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Мелітопольський державний педагогічний університет імені Богдана Хмельницького

Н.Ю. Байтерякова

МЕТОДИЧНІ РОЗРОБКИ ДО ПРАКТИЧНИХ ЗАНЯТЬ З ОСНОВНОЇ ІНОЗЕМНОЇ МОВИ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТІВ І -3 КУРСУ

Мелітополь 2019

УДК 811.111

Рекомендовано Навчально-методичною комісією філологічного факультету Мелітопольського державного педагогічного університету імені Богдана Хмельницького (протокол № 9 від 08.05.2019 р.)

Рецензенти:

Т.В. Караєва, кандидат педагогічних наук, доцент кафедри іноземних мов Таврійського державного агротехнологічного університету Є. М. Музя, к.філол.н., доцент, завідувач кафедри англійської мови Мелітопольського державного педагогічного університету імені Богдана Хмельницького

Байтерякова Н.Ю. Методичні розробки до практичних занять з основної іноземної мови для студентів І -3 курсу / Н.Ю. Байтерякова. – Мелітополь: Видавництво МДПУ імені Богдана Хмельницького, 2019. – 74 с.

Методичні розробки до практичних занять з основної іноземної мови призначені студентам 1-3 курсів філологічного факультету, спеціальностей: 035.04. Філологія. Германські мови і літератури; 014.02 Середня освіта (Мова і література (англійська). Дані методичні розробки призначені для організації діяльності студентів під час аудиторних занять та домашньої підготовки до них. Вони можуть стати у пригоді при вивченні наступних тем: 1)Interests of Young People in English-speaking Countries and ; 2) Problems of Young People in English-speaking Countries and Ukraine; 3) Family Relations; 4) Marriage and Wedding Customs in English-speaking Countries and Ukraine; 5) and Drink; 6) Eating and Drinking Habits in English-speaking Countries and Ukraine; 7) Urban and Rural Life; 8) Sports and Games Popular in English-speaking Countries and Ukraine; 9) Weekend Activities and Holidays; 10) National Festivals and Family Celebrationsю. Методичні розробки побудовані за загальною схемою, що містить текстовий навчальний матеріал та завдання за темою. Завдання передбачають: 1) ознайомлення з текстом, 2) складання запитань за текстом, та їх подальше використання у груповій дискусії, 3) пошук, переклад і засвоєння тематичної лексики, 4-5) письмове складання тезисної доповіді та її усна презентація, 6) складання діалогів за загальною тематикою з використанням розмовних кліше наданих у завданні.

УДК 811.111

© Н.Ю. Байтерякова, 2019 © Мелітополь, 2019

2 CONTENTS ВСТУП……………………………………………………………………….. 4 General Assignments ………………………………………………. 5 1. Customs of Argentina………………………………………………. 7 2. Customs of …………………………………………………... 8 3. Customs of Bulgaria………………………………………………... 11 4. Customs of China…………………………………………………… 13 5. Customs of Czech Republic………………………………………… 16 6. Customs of Cuba…………………………………………………… 18 7. Customs of Denmark………………………………………………. 21 8. Customs of England………………………………………………… 22 9. Customs of France………………………………………………….. 25 10. Customs of Germany……………………………………………….. 27 11. Customs of Greece…………………………………………………. 30 12. Customs of Hungary……………………………………………….. 32 13. Customs of Italy……………………………………………………. 34 14. Customs of India…………………………………………………… 37 15. Customs of …………………………………………………… 39 16. Customs of Jamaica………………………………………………… 42 17. Customs of Moldova……………………………………………….. 44 18. Customs of Mongolia………………………………………………. 47 19. Customs of Norway………………………………………………… 49 20. Customs of ………………………………………………… 50 21. Customs of Portugal………………………………………………… 53 22. Customs of Peru…………………………………………………….. 55 23. Customs of Russia………………………………………………….. 57 24. Customs of Slovakia………………………………………………... 59 25. Customs of Scotland………………………………………………... 62 26. Customs of Switzerland…………………………………………….. 63 27. Customs of Sweden…………………………………………………. 65 28. Customs of Spain…………………………………………………… 68 29. Customs of Ukraine………………………………………………… 70 30. Customs of Vietnam………………………………………………... 72 REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………….. 74

3 ВСТУП

Методичні розробки до практичних занять з основної іноземної мови призначені студентам 1-3 курсів філологічного факультету, спеціальностей: 035.04. Філологія. Германські мови і літератури; 014.02 Середня освіта (Мова і література (англійська). Внаслідок вивчення даної дисципліни студенти повинні вміти розвивати мовленнєву компетенцію на основі застосування лінгвістичних та соціокультурних знань, спілкуватися на рівні, наближеного до рівня носіїв мови в рамках, окреслених типовою програмою розмовних тем та мовленнєвих ситуацій, самостійно працювати над вдосконаленням своїх мовленнєвих навичок та професійних вмінь. Дані методичні розробки призначені для організації діяльності студентів під час аудиторних занять та домашньої підготовки до них. Вони можуть стати у пригоді при вивченні наступних тем:  Interests of Young People in English-speaking Countries and Ukraine  Problems of Young People in English-speaking Countries and Ukraine  Family Relations  Marriage and Wedding Customs in English-speaking Countries and Ukraine  Food and Drink  Eating and Drinking Habits in English-speaking Countries and Ukraine  Urban and Rural Life  Sports and Games Popular in English-speaking Countries and Ukraine  Weekend Activities and Holidays  National Festivals and Family Celebrations

Методичні розробки побудовані за загальною схемою, що містить текстовий навчальний матеріал та завдання за темою. Завдання передбачають: 1) ознайомлення з текстом, 2) складання запитань за текстом, та їх подальше використання у груповій дискусії, 3) пошук, переклад і засвоєння тематичної лексики, 4-5) письмове складання тезисної доповіді та її усна презентація, 6) складання діалогів за загальною тематикою з використанням розмовних кліше наданих у завданні.

Загальний обсяг завдань до кожної теми розрахований таким чином, що частину завдань передбачено виконувати в аудиторії під керівництвом викладача, а решту студенти виконують самостійно.

Методичні розробки складено у відповідності з базовою навчальною програмою з англійської мови для університетів.

4 General Assignments

Task 1 Read and study the text Task 2 Make up questions covering the subject matter of the text; use them for the further dialogues and group discussions (work in groups of 3 or 4). Task 3. Note down from the text phrases and word combinations corresponding to the thematic vocabulary of the general topic “Customs and Traditions”. Translate them into Ukrainian. Task 4 Using the information from the text, the questions of Task 2, the thematic vocabulary of the topic (Task 3) summarize the text. Task 5 Present the information on the theme using the thematic vocabulary and your summaries as a support. Task 6 Make up dialogues between people of different cultures and nationalities (choose from the list), covering the main aspects: - Marriage and Family - Eating Habits - Socializing - Recreation - Holidays and Celebrations

Use the given conversational formulas as a support: Personally, I…. The way things are…. The point is that….. Suppose….. I mean to say… What’s more…. In the long run…. Obviously…. On the surface of it…. Just the other way round. ….so to say…..

5

The fact is that… I dare say….. I take it for granted that…. So far….. More than that….. In a way….. It depends………. Actually…. Nothing of the kind! I quite agree here. That explains it.

Precisely so. On the contrary! It may surprise you but I…. For one thing… It’s like this…. Putting it mildly…. Things do happen. I’m in two minds. Highly probable. By the way…. I don’t mind telling you… That’s it!

Looks like that. Just the reverse! As a matter of fact…. In short…. What beats me is…. I want to press the point… They say (that)… Naturally! Strictly speaking… It’s outrageous! Definitely. To come back to…

Exactly so. Possibly. It’s highly unlikely. Nothing of the sort! I think that’s wise. It might be true. I can’t accept that. In my view… Well, I never! Far from it! I have to admit… Surely, though…

I mean to say… That’s a very good point. I have to admit… Not necessarily. Don’t you think…. I have no idea. Hardly. However… In other words… …. for instance… It could be. To some extent that’s right.

I (don’t)/believe (that) It's not a bad idea, but… Moreover… Frankly speaking… So, we can conclude that… Despite this fact… If you ask me… First of all… I agree completely. A good example of this is … Anyway… I may be wrong, but…

In a measure.... I fully agree. More or less… With the exception of… I doubt the veracity of. Who knows! In any case.. That’s it! In my estimation… No way! It stands to reason. I’m for it.

6 CUSTOMS OF ARGENTINA

Marriage and Family

Most couples marry in their 20s, after dating for a number of years. Weddings are usually very elaborate, involving both a civil and a church ceremony, and a large reception with and dancing. Gifts are not brought to the reception but are purchased at and delivered by a gift shop where the couple has registered. The nuclear family predominates in Argentina. Grown children commonly live in the same city or town as their parents. Responsibility for raising children falls mostly on women, who exert great influence on family decisions. An increasing number of women are working outside the home. Divorce has steadily increased since it was legalized in 1987.

Eating

Argentines eat more per capita than any other people in the world. Because Argentina is a major beef producer, domestic prices are low enough for most people to eat beef every day, and many people entertain on weekends with an , or . Popular include , which are pies made with or ; and milanesas, or breaded veal cutlets. A preferred winter is locro, made of meat, maize, and potatoes. The government and health officials are encouraging lower beef consumption for health reasons. Dulce de leche is caramelized milk, an Argentine specialty and popular sweet. Maté is a popular hot drink, similar to tea. Italian and French foods are widely available. Traditionally the main meal is in the middle of the day, but many of those who work in cities now have it in the evening, usually after 9 PM. Argentine eating habits and table manners have been influenced by European customs. People hold their forks with the left hand. Eating in the street or on public transportation is considered inappropriate.

Socializing

When being introduced, it is customary to address people by a title such as Señor (“Mr.”) or Señora (“Mrs.”), and people may shake hands. A brief embrace with a kiss on the cheek is a common greeting between women or between a man and woman who are well acquainted. The Spanish ¡Buenos días! (“Good morning”— ¡Buen día! in Buenos Aires) or ¡Buenas tardes! (“Good afternoon”) are appropriate terms when passing on the street or greeting friends and acquaintances. Chau and hasta luego are common phrases for goodbye. When approaching officials for information, one should always greet them before asking any questions. Eye contact is considered important, and it is not unusual for Argentines to touch each other or stand close in conversation. Argentines often visit friends and relatives without prior arrangement. People enjoy having guests in the home and usually offer them refreshments such as espresso-style coffee, tea, or maté. Drinking maté is an important cultural tradition, and is surrounded by a 7 number of informal rituals—for example, the container it is served from is passed around from person to person. There is a relaxed attitude toward punctuality and even if guests arrive as much as an hour after the stated time, it is unlikely to cause offense.

Recreation

Soccer is the national sport and is enjoyed by children and adults alike. Other popular sports include rugby, tennis, and golf. Field hockey is popular among women. The Teatro Colón, a fine opera house, is located in Buenos Aires, as are many late-night theaters, restaurants, and clubs. Dancing at clubs is popular among young people on weekends, and enthusiasts stay out late into the night.

Holidays and Celebrations

Holidays in Argentina are generally opportunities to gather with one’s family. ’s Day is celebrated on 1 with . Maundy Thursday, the Thursday before Easter, celebrates Jesus Christ’s Last Supper commandment to love one another—“maundy” is derived from “mandate.” Maundy Thursday also commemorates the institution of the Eucharist. Argentines also celebrate Good Friday (the Friday preceding Easter), and Easter Sunday. Malvinas Day, on 2 April, commemorates the failed Argentine attempt to recover the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) from British rule. This brief war was fought in 1982. Labor Day is observed on 1 May. Argentina declared its independence from a Spanish colonial viceroyalty on 25 May 1810, but did not declare independence from Spain itself until 9 July 1816. These two dates are now celebrated as National Day and Independence Day, respectively. Flag Day is observed on 20 June. The death of General José de San Martín, known as “the Liberator” of Peru, Chile, and Argentina for his defeat of the Spanish, is remembered on 17 August. Columbus’s “discovery” of America is celebrated on 12 October. The Immaculate Conception (8 December) celebrates the Roman Catholic belief that Mary’s soul was preserved free from original sin, and, finally, Argentines celebrate Christmas Day on 25 December with fireworks, among other festivities. Girls have a special celebration for their 15th birthday, or cumpleaños de quince, which is said to signify their entrance into adulthood. The celebration is known as the quinceañero.

CUSTOMS OF BRAZIL

Marriage and Family

For a wedding to be official, a legal civil ceremony must be performed. Many Brazilians also have a religious ceremony. Wedding parties are often elaborate, with much food, drink, and music. Common-law marriages are not unusual. Families are traditionally large. Maternal and paternal sides of the family are considered equally important. The elderly who cannot care for themselves live

8 with their children; it is considered improper to send them to a nursing home. The tradition of male authority in the Brazilian family is gradually giving way to more equality between the sexes, and more careers outside the home are becoming available for women. Children usually leave home when they marry, and male children may leave sooner for employment reasons. Family members rely on one another for assistance, and young people often work outside the home to help support their families.

Eating

Breakfast usually consists of café com leite (coffee with milk), bread, cheese or marmalade, and butter. and dinner may include beans, rice, meat, salad, fruit, potatoes, and bread. Cuisine varies from region to region. In Bahia and other northern states where there is a strong African influence, foods are often flavored with dendé (palm) oil. In Rio de Janeiro, a popular dish is feijoada, which originated as a clever way of using up small quantities of leftover and is made from black beans with beef, , sausage, tongue, and sometimes a ’s ears, nose, and tail. People in the south enjoy churrasco, a barbecue with a variety of meats. Bife a cavalo com fritas (meat with egg and fried potatoes) is popular in many areas. In addition to coffee, alcohol, and soft drinks, Brazilians in the south drink chimarrão, an herbal tea without sugar. Batidas (shakes) made of fruit juices and alcohol are also popular. Conversation following a meal often takes place over a cafezinho, a small cup of thick, black coffee. Cafezinho may be drunk several times a day. In restaurants, the bill is requested with the phrase A conta, por favor.

Socializing

Brazilians tend to greet each other with a handshake, but good friends often embrace. Women often kiss each other on both cheeks, although in reality they may actually only touch cheeks and kiss the air. Common greetings are Como vai? (“How are you?”) and Tudo bern? (“Is everything fine?”). Friends may greet each other with a simple Oi (“Hi”). When joining or leaving a small group, it is polite to shake hands with everyone present. Tcháu (“Good-bye”) or Até logo (“See you soon”) are common terms for parting. Brazil’s mild tropical climate allows for much time outdoors. Many homes are built with open but shaded patios and interior courtyards. Sidewalk cafés and garden restaurants are common. People often eat a late dinner and socialize late into the evening.

Recreation

The national sport is futebol (soccer). Futebol was introduced to Brazil around the time of World War I (1914-1918) by Scottish railway engineers. Brazil’s national team has been one of the best in the world for many years. The national team has several World Cup victories to its credit. Brazilians are so passionate about soccer that businesses and schools may close during important international matches. Fans from different clubs usually mingle peacefully inside 9 the grounds of the stadiums, although in recent years soccer rivalries have sometimes sparked violence in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. Other popular sports include basketball, volleyball, tennis, boating, swimming, and auto racing. The country went into mourning when Ayrton Senna was killed in a crash during the 1994 Formula One Grand Prix season. Other leisure activities include going to the beach, socializing, watching television and films, dancing, and listening to music. Regional festivals and traditional dances are often lively events.

Holidays and Celebrations

On New Year’s Eve (31 December), in addition to the traditional New Year’s Eve parties, thousands of practitioners of the Candomblé and Umbanda religions hold a special festival on Brazil’s beaches to honor Iemanjá, the goddess of the sea. This festival is particularly popular in São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Bahia. Tablecloths encircled by lit candles are laden with gifts brought by devotees to the goddess. At midnight those gathered, dressed in blue and white, move into the sea bearing their offerings. If the gifts are swept out to sea, it is a good omen; if they are spat back onto the shore, it is a bad omen. Carnaval, a five-day festival preceding Ash Wednesday in February or March, is the most famous Brazilian holiday. It is marked by joyous street parades, music, samba dancing, parties, and elaborate costumes. Most shops and offices are closed for the duration of the festival. Many Brazilians put significant time and money into their participation in Carnaval, using an entire year to prepare for the next festival’s floats, costumes, and dances. Brazilians celebrate the Easter holy days from Good Friday (the Friday preceding Easter) through Easter Sunday. On 21 April Tiradentes Day is observed as part of Inconfidência Week, which commemorates the unsuccessful Brazilian independence uprising of 1789. Joaquim José da Silva Xavier was martyred during the uprising. He was called Tiradentes (“Tooth Puller”) because he worked as a dentist. Labor Day is observed on 1 May. Corpus Christi, a Roman Catholic celebration of the Eucharist, is a legal holiday on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday, which occurs sometime in May or June. The Festas Juninas (June Festivals) are mainly for children and are celebrated locally with fair-type activities. They coincide with the feasts of Saint John and Saint Peter. Independence Day (7 September) celebrates Brazil’s liberation from Portugal in 1822. Nossa Senhora Aparecida is a public holiday on 12 October. All Souls’ Day is observed on 2 November. Proclamation of the Republic Day, on 15 November, commemorates the day in 1889 when Brazil was proclaimed a republic. Brazilians exchange gifts and eat the main Christmas meal on Christmas Eve. Gifts from Papi Noel (Santa Claus) appear on Christmas morning (25 December). Brazilians also observe a variety of local and state holidays.

10 CUSTOMS OF BULGARIA

Marriage and Family

The average age for women to marry is between 18 and 25. Men tend to marry when somewhat older. A church wedding often follows the legal civil ceremony, and a large reception, which often involves folk music and dancing, is held in the evening. Wedding traditions include pinning money on the bride’s dress to represent future prosperity, the groom serenading the bride at her home, and the couple pulling on opposite ends of a loaf of bread—whoever gets the largest piece will be the boss of the family. Honeymoons are a new tradition. The principle of mutual support is valued in the Bulgarian family. The elderly are often cared for by their adult children. Unmarried adults live with their parents and many newly married couples live with one set of parents until they are able to get housing of their own. Most families in urban areas live in apartments, which are in short supply, while families in rural areas usually have their own houses. Many village houses are owned by families who live in urban areas, who use them for summer and weekend retreats, or for retired parents. Most families in urban areas do not have more than two children, while families in rural areas tend to be larger. Grandparents play an important role in child care, particularly in urban areas, where most women work outside the home. Men of the younger generation have begun to help with household duties, once considered only women’s responsibility.

Eating

Pork and lamb are the most common meats, and dairy products such as yogurt and cheese figure prominently in the diet. Popular main meals include moussaka, a dish made with minced meat, potatoes, , and yogurt; and nadenitsa, which is stuffed pork sausage. Kufteta is a fried meat patty mixed with . Sarmi is grape leaves or stuffed with pork and rice. Grilled meat (skara), such as shishcheta (skewered lamb), is very popular, especially in restaurants. Shopska is a salad made with Bulgarian cheese (called cerene), cucumbers, and tomatoes. A favorite cold is tarator, which includes cucumbers, yogurt, , dill, walnuts, and oil. Cheese banitsa (a layered pastry) is eaten as a snack or for . Popular desserts include pumpkin banitsa; cakes; and baklava, a thin, leafy pastry with a syrup and nut filling. Coffee is usually either espresso or Turkish style, which is strong and usually sweetened. Meals are usually accompanied by a soft drink, alcohol, or coffee. Breakfast is usually light: coffee, a cheese-filled pastry, toast, or bread rolls. Traditionally, the main meal is eaten in the middle of the day and consists of soup, salad, a main course, and dessert. But many people now have a lighter lunch and eat their main meal in the evening, usually after 7 PM. Meals are considered an important time for conversation.

Socializing

11 When meeting someone, Bulgarians usually shake hands. Formal greetings include Kak ste? (“How are you?”) or Zdravaite (“Hello”). The informal equivalents, Kak si? and Zdrasti or Zdrave (“Health”), are used among friends, relatives, and colleagues. Other phrases include Dobro utro (“Good morning”), Dober den (“Good day”), Dober vetcher (“Good evening”), or Leka nosht (“Good night”). Close female friends might kiss each other on the cheek. First names are used in informal circumstances. Otherwise, professional titles or Gospodin (“Mr.”), Gospozha (“Mrs.”), or Gospozhitsa (“Miss”) and family names are used. When parting, it is common to say Do vizhdana (“Till I see you again”). Friends might also say Vsichko hubavo (“All the best”) or Ciao (“Goodbye”). “Yes” is indicated by shaking the head from side to side, and “no” is expressed with one or two nods of the head. In a line or crowd, physical contact is common and accepted. Bulgarians often touch while conversing, and female friends might walk arm-in- arm down the street. Socializing in the home or in cafés is an important part of Bulgarian life. Friends and neighbors commonly drop by for a short visit without prior arrangement, and Bulgarians often invite friends over for dinner. In some homes guests are expected to remove their shoes upon entering; slippers may be provided. Evening visits usually start after 8 PM and may last late into the night on special occasions. Bulgarians take pride in being hospitable and enjoy good conversation; it is considered rude to leave early.

