Željko Obrenović, Software Improvement Group

Design as a Political Activity Borrowing from Classical Political Theories

Several scholars have suggested Discussions about the political Insights that design is a political activity. aspects of design are not new; however, →→Viewing design as a Jonas Löwgren and Erik Stolterman, most of these discussions have been political activity is not new, for instance, claimed that all vague. Calling design a political but discussions about the are manifestations of political and activity because it influences the lives political aspects of design ideological ideas because design of people does not say much—almost have been vague. outcomes influence our lives [1]. everything we do directly or indirectly →→Classical political Björn Franke argued that a design is influences others. And calling politics theories strongly support a political decision about how people a form of design does not help clarify claims that design is a should live, communicate, or behave the distinctions between these two political activity. (see www.designaspolitics.com). Franke terms. With such broad and vague →→Looking at design through also maintained that we could view discussions, we risk inflating the already the lenses of classical politics as a form of design because it loaded terms design and politics, making political theories reveals involves planning, making decisions, constructive discussions about them an interesting and complex and creating laws. And Michael Bierut difficult, if not impossible. set of political situations. argued in similar terms about graphic With this article I want to support design: “Much, if not most, ongoing discussions about the political is about communicating messages, and aspects of design by exploring the many of these messages are intended to meaning of the word politics more Spersuade. This places its practice clearly deeply. I base my exploration on in the realm of politics” [2]. James Alexander’s recent analysis of

42 INTERACTIONS NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2015 INTERACTIONS.ACM.ORG First female candidate for U.S. President addressing Congress in 1872.

definitions of politics in five classical characteristics and briefly present • the ruled, a group of people who are political theories [3]. I will argue that five classical political theories that (formally or informally) following the classical political theories provide Alexander attempted to generalize. rules defined by rulers. strong, concrete support for claims A central theme in definitions of Political theorists generally agree that design is a political activity. politics is a rule, a common standard that in politics the ruled are not simply Moreover, looking at design through that regulates some aspect of human passive followers of rules; the ruled have the lenses of classical political theories lives. Politics is normally defined as an the opportunity to influence, actively reveals interesting and complex sets of activity through which people make, change, or disrupt the rules. political situations. preserve, and change the general rules Robin George Collingwood defined under which they live [3]. politics as the science of “rightness CLASSICAL Political theorists do not view or conformity to rule” [4]. According POLITICAL THEORIES politics as being identical to rules or to Collingwood, political action is Politics is a widely used and loaded as a simple execution of the rules. “the making and obeying the laws . . . term. Alexander found that many Rather, politics is an activity related to regulation, control, the imposition of influential political theories contradict the introduction or changes of rules in order and regularity upon things” [4]. one another in their definitions of situations where there is a division of Through politics, rulers and ruled are politics [3]. He noted, however, that people in two classes: attempting to meet shared standards these theories do have several common • the rulers, a group of people who so that order can be achieved. For characteristics and that each theory have (formal or informal) powers to Collingwood, politics is related to any sheds a different light on the meaning of define the rules that other people need activity associated with rules (the view

