Željko Obrenović, Software Improvement Group Design as a Political Activity Borrowing from Classical Political Theories Several design scholars have suggested Discussions about the political Insights that design is a political activity. aspects of design are not new; however, → Viewing design as a Jonas Löwgren and Erik Stolterman, most of these discussions have been political activity is not new, for instance, claimed that all designs vague. Calling design a political but discussions about the are manifestations of political and activity because it influences the lives political aspects of design ideological ideas because design of people does not say much—almost have been vague. outcomes influence our lives [1]. everything we do directly or indirectly → Classical political Björn Franke argued that a design is influences others. And calling politics theories strongly support a political decision about how people a form of design does not help clarify claims that design is a should live, communicate, or behave the distinctions between these two political activity. (see www.designaspolitics.com). Franke terms. With such broad and vague → Looking at design through also maintained that we could view discussions, we risk inflating the already the lenses of classical politics as a form of design because it loaded terms design and politics, making political theories reveals involves planning, making decisions, constructive discussions about them an interesting and complex and creating laws. And Michael Bierut difficult, if not impossible. set of political situations. argued in similar terms about graphic With this article I want to support design: “Much, if not most, graphic design ongoing discussions about the political is about communicating messages, and aspects of design by exploring the many of these messages are intended to meaning of the word politics more Spersuade. This places its practice clearly deeply. I base my exploration on in the realm of politics” [2]. James Alexander’s recent analysis of 42 INTERACTIONS NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2015 INTERACTIONS.ACM.ORG First female candidate for U.S. President addressing Congress in 1872. definitions of politics in five classical characteristics and briefly present • the ruled, a group of people who are political theories [3]. I will argue that five classical political theories that (formally or informally) following the classical political theories provide Alexander attempted to generalize. rules defined by rulers. strong, concrete support for claims A central theme in definitions of Political theorists generally agree that design is a political activity. politics is a rule, a common standard that in politics the ruled are not simply Moreover, looking at design through that regulates some aspect of human passive followers of rules; the ruled have the lenses of classical political theories lives. Politics is normally defined as an the opportunity to influence, actively reveals interesting and complex sets of activity through which people make, change, or disrupt the rules. political situations. preserve, and change the general rules Robin George Collingwood defined under which they live [3]. politics as the science of “rightness CLASSICAL Political theorists do not view or conformity to rule” [4]. According POLITICAL THEORIES politics as being identical to rules or to Collingwood, political action is Politics is a widely used and loaded as a simple execution of the rules. “the making and obeying the laws . term. Alexander found that many Rather, politics is an activity related to regulation, control, the imposition of influential political theories contradict the introduction or changes of rules in order and regularity upon things” [4]. one another in their definitions of situations where there is a division of Through politics, rulers and ruled are politics [3]. He noted, however, that people in two classes: attempting to meet shared standards these theories do have several common • the rulers, a group of people who so that order can be achieved. For characteristics and that each theory have (formal or informal) powers to Collingwood, politics is related to any sheds a different light on the meaning of define the rules that other people need activity associated with rules (the view IMAGE BY EVERETT HISTORICAL the word. Here, I review these common to follow, and that I share in this article): PINTERACTIONS.ACM.ORG NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2015 INTERACTIONS 43 The rules of any corporation, the than party politics, where people take (https://alexcabal.com/the-cult-of- statutes of a company, the regulations of a sides to reach desired decisions. design-dictatorship/). club, the routine of a family, are all political Last, Jacques Rancière sees politics as Looking at design through the facts, and no less political are the rules a revolt against the ruling according to lenses of classical political theories which a man makes for his own guidance, established rules [10]. In his view, ruling reveals an interesting and complex and revises [them] from time to time as is the activity of police, while politics set of political situations. One group occasion demands [4]. is anything that disrupts this activity. of these situations is the interaction To be political, Collingwood stated, Rancière defines police order as a set between design professionals and an activity has to satisfy three “laws of of implicit rules and conventions that users. Different approaches to design politics” [5]: determine the distribution of roles in a promote different balances of power • People involved in an activity are community. A police order defines rules between design professionals and users. divided into a ruling class and a ruled and imposes constraints on what can be In user-centered design (UCD), for class. thought, made, or done in a particular example, design professionals try to • The barrier between the two classes context. Politics, in Rancière's view, is optimize a product around how users is permeable in an upward sense (i.e., an activity that challenges such police can, want, or need to use the product. the ruled can become the rulers). order and its rules. Here, design professionals have most of • There is a correspondence between Here, I only briefly sketched the decision-making power, but users (or the rulers and ruled. definitions of politics from classical their representatives) are encouraged Michael Oakeshott argued that political theories. For readers who to provide feedback. Users can express politics happens when persons without want to explore this topic further, I their opinions and comments on authority (i.e., the ruled) can approve recommend reading the work of the proposed or implemented rules (e.g., or disapprove of rules, or offer their political theorists mentioned. I also through participatory design sessions, opinions about the need to change or not recommend James Alexander’s article prototype and usability testing, or change these rules [6]. In Oakeshott’s for a nice overview [3]. satisfactory surveys). In political terms, view, in a political activity the ruled the rulers (design professionals) and the respond to attempts by the rulers to lay DESIGN AS A ruled (users) are attempting to agree down common standards. The rulers POLITICAL ACTIVITY on shared standards so that order can propose common standards, and the Classical political theories provide be achieved (as Collingwood suggests). ruled can express judgments about how strong, concrete support for claims Alternatively, we may view UCD as a these standards affect their interests. that design is a political activity. political situation in which the rulers Hannah Arendt viewed persuasion Politics revolves around the process (design professionals) are attempting as one of the most important elements of defining rules and common to define common standards and the of politics. To be political, says Arendt, standards that regulate human ruled (users) respond to these attempts means that everything is decided activities, and design is always by making judgments about how these “through words and persuasion and about defining some such rules and standards affect them (as Oakeshott not through force and violence” [7]. common standards. Löwgren and suggests). In political situations, “men in their Stolterman, for example, claimed that Co-design and participatory freedom can interact with one another every design constrains our space of design promote more equal relations . as equals among equals . Cpossible actions by promoting the between design professionals and users managing all their affairs by speaking usage of certain skills and focusing (e.g., [11]). In these approaches, the with and persuading one another” [8]. on the creation of certain outcomes goal of design professionals is not to In Arendt’s view, to command (i.e., to [1]. Similar to the Rancière’s view on make final design decisions. Rather, rule) rather than to persuade involves the police order, each design imposes these approaches are empowering, pre-political ways of dealing with constraints on what can be thought, encouraging, and guiding users to people, characteristic of life outside the made, or done in a certain context. make these decisions for themselves. political system. What political theories add to In political terms, these initiatives Carl Schmitt maintained that a current discussions about design attempt to blur the distinction between central element of a political activity and politics is the view that the mere the rulers and the ruled, making them