Recreation

Skiing, soccer, and basketball are popular in Bulgaria. Many people also enjoy walking or touring the countryside. In August many go to the Black Sea beaches or the mountains. Bulgarians greatly enjoy folk dancing and music, and festivals held throughout the year highlight various aspects of traditional Bulgarian culture. In cities, the performing arts (ballet, opera, and classical music) have generally been well supported, and even small towns have a local theater. Other popular leisure activities include watching television and going to the cinema. Young people enjoy various types of popular music, including rock, disco, and folk.

Holidays and Celebrations

Public holidays include New Year’s Day (1 January), National Day of Freedom and Independence (3 March), Labor Days (1-2 May), the Day of Bulgarian Culture and Science (24 May), and Christmas Day (25 December). On 24 May, in addition to celebrating the country’s accomplishments in science and culture, Bulgarians honor Saints Cyril and Methodius for developing the Cyrillic alphabet. Name days (the feast days of the saint after whom one is named) are celebrated with a family meal. It is traditional to eat fruits and vegetables rather than meat on Christmas Eve, in order to celebrate the harvest and ensure that the next one will be prosperous. On New Year’s Day, families enjoy a large meal and exchange presents. Children go door to door wishing good fortune to friends and

12 relatives, carrying with them a survachka (a small, decorated stick), with which they touch the people they visit in exchange for candy and money. At the beginning of March, Bulgarians traditionally exchange martenitsa, red-and-white yarn designs that symbolize luck and happiness. The martenitsa is worn on the clothing until a swallow is seen. It is then hung on a branch or hidden under a rock to welcome spring and to symbolize the hope that the evil spirits will go to sleep.

CUSTOMS OF CHINA

Marriage and Family

Historically, loyalty to the family unit and the lineage has always been important to the Chinese. Stringent family-planning policies limiting urban Chinese couples to one child have been in practice since the early 1980s. To help the family-planning program succeed, young people are encouraged to wait to marry. In fact, college students are forbidden to marry until after graduation. The sanctioned age for marriage is 22 for men and 20 for women. Those who marry before that age are not eligible for some of the same benefits as those who wait. In order to marry, a couple first seeks permission from the local governing unit. If granted, a legal contract is recorded without a wedding ceremony. The couple then joins family and friends in a marriage celebration. Wedding rings are becoming somewhat more common. The woman retains her father's surname and does not take the family name of her husband. A woman is considered part of her husband's family after she has married, although many women, especially those belonging to the younger generations, maintain a close relationship with their families after marriage. Sons are traditionally valued more than daughters because they remain within their family, providing for their parents in old age and continuing the family line. Most people want their children to be well educated and more prosperous than they themselves have been.

Eating

Generally, there is not a great variety of food available throughout the country, except where private enterprise is well established. What people eat depends largely on what is produced in the region where they live. Dishes with potatoes, , maize meal, rice, and other grains are staple meals. Noodles are also common and man tou (steamed bread) is a staple in northern China. Dishes made with pork, beef, chicken, or fish are popular but expensive. Specialties vary from region to region, from duck in Beijing to spicy dishes in Sichuan province. Fruits and vegetables are eaten in season. In rural areas, few dairy products are available or eaten. Sauces are mixed with vegetables and meats and eaten with rice. Chopsticks are used for all meals in China. Food is placed at the center of the table and may include more than one type of main dish to be eaten with rice. Some food is taken to be placed in the bowl, which is then held close to the mouth for eating.

13 Inedible bones and seeds are placed on the table or in a dish but never back in the rice bowl. When finished, a person places the chopsticks neatly on the table; they are not left in the rice bowl. Soup is served toward the end of a meal, except in Guangdong province, where soup is served as the first course. At restaurants, a revolving tray at the center of the table allows guests to sample from several dishes. Toasts are offered to the whole table and sometimes to a neighboring table. At formal banquets, guests should have a short, friendly speech prepared to respond to a host’s remarks.

Socializing

The Chinese nod politely or bow slightly when greeting another person. A handshake is also acceptable, especially in formal situations or to show respect. Ni hao ma? ("How are you?") is a frequently used greeting. A common informal greeting is Chi le ma? (“Have you eaten?”). The response is either Chi le (“Yes”) or Mei you (“Not yet”). People often reply "Chi le" even if they have not eaten, in order to be polite. The Chinese tend to be formal in their introductions; they use the full titles of their guests but are less precise in identifying themselves. Chinese names usually consist of a one-syllable family name, followed by a one- or two- syllable given name. A person is either addressed by the full name or by the family name and title. In lieu of professional titles, the Chinese equivalents of “Mr.” and “Mrs.” are used. Thus, Wang Jian-Jun can also be called “Mr.” Wang, but never simply Wang and rarely ever Jian-Jun. In place of titles, the terms Lao and Xiao might be used between friends, the former for older friends and the latter for younger ones. Titles such as “Teacher” or “Doctor” may also be used. Except in crowds, where physical contact is unavoidable, the Chinese do not touch people they do not know. A smile is preferred to a pat on the back or a similar gesture. This is especially important when dealing with older people or people in important positions. Invitations are usually extended for formal gatherings, but otherwise it is common to drop by unannounced. When invited, one is generally prompt; being more than a few minutes late is considered impolite. Guests conduct themselves with restraint and refrain from loud, boisterous speech and actions. Valuable gifts are usually not accepted from strangers, but small gifts may be given by friends. In fact, friends often bring gifts such as tea, cigarettes, fruit, chocolates, cakes, or wine when they visit. Hosts rarely open wrapped gifts until visitors leave. Refreshments are usually offered, but it is not impolite to decline them. It is common for the host to insist several times before accepting the guest’s refusal. Evenings usually end quite early, as many Chinese are early risers.

Recreation

Theaters, ballets, films, and cultural monuments all provide recreation in cities. Imported films are popular; the average Chinese attends more than ten each year. Traveling cultural groups perform in rural areas. Sports are popular, and facilities are found in most cities. Favorites include table tennis, swimming, and

14 soccer. Parks and courtyards are often filled in the morning by those practicing t’ai chi ch’uan, a traditional form of shadowboxing that provides exercise and meditation. People enjoy gathering for discussion or card and table games. Many ancient and popular games originated in China, including majiang (mah-jongg), which is the nation’s most popular table game; Chinese chess; and various card games. Wei qi (known as “Go” in some other countries) is a strategy game played in more educated circles.

Holidays and Celebrations

The first official public holiday of the year is celebrated on 1 January. The celebration (also called the Spring Festival) is held in January or February, according to the Chinese . As the most important holiday, the Spring Festival is marked by several days of festivities, including banquets, family gatherings, carnivals, and dances. The government ensures that food supplies are abundant during the days of celebration; fish (a symbol of abundance), meat, prawns, rice, and (Chinese ) are typical Spring Festival delicacies. The change of seasons from winter to spring occurs on or around 5 March, and is called Jing zhe (Ching Che), or the Feast of Excited Insects. The Chinese regard this as the day “the dragon raises his head” and stirs the insects from their hibernation. Rituals are carried out to help revive the earth’s fertility. International Women’s Day is observed on 8 March. It originated in the United States in the 1850s when women protested working conditions in the garment and textile industries. It is now honored in China and many other countries around the world to acknowledge the contributions of women. Labor Day is observed on 1 May as a time to celebrate improved conditions for the general workforce. International Literacy Day, on 8 September, has been observed since the 1960s by China and other countries that belong to the United Nations (UN). People’s Republic of China. The Birthday of K’ung Fu-tzu (Confucius), also known as Teacher’s Day, is celebrated on 28 September. Confucius, who was born in 551 BC, played a major part in shaping the ethics and politics of China. Confucianism advocates respect, obedience, and selflessness, while emphasizing virtues such as wisdom, justice, and loyalty. Another public holiday is National Day (1–2 October), followed by United Nations Day on 24 October. ChinaThe Birthday of Sun Yat-sen is celebrated on 12 November. Revered as the father of modern China due to his plans for industrialization, Sun Yat-sen played a leadership role in Chinese politics in the first part of the 20th century. Other traditional festivals celebrated in China during different times of the year include the Lantern Festival (15th day of the first lunar month), the Dragon Boat Festival (5th day of the fifth lunar month), and the Mid-Autumn, or Moon Festival (15th day of the eighth lunar month).

15 CUSTOMS OF CZECH REPUBLIC

Marriage and Family

Most men are married by the age of 30; women marry earlier. Most urban weddings are held at city hall, with only the immediate family and closest friends present. A family luncheon or dinner is usually held afterward at a nearby hotel. Suits and short dresses have been the standard wedding attire, but tuxedos and more formal gowns are becoming more popular. A church wedding after the civil ceremony is becoming more common, and so are honeymoons. Weddings in rural areas tend to involve a wider range of people. Traditional dress might be worn, and celebrations can last all day. In urban areas, many young couples live with their parents after marriage because of a housing shortage, but they strive to become independent as soon as possible. Many families live in large apartment complexes on the outskirts of the city, another result of the urban housing issue. In urban areas, most families in the Czech Republic include no more than two children; families in rural areas tend to be larger. Both parents generally work outside the home, but women are usually responsible for the household and children as well. Mothers receive several months of paid maternity leave, a subsidy for each birth, and child-care services when they return to work. Grandparents often help with child care, especially when a young couple is just starting out. Parents feel responsible for their adult children until they are financially independent; in return, adult children expect to take care of aging parents. Parents and children tend to share more expensive things such as cars or chaty (vacation homes) for many years.

Eating

Traditionally Czechs have enjoyed heavy home cooking, but in the past decade a healthier diet (fewer heavy sauces, leaner meat, more vegetables) that is easier to prepare has become more popular. Breakfast usually consists of rolls, coffee cake, butter, jam, and coffee. Lunch, traditionally the main meal of the day, usually begins with a hearty soup, followed by a main dish of meat and potatoes or dumplings. A common dish is vepřo-knedlo-zelo (pork roast, dumplings, and sauerkraut). Ham on bread and sausages in buns are popular snack foods that can be purchased from street vendors. A wide variety of bread and bakery items are available. Many desserts are made from fruit. Beer, soda, and juice are common drinks. Toasting is common at both formal and informal events. Few Czech men cook, although they might help clean up when the meal is finished. Plates are usually prepared in the kitchen and carried to the table, and the head of household or the guests are served first. People eat with the fork in the left hand and the knife in the right, and hands, but not elbows, are kept above the table. In many families conversation at mealtime is limited, unless a guest is present, and follows the lead given by the head of the household. Second helpings are usually offered to guests, but it is not impolite to decline after complimenting the food.

16 Socializing

When strangers meet or when a young person greets an older person, they shake hands firmly, although a man usually waits for a woman to extend her hand first. Common greetings include Tesĭ me (“Pleased to meet you”) or Dobrý den (“Good day”). To say goodbye, the formal Na shledanou or the informal Čau are used. Ahoj is used as an informal “Hi” and “Bye.” The response to Dekuji (“Thank you”) is Prosĭm (“Please”), meaning “You’re welcome.” Jokes and parables are commonly used in conversation. To show respect, one addresses a person by his or her professional title (Engineer, Doctor, Professor) and last name. It is common to preface someone’s name (and title when he or she has one) with Pan (“Sir”) or Paní (“Madam”); for example, a female doctor would be greeted with Dobrý den, Paní Doktorko, followed by her last name. First names are not used until people are well acquainted. Relatives generally hug upon meeting and address each other by first names, as do young people of the same age. Czechs consider the home to be private and usually call ahead before visiting. They rarely invite anyone other than family or close friends for more than a drink or coffee, preferring instead to entertain at a restaurant. Friends often socialize in bars, coffeehouses, and wine bars. Many older Czechs, however, especially women, prefer to visit close friends at home. It is common for Czechs to remove their shoes when entering a home and, although Czechs are welcoming hosts, etiquette is important when enjoying someone’s hospitality. Guests are offered something to drink or, prior to a meal, hors d’oeuvres. Those invited for a meal usually bring a small gift to the hosts. Inexpensive gifts for the children are also appreciated.

Recreation

Czechs enjoy spending time in and around the country’s forests, fields, mountains, and lakes. Some families own vacation homes and some tend garden plots of flowers, fruit trees, and vegetables that are either near their vacation homes or in communal garden areas on city outskirts. Camping, walking, swimming in lakes, gathering and berries, and skiing are all popular outdoor activities. Increasing numbers of Czechs are also enjoying their new opportunities to travel outside the country for both short breaks and longer holidays. The most popular sports are soccer, tennis, and ice hockey. Other leisure pursuits include watching television, going to movies or concerts, dancing, home improvements, and socializing with family or friends.

Holidays and Celebrations

New Year’s Day (1 January) is a public holiday and is celebrated with fireworks and parties. Small marzipan pigs, or cards in the shape of pigs, are given out for good luck. Other public holidays include Easter Monday, End of World War II (8 May), the day of Saints Cyril and Methodius (the brothers who introduced Christianity and created the Cyrillic alphabet used before the current

17 Latin one; 5 July), Jan Hus Day (6 July), Founding of the First Republic in 1918 (28 October), and Christmas (25–26 December). On Christmas Eve, a traditional meal of carp is served in honor of the Czechs’ Catholic heritage. The carp can be bought live on any street corner in the days before Christmas, and Czechs traditionally keep the carp alive in the bathtub for several days before preparing it to be eaten on Christmas Eve. Vánocka, a fruit bread, is eaten in the days leading to Christmas and during Lent. Vestiges of old fertility rites still cling to the Czech Easter celebration. In particular, boys are given colorful “switches” with which they gently strike the girls they have their eyes on. In return, the switched girl bestows an egg upon the boy. If a boy comes all the way to a girl’s home, he is then invited in for refreshments. This is a time-honored tradition, and switches are sold on street corners in the weeks before Easter. Velvet Revolution Day (17 November), while not an official holiday, is marked with rallies and speeches. PragueOtherwise, there is little public celebration, as Czechs seem anxious to put their past firmly behind them. Name days in the Czech Republic are as important as birthdays. A person’s name day is the feast day of the saint after whom the person was named, clearly marked on most calendars. Local saints’ days are celebrated throughout the country with fairs, dancing, feasting, and special masses.

CUSTOMS OF CUBA

Marriage and Family

Most Cubans get married in their 20s. A civil ceremony is followed by a small family party, and an increasing number of couples are also having church ceremonies. Honeymoons generally last about a week. Newlyweds usually live with one set of parents until they can obtain housing, which is in short supply.

Many households include grandparents as well as the nuclear family, and extended family members often live nearby. The average family owns a small house or apartment; many homes have electricity, running water, and consumer goods such as a television. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the intensification of the U.S. blockade, however, power cuts and rationing have become common. Women make up 39.2more than 50 percent of the country's professionals. There are a number of women in leading government and administrative posts. However, women are also responsible for most household chores and child care, although men of the younger generation are beginning to share such responsibilities. Government day-care centers educate and care for children between the ages of six months and five years. In Cuba, as in most Central and South American countries, a person bears two family names. The person’s last name is the mother’s family name, and the second-to-last name is the father’s family name and the person’s surname. For example, Manuel, the child of Juan Valdés Garcia and Rosa López Hernandez, would be named Manuel Valdés López.

18 Eating

As a result of the drastic reduction in imports and industrial production, the Cuban diet has become increasingly restricted to foods grown locally. Arroz y frijoles (rice and beans) is the traditional staple meal. Rice is served at most meals, along with a favorite food such as potatoes, boniatos (sweet potatoes), yuca (cassava), plátanos (plantains), or tomatoes. Eggs are eaten boiled, fried, or as an omelette (omelet). Maize is the basis of many foods, the most popular being harina de maíz (cornmeal). Roast pork, currently a luxury, is enjoyed on special occasions. Cubans in coastal areas eat locally caught seafood. Tilapia, a freshwater fish found in Cuba’s numerous reservoirs, is also popular. Homegrown tropical fruits include mangoes, avocados, guavas, oranges, lemons, pineapples, and papayas. A system of rationing has been in place since the revolution in 1959, when Fidel Castro and his opposition forces overtook the government of Fulgencio Batista y Zaldívar. The rationing has generally been effective in ensuring a fair share of available food. At present, as a result of economic difficulties, even the basic foods are in short supply, and some necessities such as meat and soap have disappeared from the ration books altogether. This has created considerable anxiety and hardship. Only the new “dollar stores,” for those who have U.S. dollars with which to buy food, are well stocked. The daily meals are desayuno (breakfast), almuerzo (lunch), and comida (dinner). A light breakfast is usually accompanied by a cup of black coffee. Most workers and students eat lunch at work or school. Families eat their most important meal together in the evening. Table manners vary from home to home, but in general hands are kept above the table. When guests are present, hosts will usually make a point of offering second helpings, but it is acceptable to decline. With the exception of expensive home restaurants (restaurants run out of large houses), all restaurants are state-owned. Prices are affordable, but the wait for a table can be long.

Socializing

Men greet each other with a handshake and ¿Qué tal? (“How are you?”). Men often shake hands with everyone when entering a home or greeting a group. Most women kiss each other once on the cheek and offer a verbal greeting. Kissing on the cheek is also common between friends of the opposite sex, especially among younger people. Common verbal greetings include ¡Buenos días! (“Good morning!”), ¡Buenas tardes! (“Good afternoon!”), ¡Buenas noches! (“Good evening!”), and ¡Adios! (“Good-bye!”). ¡Adios! is also a typical greeting when passing someone on the street. When parting, people may say ¡Hasta luego! (“So long!”). First names are usually used to address acquaintances, or one may use a professional title without a surname. Among strangers, Compañero or Compañera (“Comrade”), Señor (“Mr.”), and Señora (“Mrs.”) are frequently used. Nicknames are common among friends, acquaintances, and coworkers. Cubans are extremely social, and visiting the homes of relations and friends is common. Friends and acquaintances who meet on the street or who are waiting in line, or those who meet

19 at gatherings in neighborhoods and work centers, also commonly spend some time socializing. Although unarranged visits on weekdays are usually welcome, weekends and holidays are the most popular times to visit. Guests are generally offered something to drink, such as black coffee, wine, or a soft drink, although it is not impolite to decline. When Cubans in rural areas visit urban friends, they may take a gift of food. When Cubans in urban areas visit friends in rural areas, they may offer to help pay expenses related to their stay. As a result of energy shortages and evening blackouts, the practice of inviting friends over for an informal evening meal or party has become less common. When invited to gatherings, guests often bring gifts of rum, wine, or food to be consumed during the evening.

Recreation

Sports are a high priority in Cuba. The most popular sport is baseball. Boys begin playing in leagues as early as age seven, and competition at adult and college level is well organized. Almost every town has a team and a stadium. Cubans see baseball as a Cuban activity, despite the North American influence, and some theorize that the game arose from a game called batey played by the earlier Arawak people. Cubans are widely thought to be the best amateur baseball players in the world, having won more than 80 percent of world championships in the last quarter century. Boxing, basketball, swimming, volleyball, and cycling are widely enjoyed. Girls participate in athletics in school, but few women continue to play sports after they have finished their formal education. Cubans have long enjoyed dancing (the rumba, mambo, and chachachá originated in Cuba), music, and festivals, and today they also spend their recreational hours going to movies, or watching videos or television. Cuba has a film industry, theater, ballet, discos, and cabaret. The game of dominoes is played by males of all ages, especially the retired, all over the country.

Holidays and Celebrations

Independence Day (1 January) commemorates the revolution of 1958 to 1959; it is preceded by New Year’s Eve (31 December) festivities. Other holidays are Labor Day (1 May), the Anniversary of the Attack on the Moncada Garrison in Santiago de Cuba in 1953 (26 July), and the Beginning of the War of Independence from Spain (10 October). Mother’s Day (second Sunday in May) is widely observed. The celebration of Christmas was banned from 1969 until 1998, when it was reinstated as a holiday following the visit of Pope John Paul II. Christians attend services during Holy Week and on Easter Sunday. Often a particular holiday honors both a Catholic saint and an African deity. For example, on 17 December both the Catholic Saint Lazarus and the African god Babalú Ayé are celebrated, and tens of thousands of Cubans make a pilgrimage to a chapel near Havana dedicated to the two of them. Similarly, on 4 December people honor the Catholic martyr Saint Barbara and the African deity Changó. The patron saint of Cuba,

20 Virgen de la Caridad del Cobre (“Virgin of Charity of El Cobre”), is honored on 8 September, together with the African goddess Ochún.