IMAGE BY EVERETT HISTORICAL the word. Here, I review these common to follow, and that I share in this article): PINTERACTIONS.ACM.ORG NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2015 INTERACTIONS 43 The rules of any corporation, the than party politics, where people take (https://alexcabal.com/the-cult-of- statutes of a company, the regulations of a sides to reach desired decisions. design-dictatorship/). club, the routine of a family, are all political Last, Jacques Rancière sees politics as Looking at design through the facts, and no less political are the rules a revolt against the ruling according to lenses of classical political theories which a man makes for his own guidance, established rules [10]. In his view, ruling reveals an interesting and complex and revises [them] from time to time as is the activity of police, while politics set of political situations. One group occasion demands [4]. is anything that disrupts this activity. of these situations is the interaction To be political, Collingwood stated, Rancière defines police order as a set between design professionals and an activity has to satisfy three “laws of of implicit rules and conventions that users. Different approaches to design politics” [5]: determine the distribution of roles in a promote different balances of power • People involved in an activity are community. A police order defines rules between design professionals and users. divided into a ruling class and a ruled and imposes constraints on what can be In user-centered design (UCD), for class. thought, made, or done in a particular example, design professionals try to • The barrier between the two classes context. Politics, in Rancière's view, is optimize a product around how users is permeable in an upward sense (i.e., an activity that challenges such police can, want, or need to use the product. the ruled can become the rulers). order and its rules. Here, design professionals have most of • There is a correspondence between Here, I only briefly sketched the decision-making power, but users (or the rulers and ruled. definitions of politics from classical their representatives) are encouraged Michael Oakeshott argued that political theories. For readers who to provide feedback. Users can express politics happens when persons without want to explore this topic further, I their opinions and comments on authority (i.e., the ruled) can approve recommend reading the work of the proposed or implemented rules (e.g., or disapprove of rules, or offer their political theorists mentioned. I also through sessions, opinions about the need to change or not recommend James Alexander’s article prototype and usability testing, or change these rules [6]. In Oakeshott’s for a nice overview [3]. satisfactory surveys). In political terms, view, in a political activity the ruled the rulers (design professionals) and the respond to attempts by the rulers to lay DESIGN AS A ruled (users) are attempting to agree down common standards. The rulers POLITICAL ACTIVITY on shared standards so that order can propose common standards, and the Classical political theories provide be achieved (as Collingwood suggests). ruled can express judgments about how strong, concrete support for claims Alternatively, we may view UCD as a these standards affect their interests. that design is a political activity. political situation in which the rulers Hannah Arendt viewed persuasion Politics revolves around the process (design professionals) are attempting as one of the most important elements of defining rules and common to define common standards and the of politics. To be political, says Arendt, standards that regulate human ruled (users) respond to these attempts means that everything is decided activities, and design is always by making judgments about how these “through words and persuasion and about defining some such rules and standards affect them (as Oakeshott not through force and violence” [7]. common standards. Löwgren and suggests). In political situations, “men in their Stolterman, for example, claimed that Co-design and participatory freedom can interact with one another every design constrains our of design promote more equal relations . . . as equals among equals . . . Cpossible actions by promoting the between design professionals and users managing all their affairs by speaking usage of certain skills and focusing (e.g., [11]). In these approaches, the with and persuading one another” [8]. on the creation of certain outcomes goal of design professionals is not to In Arendt’s view, to command (i.e., to [1]. Similar to the Rancière’s view on make final design decisions. Rather, rule) rather than to persuade involves the police order, each design imposes these approaches are empowering, pre-political ways of dealing with constraints on what can be thought, encouraging, and guiding users to people, characteristic of life outside the made, or done in a certain context. make these decisions for themselves. political system. What political theories add to In political terms, these initiatives Carl Schmitt maintained that a current discussions about design attempt to blur the distinction between central element of a political activity and politics is the view that the mere the rulers and the ruled, making them is a decision [9]. Simply talking about existence of rules does make some “equals among equals,” as Arendt rules does not make an activity activity political. Politics “happens” suggests. political. An activity may be called when rules can be introduced or We may also talk about “mass political only to the extent that it changed based on the interaction politics” as a form of interaction crystallizes in a decision. According between the rulers and the ruled. between design professionals and to Schmitt, in any political activity Consequently, we may say that design users. Various consumer product the rulers and ruled face the political is a political activity because (and only “revolutions” may be viewed as such. imperative that a decision be made. when) design stakeholders can influence Users have often rejected existing How this decision is made is not a introduction and changes of design- products and begun using new ones defining characteristic. Rather, what related rules. Design professionals who perceived as better or more desirable makes some activity political is the do not allow others to influence such (e.g., gesture-based vs. keyboard-based mere imperative that a decision is rules risk being perceived as dictators, smartphones). Here, individual users made. Schmitt also views politics in as discussed in Alex Cabal’s blog post do not have a direct influence on design more negative terms, as nothing more “The Cult Of Design Dictatorship” decisions. However, they can accept or

