, so a ‘differ- succumb to the horizontal-vertical illusion [11] and ent’ judgment was deemed to result from the inducing surprisingly showed heightened susceptibility to the context. Strikingly, Happé reported that young people on Müller-Lyer illusion. Ropar and Mitchell further showed the autism spectrum (aged 8–16 years, n = 25) were sus- that there was no evidence of group differences in sus- ceptible to fewer visual illusions than typically developing ceptibility to visual illusions when using a task modelled children matched for mental age (n = 21) and children on that of Happé [7]. Ropar and Mitchell largely repli- with a learning difficulty matched for both mental age and cated their findings in a later study [12], demonstrating chronological age (n = 21). A smaller proportion of autistic again that autistic children did not generally demon- participants succumbed to each illusion compared to the strate a reduced susceptibility to illusions, apart from in other groups, apart from in the case of the Müller-Lyer the case of the horizontal-vertical illusion. More re- illusion, in which case the majority of autistic individuals cently, Ishida, Kamio and Nakamizo [13] demonstrated were also ‘fooled’ by the illusion. that young people on the autism spectrum aged 10 to Attempts to reproduce Happé’s [7] findings have had 16 years (n = 9) were less susceptible to the Ponzo mixed success. Hoy, Hatton and Hare [8] presented the illusion than typically developing children matched in same task used by Happé to younger autistic children, age and IQ (n = 9) but were equally susceptible to the aged 4–9 years (n = 17), and typically developing chil- Müller-Lyer illusion. Furthermore, Mitchell, Mottron, dren matched in age and verbal ability (n = 17), and Soulières and Ropar [14] presented the Shepard’s table found no group differences in the number of illusions illusion to young autistic people aged between 12 and that children with and without autism were susceptible 29 years (n = 18) and age- and ability-matched typically to. Yet, Bölte, Holtmann, Poustka, Scheurich and developing participants (n = 18) and reported that while Schmidt [9] reported reduced susceptibility to illusions autistic individuals were susceptible to the illusion, the in autistic adults (n = 15) compared to that in typical illusory effect was weaker than in the comparison group. adults matched in non-verbal and verbal ability (n = 15) Finally, some studies have used forced-choice methods using five variants of each of five illusions (Ebbinghaus, to measure susceptibility to visual illusions in autism. Ponzo, Müller-Lyer, Poggendorff, Hering) in a task very Milne and Scope [15] assessed susceptibility to illusory similar to that used by Happé. ‘Kanisza’ figures by asking participants to judge whether Other studies have used the method-of-adjustment,
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