CUSTOMS OF DENMARK

Marriage and Family

Many couples live together before or instead of getting married, and common-law marriages are recognized by the state. Families in Denmark are small, usually having one or two children. Both father and mother often work outside the home, and children are encouraged to be independent from a relatively young age. Average incomes are among the highest in the world, but Danes also pay high taxes, which in turn fund generous social welfare provisions such as child care and maternity and paternity leave.

Eating

Breakfast consists of coffee or tea, pastries or rolls, and cheese, eggs, or cereal. For lunch, many have open (smørrebrød) and a drink. Pumpernickel and rye are popular types of bread for sandwiches. The main meal is dinner, which the family has together at around 6 PM. It usually consists of just one course, although it is likely to be more elaborate on weekends. Danes eat a wide variety of foods found throughout Europe. Pork is the most commonly eaten meat. For family gatherings and special occasions, a frokostbord (a buffet of many different foods) is often served. At the main evening meal everyone is seated and serves themselves before anyone begins to eat. A parent will often say Vær så god (“Please, begin”) to begin the meal, especially if guests are present. When passing and receiving food, one might say Vær så god and Tak (“Thank you”). Because people usually serve themselves from dishes on the table, it is considered bad manners to leave food on one’s plate. When being entertained, everyone waits for the host to say Skål! (“Cheers!”) before they take a drink. Upon leaving, guests may thank the hosts for the meal by saying Tak for mad! (“Thanks for the meal!”).

Socializing

When meeting someone for the first time it is normal to shake hands, but on further occasions, if the circumstances are informal, Danes may not bother with a handshake. Acquaintances often greet each other with Davs, which is the equivalent of “Hello.” Young people say Hej (“Hi”) both when greeting and parting. A more formal greeting is Goddag (“Good day”). The use of first names is widespread. It is common for people to drop in on friends in Denmark, and Danes tend to be informal hosts who are concerned with making their guests feel at home. When visiting someone’s home for the first time, it is usual to take a gift such as a plant or cut flowers. Similarly, many people take a gift when invited to someone’s house for a meal. Punctuality is very important; if there is any chance of being even 15 minutes late, it is polite to telephone one’s hosts to warn them.

21 Recreation

Soccer was brought to Denmark in the mid-19th century by British workers sent to help build a railway. It caught on rapidly and has become the country’s favorite sport. The Danes exported soccer to Germany near the turn of the century. People also enjoy a range of other sports, including handball; badminton; tennis; swimming; sailing; and golf, which is growing in popularity. Since a commercial channel was introduced in 1988 (before which there had been only one state-run channel that broadcast during limited hours) and with the growth of cable, they have started to watch more television. In Copenhagen, the arts are well supported.

Holidays and Celebrations

Official holidays include New Year’s Day (1 January), Easter (Thursday through Monday), All Prayers' Day, Ascension, Whitmonday, Constitution Day (5 June), Christmas Day (25 December) and 26 December. Queen Margrethe’s birthday (16 April) is a day of special celebration. Christmas is celebrated over three days. On Christmas Eve, there is a tradition of singing songs while dancing in a circle around a lighted tree. Celebrants also exchange gifts and eat a special meal. On New Year’s Eve, Denmark is filled with activity: there are parties, speeches by the Queen and prime minister, the ringing of cathedral bells, and a night sky illuminated by fireworks. In some villages, young people play pranks on this night. The Monday before Ash Wednesday (the beginning of Lent) is called Fastelavn. Special buns called fastelavnsboller are baked. Children dress up in costumes and go door-to-door begging for buns, but are content with candy or coins. There is also a Fastelavn tradition of hanging up wooden barrels filled with candy, which children beat until the barrels come apart and spill the candy. Instead of individually celebrating a number of holidays honoring various minor saints in the spring, Danes celebrate Store Bededag, or All Prayers' Day, on the fourth Friday after Easter. This public holiday was instituted by Count Johann Friedrich von Struensee in the 18th century. A special hot bread called varme hveder is eaten on Store Bededag.

CUSTOMS OF ENGLAND

Marriage and Family

Marriage is legal at age 16 but usually takes place when people are in their mid- to late 20s. Fewer people are getting married than in the past and those who do are marrying later. It has become increasingly popular in recent years for couples to live together before or instead of marriage.English families are small (one or two children are the norm). Women are having fewer children and are waiting longer to have them. In the past three decades, a substantial number of women have begun working outside the home. The divorce rate has risen, as has the number of single-parent families.Since the early 1980s, the division between rich and poor has grown, but the middle class remains the largest section of 22 society. Home ownership is high—about two-thirds of the people own their own houses or flats (apartments).

Eating

Since the 1960s, the English diet has become more diverse; the English now eat a wide variety of European and Asian foods. Many traditional foods such as beef and potatoes have given way to poultry and pasta dishes. Fast food has also become more available, and restaurants now rival the traditional fish- and-chip shops in popularity. Numerous Chinese and Indian restaurants and pizza houses provide take-away service, and many pubs (public houses) serve anything from snacks to full meals as well as alcoholic beverages. Traditional English dishes include and yorkshire pudding (a baked batter usually served in muffin- sized portions) and and kidney pie. The English generally eat three meals a day. A traditional English breakfast consists of any or all of the following: bacon, sausages, grilled or fried tomatoes, mushrooms, eggs, or toast. Kippers (smoked herring) or black pudding (blood pudding) may also appear on the menu. However, fewer people now eat a cooked breakfast on a regular basis, preferring various combinations of cereal, toast, juice or fruit, and tea or coffee. The midday meal is usually referred to as lunch and the evening meal as dinner or, when it is less formal, as supper. Working-class people tend to call the midday meal dinner and the meal they have in the early evening “tea.” The tradition of afternoon tea, when tea, biscuits, and cakes are enjoyed at about 4 PM, has declined. Similarly, many people no longer have more than a light lunch or snack in the middle of the day.

Socializing

The English often say “How do you do?” or “Pleased to meet you” when meeting for the first time. People usually shake hands when first introduced or when greeting and parting in business and other formal situations. Otherwise many English people will simply say “Hello” when they see each other. Among friends, women are often kissed (by men and women) lightly on one cheek. The use of first names is widespread; titles such as “Mr.” and “Mrs.” are being used less frequently, even when children address adults.It is customary to respect people’s privacy by telephoning before visiting. When invited to a meal by friends, guests often bring a bottle of wine or another small gift.

Recreation

Wintertime national sports are football (soccer) and Rugby Union. Rugby League, which is played mainly in the north, switched from a winter to a summer season in 1996. One of the most popular spectator sports is horseracing (over jumps in the winter and on a flat track in the summer). The traditional summer sport is cricket. Modern lawn tennis was first played in England, and the rules of modern boxing came from the country as well. The English are avid walkers and also enjoy golf and fishing. Gardening is a favorite way to relax and represents a 23 huge industry (gardening books can become best-sellers). Other sports with enthusiastic participants are sailing, rowing, squash, snooker, and darts. The pub remains a popular place to socialize with friends. Relaxing in the home, however, is still more popular. With the exception of U.S. citizens, the British watch more television than anyone else in the world and claim that one reason for this is the high quality of British programming. Videos are also popular, but many people equally enjoy seeing films at the cinema. All types of music and theater are well supported. The country is also rich in art galleries and museums.

Holidays and Celebrations

Shrove Tuesday is known as Pancake Day in England. It was traditionally a day to make pancakes and use up all the butter and eggs that would not be allowed during Lent, which starts the following day, Ash Wednesday. Some families still make pancakes at home on Pancake Day. In an annual race held in Olney since 1945, women run carrying a pan and a pancake that must be flipped three times.Mothering Sunday, traditionally the fourth Sunday in Lent, is a day to visit and bring gifts to one’s mother. On 1 April, April Fool’s tricks are played.May Day is celebrated on the first Monday of May. On Guy Fawkes or Bonfire Night (5 November), fireworks and bonfires on which effigies of Guy Fawkes are burned celebrate Fawkes's failure in his attempt to blow up the houses of Parliament on 4 November 1605.On the second Sunday in November, Remembrance Day honors veterans. Red paper poppies are sold by the British Legion to raise money for veterans.During (25 December), the traditional “cracker” is supposed to be laid beside each plate. Those seated next to each other pull the ends of each other’s crackers, which make a loud bang! Inside there is a crepe-paper hat and a trinket. Boxing Day (26 December), so called for small earthenware boxes that tradespeople and civil servants traditionally carried around to collect tips, is now simply a leisure day and a very busy day in the sporting calendar. Many offices, but not shops, close for all of the Christmas-to-New Year period.New Year’s Day (1 January), Good Friday (the Friday preceding Easter), and Easter Monday (the Monday following Easter) are three of England’s traditional “bank holidays,” on which banks and other businesses close. The other bank holidays include May Day, the spring and summer bank holidays (the last Monday in May and the last Monday in August, respectively), Christmas Day, and Boxing Day.Most employees get four to five weeks’ annual vacation. Most people take their main two- or three-week vacation in July or August. A sizable minority also take a winter vacation, usually to go skiing or to somewhere warm and sunny. Short trips of two to five days to other parts of the country or to continental Europe have become increasingly popular.

24 CUSTOMS OF FRANCE

Marriage and Family

A marriage is legally recognized only if there has been a civil ceremony, but many people have a religious ceremony as well. An increasing number of people live together before getting married or as an alternative to marriage. Family ties and loyalty remain strong, but there has been a shift from the extended family to the smaller nuclear family. The average family has fewer than two children, and many children now leave home when they have finished school. There has also been an increase in the number of people choosing not to have children. Europe

Eating

The French consider cooking an art, and French cuisine is popular around the world. The first French cookbooks date back to the Middle Ages, and French standards were the early gauge of fine cooking. French wines are also internationally renowned. Regional traditions are strong. There are several types of cooking, ranging from hearty, inexpensive fare to sophisticated dishes with costly ingredients and rich, complex sauces. Nouvelle cuisine, which emerged in the 1970s, was a reaction to the heaviness of this style of cooking. While still using expensive ingredients, it is much lighter, the portions smaller, and the presentation more artistic. The French generally eat a light breakfast (petit déjeuner), which may consist of croissants or bread and coffee or hot chocolate. Lunch (déjeuner) was once the main meal of the day, but now many people—particularly in urban areas—have a lighter lunch and eat their main meal in the evening. In Paris, lunch is usually eaten at around 1 pm and dinner (dîner) at 9 pm or later. People tend to eat earlier in other areas. The ritual of leisurely meals is important in France. Formal and may last more than two hours. They generally include an appetizer; a main course of fish or meat, accompanied by vegetables; salad; cheese; and fruit. These elaborate meals often end with dessert and coffee. Fast food has been resisted by the French, although this resistance has not been entirely successful, and many hamburger restaurants operate across the country. In fast food’s most traditional form there are filled croissants and sandwiches that can be purchased in shops and cafés. Cafés also offer crôque monsieur (toasted ham and cheese) and a plate of salad-type vegetables or a cold-meat assortment (charcuterie) for a light meal. Pâtisseries sell pastries and crêperies sell crêpes. The French go to restaurants more often than their northern European neighbors. Almost every restaurant has at least one fixed-price menu (a selection of two or three dishes for each course at a set price), as well as a menu offering individual selections. In most of France it is usual to choose from the fixed-price menu unless it is a special occasion.

25 Socializing

Shaking hands upon greeting and parting is customary in France. The handshake should be firm, but an aggressive handshake is considered impolite. Among friends and relatives, women are kissed (by men and women) up to three times on both cheeks—in truth they often touch cheeks and “kiss the air.” The standard phrases for greeting include Bonjour (“Good day”) and Comment allez- vous? or the more informal Ça va? (both meaning “How are you?”). Greetings are usually combined with the person’s name or a title, and usually precede any conversation or request. Good-bye is Au revoir (“Until we meet again”) or the less formal À bientôt (“See you soon”). First names are used between friends and close colleagues, but otherwise titles are important and customary. Besides professional titles, Monsieur (“Mr.”), Madame (“Mrs.”), and Mademoiselle (“Miss”) are commonly used. The local café used to be the main center for social life, but more people now spend their evenings at home. Socializing tends to be reserved for the weekends. The French are formal in their visiting customs, and people do not often visit unannounced. It is usual to arrive up to 15 or 20 minutes late for a social occasion, but arriving any later may appear rude. The host is often given a bottle of wine or another small gift. French hosts feel they are responsible for, and enjoy, guiding or directing social occasions by organizing the seating, leading the conversation, and so forth. Visitors are expected to show a certain deference to the host and, except when they are very good friends, not make themselves too much at home. It is important to compliment the host on the cooking and the wine, because good cooking is a matter of much pride in French homes.

Recreation

Soccer and rugby are popular spectator sports, and the annual Tour de France cycling race is followed avidly. Almost 2 million people belong to amateur soccer clubs, and participation is high in cycling, fishing, tennis, walking, skiing, and sailing. Hunting is also popular, as are horseback riding and golf. Pétanque (or boule), a form of bowling, is still much played, particularly in the south, where the game originated. racing provides a popular outlet for betting. Bullfighting is confined to the south, principally in Languedoc-Roussillon and the Basque country. Summer music festivals occur throughout France, and there has been increased support for concerts, theater, and the opera. Theater thrives partly because of generous state subsidies. Cinema remains popular, and museums have also enjoyed increased support.

Holidays and Celebrations

The French ring in the New Year on 1 January. The Feast of the Epiphany, also called Le Jour des Rois (“The Day of the Kings”) is celebrated on 6 January. On this day, parties feature the traditional galette des rois (“cake of the kings”), in

26 which a token has been baked; whoever finds the token in his or her slice of cake is crowned “king” or “queen” for the evening. Easter Sunday is followed by the public holiday of Easter Monday. May Day (1 May) is marked by the wearing of lilies of the valley, small nosegays of which are sold on many street corners leading up to May Day. It is believed that those who make wishes while wearing the flowers on May Day will have their wishes granted. France’s Labor Day is also on 1 May. VE (Victory in Europe) Day on 8 May commemorates the unconditional surrender of the Germans to Allied forces in 1945. Ascension Day, 40 days after Easter, marks the day Jesus Christ is said to have ascended to Heaven. Whitsunday—or the Pentecost—50 days after Easter, is the day the Holy Spirit is said to have appeared to his disciples in the form of tongues of fire, and symbolizes the beginnings of the Christian church. The following day, Whitmonday, is a public holiday. Perhaps the most colorful of French holidays is Bastille Day (La Fête Nationale) on 14 July. The Bastille, a Parisian prison that came to symbolize the monarchy, was stormed by angry citizens on 14 July 1789. This event set off the French Revolution. Now 14 July crackles with fireworks day and night; parades are held, and there is dancing in the streets. Assumption Day, 15 August, commemorates the day Mary’s body is said to have been “assumed” into Heaven. All of the Christian saints are honored on the first day of November, La Toussaint, or All Saints’ Day. Armistice Day (11 November) marks the day in 1918 when the armistice was signed between the Allied and Central powers fighting World War I. Christmas is celebrated on 25 December. Most employees have five weeks’ holiday a year, and some take as much as four weeks in summer. During August, the traditional holiday month, many factories and offices close, as do some restaurants in Paris. Traditionally, the French have taken their holidays in their own country, with many choosing to camp. An increasing number now venture farther afield. Several million people ski in the winter, most of them at resorts in the French Alps.

CUSTOMS OF GERMANY

Marriage and Family

Couples usually marry in their late 20s or early 30s, often waiting until they have some financial security. It is common for young people to live together before or instead of marriage. Legal marriages are performed at city hall, and religious ceremonies are optional. Over the years, families have become smaller. The average family now has only one or two children, and children in urban areas tend to live away from home once they become wage earners or go on to university studies. In rural areas, households comprised of extended families are more common. Both parents often work, especially in the east. The traditional family values of order, respect, responsibility, and achievement are still important, but there is much less rigidity in family life, and a wide variety of lifestyles exist today, especially in the west.

27 Eating

German food traditionally includes substantial portions of meat and potatoes or, to a lesser extent, noodles. Pork is a popular meat, along with beef and, to a lesser extent, chicken. Pork is prepared in a variety of ways, often according to region: it may be roasted with dumplings in Munich, for example, or served as a ham in parts of North Rhine-Westphalia. Lamb is more of a delicacy but is widely available in the north. Fish is popular in North Sea areas such as Hamburg, as well as in the south, in Bavaria (Bavaria), where trout are plentiful. Every region has its own type of Wurst (sausage). Cakes and pastries are also eaten. Breakfast is usually light, with rolls and cheese, cold cuts, or jam accompanied by coffee or another hot drink. Traditionally, the main meal has been at midday, but an increasing number of people now have it in the evening and have only a snack or a light lunch. A typical meal is three courses: soup, a main dish, and dessert. A typical light supper is Abendbrot, an open with sliced meat, cheese, a spread, and salad. Germans tend to shop frequently for groceries, preferring to use fresh ingredients when cooking. Ethnic and fast foods are popular. In the west, at least, there are numerous Italian, Greek, and Chinese restaurants, and many of the top restaurants serve French nouvelle cuisine. The Germans are known for their beer making and beer drinking. They also enjoy wines, particularly domestic white wines. There are numerous small winemaking businesses in Germany that produce wine solely for the domestic market. Soft drinks are increasingly popular among the youth. Mealtimes are between noon and 2 PM for lunch and between 6 and 9 PM for supper. Table manners are much the same as in other northern European countries. Fish is usually cut with a fork rather than a knife. Most people prefer to drink bottled mineral water rather than tap water.

Socializing

A firm handshake is the most common form of greeting. Greetings vary by region, but the most common phrase is Guten Tag! (“Good Day!”). A simple Hallo (“Hello”) is also common. Many people in southern Germany use Grüß Gott! (literally “May God greet you!”) as a greeting. By tradition, only family members and close friends address each other by their first names. Germans are much more formal in this respect than many other western nationalities, although younger people increasingly use more informal forms of address. In formal greetings, Germans use surnames and titles, such as Herr (“Mr.”), Frau (“Mrs.”), and Fräulein (“Miss”). In the most formal situations, these titles might be combined with a person’s professional title, sometimes without the surname. For example, a male professor with a doctoral degree might be addressed as Herr Professor Doktor; a female head of department in business or government could be addressed as Frau Direktorin. Fräulein is used much less frequently than in the past and is not usually used by members of the younger generations. Germans rarely call on people unannounced. Punctuality is important, although it is acceptable to arrive up to a quarter of an hour after the stated time for the

28 invitation. When invited to dinner it is common to bring flowers or another gift for the hosts. Dinner parties often last well into the night, but daytime visits are usually short, except when one has been invited for Kaffeetrinken, when coffee or tea and sweets are served in the mid- to late afternoon. When socializing outside the home, wine taverns and beer gardens are popular in warm weather. In cold weather, many people socialize in bars and cafés.

Recreation

Because of negotiated agreements on working hours, Germans enjoy a relatively high amount of leisure time, which they fill with activities such as walking, skiing, swimming, running, cycling, touring in cars, or playing tennis. In urban areas, it is not unusual for people to own or rent small garden plots in or near the city. Germans' love of the outdoors translates into a strong environmental consciousness. Soccer is the most popular sport, and millions of people belong to soccer clubs. Recreational clubs and associations play a big role in local social life; they exist for every kind of hobby. Young people are more likely to participate in team sports through local clubs than through schools. Throughout Germany, clubs sponsor Volksmärsche, walks of 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) or more along a specified route. These events are especially popular in the southern part of the country. Sometimes the locations of the walks are not announced until the morning they take place, which adds suspense. Then participants tune in to the radio to find out where the walk will begin. Participants buy a card, which is stamped at control stations along the way. Volksmärsche can be festive occasions. Once the walk is over, walkers and nonwalkers alike socialize over cakes, pies, wursts, and other refreshments. Walkers receive prizes for the cumulative distances they cover and for the number of events they attend. Of the performing arts, music is the Germans' first love, followed by the theater. Generous state and city subsidies mean that even small cities support their own opera company, orchestra, and sometimes even a ballet, and many small towns have a theater or music group. These are all well supported, and in summer there are music and arts festivals throughout the country. Germans in the west have long relished travel, something those in the east are also beginning to enjoy. People also enjoy watching television or visiting friends.