44 INTERACTIONS NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2015 INTERACTIONS.ACM.ORG reject competing products through their argued that outcomes of a design by • politics of professional free choice in the market. In that way, committee lack focus and result in organizations (such as ACM). they can indirectly stimulate companies impractical products with too broad And the list could be extended to react and change their designs. In functionality. Brooks elaborated that even more. My goal is not to provide political terms, these situations may be the people in committees, in order to an elaborate rundown of all possible viewed as revolts against established protect their own interests, are often political situations in design. Rather, rules (as Rancière suggests). Such “mass reluctant to reject any request: I want to illustrate that the space of politics” can also force other changes Each player has a wish list garnered political situations in design is broad in design companies. In 2014, for from his constituents and weighted by his and diverse. example, a number of users boycotted personal experiences. Each has both an Consequently, we need to be the Firefox Web browser because of the ego and a reputation that depend on how thoughtful about the political aspects CEO’s stance on gay rights. This boycott well he gets his list adopted. Logrolling is of design. Politics is an unavoidable significantly contributed to the pressure endemic—an inevitable consequence of the and essential part of design. With this that led to the CEO’s resignation. incentive structure. “I won’t naysay your article I wanted to show that studying Another set of political situations wish, if you won’t naysay mine” [12]. classical political theories can provide in design relates to the rules that The need of design professionals insights about why design is a political regulate a design process. Design and other stakeholders to make activity. I hope to encourage design professionals and other stakeholders decisions within limited timeframes professionals, researchers, and students need to agree on a number of rules further emphasizes the political to explore this topic in more depth that coordinate their work. Defining a aspect of design. All projects have by themselves. design process, deciding on a budget, deadlines. Design professionals often setting priorities, negotiating deadlines, need to make a number of agreements endnotes and selecting tools and materials are and compromises to meet these 1. Löwgren, J. and Stolterman, E. complex political activities with many deadlines. Even when a strict deadline Thoughtful : A Design stakeholders. Interactions between is not imposed, the dynamics of the Perspective on Information Technology. The MIT Press, 2004. design professionals and clients are design process may put pressure 2. Roberts, L. and Baldwin, J. Visual one example. On the one hand, clients on design professionals to make Communication: From Theory to Practice. define the terms and conditions of decisions quickly. Bryan Lawson, for Fairchild Books AVA, 2006. contracts and are responsible for example, noted that procrastination 3. Alexander, J. Notes towards a definition providing financial and other support. as a strategy in design is deeply flawed of politics. Philosophy 89, 348 (2014), On the other hand, clients depend [13]. He elaborated that once a design 273–300. on the expertise and ideas of design problem has been identified, it is 4. Collingwood, R.G. Essays in the Political Philosophy of R.G. professionals. Design professionals no longer possible to avoid making Collingwood. D. Boucher, ed. are not mere executors of the client’s decisions about a design outcome: Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1989. wishes, and they are expected to be “In many real-life design situations 5. Collingwood, R.G. The New Leviathan. innovative. But to get their ideas it is actually not possible to take no Oxford Univ. Press, 1942. accepted, design professionals need to action. The very process of avoiding or 6. Oakeshott, M. On Human Conduct. Oxford interact with clients and persuade them delaying a decision has an effect!” [13]. Univ. Press, 1975. of the rightness of particular design For example, if a new road is planned 7. Arendt, H. The Human Condition (2nd Edition). Chicago Univ. Press, 1998. choices. This aspect is nicely illustrated but the route remains under debate 8. Arendt, H. The Promise of Politics (Reprint in an anecdote provided by Herbert for any lengthy period, the property in Edition). Schocken, 2007. Simon. Simon had asked Ludwig Mies the region will likely change in value. 9. Schmitt, C. The Concept of the Political. van der Rohe how he got a client to sign Here we have a typical Schmitt’s Univ. of ChicagoPress, 1996. off on a house that was radical for 1930. situation where the rulers and ruled 10. Rancière, J. Dissensus: On Politics and Mies apparently replied, “He wasn’t face the political imperative that a Aesthetics. A&C Black, 2010. 11. Sanders, L. and Stappers, P.J. From happy at first. But then we smoked decision be made. designing to co-designing to collective some good cigars . . . and we drank some dreaming: Three slices in time. Interactions glasses of a good Rhine wine . . . and CONCLUSION 21, 6 (2014), 24–33. then he began to like it very much.” Examples in the previous section 12. Brooks, F.P. The Design of Design. This anecdote may be described as are just some of the possible Addison-Wesley Professional, 2010. a political situation viewed in Arendt’s political situations in design. Design 13. Lawson, B. How Think (Fourth terms. Decisions are reached “through professionals may also be involved in Edition). Architectural Press, 2005. words and persuasion,” and people other political situations, including: manage their affairs “by speaking with • politics surrounding public policies, Željko Obrenović is a principal consultant and persuading one another.” as illustrated by the long-running with the Software Improvement Group in Amsterdam. Before joining SIG he worked as a In some cases, complex political Interactions forum of the same name, consultant at Backbase, an assistant professor interaction among design stakeholders • workplace politics of organizations at the Technical University in Eindhoven, and may lead to negative consequences and in which design professionals operate, a researcher at CWI. In his work he aims at “party politics.” A typical example is • politics of design educational bridging and practice. “design by committee.” Fred Brooks Einstitutions and funding agencies, and → [email protected] DOI: 10.1145/2832903 © 2015 ACM 1072-5520/15/11 $15.00

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