Holidays and Celebrations

Neujahr (1 January), or the New Year, is a public holiday in Germany. During the week before Catholic Lent, Carnival—called Fastnacht or Fasching—is celebrated in some regions, where people have fancy balls, parades, and other celebrations. In the Rhineland region of western Germany, the first of the five days of Carnival is Weiberfastnacht, or “Women’s Carnival.” The tradition is said to have started in the town of Beuel in the early 19th century, when the laundry women grew tired of watching their husbands celebrating Carnival without them—and, even worse, with the money they earned washing clothes. In protest the women themselves began to celebrate with song and dance. Now this celebration is known for its carefree

29 nature and often bizarre events. The week before Easter is known in Germany as Karwoche—“Still Week” or “Silent Week”—and Holy Thursday is called Green Thursday. This comes from the tradition of giving a green branch to penitents after they have finished their penance. Easter Sunday and Monday are both observed, with worship services on Sunday and family gatherings on Monday. Walpurgisnacht (“Walpurgis Night”) is celebrated on 30 April. On this date in the 8th century, the remains of Saint Walburga were moved to Eichstätt. After that time, according to legend, oil was found on the rocks at Eichstätt that had the power to cure, so a shrine to Saint Walburga was established. She is revered as the saint who protects against magic. People once believed that on Walpurgisnacht, witches rode across the sky over the Harz Mountains of Germany. In an effort to ward off the witches, people banged pots and pans and lit torches. This day is still celebrated with bonfires and other activities.Labor Day (1 May) is often celebrated by raising maypoles and participating in parades. The Day of German Unity is celebrated on 3 October. On 31 October, some Germans observe Reformation Day, which is also known as Luther’s Theses Day. On this date in 1517, Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses to a church door in Wittenberg. In his writings, he expressed his specific problems with the Roman Catholic Church. This event marked the start of the Protestant Reformation.The Christmas season begins with Advent, which lasts from the Sunday closest to 30 November until 24 December. Christmas markets are held in towns, villages, and most large cities. Musical performances abound. Children put their shoes out the evening before Saint Nicholas's day (6 December) to receive small treats. Gifts are given on Heiliger Abend (Christmas Eve), and the family relaxes on Christmas Day (25 December). The following day is also a public holiday.In the year 325, when Saint Sylvester was pope, the Emperor of Rome decreed that Christianity would be the official religion from that time forward. Saint Sylvester has since been associated with getting rid of paganism. Saint Sylvester’s Eve, or Silvesterabend, is celebrated on 31 December with parties and midnight fireworks. Touching a pig on Silvesterabend is thought to bring good luck; at home some people hang up a marzipan pig and touch it at midnight. In some regions of Germany, various Catholic and Protestant religious holidays are celebrated throughout the year, such as Pentecost, Ascension, Corpus Christi, and All Saints’ Day.

CUSTOMS OF GREECE

Marriage and Family

Many Greek women marry in their early 20s, but the men tend to marry later, in their mid-20s or early 30s. Although women have gained greater prominence and rights in recent decades, Greek society is still largely male dominated. For the older generation, family, religion, tradition, and education are the core values. The elderly are respected and have considerable authority.

30 Eating

The most common meats are beef, pork, lamb, and chicken. Fish and seafood are found mainly on the coast and in cities but, with the exception of squid, are often expensive. Olives are grown throughout Greece, and olive oil is used a great deal in cooking. Salads are often eaten with the main meal. Main courses include , a shish with cubes of meat—often pork or lamb— and vegetables, and stuffed eggplant or tomatoes. Pasta is also popular. Desserts are usually fruit or sweets such as baklava. At Easter, Greeks enjoy roast lamb or , as well as kokoretsi, which is lamb’s liver, lungs, and spleen wrapped in intestines and roasted on a spit. Lunch, served in the early afternoon between noon and 2 PM, is traditionally the main meal of the day. However, because of changing work patterns, many now eat their main meal in the evening, often not until after 9 PM. At restaurants, a group will often order a number of different dishes for everyone to share. It is not unusual for diners to go into the restaurant kitchen and choose their dinner by looking into the different pots of food.

Socializing

A handshake is normal in greeting someone, but friends and relatives hug and kiss each other, and young men often slap each other on the back or arm at shoulder level instead of shaking hands. There are many different verbal greetings; their usage depends on the situation. The term for “Good morning” is Kaliméra sas. “Good evening” is Kalispéra sas. Close friends and family members are called by their first names, but acquaintances and strangers are addressed by their title (such as Doctor, Professor, or Mrs.) and surname. Ancient Greeks believed a stranger might be a god in disguise and were therefore kind to all strangers. This tradition of hospitality continues to the present day. It is common for friends and relatives to drop by unannounced in small towns. This happens less often in large cities, but only because schedules are more hectic. Greeks enjoy inviting friends to their homes for dinner or for special occasions, such as name days (the feast day of the saint after whom one is named) or New Year’s Day. Christmas and Easter are days for family gatherings.

Recreation

The Greeks enjoy soccer, basketball, swimming, and sailing. Socializing at home or in cafés and bars is one of the main recreational activities. Because of the Mediterranean climate, people spend a great deal of time outdoors, and cafés and bars with outside tables are ideal for socializing. Television is also popular, and in cities many people go to the cinema or theater.

Holidays and Celebrations

Greece’s New Year’s Day (1 January) is also the Feast of Saint Basil (Agios Vasilis). To honor this saint, a special cake called vassilopita (“Saint Basil’s

31 Bread”) is baked with a coin in it. On New Year’s Day the cake is cut, and whoever finds the coin is said to have good luck in the coming year. An interesting tradition surrounds Epiphany (6 January), also known as the Blessing of the Waters Day after the Orthodox belief that on this day Jesus Christ was baptized in the Jordan River. In many port towns, divers go in after a cross the local priest has thrown into the water. The victorious diver is believed to be blessed with luck for the rest of the year. Shrove Monday is the Monday before Ash Wednesday, and it is also called Clean Monday in Greece. On this day many Greeks have picnics, at which they eat Lenten foods. Forty Martyrs’ Day on 9 March is celebrated in honor of 40 Roman soldiers who refused to make sacrifices to Roman gods on the grounds of their Christian faith. They were made to stand naked on an icy pond and perished in the night. The 40 soldiers are honored with special foods, including pastry with 40 layers and stew with 40 herbs.An important day for Greeks is 25 March, which marks the date in 1821 when Greece began its revolution against 400 years of Ottoman rule. The Greeks finally achieved autonomy in 1829, after eight years of war. This Independence Day is now commemorated with speeches, parades, and skits by schoolchildren. Greeks celebrate Good Friday, the Friday preceding Easter, through Easter Monday, the Monday following Easter. One Easter tradition is to dye hard-boiled eggs red. At a Saturday night feast, pairs crack their eggs together; the one who cracks the other’s egg is said to have good luck all year. Labor Day is observed on 1 May. Later in the month, 26 May, is the Day of the Holy Spirit. Whitmonday is observed on the Monday after Whitsunday, which is 50 days after Easter. The Assumption, when the Virgin Mary’s body is said to have been “assumed” into Heaven, is celebrated on 15 August.hi (“No”) Day (28 October) commemorates Greek resistance to Italian fascist invasion in World War II. On this day in 1940, the Italian ambassador to Greece demanded of Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas that Italian troops be allowed on Greek soil. Metaxas replied “Ohi!” This celebrated refusal is remembered with military parades.Greeks celebrate Christmas on 25 and 26 December. New Year’s Day was traditionally a day of gift giving, but most people now exchange gifts on Christmas Day. Most towns in Greece also celebrate their patron saint with a festival. For many holidays, a traditional reeting is Chronia polla (“Many years”).

CUSTOMS OF HUNGARY

Marriage and Family

Most people wait until they have completed their education or are working before they marry. Newlyweds in urban areas tend to be older than those in rural areas. Traditional weddings were very large three-day affairs, but these are rare today. Still, the ceremony is often followed by an elaborate dinner. Adult children often live with their parents at least until marriage; due to a shortage of housing, some young couples continue to live with their parents for the first few years of marriage. The father maintains a dominant role in the family. Both parents usually work. Men share some household responsibilities, but traditionally do the

32 “outside” chores, such as gardening. Aging parents are generally cared for by their children.

Eating

Hungarian cuisine has been influenced by that of neighboring countries. One of the best-known Hungarian specialties is gulyás (goulash), a stew of meat, potatoes, onions, and paprika (a type of pepper that is often used in Hungarian cooking and is sometimes served stuffed). , including halászlé (fish soup), figure prominently in the diet. Pork is the most common meat, but beef and chicken are also popular. Side dishes include noodles, potatoes, and dumplings. A cabbage and salad is popular. Vegetables and fruits are in ample supply year-round. Hungarians also eat strudels (filled pastries), pancakes, and a wide variety of breads and pastries. Hungary is a major producer of wine. Breakfast may be a light meal with only rolls and coffee or tea, or it may be heartier and include eggs, salami, cheese, yogurt, and sometimes hot peppers. In rural areas lunch is often the main meal, including soup, sometimes salad, a main dish of meat and potatoes, and dessert with coffee. The lighter evening meal generally consists of cold cuts of meat, fruit, bread or rolls, and a drink. In urban areas, however, lunch tends to be light and dinner is the main meal. Hands are kept above the table, but elbows do not rest on it. It is considered impolite to leave food on the plate. Although tap water is safe to drink, many people prefer bottled mineral water or some other beverage.

Socializing

Adults commonly greet each other with a firm handshake. Close women friends may hug and kiss each other on the cheek. The usual greetings include Jó napot kivánok (“Good day”), Jó reggelt kivánok (“Good morning”), and Jó estét kivánok (“Good evening”). The kivánok is often left off in more casual circumstances or is replaced by a person’s name. Children might greet women with Kezét Csókolom (“I kiss your hand”). Men may also use this when greeting women to show special respect. Popular informal greetings include Szervusz or Szia, which mean “See you.” One might follow a greeting with Hogy vagy? (“How are you?”) or another question. It is polite to use titles (“Doctor,” “Professor,” “Director”) with a person’s family name. People often introduce themselves by their family name first, sometimes followed by the first name. Greetings on a first- name basis are usually limited to close friends and relatives. However, adults address young people by their first names, and young people address each other by first name. When parting, Hungarians say Viszontlátásra (“See you again”) or simply Viszlát. Most visits are prearranged, but close friends, relatives, and neighbors may drop in on each other unannounced. Relatives visit one another often. First-time visits by new acquaintances are usually short, ending just after coffee is finished. Most weeknight visits end by 11 pm (sometimes earlier in rural areas) because of early working hours. An informal atmosphere prevails during

33 these visits. Although Hungarians enjoy socializing in the home, they also get together frequently at restaurants, coffeehouses, and tearooms, often for an afternoon tea or ice cream.

Recreation

The most popular sport is soccer, but Hungarians also enjoy swimming, tennis, fencing, sailing, riding, hunting, and fishing. In their leisure time, many Hungarians like walking, visiting parks or local museums, going to concerts, watching television, or gardening. For vacations, many enjoy resort spas and baths. For longer vacations, families often go to Lake Balaton. Travel to neighboring countries is on the rise.

Holidays and Celebrations

Public holidays begin with New Year’s Day (1 January). War of Freedom Day, on 15 March, marks the 1848 rebellion and war. Christians celebrate both Easter Sunday and Monday; on Easter Monday, boys traditionally sprinkled girls with water or cologne as a sign that girls are flowers that should not fade. In return, girls were supposed to give the boys elaborately painted Easter eggs. Labor Day (1 May) and Pentecost are also holidays. Saint Mark’s Day (25 April) is also called “The Blessing of the Wheat” (Buza Szentelo). On this day a priest blesses the wheat fields of his parish in a ceremony, and his parishioners will take sprigs of the blessed wheat home with them. Saint Stephen’s Day (20 August) celebrates the harvest and honors the first king of Hungary. National Holiday, on 23 October, honors the 1956 uprising. Presents are given on Christmas Eve; Christmas Day (25 December) is a major public holiday. On the eve of Saint Sylvester’s Day (31 December), an old custom required restaurant and café owners to release a pig into the midst of the customers; those who touched the pig were supposed have good luck throughout the year. Some people, leaving nothing to chance, hang a marzipan pig in their homes and touch it at midnight. Roast pig is often served on New Year’s Day, with a four-leaf clover in its mouth for good luck. Local festivals commemorate various folk or religious events throughout the year.

CUSTOMS OF ITALY

Marriage and Family

Marriage engagements can last several years because people tend to wait to marry until they have finished their education and found employment. Marriage ceremonies traditionally followed Catholic traditions, but a growing proportion are civil ceremonies, especially in central and northern Italy. Divorce is now granted only after at least three years of legal separation. Loyalty to and pride in the family are important values. Parents try to help their children, even when they become adults—for example, they might help them buy a home or pay for an apartment, even if it means a sacrifice for the parents. In the north, most families live as

34 nuclear units; the average family size has significantly declined in recent decades. In the south, families are somewhat larger, and many generations often live in the same town or house. The north-south division is also reflected by the greater freedom women have in the north in terms of jobs and social life.

Eating

An Italian breakfast is light, often consisting of a cup of coffee (warm milk for children) and biscotti (cookies), bread, or rolls. Croissants with icing or some kind of filling are also popular. Pasta is the staple of the Italian diet, served in a multitude of forms from , which are small casings filled with meat, cheese, or vegetables, to fettuccine, which are wide noodles. Pasta is accompanied by a wide range of sauces, from bolognese—containing tomatoes, lean chopped beef, pork, veal, or chicken livers—to salmon or . Italians eat fish as well as a variety of meats, including veal, ham, sausage, and salami. Cheese is also very popular. Pizzas vary in style from region to region. A typical everyday meal is three courses but, when entertaining or eating at a restaurant, it is normal to start with an appetizer, followed by a pasta course, a main fish or meat course, and dessert and cheese. Salad is often served after the main course. Italy is a major wine producer, and wine is usually served with a meal. Good food is of great importance to Italians, and meals, particularly when guests are being entertained, are leisurely affairs. On weekends, families often spend hours over lunch. Traditionally, lunch was the main meal and families always used to eat it together. However, with more two-income families and fewer businesses closing for lunch, this tradition is disappearing, especially in large cities. Firms with more than 20 employees must provide some kind of cafeteria. Lunch is usually eaten at 1:30 or 2 pm, and the evening meal is eaten late, beginning around 7:30 pm in the north and sometimes as late as 10:30 pm in Sicily and other southern areas.

Socializing

A handshake is the most common form of greeting. Female friends and friends of the opposite sex may greet each other by touching both cheeks and “kissing the air.” Male friends may embrace and slap each other on the back. Friends say Ciao (“Hi” or “Good-bye”) as an informal greeting. More formal greetings include Buon giorno (“Good day”) and Buona sera (“Good evening”). It is not unusual for people of the same gender to walk arm-in-arm in public. Personal titles are very important, but the use of first names has become much more widespread. Italians like to socialize in their own homes as well as in cafés, bars, and restaurants. Visits to family or friends, especially on holidays and Sundays, are an important part of Italian life. Because urban schedules are becoming busier, visits in urban areas are usually planned in advance. In villages, where life is less hectic, people—particularly relatives—are more likely to drop in unannounced. When invited to dinner, it is usual to take a small gift.

35 Recreation

An evening or Sunday afternoon stroll around the town is a well-established tradition in both rural and urban areas. On Sundays many Italians go to the countryside, or to a sports event. In summer, crowds flock to the beach. Discotheques are popular among unmarried young people, particularly on Saturday nights. Soccer is by far the most popular sport. Bicycling, auto racing, skiing, and tennis are also popular. Recently, basketball has attracted a large Italian following. Given the country’s Roman history and its later role as the catalyst of the Renaissance, it is not surprising that the arts continue to play an important part in Italian life, from opera in Verona to the museums and galleries of Florence and Rome. Many Italians enjoy going to the cinema, although film attendance is lower now than it was in the mid-1900s, when Italian film directors such as Federico Fellini were in their prime. A wide selection of Italian and foreign films are shown. Foreign films are usually dubbed into Italian. Television is popular and an increasing number of families have video cassette recorders.

Holidays and Celebrations

Italy celebrates the New Year on 1 January. The eve of the Epiphany—the visit of the Three Magi to the Baby Jesus—on 6 January is an official holiday and is marked by visits from Befana, the Christmas witch. Befana is traditionally a kindly old witch who missed her chance to accompany the Magi; she has been searching for the Baby Jesus ever since. On the night of 5 January she slides down chimneys on her broomstick and leaves toys and candy for the children who have been good, and a lump of coal for those who have not. Carnevale, or Carnival, is celebrated with parades and costumed festivals in many parts of Italy during the period immediately preceding Lent. The Carnival festivities in Venice are particularly famous, and celebrants come from near and far to take part. Italians celebrate Easter Sunday and Monday.

Liberation Day on 25 April commemorates Italy’s liberation in World War II. Labor Day is observed on 1 May. The Assumption, when Mary’s body is said to have been “assumed” into Heaven, is celebrated on 15 August. By this date most Italians have left the cities for the seashore or the mountains. All Saints’ Day (1 November), when all of the Catholic saints are honored, is followed by All Souls’ Day (Il Giorno dei Morti) on 2 November. On this day there is a requiem for the dead at dawn, and church bells toll. Italians pay visits to cemeteries, where they drape the graves of their loved ones with flowers, particularly chrysanthemums, and candles. The Day of the Immaculate Conception (8 December) celebrates the Roman Catholic belief that the Virgin Mary’s soul was preserved free from original sin. Christmas is celebrated on 25 December. In addition to these holidays, each city has its own patron saint and celebrates the saint’s feast day.

36 CUSTOMS OF INDIA

Marriage and Family

Many marriages are still arranged by parents; the degree to which the children are consulted depends on the family. Marriage is sacred to most Indians and is considered to endure beyond death. Weddings are times of great celebration, expense, and feasting. Ceremonies are often elaborate and vary widely from region to region. In many Hindu ceremonies, the bride and groom exchange garlands and promises before they circle around a fire seven times to solemnize the marriage. Bright clothing, jewelry, and flowers are part of almost every type of ceremony. The bride's parents commonly give a dowry, such as money or land, to the groom's family, although the practice is illegal. Indians are generally religious and family oriented, and their lives are deeply rooted in tradition. The interests of the family take precedence over those of the individual. Families are generally large, but the government is actively encouraging family planning to curb rapid population growth. Extended families often live together or near each other, and form the basic social and economic unit of rural Indian society. The elderly are respected and cared for by their families. The father is considered the head of the household. Middle-class families, especially in urban areas, are becoming more nuclear. A middle- or upper-class father expects to take care of the children financially until they have finished an education and taken a job—regardless of how long it takes. Most working- and middle-class women work outside the home due to economic necessity, and a growing number of urban women are joining the professional workforce.

Eating

Foods vary widely in India, depending on the culture and region. For example, rice is a staple in the south, while (wheat bread) is the staple in the north. Indian meals are usually very spicy. Different types of , made with eggs, fish, meat, or vegetables, are popular. Vegetarianism is widely practiced, often for religious reasons. All castes and religions have their own rules and customs governing food. Hindus consider cows to be sacred and they, like Sikhs, will not eat beef. Observant Muslims do not eat pork or drink alcohol. Eating habits also vary considerably. Less traditional—most often urban—families will eat together and follow many Western customs. Traditional families may use the right hand instead of utensils for eating their food. Also, women often eat after other members of the family and any guests.

Socializing

The namaste is the traditional greeting used in India; it is performed by pressing the palms together (fingers up) below the chin, and saying “Namaste” (Namaskaram in the south). To greet superiors or to show respect, a slight bow is added. “Hello” and “Hi” are also acceptable greetings. Out of respect for a 37 woman’s privacy, Indian men do not usually shake hands with or touch women in formal or informal gatherings. Indian men will, however, shake hands with Westerners, and educated women may do so as a courtesy. It is polite to use titles such as Shri for a man, Shreemati for a married woman, Kumari for an unmarried woman, or the suffix -ji with a last name to show respect. Muslims use the salaam gesture of greeting, which is performed by raising the right hand toward the forehead, with the index finger pointing to the forehead and the rest of the hand pointing upwards. It is similar to a salute but not as rigid or formal. Indians usually ask permission before taking leave of others. Most visiting occurs in the home, and visits between friends or family are often unannounced. The need for prior arrangements is increasing in large cities. At social gatherings, guests are often adorned with a garland of flowers, which they then remove and carry in the hand as an expression of humility. Guests invited for a meal customarily bring sweets, flowers, or fruit for the hosts. Indians often consider it impolite to say no to an invitation; if they cannot attend, they are more likely to say they will try to attend. Many Indians do not wear shoes inside the home. Most at least remove their shoes before entering the living room. Hosts offer their guests refreshments such as tea or coffee and fruit or sweets, which it is polite to decline once or twice before eventually accepting. When visitors are ready to leave, they often indicate it by saying “Namaste.” In temples, saffron powder, holy water from the Ganges River, and sometimes sweets are offered to visitors as prasad, or blessings from the gods; it is discourteous to refuse these gifts. Women cover their heads when entering sacred places. In traditional society, women are often not involved in social functions.

Recreation

India has a thriving film industry—one of the largest in the world. Every major city has numerous cinemas. Musicals and romances are most popular. People also enjoy watching television and videocassettes, reading, and debating anything from philosophy to politics. Dance performances and music concerts are popular. Cricket, soccer, and field hockey are favorite sports. The many religious and folk festivals throughout the year play an important part in the lives of the Indian people.

Holidays and Celebrations

The International New Year (1 January) is recognized in India, although the Hindu New Year occurs in March or April. Republic Day (26 January) celebrates the founding of India as an independent republic, and many parades are held on this day. Independence Day (15 August) celebrates India’s independence from the United Kingdom. Labor Day is observed on 1 May, as in Europe. Another official holiday is the birthday of Mahatma Gandhi (Gandhi Jayanti) on 2 October. On this day people make pilgrimages to the place where the Indian independence leader was cremated. Important Muslim holidays include Id ul-Fitr, Id uz-Zuha, and

38 Muharram. Id ul-Fitr celebrates the end of the month of Ramadan, when Muslims go without food or drink from sunrise to sundown. Id uz-Zuha, the Feast of the Sacrifice, honors Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son at Allah’s behest. Muharram commemorates the martyrdom of the prophet Muhammad's grandson. Both Muslim and Hindu holidays are based on the lunar calendar. Despite the small percentage of Christians in India, Good Friday (the Friday preceding Easter) and Christmas Day (25 December) are legal holidays. In addition to these legal holidays, there are many festivals throughout the year, celebrating certain deities, the arrival of spring, and other events. Among the most important of these include Vasant Panchami, at the end of January or early February. This is a Hindu festival of spring, during which people wear yellow clothing to symbolize the mustard flower, which announces the arrival of spring. Holi, in late February or March, is another lively spring festival celebrated by Hindus. During Holi, people smear red, green, and yellow powder on each other and spray each other with colored water. The night before Holi, huge bonfires are lit, symbolizing the destruction of evil. In theory, during this holiday castes are forgotten and all citizens are equal. Baisakhi, in April or May, is the Hindu solar new year. It is celebrated with temple worship, ritual bathing, and fairs featuring music, dancing, and fireworks. Naag Panchami, in July or August, is a Hindu festival honoring snakes, to which offerings of milk or flowers are made. Janmashtami, in August or September, is one of the most important of Hindu festivals and celebrates the birthday of Krishna, who was a hero to both rich and poor. Dussehra is a Hindu holiday observed throughout India in October or November to celebrate the triumph of good over evil. It is quickly followed by Diwali, or the Festival of Lights. This is a joyful period in India. Festivities center around the festival’s namesake, with lamps and fireworks lighting up the sky. Gifts and sweets are exchanged at this time and people prepare feasts.

CUSTOMS OF JAPAN

Marriage and Family

The Japanese generally marry in their mid- to late 20s, with men usually marrying slightly later than women. Weddings can be elaborate and expensive, and usually take place in hotels. The couple may wear traditional clothing for the ceremony, European-style wedding outfits for photographs and socializing, and different clothing for an evening party. Wedding guests bring gifts, often cash, and leave with gifts from the couple. The family is bound together by a strong sense of reputation, obligation, and responsibility. A person’s actions reflect on his or her family. While the father is the head of the home, the mother is responsible for household affairs. Many women now work outside the home. Although many aged parents still live with their married children’s families, this is becoming less common. On the other hand, there has been an increase in the number of adult children who remain in their parents' homes, due to the high cost of housing. In

39 cities, most families live in high-rise apartment buildings or small homes. Larger homes are found in less crowded areas.

Eating

The Japanese diet consists largely of rice, vegetables, seafood, fruit, and small portions of meat. Rice and tea are part of almost every meal. The diet has been changing in recent decades, however, as the Japanese have begun to consume more red meat and milk. The additional meat and dairy have contributed to a growth spurt—young people are taller, on average, than are members of their parents' generation. Popular Japanese foods include (bean paste) soup, noodles (, , and ), curry and rice, (slices of raw fish served with and , a pungent form of horseradish), tofu, and pork. is cold rice, flavored with vinegar, and served with fish (usually raw). Norimaki is a similar dish, with rice, fish, and/or vegetables wrapped in dried seaweed. In a traditional meal, the Japanese typically eat from their bowl while holding it at chest level instead of bending down to the table. Chopsticks (hashi) are used to eat most meals, but people generally use forks and knives when eating non-Asian food. Fast food is popular among the young. The main meal is eaten in the evening. When being entertained, it is polite to follow the lead of one’s host. The ability of a visitor to use chopsticks will help create a favorable impression, but it is important not to point them at anyone or leave them crossed. An empty glass will usually be refilled, and it is polite to fill others’ glasses before one’s own.

Socializing

A bow is the traditional greeting between Japanese. Someone wishing to show respect or humility bows lower than the other person. Japanese might shake hands with foreigners. Personal space is important, and people do not stand too close to each other when greeting or conversing. In this hierarchical society, titles are important in introductions. The family name is used with the suffix -san, for both men and women. For example, a Mr. Ogushi in the United States would be called “Ogushi-san” in Japan. The use of personal names is reserved for family and friends. In professional situations, the exchange of business cards (offered and accepted with both hands) is an important ritual. The card should be studied carefully upon receipt and treated with respect; to play with or bend the card would be an insult. Greetings used depend on the situation. A worker might greet a senior colleague with Ohayō gozaimasu (“Good morning”), but would greet a customer with Irasshaimase (“Welcome”). When people doing business together meet for the first time, Hajime mashite (“Nice to meet you”) may be used. Konnichi wa (“Good day”) is a standard greeting. Ohayō (an informal “Good morning”), or Genki? (an informal “Are you well?”) are common casual greetings among young people. Visits are usually arranged in advance; spontaneous visits between neighbors are uncommon in urban areas. Shoes are removed before stepping into a Japanese home. There is usually a small genkan (hallway) between the door and living area

40 where one stands to remove one’s shoes. After being removed, shoes are placed together pointing toward the outdoors, or in a closet or on a shelf in the genkan. Coats are removed before stepping into the genkan. Slippers are often worn inside but are removed before entering rooms with straw-mat floors (tatami). There are often special slippers for use in the bathroom. Guests are usually offered the most comfortable seat. In traditional Japanese rooms, people sit on the floor. When visiting, it is customary to take a gift (usually fruit or cakes) to the hosts. Gifts are given and accepted with both hands and a slight bow. Traditionally, gifts are not opened in the presence of the giver. A gift says a great deal about one’s relationship to, and respect for, the recipient. Gifts, therefore, play an important role in establishing and maintaining business relationships. A key time for exchanging gifts comes at the end of the year, when giving gifts to family, friends, officials, and business contacts expresses thanks for the kindness they have shown throughout the year.

Recreation

Many people spend their leisure time in groups. Baseball, soccer, tennis, skiing, jogging, and swimming are all popular in Japan. Traditional sports such as sumo wrestling (a popular spectator sport), judo, kendo (fencing with bamboo swords), and karate are also enjoyed. Baseball, brought to Japan in the 1870s by a U.S. citizen, is the national sport and is highly competitive at all levels. The entire country becomes involved in the annual national secondary school championships. Golf is an obsession but, because it is very expensive to join a club, most people have to limit themselves to teeing off at one of numerous driving ranges or watching it on television. Television and cinema are popular. In cities such as Tokyo and Ōsaka there are many young people who devote their evenings to keeping up with the fast-changing nightlife scene. Family outings to the park or to see relatives are a well-established part of the weekend routine for many. Travel abroad has also become a national pastime in recent decades. The traditional performing arts continue to thrive, and include puppet theater (Bunraku) and highly stylized drama (Nō, Kabuki). Music and dance are also well supported.

Holidays and Celebrations

Ganjitsu is the and is observed on 1 January. Japan’s New Year celebration, called Oshogatsu, lasts three days, from 1 January through 3 January. It is a time to exchange gifts and send cards. The streets are decorated and many homes feature traditional small pine trees on both sides of the door, which represent longevity and constancy. On 15 January, those who will have their 20th birthday in the current year are honored during Coming-of-Age Day (Seijin no Hi). (Kenkoku Kinen no Hi) on 11 February marks the founding of the nation in 660 bc. (Shunbun no Hi) celebrates the coming of spring each year, around 21 March. (Midori no Hi) on 29 April is a day to celebrate nature’s beauty. Constitution Memorial Day (Kempō

41 Kinenbi) on 3 May is followed by Children’s Day (Kodomo no Hi) on 5 May. This holiday used to be called Boys’ Day, but since 1948 girls have been included in the celebration. is celebrated on 20 July. Every year September 15 is set aside to honor the elderly. It is called (Keirō no Hi). (Shūbun no Hi), around 23 September, is a holiday to welcome the arrival of autumn and to honor family ancestors. In 1966, 10 October officially became National (Taiiku no Hi), when it was established to commemorate the opening day of the 18th Olympic Games held in Tokyo. On 3 November, (Bunka no Hi), a different kind of activity is honored: Those who have made significant contributions to the arts and sciences are awarded medals by the government. (Kinrō Kansha no Hi) is on 23 November. On 23 December the birthday of Emperor Akihito (Tennō Tanjōbi) is celebrated. On New Year’s Eve (31 December), some Japanese don a kimono and set off to visit a shrine. More than half of the population, however, settles in front of the television to watch a national singing contest. It pits men against women, but the last notes must be sung before midnight, when Buddhist priests begin ringing the bells in temples. The bells are rung 108 times— one peal for each of the human failings in Buddhist belief. This ringing of the bell is said to purify believers of sinful desires accumulated during the year.

CUSTOMS OF JAMAICA

Marriage and Family

Jamaican families in lower socioeconomic groups are usually larger than those in the middle or upper classes. Many Jamaicans believe that men need to prove their virility by fathering a child and women their fertility by giving birth. Women assume the primary responsibility for child care, but children often live with grandparents, other relatives, or godparents when the mother works outside the home. Most families live in houses or townhouses rather than apartments. Homes are generally built of concrete or, in rural areas, wood.

Eating

Jamaican food is generally very spicy. Rice, vegetables (such as beans, peas, yams, tomatoes, and green peppers), fruits (such as mangoes, bananas, papayas, pineapples, oranges, and grapefruits), , and various types of fish figure largely in the diet. Fish may be eaten several times a week, and ackee and salt fish, the national dish, is often eaten for breakfast. Most meals are served with rice and "peas" (red beans) and may also include boiled green bananas or fried dumplings. A typical salad includes cabbage and carrots. Popular dishes include such as curried goat; and jerk, a spicy-hot piece of barbecued pork or chicken, roasted in an open pit or on a makeshift grill, and often served with a bland, hard- bread. Bammy (cassava bread) is a standard food; it is still prepared in the style of the Arawak. Bammy with fried fish is a frequent combination, as is festival (fried

42 dough) with fish. Indian and Chinese dishes are widely enjoyed, and restaurants serve a wide variety of cuisine. Drinks made from boiled roots, herbal teas, fruit juices, and a variety of alcoholic beverages are common, as are coffee and tea. It is customary for all hot drinks (coffee, cocoa, , etc.) to be called "tea." Beer and rum are among the most popular alcoholic drinks. Women do not usually drink alcohol in public. In rural areas families tend to eat dinner together each day after 4 PM, while families in urban areas might not have a chance to eat together except on weekends. A prayer is often said before and after meals. Although table etiquette is considered important in some families, meals are usually casual and table manners are considered less important than enjoying the food and the company. Eating outdoors is popular, especially in gardens and on patios. Restaurants range from informal cafés that serve simple Jamaican dishes to sophisticated establishments. “Take-away” foods are sold both by shops and street vendors. Pineapples, melons, and water coconuts are often sold from roadside stalls or carts as quick snacks or thirst quenchers. However, it is generally considered inappropriate to eat while walking in public.

Socializing

Depending on the person or the occasion, a greeting in Jamaica might be a nod or bow, a handshake, a slap on the back, or a kiss. When people are first introduced, a handshake is usual, followed by Good morning, Good afternoon, or Good evening. Jamaicans are formal in their introductions; Mr., Miss, or professional titles are used with the surname unless people are well acquainted. Children usually refer to adults other than family (parents, aunts, uncles, or grandparents) as Sir, Mr., or Miss. Elderly people in rural areas occasionally curtsy when greeting. It is considered rude not to greet someone properly before beginning a conversation or asking a question. Greetings among friends are casual. A common phrase is Wha-apun? ("What's happening?") or "All right, all right" (as if to bypass asking and responding to "How are you?"). Jamaicans sometimes emphasize greetings by holding onto an initial handshake for a while, or touching the person's arm or shoulder during the greeting or later in the conversation. Common ways of saying good-bye include Later, Tomorrow, and Next time. When addressing others in formal situations, titles and surnames are used, but in casual situations it is common to use nicknames, especially among men. Nicknames (also called "pet" or "yard" names) usually reflect a physical trait or a person's station in life; for example, a juice seller may be called Juicy. Jamaicans also shorten their names ("Nicky" for Nicholas, for example) or alter their given names to create a nickname by which they like to be called. Families and friends find time to get together often to enjoy good conversation and a good laugh. Visits are often unannounced and almost always welcomed, although urban visitors may keep the visit brief if they have not called ahead. On an informal visit, Jamaicans usually wait at the house gate until invited in. Conversations held on the street are referred to as "meet-and-greet" activities. Guests often bring a gift of fresh produce,

43 flowers, or a bottle of wine. Buffet-style meals are popular when entertaining guests, who may be invited for any meal, including breakfast or brunch.

Recreation

Cricket and football (soccer) are the most popular sports in Jamaica, and dominoes is the favorite indoor game. Jamaicans also enjoy table tennis, field hockey, tennis, boxing, mountain climbing, walking, swimming, sailing, diving, windsurfing, and athletics (track and field). Comedies written and performed in Patois attract good audiences. Dancing and music are very important to the lives of most Jamaicans—gospel, reggae, Social Calypso (SOCA), and dance hall music are all greatly enjoyed. The latter incorporates elements of reggae, disco, and rap. SOCA is very popular during Carnaval, a grand springtime festival involving parades, costumes, and parties. Leisure hours are often spent listening to music outside rum bars. There are many discos, community centers, and clubs. Other recreational activities include watching television and videos, going to the cinema, beach parties, picnics, kite-flying, storytelling, festivals, and community or church events.

Holidays and Celebrations

Official Jamaican holidays include New Year's Day (1 January), Ash Wednesday, Easter (Friday through Monday), Labour Day (23 May, a day for community improvement projects), Independence Day (the first Monday in August), National Heroes Day (the third Monday in October), Christmas Day (25 December), and Boxing Day (26 December). Boxing Day comes from a British tradition of giving small boxed gifts to service employees. While the term was borrowed from the British, Jamaicans have traditionally used the day to visit family and friends. On Independence Day, festivities include traditional music and dancing, and agricultural, arts, and crafts exhibits. The Maroons celebrate 6 January as their Independence Day. A very important holiday for Rastafarians is the anniversary of the coronation of Haile Selassie, a former emperor of Ethiopia and considered by Rastafarians to be the Son of God, or the Messiah. The man’s original name was Tafari, and Ras means duke. This day is celebrated with the dedication of babies to Rastafari, recitations, and singing.

CUSTOMS OF MOLDOVA

Marriage and Family

Couples marry at a Wedding Palace, the Soviet-era office where the only legal weddings could be held. Today, an increasing number get married in a church first and then go to the Wedding Palace for the official ceremony. Wedding traditions vary by region. Autumn is considered the most popular season for a wedding because it is the season of new wine. After the ceremony, the bride takes off her veil and puts on a scarf to indicate she is now a wife and a mature woman.

44 The veil is given to the maid of honor, who is expected to marry next. Wedding guests usually stay until the next morning and sometimes for an entire weekend. Divorce is common, but second marriages are not. Moldovans often marry young, partly out of desire to be treated as adults. In urban areas, families usually have only one or two children, while families in rural areas may have three or more. Children remain close to their parents throughout life. Young couples in urban areas often have difficulty finding housing, so they usually move in with the bride’s parents. As a result it is common for two or three generations of a family to live in a small one- or two-bedroom apartment. In rural areas, extended families share a larger home, but they often lack modern conveniences such as running water. Typically both spouses work outside of the home, but women are finding it harder to find jobs because men are often given priority when jobs are scarce. Women are responsible for child care and the household. Men assume the role of head of the family.

Eating

Romanian, Russian, Ukrainian, and Bulgarian cuisines are all part of the Moldovan diet. The most common soup eaten at lunch is Ukrainian (made of juice and beets). Meat, bread, potatoes, and vegetables are staples for the main meal. Bread is served with most meals; wine is served with lunch and dinner. Traditional Moldovan dishes include mamaliga (cornmeal mush) with sheep cheese, mititei or brinza (grilled sausages), fried onions with sour cream, and placinte (flaky stuffed pastry). Garlic, onions, and herbs are used in cooking many dishes. Popular fruits include apples, grapes, plums, cherries, strawberries, and watermelon. Typical vegetables are eggplant, peppers, cabbage, potatoes, and tomatoes. Because fresh produce can be expensive for urban dwellers, many families have gardens on the outskirts of town. Meats are popular; chicken and pork are the least expensive. The urban breakfast is usually light, consisting of open sandwiches with sausage or cheese, coffee or tea, and fruit preserves. For people in rural areas—who often eat more substantial meals of kasha (hot porridge), potatoes, bread, and sheep cheese—breakfast may be the main meal of the day, except on weekends, when it is lunch. In urban areas lunch is generally the main meal, consisting of soup, salad, and a main course. For dinner, people tend to eat only one course. Children at elementary school usually have an afternoon “tea” (juice and a sweet roll). Coffee, tea, juice, milk, wine, and stewed fruit are the most common beverages in Moldova. Ice is rarely served with drinks. Food is almost always prepared by a woman; it is considered embarrassing for a man to admit he cooks. Serving dishes, from which each person takes his or her portion, are placed in the middle of the table. Hands and forearms are kept above the table throughout the meal. When guests are present, the hosts offer additional helpings, which it is polite to decline perhaps two or three times before accepting. Leaving food on the plate may be considered a sign that a guest has not enjoyed the meal.

Socializing

45 Moldovans in urban areas generally shake hands when they greet each other, although a man waits for a woman to extend her hand first. In mixed company, a man shakes a woman’s hand before another man’s. Good friends and relatives often also hug. Moldovan men in rural areas, and increasingly some in urban areas, greet a woman by kissing her hand. Common greetings include the Romanian Buna Ziua (“Good day”) or Noroc (“Hi”), and the Russian Privet (“Hi”) or Zdravstrvuite (“Hello”). When addressing others, young people generally use first names. When adults meet, they introduce themselves by first name and middle name (for example, Ion Petru), often preceded by the family name (for example, Chorbu Ion Petru). Titles (such as “Mr.,” “Mrs.,” etc.) are used with the family name in formal situations. In urban areas people rarely smile at or greet strangers they pass on the street, but in rural areas this is more common. Moldovans greatly enjoy visiting friends and relations. On special occasions, guests are treated to large meals. Otherwise, people sit in the kitchen or living room and they may chat for hours. Hosts generally provide guests with coffee, tea, wine, or cognac. Vodka is popular among ethnic Russians. Close friends and relations feel comfortable visiting without prior arrangement, but among those with telephones, a call in advance is usually appreciated. Most socializing takes place in the home. Guests often bring small gifts, and hosts, especially in rural areas, usually reciprocate with a small gift such as a cake “for the next morning” or wine. Foreign visitors are considered honored guests and are treated to the family’s best.

Recreation

In their leisure time, Moldovans visit friends, go to movies, or read. Soccer, badminton, basketball, volleyball, swimming, and ice skating are popular sports among teenagers and young adults. A small number of urban adults jog or exercise. Private health clubs are opening in some areas, but they are expensive. Public facilities are available, but most are in need of repair. Moldovans enjoy music and art, and they particularly enjoy attending concerts. A number of ensembles perform folk music, which is especially popular at national festivals.

Holidays and Celebrations

National holidays in Moldova are changing, as those of the Soviet period have been abolished and new holidays are being introduced. Furthermore, Christian holidays are being slowly resurrected after decades of suppression. One holiday officially on the books is Independence Day, celebrated on 27 August. Some confusion surrounds Christmas (7 January reckoned by the Julian calendar) and New Year’s Day (1 January), because many non-religious customs surrounding Christmas had been transferred to New Year’s Day by the Soviets. For instance, during New Year’s Day celebrations, known as Plugushor, trees were decorated with ornaments and children went to parties where Mos Craciun (Santa Claus) presided. While Moldovans are rediscovering old Christmas traditions such

46 as caroling, folklore, and gifts, it is unclear how the two holidays will be celebrated in the future. Easter celebrations in the spring are also being revived.

CUSTOMS OF MONGOLIA

Marriage and Family

Traditionally, marriages were arranged between two families, but now individuals make their own decisions. Marriage usually takes place when people are between the ages of 18 and 25. In cities, marriage ceremonies usually take place in “wedding palaces.” Afterward, many young couples go to a Buddhist monk to have their future predicted. A large feast is then held for as many relatives and friends as the new couple’s families can afford to feed. In rural areas, the couple then moves into a home provided by the husband’s family. In urban areas, new couples often have trouble finding an apartment. When a wedding takes place, Mongolian families traditionally exchange gifts; the groom’s family usually gives livestock while the bride’s family offers jewelry and clothing. In rural areas, most Mongols live in nuclear families, although elderly parents live with the family of their youngest son (or daughter if there are no sons). That son inherits the family home and what is left of the herd after older sons have received equal shares. Men take care of herding and slaughtering, while women handle milking and food preparation. Older children care for younger siblings. Grandparents are treated with great respect because of their wisdom and life experience, the benefits of which they pass on to their grandchildren. The father is head of the family, but the mother is responsible for household affairs. In urban areas, both spouses generally work outside the home. Young families in urban areas usually have only one or two children; rural families are generally quite a bit larger. Most rural families live in a ger, which is a tent with a four- or five-piece wooden lattice, a roof frame, and a south-facing door. Its average size is about 6 meters (about 18 feet) in diameter. The ger is covered with one or more layers of sheep-wool felt and a white cloth. It is easy to erect and dismantle, and is warm in cold seasons. Nomadic extended families often live in a camp of several gerööd (the plural of ger). In urban areas, families live either in high-rise apartments or in gerööd, which usually have a surrounding fence and a storage shed. A ger in or near a city will have electricity, but not a heating system or running water. Owing to a housing shortage, three generations often share a small apartment, with parents sleeping in the living room and children and grandparents in one or two bedrooms.

Eating

Although Mongolians in urban areas are adopting a more Westernized diet, the general Mongolian diet consists largely of dairy products, meat, millet, barley, and wheat. Mutton or beef is usually eaten at least once a day. Rice is common in urban areas. The variety and availability of vegetables and fruits are limited by the climate, but potatoes, cabbage, carrots, onions, and garlic are generally available.

47 Wild berries and, in a few areas, a small number of apples grow in Mongolia. In summer, people eat milk products, such as dried milk curds, butter, airag (fermented mare’s milk), and yogurt instead of large quantities of meat. Common meals include guriltai shui (mutton and noodle soup), boiled mutton, and (steamed dumplings stuffed with diced meat, , cabbage, garlic, salt, and pepper). A boiled version of the is called bansh. The main meal of the day throughout the country is in the evening, when the whole family sits together. Western utensils are common for all meals, but chopsticks are used by some. Most urban dwellers use a knife to cut meat, and spoons to eat rice or vegetables. In urban apartments, people have dining tables and chairs, while in rural areas, people sit on the floor or on small stools to eat from a low table. In the evening, soup is served in individual bowls. If the main dish is boiled meat, it is eaten from a communal bowl.

Socializing

A handshake is the most common greeting in urban areas of Mongolia. A standard greeting in formal situations or among strangers is Ta sain baina uu? (“How do you do?”). Acquaintances prefer more casual greetings such as Sain uu (“Hello”) or Sonin yutai ve? (“What’s new?”). In rural areas, people exchange their pipes or snuff as a form of greeting and ask such questions as how fat the livestock are or how favorable the particular season is. Mongolian names consist of a patronymic and a given name. All people are called by their given names. The patronymic is rarely used in ordinary speech and never alone. Its purpose is to distinguish between people who might have the same given name. It is the possessive form of the father’s name. For example, a person named Hashbatyn Hulan is called Hulan, and her father is Hashbat. A title often follows the given name in addressing a person. It is used to recognize a person’s rank, seniority (in age or status), or profession. For example, a respected teacher might be addressed as Batbayar bagsh (teacher), or an honored elder as Sumiya guai (“Mr.”). Guai is also used for women. Sometimes a person who is close to an older person will call that person father or mother, or uncle or aunt, even though they are not related. There is a long tradition of hospitality, and impromptu visits are common. Guests are usually greeted by the host and family members at the door in modern apartment buildings, or, in rural areas, outside the ger. When entering a ger, people customarily move around to the left. During formal visits, the host sits opposite the entrance; women sit to the left, men to the right. Tea with milk is served to guests. Airag might be served instead of tea during summer, and vodka may be served at any time. Guests often bring the hosts a small gift. On very important occasions, a khadag (a blue silk band) and a silver bowl filled with airag are presented to an elder or a person of higher social rank as a sign of respect and good wishes.

48 Recreation

Mongolian wrestling, horse racing, and archery are the most popular sports. The annual wrestling championships are enthusiastically followed throughout the country. Boxing, soccer, volleyball, basketball, and table tennis are also enjoyed. Leisure activities include visiting family and friends, watching television, going to the movies, and, especially in summer, making outings to the countryside. Sunday is a favorite day for picnics, and some people own small summer cabins in the hills around the capital. Traditional songs are often sung at weddings or family gatherings, and traditional dance and music performances draw large audiences in Ulaanbaatar. Mongolia also has a storytelling tradition. More modern entertainment such as rock concerts are increasingly popular among young people.

Holidays and Celebrations

Official holidays include International New Year’s Day (1 January) and the , or (White Month), celebrated on the first two days of the first lunar month; International Women’s Day (8 March); Naadam, or Mongolian People’s Revolution (11–13 July); and the declaration of Mongolia as a People’s Republic (26 November). As the most important traditional holiday, Tsagaan Sar is marked by family gatherings; it is preceded by days of housecleaning.

CUSTOMS OF NORWAY

Marriage and Family

It is common for couples to live together before marriage or instead of getting married. Families tend to be small. Husbands and wives usually consider each other equal in authority as far as running the household is concerned, and it is common for both to work outside the home. Women make up almost half of the labor force and account for about one-third of the seats in parliament. Child care and other family social-welfare programs are considerably more generous than in most countries. Many families own their houses or apartments, and more than one- third also own or part-own a cabin in the mountains or by the sea.

Eating

Breakfast usually consists of open-faced sandwiches and milk or coffee, and lunch is often the same. Meat or fish, potatoes, vegetables, and a soup or dessert are generally prepared for the main meal, often eaten as early as 5 PM. Some people also have a light snack later in the evening. Traditional dishes include meatballs, fish balls, salmon, lutefisk (cod or coalfish, soaked in potash lye), and fårikål (cabbage and mutton). A buffet of hot and cold dishes is often served on special occasions. Formal mealtime etiquette is similar to that in many northern European countries. For example, guests do not start eating until invited to do so

49 by the host, and hands are kept above the table. As in other European countries, people generally hold their fork in the left hand and their knife in the right.

Socializing

Norwegians usually shake hands when meeting someone for the first time. On other occasions, people might simply say Morn (literally, “Morning”) or Hei. A slightly more formal greeting is God dag (“Good day”). The use of first names is now common, but in business and among older people titles may be used. In the north it is common for people to drop in unannounced, but in the south it is customary to telephone prior to visiting. In general, Norwegians are more interested in making their guests feel at home than in observing formal rules of etiquette.

Recreation

Most Norwegians are physically active. Nearly every Norwegian can ski, and children learn the sport at a very young age. Other sports that people enjoy include fishing, soccer, swimming, walking, and boating. Watching television, reading, and going to the cinema are popular leisure activities, and the arts are well supported. Community clubs or associations play a large part in the organization of sporting, cultural, and other recreational activities.

Holidays and Celebrations

Official holidays include New Year’s Day (1 January), Easter (Thursday through Monday), Labor Day (1 May), Ascension Day, Constitution Day (17 May), Whitmonday, and Christmas (25–26 December). Constitution Day is celebrated with parades, flags, and family gatherings, and families often take skiing vacations during the Easter holiday. Christmas is the largest celebration of the year. As in other countries, preparations begin well in advance. At 5 PM on Christmas Eve, bells ring and the holiday officially begins as families gather for a big meal and to exchange gifts. Parties are common on Christmas Day (25 December) and thereafter until the new year begins.

CUSTOMS OF POLAND

Marriage and Family

Young people who start work after the minimum required schooling tend to marry earlier than those who continue their education. Newly married couples often live with their parents for a few years and may be given other financial assistance. Urban families usually have one or two children, while rural families often have three or four. In most households, children are given considerable responsibility from an early age. Because both parents usually work outside the home, the children often prepare their own breakfast and go to school by

50 themselves. Older children clean the home, sometimes cook meals, and often care for younger siblings. The economic situation of most families demands the equal involvement of both parents in raising the family and working outside the home, although women still take most responsibility for looking after the home. The majority of women have jobs outside the home. The elderly are often cared for by their adult children.

Eating

Because work and school begin early, many Poles have only a light breakfast with coffee, tea, or cocoa and sometimes cereal, taking a sandwich along to eat at 10 or 11 AM. The main meal is served sometime between 2 and 4 PM, depending on what time people return from work—people who are not at work or school would eat the main meal earlier and would not have a mid-morning snack. The meal usually consists of soup, meat or fish, salad, and potatoes. Fruit juice compote, pastries, and ice cream are a few popular desserts. The compote, usually homemade, is a combination of fruit juice, fruit, and water. A light supper follows around 7 or 8 PM. Some common dishes include (dumplings with cream cheese and potatoes), (a kind of ravioli) served with borscht, bigos (sausage, mushrooms, and cabbage), braised pork and cabbage, poppy-seed desserts, and cheesecake. Bread is purchased several times a week, sometimes even daily. Bread, dairy products, and canned fish are plentiful, and pork is more popular than beef. With the switch to a market economy, more food in greater variety is available, but prices are much higher and many families spend a large proportion of their income on food. Poles eat with the fork in the left hand and the knife in the right. It is good manners to keep both hands (not the elbows) above the table during the meal, and not to start eating until everyone has been served and the host or head of the family has begun. People tend to talk relatively little while eating, but it is usual to stay at the table for conversation once the meal is finished. At both formal and informal dinners, the host will often propose a toast to the guest, and the guest is expected to reciprocate.

Socializing

Adults generally shake hands upon meeting. Occasionally men still follow the tradition of kissing a woman's hand. When introducing a man, one uses Pan (“Mr.”) before the last name; for a woman, the term is Pani (“Mrs.”). A professional person’s title is used before his or her last name. Only the person’s title is used in formal conversation or in business. First names are used only by mutual consent between adult friends, but teenagers and children are called by their first names. Women often greet close female friends by kissing their left cheek, then right cheek, then left again. Some common Polish greetings include Dzień dobry, which means “Hello” or “Good morning”; Dobry wieczór (“Good evening”); and Do widzenia (“Good-bye”). Unannounced visits among friends and relatives are common, particularly in rural areas. More formal, longer visits are

51 arranged in advance. Poles often invite friends over for dinner, or just for cake and tea, and they like to have formal parties on special occasions. When invited for even a short visit, it is customary to bring a gift of an odd number of flowers, which should be unwrapped before being presented. Guests may be entertained at a kawiarnia, or café, which offers a variety of French pastries in addition to its own specialties; such visits often last several hours. However, it is more common to invite guests to meals at home, due to the long-standing tradition of entertaining at home and because of the expense of eating out. Because Poles generally go to work early in the morning, evening visits on weekdays do not usually extend beyond 11 PM. On weekends, however, guests stay later.

Recreation

Soccer is very popular in Poland; the people also participate in track and field events, cycling, table tennis, skiing, basketball, volleyball, and various individual sports. Bridge is a favorite card game, and Poles enjoy socializing with friends and relatives, watching television, going to the cinema, and attending concerts and other cultural events. In the fall, people go into the woods to pick mushrooms. The mushrooms are then dried and may be used to make uszka for Christmas.

Holidays and Celebrations

New Year’s Day in Poland is celebrated on 1 January. Easter, in early spring, is a major holiday in this predominantly Roman Catholic country. It has a number of traditions associated with it, including painting eggs and taking baskets full of food to churches to have the food blessed. Easter Monday is a public holiday. The morning of Easter Monday, children (and some adults) enjoy water fights—water symbolizes life, and it is a symbol of Easter, which honors the resurrection of Jesus Christ. Labor Day is observed on 1 May. Polish Constitution Day on 3 May commemorates the ratification of Poland’s first constitution in 1794, based upon ideas from the French Revolution. Corpus Christi, in honor of the Eucharist, is observed on the Thursday following Trinity Sunday (which follows the Pentecost, 50 days after Easter). Assumption Day, when the Virgin Mary’s body was said to have been “assumed” into Heaven, is observed on 15 August. Polish Solidarity Day (31 August) marks the formation of Solidarity (Solidarność), the labor union that led to the downfall of the Polish Communists in 1989. All Saints’ Day (1 November) honors all the saints in the Christian calendar. On this day, Poles visit the graves of relatives and friends, offering prayers and lighting candles. Independence Day, which commemorates the proclamation of an independent Poland at the end of World War I, is celebrated on 11 November. Christmas is Poland’s most important holiday. On 6 December, children receive small gifts from Saint Nicholas, whose name day it is. On Christmas Eve, considered the heart of the holiday, families gather for a feast that features special foods and, according to Catholic tradition, excludes meat. Before dinner,

52 celebrants exchange pieces of a holy wafer blessed by a priest, as well as greetings for Christmas and the New Year. Traditionally an extra plate is set for unexpected guests, and people eat as many of 12 courses as possible for luck in the coming year. That evening, Catholics attend Midnight Mass and Saint Nicholas usually returns to leave gifts for the children. On 26 December, a public holiday, people visit and relax. Nativity scenes are seen everywhere, and caroling can be heard frequently throughout the Christmas season. In Poland, people with the name of a saint celebrate his or her name day. Name days are considered more important than birthdays, and celebrants receive gifts and may celebrate with parties.

CUSTOMS OF PORTUGAL

Marriage and Family

Engagements are usually lengthy while the couple saves money for a home. Marriage ceremonies generally follow the Roman Catholic tradition. It is uncommon for young people to live together before getting married. The nuclear family in Portugal, which averages two children, maintains close ties with aunts, uncles, and cousins, even those who have gone abroad to work. Women often work outside the home in urban areas43.9 percent (1999).

Eating

The staple foods in Portugal include fish, vegetables, and fruits. One of the national dishes is bacalhau, which is dried cod usually served with potatoes and green vegetables, and sometimes chickpeas. Bacalhau can be prepared in a variety of ways. It is sometimes deep-fried with potatoes, which are called pasteis. The traditional Portuguese salad includes dark-green lettuce, tomatoes, onions, vinegar, olive oil, and salt. Chicken is eaten throughout the country in many forms, such as frango na púcara (chicken cooked in a pot), or cabidela, which is chicken with rice cooked with the chicken blood. Pork, partridge, quail, and are other common meats. A popular dish is cozido á portuguesa, which contains potatoes and many other vegetables, rice, and various meats. Olive oil and garlic are used a great deal in cooking. Fruit is often eaten as dessert, and cheese is frequently part of a meal. There are many pastry shops, and pastries are also sold in coffee and tea shops. Wine is inexpensive and is served at most meals. Mealtimes are considered important occasions for conversation. Portuguese eat with the fork in the left hand and the knife in the right; a special knife and fork are often used when eating fish. It is important to keep one’s hands above the table at all times, and it is impolite to stretch at the table as it implies that one is bored. Except for ice-cream cones, it is generally considered improper for adults to eat food while walking in public. A small breakfast is eaten around 8 AM, lunch is at about 1 PM, and the evening meal is generally between 8 and 9 PM. Bica, a strong espresso-type coffee, is often served after the meal. In some areas of the north, bica is called cimbalino. 53 Socializing

A warm, firm handshake is an appropriate greeting between men. People often greet those of the opposite sex with a kiss on each cheek; women greet one another this way, as well. Children are expected to kiss adults in their extended family when greeting them. Touching is a common part of greeting because it shows friendship. First names are used for friends, the young, and children; otherwise, a title is used with a surname to address an adult. Sometimes the title is combined with the first name, rather than the last; it depends on personal preference and the relationship between the speakers. Common terms for greeting include Born dia (“Good day”) and Boa noite (“Good evening”). When visiting someone’s home, it is normal to wait outside the door until invited in; similarly, guests do not let themselves out but wait for the host to open the door. Much socializing takes place in the home, but it is common for business associates to meet at a restaurant, and people enjoy meeting informally at cafés. Many people in urban areas retain strong ties with their home towns or regions, and try to return as often as possible to visit relatives and friends.

Recreation

Portuguese families enjoy taking walks, going to the park or the beach, and picnicking. People often take short trips or visit relatives. Sitting outdoors or at a street café is popular. Going to the cinema, nightclubs, or discos is common in urban and tourist areas. A popular type of theater is the revista (revue), which satirizes the government, international topics, or social issues. Soccer is the most popular sport. Roller skating, roller hockey, basketball, and handball are also enjoyed. There are considerable opportunities for water sports. The south also has a number of golf courses and leisure complexes offering tennis and other sports. Most foreign tourists go to the Algarve and a few resorts in the Lisbon area, but there are many other resorts further north that are popular among the Portuguese. As in Spain, bullfights continue to draw crowds. However, in Portugal, the bull is not killed but is tackled by an unarmed forcado assisted by others who distract the bull and hold on to its tail.

Holidays and Celebrations

The Portuguese celebrate the coming of the New Year on 1 January. Shrove Tuesday (the day before Ash Wednesday), Good Friday, and Easter Day are all holidays. Liberation Day (25 April) commemorates the revolution of 1974, and Labor Day (1 May) is observed. Corpus Christi, observed in honor of the Eucharist (in May or June), has been one of the country’s most important religious holidays since medieval times. The inhabitants of the city of Ponta Delgada lay down a carpet of flower petals stretching almost a mile in length. The National Day of Portugal (10 June) is the anniversary of the death of Portugal’s national poet, Luis de Camões, who was born in 1524. Saint Anthony's Day (12-13 June) is

54 celebrated, particularly in Lisbon, with festivals and a special Mass. On Saint John’s Day (24 June), parades, pageants, bullfights, and fireworks light up the country. Because Saint John the Baptist is associated with fire and water, on Saint John’s Day people dance around bonfires—or even leap over them. On Saint John’s Eve, water is believed to have magical healing powers. The Assumption, on 15 August, commemorates the day that the body of Jesus Christ’s mother, Mary, is said to have been “assumed” into Heaven. Proclamation of the Republic Day is celebrated on 5 October. All Souls’ Day (Dia dos Finados) on 2 November remembers the faithful departed. It is observed with special masses and processions to cemeteries. Independence Day (1 December) celebrates Portugal’s independence from Spain in 1640. The Day of the Immaculate Conception is observed on 8 December, and Christmas is celebrated on 25 December.

CUSTOMS OF PERU

Marriage and Family

Men usually marry in their late 20s, and women in their early 20s. In rural areas, people tend to marry earlier. Common-law marriages are prevalent and widely accepted, except among the upper classes. Nuclear families in Peru have, on average, four children. The father is considered the head of the family, while the mother looks after household duties. An increasing number of women work outside the home, especially in urban areas. Rural homes have few of the modern conveniences common in more industrialized nations. There are also large urban neighborhoods that lack utility services.

Eating

Cuisine in Peru varies from region to region. Popular foods include rice, beans, fish, meat, potatoes, maize, sweet potatoes, and a variety of tropical fruits, some of which are not well known outside of Peru. Soups are common, and vegetables are eaten in season. Maize, native to Peru, is the staple for Native Americans. Guinea pig is a traditional dish and is still eaten in some areas. Ceviche (marinated shellfish) is popular on the coast. Potatoes, onions, and garlic are often used in dishes in the highlands. Most food is purchased on a daily basis, either in small corner shops (in cities) or in large open-air markets. Bargaining is common in markets. It is good manners to eat all the food that is provided, and a tactful explanation is in order when something is left on the plate. Table manners are considered important—both hands (but not elbows) are kept above the table at all times. Meals are occasions for leisurely conversation.

55 Socializing

Both men and women shake hands when meeting and parting. Close friends often greet each other with a kiss on one cheek. Men may greet close friends with an abrazo (hug). An arm around the shoulder or a pat on the back is a polite way to greet young people. First names are used among friends, but elderly people and officials are referred to by their titles and last names. Friends and relatives often drop in on one another, but it is more important to make advance arrangements with acquaintances. The traditional welcome, Está en su casa (“You are in your house”), reflects the character of Peruvian hospitality. Refreshments are usually offered, but it is not impolite to decline them. Visitors arriving after 5:30 PM are often invited to stay for Ionche, a light meal around 6 PM. Special acknowledgment of the children in the home is appreciated. Hosts do not expect visitors to bring a gift, but dinner guests often bring flowers or wine.

Recreation

The most popular sport in Peru is soccer. Basketball, volleyball, and gymnastics are also favorites. Other recreational activities include socializing, family picnics, going to the cinema, or watching television. Sunday is a favorite day for outings.

Holidays and Celebrations

National holidays include New Year’s Day (1 January), Easter (Thursday through Sunday), Countryman’s Day (24 June), Saint Peter and Saint Paul’s Day (El Día de San Pedro y San Pablo, 29 June), Independence Day (28 July), National Day (29 July), Saint Rose of Lima Day (30 August), Navy Day (8 October), All Saints’ Day (1 November), Immaculate Conception (8 December), and Christmas Day (25 December). On the Day of Saints Peter and Paul, processions of decorated boats carry images of Saint Peter, who was the patron saint of fishers. Saint Paul is said to have been martyred on the same date. Independence Day commemorates Peru’s liberation from Spain at the hands of Simón Bolívar in 1824. National Day is a public holiday celebrated with military parades and a horse race at the Monterrico Race Track. Saint Rose, the first saint from the Western Hemisphere to be canonized, is one of the patron saints of Central America and South America. On Saint Rose of Lima Day, a procession takes place in Lima. The statue of Saint Rose is paraded from the shrine where it is usually kept to Lima’s cathedral. Children in the procession dress in white robes; adults dress in purple robes. Saint Rose was born in Lima in 1586. Local holidays may honor patron saints, or celebrate the harvest or some other important event or tradition.

56 CUSTOMS OF RUSSIA

Marriage and Family

During the Soviet period, a secular "wedding palace" was the only place people could get married. Today some couples get married in a church after their official civil ceremony at a wedding palace. Housing is difficult to obtain, and young couples often live with their parents for some time. Due to the cost of living, urban couples have small families; rural families are larger. Both husband and wife usually work, but women are also considered responsible for housekeeping. Child care is available and is sometimes paid for by employers, but grandparents who live with their children often provide child care and do the shopping. Urban apartments are very small. Rural homes tend to be slightly larger than urban apartments but may lack some of the modern conveniences found in city housing.

Eating

Food supplies have improved since the onset of reforms, but prices have skyrocketed. Russians with average incomes cannot afford many of the products. Soup is common for lunch or dinner. Traditionally, zakuski are a popular feature of any meal to which guests are invited. Zakuski are a wide range of appetizers— examples include salads made of fresh or cooked vegetables, and sliced vegetables, meat, or cheese. Those on fixed and limited incomes, mainly the elderly, eat more bread than anything else. Potatoes, carrots, beets, and onions are the most widely available vegetables because these root crops and other cool-weather vegetables grow well during Russia's short growing season. In the winter, when fresh vegetables are not available, pickled or marinated vegetables are popular. These vegetables are often grown at a family's dacha, a cottage in the country. Common Russian foods include borsch, which is cabbage soup with beets; , fried or baked dough filled with meat, rice, or vegetables; and blini, unsweetened pancakes eaten with toppings such as honey or sour cream. , boiled dumplings made of thin dough and stuffed with , spices, and sometimes vegetables, are served with sour cream and butter. Varenniki are dumplings stuffed with mashed potatoes or cottage cheese. They may also be stuffed with cherries or other fruit and eaten for dessert. Pork, sausage, chicken, and cheeses are popular. Russians drink a great deal of tea, as well as vodka and wine. The latter is produced in the south of the country. Kvass, a slightly alcoholic beverage, is particularly popular in the summer, when it is also used in cold soups. When entertaining, people often put more food than is necessary on the table as a gesture of respect and generosity toward their guests. This gesture also indicates that there is abundance in the house, which may or may not be the case. Russians generally do not go to lunch in cafés or restaurants because of the expense, or because they feel they can bring better food from home. Some opt to eat in workplace cafeterias.

57 Socializing

When meeting, men shake hands firmly. Women who are not urban professionals are less likely to shake hands. Friends and family may kiss on the cheek. Common greetings include Zdravstvuyte (“Hello”), Dobry dien (“Good day”), and Privet (“Hi”). The question Kak dela? (“How are you?”) is taken literally; Russians answer in detail and at length. Asking the question without waiting for a full response is considered rude. “Kak dela?” is not used as a formal greeting. Titles such as Godpodin (“Mr.”) and Gospozha (“Mrs.”) were not used under the Communists, but they are being revived. In addressing an older or respected person, one uses the given name and a patronymic, which is the possessive form of the father’s first name. For example, Svetlana, daughter of Ivan, would be called Svetlana Ivanovna. Her brother Dmitri would be called Dmitri Ivanovich. Titles and surnames are preferred in formal greetings, however. Nicknames are commonly used among friends, relatives, or peers. Since there are common nicknames for most Russian names, an acquaintance, feeling that he or she is becoming familiar with someone, might ask to use his or her nickname. For example, someone who is becoming friends with Dmitri Ivanovich might ask if he or she can call him Dima. Close friends and family often visit unannounced in Russia and spend hours sitting around a kitchen table and talking. With new acquaintances, visits are more formal. Russians remove their shoes upon entering a home. Hosts usually offer refreshments, but it is not impolite to decline them. It is common for guests to bring a gift of flowers, food, or vodka for their hosts.

Recreation

Many Russians have to devote much of their leisure time to getting food, taking on extra jobs, and looking after their households. Urban Russians often have a dacha in the country where they spend weekends and holidays, and they often grow fruits and vegetables there. Soccer is the favorite sport but others, particularly winter sports such as ice skating, ice hockey, and cross-country skiing, are also popular. Watching television is the most common leisure activity, and even small towns have theaters and cinemas. Rural people can watch films at a dvorets kultury (“Palace of Culture”), which serves as a community recreation center. A lively nightclub scene has recently arisen in cities such as Moscow and Saint Petersburg.

Holidays and Celebrations

National holidays include New Year’s Eve (31 December); New Year’s Day (1 January); Christmas (7 January); International Women’s Day (8 March); Easter; May Day (1 May); Victory Day (9 May); Independence Day (12 June); and Reconciliation Day, formerly the Anniversary of the October Revolution (7 November). New Year’s Day is the most popular holiday in Russia. Nearly everyone decorates fir trees and has parties to celebrate. On New Year’s Eve, bearded “Grandfather Frost” leaves gifts for children to find the next day.

58 According to the Julian calendar used by the Russian Orthodox Church, Christmas is observed on 7 January. After the revolution in 1917, Christmas festivities were not allowed. Since the Soviet Union was dissolved in 1991, these traditions have been making a comeback, and Christmas is now a state holiday in Russia. International Women’s Day honors all women. Men congratulate women on this holiday, and traditionally give them flowers. On 7 March (the day before the holiday), offices often have small parties. Television stations broadcast programming dedicated to women. On Orthodox Easter, people visit cemeteries where family members are buried, bringing cakes and painted Easter eggs. On the Saturday before Palm Sunday, Russians honor Lazarus, whom it is believed Jesus raised from the dead. At the church service that evening, pussy willows are blessed and handed out to members of the congregation to take home. Victory Day commemorates the end of World War II, known as the Great Patriotic War in Russia, and it is especially meaningful to the older generation.

CUSTOMS OF SLOVAKIA

Marriage and Family

Men generally marry between the ages of 23 and 26, and women about three years earlier. Traditionally, before considering marriage, a woman’s family had to craft a set of feather beds for her, her future husband, and their first child. On the day of the wedding, the groom would go to the bride’s home, but before the bride was sent outside, several decoys would be sent to trick him. After the ceremony, the bride’s headdress would be replaced with the traditional cap of a married woman. Today, most Slovak weddings involve church ceremonies. The reception afterward lasts until morning and the celebrations may go on for days. The groom carries his bride over the threshold of their new home. Because of a housing shortage, many newly married couples initially live with one set of parents. Most Slovak families have two or three children. Government budget cuts have resulted in charges for some services that used to be free, but paid maternity leave for mothers, a cash allowance for each birth, and child-care facilities are still provided. Most women work outside the home, and 47.8 percent of the labor force is female (1993 estimate). Women are also usually considered responsible for care of the home and children, although some men are beginning to share in household duties. Most urban families live in small, modest apartments built during the Communist era. Single-family homes are common in rural areas.

Eating

Among the most popular Slovak foods are rezeň (breaded steak) and potatoes, as well as other kinds of meat served with potatoes, rice, dumplings, or pasta and sauce. A variety of sweet dishes such as prune dumplings are served as a 59 main course. The national dish is bryndzové halušky (small dumplings with sheep cheese), but it is not eaten often in the home. Freshly baked bread and soup are important parts of the diet. Dairy products such as milk, cheese, and butter are widely available. Fresh fruits (apples, plums, grapes) are abundant, and imported bananas and oranges are popular for holidays. Potatoes, cabbage, and carrots are the most frequently eaten vegetables. Popular desserts include kolač (nut or poppy- seed rolls) and torta (cake). Breakfast consists of bread and rolls, sliced meat or sausage, and cheese. The main meal is traditionally in the middle of the day and commonly includes soup, meat, dumplings or potatoes, and a . A lighter meal of cold cuts, cheese, and bread is eaten in the evening. Mid-morning and mid- afternoon snacks are common. Families usually eat together on weekends, but not always on weekdays. Before eating, the head of the home says Dobrú chut’ (the equivalent of “Enjoy your meal”), and others at the table respond with the same. Both hands are kept above the table, but elbows do not rest on it. Neither hands nor napkins should rest on the lap. A plate of freshly baked bread is often served before the meal. When guests are present, women typically serve the meal but may or may not eat at the table. Often, only the guests are fed. It is normal for people not to talk while eating and to save conversation for after the meal. Slovaks toast with Na zdravie (“To your health”) on both formal and informal occasions. In a restaurant it is common to drink beer, wine, soft drinks, or mineral water during the meal and a small cup of Turkish coffee after it. Milk is considered a child’s drink. Water is not provided unless it is requested.

Socializing

Shaking hands is the most common form of greeting, but when shaking hands in a group, it is considered improper to “cross over” another handshake. A man usually waits for a woman to extend her hand. Upon parting, men often hug women or kiss them on both cheeks and shake hands firmly with other men.Formal titles carry a particular significance. People are addressed as Pan (“Mr.”) or Paní (“Mrs.”), followed by any professional title (“Doctor,” “Engineer,” “Professor”), and then the surname. First names are used upon mutual consent, among friends, and among young people. More formal greetings include Dobrý deň (“Good day”) or Vel’mi ma teši (“Pleased to meet you”). “Good-bye” is Dovidenia. More casual terms are Ahoj (“Hi”), Čau, and Servus (both mean “Hello” or “Good-bye”). Some older villagers still use the traditional Zbohom (“God be with you”). “Thank you” is expressed with Ďakujem. The use of Prosím (“Please”) is considered polite before making any requests and for saying “You’re welcome.”Impromptu visits are common among family and close friends. When invited to someone’s home, it is customary to bring a bottle of alcohol or an odd number of flowers, which are presented unwrapped. Guests are expected to remove hats and sometimes their shoes (slippers may be provided) upon entering a home. It is insensitive to admire anything in the home too enthusiastically, as the hosts may feel obliged to make a gift of the object. Refreshments are usually offered to guests, and it is courteous to politely decline the offer before eventually accepting. Although it is acceptable to

60 decline a specific item such as alcohol, it is impolite to refuse refreshments altogether. Rural Slovaks might serve friends or relatives slanina (home-smoked bacon) and bread, as well as a drink such as homemade slivovica (plum brandy), or beer, coffee, or tea. Urban hosts tend to serve chips, nuts, and wine rather than something homemade. On special occasions, a tray of ham, cheese, eggs, vegetables, and sweets may be served. An empty cup or glass will be refilled, so guests leave a little bit of drink when they have had enough. Since the working day starts early, most visits conclude before 11 PM.

Recreation

Soccer, ice hockey, skiing, and tennis are the most popular sports in Slovakia. Other forms of recreation include walking, camping, swimming, and attending local festivals, cinemas, cultural events, and art exhibitions. Slovaks take special pride in their folk music and sing with enthusiasm at gatherings; the saying Kde Slovák, tam spev means “Wherever there is a Slovak, there is a song.” Folk art is also appreciated and is often given to foreign visitors as a gift. It is available mostly in specialist stores, because few people carry on the old traditions of embroidery and woodcarving. Many Slovaks spend weekends or vacations in the Tatry Mountains, at health spas, or in the countryside. Increasing numbers are now traveling to other countries in Europe.

Holidays and Celebrations

Holidays include Saint Sylvester’s Day (New Year’s Eve; 31 December), New Year’s Day (also Independence Day; 1 January), Easter, and Cyril and Methodius Day (5 July), which honors the two saints who introduced Christianity to the region and developed the Cyrillic alphabet used for many Slavic languages. Slovak National Uprising Day (29 August) commemorates the 1944 rebellion against the Nazis. Constitution Day is 1 September. Christmas is the most celebrated holiday. Children receive gifts of candy, fruit, and nuts on Saint Nicholas’s Day (6 December). A typical Christmas Eve supper includes mushroom soup, fish, peas, prunes, and pastries. Following the meal, the tree is decorated and gifts are exchanged. Christmas Day (25 December) is celebrated with family gatherings and a festive meal. Church attendance on Christmas Day is also traditional. Birthdays are celebrated more as family events, whereas name days (the church feast day of the saint after whom one is named) are occasions for parties among friends or colleagues, and are usually more important than birthdays.

61 CUSTOMS OF SCOTLAND

Marriage and Family

People usually marry in their middle to late 20s. Many couples live together before or instead of marriage. Marriage customs are much the same as elsewhere in the United Kingdom. Early families living in the Scottish Highlands were loyal to their clan, a unit that bound together relatives sharing a common ancestor or some other bond of loyalty. However, clans have less importance in the lives of individual family members today. Each clan is still headed by a chieftain, but the position is mainly symbolic. Contemporary members of a clan may make efforts to preserve its traditions and history. Each clan is represented by a tartan, a distinctive plaid pattern. In rural areas, the extended family can still be important, but in urban areas families tend to be small and generally close-knit. Although relatives visit each other often, families are independent from each other. The elderly prefer to stay in their own homes and remain independent as long as possible, rather than live with their married children. Just over half of all homes are owner occupied, the lowest level in the United Kingdom.

Eating

The traditional breakfast includes porridge (oats mixed with boiled milk or water and served with sugar or, more properly, salt). Many people now prefer other cereals to porridge and have forsaken a cooked meal in the morning. A wide variety of meat and fish is available, and the Scots eat many foods found elsewhere in Europe and other parts of the world. The Indian restaurants in Glasgow are particularly well respected. Traditionally, the Scots have favored wholesome meals such as stews, eaten with vegetables such as neeps (turnips) and tatties (potatoes). The national dish is haggis, which is made from ground sheep entrails, mixed with oats and spices, and tied in a sheep’s stomach and cooked. Younger Scots typically eat less of this traditional fare. The national drink is whiskey (spelled "whisky" in Scotland), the production of which contributes significantly to the economy. The Scots generally eat three meals a day. Most younger people eat their main meal in the evening, while older Scots may have it in the middle of the day. The evening meal, particularly if it is eaten quite early, is sometimes called tea.

Socializing

A handshake is usual when people are introduced, and standard English greetings such as “Hello” and “How do you do?” are common. More informal greetings among friends include “All right?” and, in the north, “Fit like?,” to which the response is Nae sae bad (“Not so bad”), or “All right.”In Scotland, visits to the home are usually prearranged. Only close friends and family drop by unannounced.

62 Recreation

The most popular organized sport is soccer, followed by rugby, but a wide range of sports are enjoyed. Many people play golf, which was devised in Scotland in the 14th or 15th century, and the country has many excellent courses. Scotland is also famous for its fishing. Winter sports include curling (in which two teams of four players slide granite “stones” over ice to reach a target) and skiing. Scotland is the only part of the United Kingdom where it is possible to ski, although the snow conditions are not that reliable. Highland Games are held in many parts of the Scottish Highlands during the summer. They are a traditional kind of track and field meeting where the events include tossing the caber (a roughly trimmed tree trunk) and throwing the hammer (a heavy metal ball attached to a chain). Participants often wear traditional dress, and musicians play traditional bagpipe music. Watching television and going to the cinema are also favorite leisure activities. Pubs—public houses that serve alcoholic beverages and sometimes food—are probably the most popular venues outside the home for socializing.

Holidays and Celebrations

Scotland’s national holidays are slightly different from those in England and Wales. They include New Year’s Day (1 January), Good Friday (the Friday preceding Easter), May Day (the first Monday in May), Spring Bank Holiday (the last Monday in May), August Bank Holiday (the first Monday in August), and Christmas Day (25 December). New Year’s Eve (Hogmanay) is when some of the year’s most lively celebrations take place. Traditionally, on Hogmanay, children would go to the doors of their neighbors, and sing and cry out “Hogmanay!” to receive oatmeal cakes in return. Another tradition associated with New Year’s Eve is the “first-footer,” or the first person to cross the threshold of a home after midnight on New Year’s Eve. If the first-footer is a dark-haired man carrying presents, the family should have good luck for the rest of the year. The song “Auld Lang Syne,” by beloved Scottish poet Robert Burns, is sung on New Year’s Eve. Many Scots honor Burns’s birthday (25 January) by celebrating his life and works at Burns Suppers, where haggis is served. Saint Andrew’s Day, on 30 November, honors the patron saint of Scotland. Some Scots wear a blue-and-white X on this day to symbolize the cross upon which Saint Andrew was crucified by the Romans. This X-shaped cross has become a patriotic symbol. There has been a recent revival in the popularity of wearing kilts on special occasions. Men might wear them for events such as graduations, weddings, or Hogmanay.

CUSTOMS OF SWITZERLAND

Marriage and Family

Many couples live together for several years before getting married or instead of marriage. It is considered important to finish one’s education or to become financially established before getting married. Most Swiss marry in their 63 middle to late 20s. Families are generally small, with only one or two children. Family privacy is considered important. Traditionally, the man is considered the head of the household; however, women increasingly work outside the home, although to a lesser extent than in many other European countries. Parliamentary representation among women is also lower than elsewhere in Europe. Only in 1971 did women receive the right to vote in national (federal) elections and in most cantons, and not until 1990 did the half-canton Appenzell-Innerrhoden grant women the right to vote on local issues.

Eating

Breakfast is usually light and might include various types of fresh bread, cheese, jam, and coffee. The main meal of the day is traditionally at midday and often consists of a main dish with meat and some form of potatoes or pasta, vegetables, and salad. A light dinner is served between 6 and 7 PM; it often consists of open-faced sandwiches. In major urban areas, the trend is to have the main meal in the evening. The Swiss have combined dishes from surrounding countries with their own to create a cuisine that is distinctly Swiss, whether one is in a German-, French-, or Italian-speaking area. Cheese fondue (melted cheese and wine into which chunks of bread are dipped) is found throughout the country, and small portions of a soft melted cheese known as Raclette are eaten with boiled potatoes and pickles. Meat is often served in rich sauces, and plates of cold meats are frequently eaten as appetizers. Fresh fish is available in lakeside areas. Most regions have their own specialties, including sausages, soups, cheeses, cakes, and wines, together with some foods that are hard to find in other parts of the country. The Ticino region, for example, prides itself on its Italian-style dishes. Etiquette requires that one does not start eating until the host or the eldest has begun. Everyone then says “En Guete” to wish each other a good meal. The fork is held in the left hand, and the knife in the right. Hands are kept above the table, and utensils are placed side by side on the plate when finished eating.

Socializing

Most Swiss shake hands when greeting, and traditional formality tends to mean that titles and surnames are used more than in some other western European countries. Although use of first names is now widespread among younger people, adults tend to use them only among close friends and family. Verbal greetings vary among language groups, but also according to the time of day and the situation. Most visits are prearranged; the Swiss rarely drop in on others unannounced. Visitors often bring a small gift to the hosts, especially if visiting for the first time.

Recreation

The Swiss are fond of the outdoors, and many people enjoy walking, skiing, and climbing. Soccer, tennis, swimming, fishing, skating, and water sports are also popular, although there are restrictions on speedboats in some lake areas. A small 64 number of Swiss also enjoy traditional games unique to Switzerland. For example, a type of wrestling called Schwingen is practiced in some areas. It is similar to Greco-Roman wrestling, but does not have weight classifications. As in other countries, people enjoy watching television and going to the movies. There is also strong support for a wide range of arts and music, with festivals held in many towns during the summer.

Holidays and Celebrations

Official holidays include New Year’s Day (1 January), Easter (Friday through Monday), Ascension, Whitsunday and Whitmonday, National Day (1 August), Federal Day of Prayers (a thanksgiving holiday in September), Christmas Day (25 December), and 26 December. In most parts of the country, Labor Day (1 May) is also a holiday, as are some other days during the Christmas-New Year period. In Switzerland, the day of the Ascension is also Banntag, or Boundary Day, when, according to tradition, people would check the boundary markers of their property and have their fields blessed. In some villages the rite is still performed, and sometimes musicians accompany the walkers. Special church services or community meals follow the ritual in some areas. Christmas is the biggest celebration of the year. On Christmas Eve, families gather for a large meal and exchange gifts. The family relaxes on Christmas Day and visits friends on 26 December. New Year’s Eve (31 December) is also Saint Sylvester’s Day, when the last person of the household to rise from bed is woken up with shouts of “Sylvester!” The last child who makes it to school is also dubbed Sylvester. In the evening, parties, fireworks, and church bells usher in the New Year.

CUSTOMS OF SWEDEN

Marriage and Family

Many people choose to live together rather than get married. Often, a couple marries after they have lived together for several years, or when they have a child. Unmarried couples who live together have nearly the same rights and obligations under the law as married couples. Families generally have only one or two children. Most women work outside the home. 48 percent (1999)Young children are cared for at day-care centers while parents are at work. The nuclear family is the basic social unit, but extended family relationships are maintained through gatherings and holiday visits. Elderly individuals generally rely on the social system or themselves for their care and support. Many families in urban areas live in apartments or single-family homes, while most people in smaller towns and rural areas have single-family dwellings. Sweden is known for its red wooden farmhouses, built in the 18th and 19th centuries, that still dot the countryside.

65 Eating

Swedes today are generally health conscious and aware of the nutritional content of what they eat, although young people also enjoy fast food, which is increasingly available. The typical Swedish breakfast includes coffee, fruit juice, knäckebröd (crisp bread) or smörgåsar (open sandwiches) with ham or cheese, eggs, and filmjölk (buttermilk). Lunch is usually a hot meal, even in schools. On weekends and special occasions it may be more elaborate. Typical Swedish food is herring, meatballs, gravad lax (raw pickled salmon), potatis (potatoes), and pancakes. During the last three weeks of August (the crayfishing season), crayfish parties are a favorite tradition. On special occasions it is common to have a smörgåsbord, a lavish buffet. In addition to traditional fare, Swedes also enjoy a variety of ethnic foods, including French, Italian, Thai, Chinese, and Mexican. Swedes generally eat three meals a day. Many eat a light breakfast around 7 AM and might have a coffee or tea break at midmorning. The main meal (middag) was traditionally eaten at midday. This is still the case in most rural areas, but urban residents have only a light, hot lunch at noon and the evening meal around 6 PM. At festive dinners, it is usual for people to wait until the host has made a toast (Skål) before drinking. It is also important to make eye contact before taking your first drink and again before putting the glass back on the table. It is usual to help oneself from the dishes placed on the table, and it is therefore bad manners to leave food on one’s plate.

Socializing

Swedes usually shake hands upon meeting. People generally address each other by their first names; titles are used only in very formal situations. More formal greetings include God dag (“Good day”) or God morgon (“Good morning”). Among friends, most people are more casual and simply say Hej (“Hi”). Swedes generally answer the phone by stating their names, but say Hallå if they cannot hear the caller. Goodbye is Adjö or, more casually, Hej då. Swedes entertain often at home, and punctuality is important. During the winter or rainy weather, guests generally remove their shoes when entering the home, unless the gathering is formal. They usually stay after the meal for coffee and conversation, which can last for hours.

Recreation

Swedes greatly enjoy the outdoors, and many own or have access to summer cottages for weekends or vacations. Swedes enjoy jogging, hiking, birdwatching, fishing, hunting, boating, and orienteering, which is a cross-country race requiring participants to use a map and compass to navigate an unfamiliar course. Soccer, tennis, golf, swimming, skiing, skating, ice hockey, and bandy—a game believed to be ice hockey's prototype—are important sports. Other popular recreational

66 activities include watching television, socializing, reading, and going to the cinema. Many people enjoy making handicrafts and singing in choirs.

Holidays and Celebrations

The Swedes celebrate both New Year’s Eve (31 December) and New Year’s Day (1 January) as public holidays. The Epiphany, or the day the Three Wise Men are said to have come to the baby Jesus, is observed on January 6. Easter (Påsk) is celebrated from Good Friday through Easter Monday. Children dress up like Easter witches, paint their faces, and collect candy from the homes of friends and neighbors. Walpurgis Night (30 April), now celebrated with bonfires and fireworks, is a festival dating from Viking times, celebrating the return of spring. Labor Day is observed on 1 May. Ascension Day, 40 days after Easter, is said to be the day Jesus Christ ascended to Heaven. Whitsunday, 50 days after Easter, and Whitmonday, the day following Whitsunday, are both observed. Sweden’s grandest festival, Midsommar (Midsummer) is celebrated on the weekend closest to June 21, which is Summer Solstice. This holiday also dates from Viking times, when it was a fertility rite meant to ensure a good harvest in the autumn. Nowadays, traditional songs are sung, and people dance around maypoles, which are decorated with birch leaves and flowers. The custom of wearing traditional regional dress to the celebration has regained popularity in recent years. Because the sun never sets in the northernmost part of Sweden on 21 June, it is known as “the day that never ends.” All Saints’ Day is on 2 November. A particularly lovely holiday in Sweden is Lucia, on 13 December. Traditionally, on this day the oldest girl in each family would don a white dress, a crimson sash, and a crown of candles. She has become Saint Lucia, a fascinating saint closely associated with both light and seeing. The girl dressed as Lucia, followed by her sisters and brothers (called maidens and star-boys), who would be dressed in similarly magical white garments, served coffee and buns to members of the household early in the morning of 13 December. Nowadays, Lucias are also chosen in their schools or day-care centers, and they might visit hospitals, factories, and offices, serving coffee, lussekatt (saffron buns), glögg (hot spiced wine), and gingerbread cookies. In Stockholm a contest is held to choose the “Stockholm Lucia.” Lucia begins the Jul (Christmas) season, which reaches its pinnacle on Christmas Eve with a smörgåsbord and the exchange of gifts. The Jultomten (Swedish Santa Claus) was traditionally known as a kind of gnome who lived under the house and left gifts for the children at the door. Today, children eagerly await his knock at the door on Christmas Eve. Some families keep the old tradition of “dipping in the pot”— dunking slices of bread in the broth from a boiled ham. The Christmas tree, placed in the house a couple of days before Christmas Eve, is not taken down until Saint Knut’s Day on 13 January. On this day a party for children is held and the tree, having served its purpose, is tossed out an open window as the celebrants sing a song about the end of the Christmas holiday.

67 CUSTOMS OF SPAIN

Marriage and Family

Many people still seek parental approval before marrying, and long engagements are common while couples save enough money to start married life in their own home. The average age for men to marry is 27, while women generally marry between the ages of 20 and 24. The divorce rate is low. Today Spanish families tend to be small—the country has one of the lowest population growth rates in the world. Links with the extended family remain close. The husband is traditionally considered the head of the household, and the wife is responsible for caring for the house and children. Today, however, many women living in urban areas work outside the home37 percent.

Eating

Breakfast is generally a light meal of coffee or hot chocolate, bread and jam, or churros (pieces of dough made of flour and butter, deep-fried and sprinkled with sugar). For their midday and evening meals Spaniards enjoy a wide range of meat and fish, salad and fruit, and cheese. Adults usually drink wine with their meals, and children drink mineral water or soft drinks. There is usually plenty of bread. Traditional Spanish dishes include gazpacho (a cold soup of onions, peppers, tomatoes, and garlic); paella (rice, saffron, chicken, seafood, and a variety of other items cooked and served in a large, shallow pan); calamares en su tinta (squid cooked in its ink and served on a bed of rice); and cocido (Castilian stew). Tapas (snacks), served in many bars, can be as simple as olives or chunks of cheese, or as elaborate as meatballs in a spicy sauce. There is a rich variety of regional dishes and local specialties. Spain is also a leading producer of both high-quality and table wines, and it is the home of sherry. Traditionally, the main meal of the day is eaten at around 2 PM and the evening meal at 9 or 10 PM. Many people have a merienda (afternoon snack), often a bocadillo (sandwich) with a hot drink, at around 5 or 6 PM. At a formal dinner, the hosts indicate the seating arrangements, and women and older people are seated first. Hands (not elbows) are kept above the table and not placed in the lap during the meal. Upon finishing a meal, the knife and fork are laid side by side on the plate.

Socializing

Spanish greetings include ¡Hola! (“Hello”), ¡Buenos días! (“Good morning”), and ¡Buenas tardes! (“Good afternoon”). When being introduced to someone, a Spaniard might say Encantado de conocerle (“Delighted to meet you”). ¿Cómo está Usted? (“How are you?”) can be answered with Bien, gracias (“Well, thank you”). A handshake usually accompanies a greeting. Male friends often add a pat on the back and, if they have not seen each other for some time, an abrazo (hug). Female friends often kiss each other on both cheeks when greeting or parting. The use of first names is not widespread, and it is still fairly common in 68 business or when addressing older people to use Señor (“Mr.”), Señora (“Mrs.”), or Señorita (“Miss”). In some areas, the titles Don and Doña are used with the first name to show particular respect. The Spanish often meet their friends in cafés or entertain in restaurants rather than in their own homes. In general, people call ahead before visiting, but the Spanish are considerate hosts and anyone who drops in unannounced during a meal is likely to be asked to join the others at the table. The invitation is usually out of courtesy, and is refused with a ¡Que aproveche! (“Enjoy your meal”). When invited to someone’s home for dinner, guests often bring a gift to enjoy during the meal, such as wine or dessert.

Recreation

The main spectator sport is soccer, which is followed passionately. Spaniards also enjoy golf, basketball, tennis and, in certain regions, hunting, skiing, and fishing. Bullfights still draw crowds. The bullfight, so important a part of Spanish tradition, has been called a fiesta brava. It is far more than a mere spectator sport; fans applaud not only the bravery of the toreros but their dexterity and artistry as well. Television and cinema are popular. Theater, music, dance, and opera are well supported in cities such as Madrid and Barcelona. The Spanish are also proud of their museums and art galleries, which contain works by Spanish artists such as Goya, Picasso, and Velázquez—the Prado Museum in Madrid is one of the world’s great museums. Cafés and bars are the main centers for socializing outside the home.

Holidays and Celebrations

The Spanish tend to take their main three- or four-week vacation in July or August. Official holidays include New Year’s Day (1 January), the Day of the Three Kings (6 January), Feast of San José (19 March), Good Friday, Labor Day (1 May), Corpus Christi, Santiago Day (25 July), National Day (12 October, the anniversary of Christopher Columbus' arrival in America), All Saints’ Day (1 November), Constitution Day (6 December), Immaculate Conception (8 December), and Christmas Day (25 December). The Day of the Three Kings, or Magi, is the day on which the Spanish traditionally open Christmas gifts, commemorating the day that the Three Magi presented their gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh to the baby Jesus. Fiestas, or festivals, are an outstanding feature of Spanish life. They usually begin with a High Mass followed by a solemn procession in which venerated images are carried on the shoulders of the participants. Music, dancing, poetry, and singing often enliven these colorful occasions. The feast of Corpus Christi in Toledo and Granada and the Holy Week observances in Andalucía (particularly in Seville), Cuenca, Valladolid, and Zamora are solemn affairs. Another important festival is Fallas de San José (Bonfires of Saint Joseph), which takes place in Valencia in March. Enormous, elaborate papier-mâché sculptures—satirical depictions of public figures and the year's events—are displayed. At the end of the week, all but the finest of the sculptures

69 are burned in a ceremony accompanied by fireworks. The Feria de Abril in Seville is a particularly lively event in late April. In May or June, hundreds of thousands of people ride on horseback or in colorful horse-drawn carriages to El Rocío during the Romería del Rocío, a pilgrimage honoring the Virgin Mary. Flamenco dancing and other festivities ensue once the celebrants have reached El Rocío. A pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela takes place in July, honoring the name day of Saint James (Santiago), the patron saint of Spain. Pilgrims from all over the world walk from the Pyrenees to Galicia in order to obtain indulgence from the Roman Catholic Church. July is also the month for the festival of San Fermín in Pamplona, when bulls are run through the streets to the bullring.

CUSTOMS OF UKRAINE

Marriage and Family

Young couples usually marry in their early twenties. A marriage is legal only if performed in a “Wedding Palace,” but most couples today also have a religious ceremony. Wedding parties in urban areas tend to be elaborate but do not involve much tradition. On the other hand, weddings in rural areas are big events that usually last for three days. Most weddings include the traditional trio music of the violin, tambourine, and dulcimer. The average family has two children. Both parents usually work outside the home. Child care is expensive and in short supply; however, many elderly parents live with their adult children and often assume responsibility for child care during the day. Women do most household chores. It is common for parents to support children until they reach adulthood and even after they are married. In turn, children expect to care for aging parents when it becomes necessary. It is also common for those who have settled in the city to send their children to stay with their grandparents in the country for several weeks during the summer. Most families in urban areas live in small one- or two-bedroom apartments. State-owned apartments are the most affordable; private rented accommodations are expensive. Few people own their apartments. Homes in towns and cities have such utilities as electricity, gas, and water, while houses in rural areas are much simpler.

Eating

Vegetables, breads, dairy products, and starchy foods are basic staples. The most popular Ukrainian dishes are made of cereal grains and flour pastes. Common grains include buckwheat, oats, and millet. Rice is imported. Popular dishes include varenyky (dumplings), holubtsi (cabbage leaves stuffed with ground meat and rice), and kasha (porridge, prepared in a variety of ways). Kasha is served with either meat or poultry. Pork and beef are the most common meats. Soup is considered an essential part of a meal. The most popular, borsch, varies according to locality and season and typically contains cabbage, beets, potatoes, and carrots; meat may also be added. It can be served hot or cold, often with sour cream.

70 Ukrainians eat fruits such as apples, pears, plums, strawberries, and melons. Fresh produce is expensive and difficult to obtain during the winter, so in summer and autumn people make preserves for the winter months. People eat a light snidanok (breakfast) in the morning before leaving for school or work. Obid is eaten in the mid-afternoon and usually includes soup followed by meat or fish. Working people usually bring food from home or go to canteens (cafés) for obid. The third meal, vechera, is eaten at 6 or 7 pm and is usually the meal that family members eat together. People usually only eat out on special occasions.

Socializing

When meeting informally, men and women usually wave the hand and give a verbal greeting such as Pryvit (“Hi”) or Dobryj den’ (“Good day”). Dobryj den’ is also appropriate in formal situations, in which case people often shake hands. Men wait for women to extend a hand before offering to shake it. In official situations titles are used, including Pan (“Mr.”), Pani (“Mrs.”), Panna (“Miss”), or Panove (“Sirs” or “Gentlemen”), as well as professional titles. Relatives and close friends often hug and kiss cheeks when greeting. They address each other by first name. A respectful form of address is to use the first name followed by the patronymic, which is the father’s given name, and a gender-specific (for son or daughter) suffix. Because of the Ukrainian tradition of hospitality, visitors, whether expected or not, are nearly always made welcome. Friends, neighbors, and relatives often visit. However, visits arranged in advance are preferred whenever possible. Guests invited for dinner will usually bring a gift of some kind: flowers, a cake, a bottle of liquor, or candy or toys for the children. Guests usually remove footwear when they enter a home, and they do not sit on the floor or put their feet on furniture.

Recreation

On weekends, many young people like to leave the city. Mountain climbing, hiking, camping, and skiing are popular activities. In the summer, people enjoy swimming, volleyball, soccer, and table tennis. Fishing and soccer are especially popular with men, and most people enjoy watching television and visiting friends. Some people who live in urban areas own dachas, or country cottages, and spend a great deal of time there tending a garden, making preserves, and relaxing. People without dachas often have a small plot of land near the city on which they grow vegetables. In cities people take advantage of the opportunities available for going to the theater or concerts, but in rural areas they are more likely to get together on weekends to play music, sing, and dance. Traditional instruments still played in Ukraine include the sopilka (flute), the volynka (horn pipe), and the national instrument, the bandura (stringed instrument).

Holidays and Celebrations

71 Celebrated on 25 December by Catholics and on 7 January by Orthodox Christians, Christmas is the most popular holiday. During the Christmas season, which also includes New Year’s, people decorate fir trees and have parties. Now that religion is no longer suppressed, other religious holidays are regaining prominence. Children enjoy koliadkie, a time when they go door to door and receive candy and cookies in exchange for songs and jokes. National holidays include International Women’s Day (8 March), Solidarity Day (1 May), Victory Day (9 May), and Independence Day (24 August). An old holiday (Soviet Army Day, 23 February) is unofficially celebrated as a sort of Men’s Day. On International Women’s Day, women receive flowers and gifts, household help from husbands, and a day off from work. Special attention is paid to mothers, and girls are congratulated as future women. Victory Day marks the end of World War II and is extremely important for most families.

CUSTOMS OF VIETNAM

Marriage and Family

Traditionally, marriages were arranged by parents, but now people choose their own partner. On average, men marry at age 25 and women around age 23. The government is trying to reduce population growth through family-planning policies, which include providing incentives for later marriages and smaller families. Family members maintain strong ties and provide one another with assistance and support as needed. In rural areas it is normal for the extended family to share the same home, while in urban areas it has become more common for only the nuclear family to live together. The average household has six members.

Eating

Rice is the staple food of Vietnam. A fermented called nuoc mam is the main seasoning used to flavor dishes; special foods are also dipped in it. encompasses a wide variety of dishes, and regional specialties are often served to guests. The Vietnamese use spoons for eating soup, and chopsticks for other dishes. It is usual for people to help themselves from dishes in the center of the table and place the food in their rice bowl; they always hold their rice bowl in their hand while eating from it. Tea, coffee, and beer are common beverages, but are often not served until after the meal.

Socializing

Vietnamese generally shake hands when greeting and parting. Using both hands shows respect, as does a slight bow of the head. In rural areas, elderly people who do not extend their hand are greeted with a slight bow. Women are more likely to bow the head slightly than to shake hands. Vietnamese names begin with the family name and are followed by a given name. For example, in the name Nguyen Van Duc, Nguyen is the family name. People address one another by their 72 given names, but add a title that indicates their perceived relationship to the other person. These titles are family related rather than professional. Among colleagues, for example, the younger of the two might combine the given name with the title of Anh (“Older Brother”). A basic greeting combined with the given name and title is Xin chao (“Hello.”). Classifiers for gender and familiarity are also combined with the greeting. In formal meetings, business cards are sometimes exchanged on greeting. Vietnamese have a strong sense of hospitality and feel embarrassed if they cannot show their guests full respect by preparing for their arrival. Therefore, it is inappropriate to visit a home without having been invited. Gifts are not required, but are appreciated. Flowers, incense, or tea may be appropriate gifts for the hosts. Hosts also appreciate a small gift for their children or elderly parents.

Recreation

The Vietnamese enjoy team sports such as volleyball and soccer. Badminton, table tennis, swimming, and tennis are also popular. In urban areas, it is common to see people of all ages out early in the morning for exercise such as jogging, t’ai chi ch’uan (a form of shadowboxing), yoga, or group calisthenics.

Holidays and Celebrations

By far the most important Vietnamese holiday is Tet, the lunar New Year, which comes in late January or early February. On this day, everyone becomes a year older. Tet lasts for three days, during which the Vietnamese spend their time feasting and visiting family and friends. Before Tet, people clean their houses, refurbish ancestral graves, settle debts, and mend strained relationships. Trung Nguyên, or Wandering Souls day, is a Buddhist holiday that falls on the 15th day of the seventh lunar month, and is the second most important holiday after Tet. People all over the country worship and offer prayers in temples, homes, and even offices. Thanh Minh, which means “pure and bright,” is an occasion on the fifth day of the third lunar month to honor the dead. Graveyards are visited with flowers and other offerings. Phat Dan Day in April or May is a celebration of Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, and death. Doan Ngu, on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month, is a celebration of the summer solstice. Death is the overwhelming presence around which the rituals for this holiday are based: people make offerings to the God of Death—as well as to ghosts and spirits—and human effigies are burned to help bolster the ranks of the God of Death’s army. Besides Tet, Vietnamese public holidays include International New Year’s Day (1 January); 30 April, which commemorates the defeat of the U.S.-backed South Vietnamese government in 1975; Labor Day (1 May); National Day (2 September); and the Anniversary of Ho Chi Minh’s Death (3 September). Christians celebrate Christmas Day (25 December) and Easter.

73 REFERENCES

1. Dealing With Different Customs & Cultures. URL: https://www.backpackertravel.org/backpacker-101/on-the-road/dealing- different-customs-cultures/ 2. Hogan Christine F. Facilitating Multicultural Groups: A Practical Guide. London: Kogan Page, 2007. 3. Kate Fox. Watching the English: The Hidden Rules of English Behaviour. – Hodder, 2005. 424 pages. 4. Microsoft® Encarta® Reference Library 2003. © 1993-2002 Microsoft Corporation. 5. 25 Strange Customs and Traditions Around the World By Gunnar Garfors - December 6, 2016. URL: https://garfors.com/25-strange-customs-and- traditions-html/

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