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Genes, Evolution, and Environment

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Genes, Evolution, and Environment M03_WADE0354_05_SE_C03.indd Page 70 15/10/14 10:03 PM user /203/PHC00110/9780205960354_WADE/WADE_PSYCHOLOGY05CE_SE_9780205960354/SE/MAIN/M03 ... Genes, Evolution, 3 and Environment 70 M03_WADE0354_05_SE_C03.indd Page 71 15/10/14 10:03 PM user /203/PHC00110/9780205960354_WADE/WADE_PSYCHOLOGY05CE_SE_9780205960354/SE/MAIN/M03 ... Ask questions. OUTLINE Unlocking the Secrets be willing to wonder of Genes The Genetics of Similarity If a trait is “genetic,” is it inevitable? Evolution and Natural Selection Why do kittens, monkeys, toddlers, and Innate Human Characteristics grownups all love to play and “monkey around”? Our Human Heritage: Courtship and Mating Evolution and Sexual Has evolution made men, but not women, Strategies naturally promiscuous? The Genetic Leash The Genetics of Difference The Meaning of Heritability Computing Heritability hink of all the ways in which human the actual race of life . the chief determining Our Human Diversity: The Tbeings are alike. Everywhere, no matter factor is heredity.” But in words that became Case of Intelligence what their backgrounds or where they live, famous, his contemporary, behaviourist John Genes and Individual people love, work, argue, dance, sing, com- B. Watson (1925), insisted that experience Differences plain, and gossip. They rear families, celebrate could write virtually any message on the tabula The Question of Group Differences marriages, and mourn losses. They reminisce rasa, the blank slate, of human nature: “Give The Environment and about the past and plan for the future. They me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and Intelligence help their friends and fight their enemies. my own specified world to bring them up in Beyond Nature versus They smile with amusement, frown with dis- and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random Nurture pleasure, and glare in anger. Where do all and train him to become any type of specialist Taking Psychology with You these commonalities come from? I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, Should You Have Genetic Think of all the ways in which human merchant-chief and yes, even beggar-man and Testing? beings differ. Some are extroverts, always ready thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, to make new friends or speak up in a crowd; tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of others are shy and introverted, preferring the his ancestors.” safe and familiar. Some are ambitious and In this chapter, we examine the contribu- enterprising; others are placid, content with tions of both nature and nurture in shaping the way things are. Some take to academics our human commonalities and our individual like a cat to catnip; others struggle in school differences. We will focus largely on findings but have plenty of street smarts and practical from two related areas: evolutionary psy- know-how. Some are overwhelmed by even chology and behavioural genetics. Research- petty problems; others remain calm and resil- ers in evolutionary psychology emphasize evolutionary psychology A ient in the face of severe difficulties. Where do the evolutionary mechanisms that might help field of psychology emphasizing evolutionary mechanisms that all these differences come from? explain commonalities in language learning, may help explain human For many years, psychologists addressing attention, perception, memory, sexual behav- commonalities in cognition, these questions tended to fall into two camps. iour, emotion, reasoning, and many other development, emotion, social On one side were the nativists, who empha- aspects of human psychology. Researchers in practices, and other areas of behaviour. sized genes and inborn characteristics, or behavioural genetics attempt to tease apart nature; on the other side were the empiricists, the relative contributions of heredity and behavioural genetics An interdisciplinary field of study who focused on learning and experience, or environment to explain individual differ- concerned with the genetic nurture. Edward L. Thorndike (1903) staked ences in personality, mental ability, and other bases of individual differences out the first position when he claimed that “in characteristics. in behaviour and personality. 71 M03_WADE0354_05_SE_C03.indd Page 72 15/10/14 10:03 PM user /203/PHC00110/9780205960354_WADE/WADE_PSYCHOLOGY05CE_SE_9780205960354/SE/MAIN/M03 ... 72 Chapter 3 Genes, Evolution, and Environment The long and short of it: Human beings are both similar and different. Keep in mind, however, that virtually no one argues in terms of nature versus nurture anymore. Scientists today understand that heredity and environment constantly interact to pro- duce our psychological traits and even most of our physical ones. This interaction works in two directions. First, genes affect the kinds of experiences we have: A teen- ager with a genetic aptitude for schoolwork may be more likely than other kids to join a spelling-bee team and get books and science kits as birthday presents. These experi- ences reward and encourage the development of academic skills. Conversely, although most people don’t realize it, experience also affects our genes: Stress, diet, emotional events, and hormonal changes can all influence which genes are active or inactive at any given time over a person’s lifetime (Fraga et al., 2005; Mischel, 2009). The study of this type of stable change in gene expression (that does not involve changes in the underlying DNA structure) is called epigenetics. Try, then, as you read this chapter, to resist the temptation to think of nature and nurture in either–or terms. The long and short of it: Human beings are both similar and different. View the Image in MyPsychLab Learning ObjectivesView in MypsychLab View the Image in MyPsychLab 1 DescribeView what thein MypsychLab chemical code in 3 Compare how gene expression can our genes encodes for. change over the lifespan. Identify the Watch the Video in MyPsychLab Watch in MypsychLab 2 Contrast what a complete map of the promise and limitations of epigenetics. Watch the Video in MyPsychLab Watch in MypsychLab View the humanImage genes in MyPsychLab reveals—and does View in MypsychLab not reveal. Listen to the Chapter Audio in MyPsychLab Listen in MypsychLab Listen to the Chapter Audio in MyPsychLab Listen in MypsychLab Watch the Video in MyPsychLab Watch in MypsychLab Explore the Concept in MyPsychLabUnlocking theExplore Secrets in MypsychLab of Genes Explore the Concept in MyPsychLab Explore in MypsychLab ListenLet’s to the begin Chapter by looking Audio at what in MyPsychLab genes are and how they operate.Listen Genes in, the MypsychLab basic units Simulate the Experiment in MyPsychLabof heredity, are located on chromosomesSimulate, rod-shaped in MypsychLab structures found in the centre Simulate the DNAExperiment Replication in MyPsychLab (nucleus) of everySimulate cell of in the MypsychLab body. Each sperm cell and each egg cell (ovum) contains Explore the Concept in MyPsychLab Explore in MypsychLab Study and Review in MyPsychLab23 chromosomes, so when a spermStudy and egg and unite Review at conception, in MyPsychLab the fertilized egg and genes The functional units of heredity; Study and Reviewthey are in composed MyPsychLab of DNA and specify all the body Studycells that and eventually Review indevelop MyPsychLab from it (except for sperm cells and ova) the structure of proteins. Simulate contain the 46 Experiment chromosomes, in MyPsychLabarranged in 23 pairs. Simulate in MypsychLab Read the Document in MyPsychLab Chromosomes consist of threadlikeRead in strands MypsychLab of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Read the Documentchromosomes in MyPsychLab Within every cell, rod- Read in MypsychLab shaped structures that carry the genes. Studymolecules, and Review and ingenes MyPsychLab consist of small segments of this DNA. EachStudy human and Review chromo in- MyPsychLab Map the Cincepts in MyPsychLabsome contains thousands of genes,Map each within MypsychLab a fixed location. Collectively, all the genes Map the Cinceptsdeoxyribonucleic in MyPsychLab acid (DNA) The together—theMap best inestimates MypsychLab put the number at around 25 000—are referred to as the chromosomal molecule that transfers Readhuman the Document genome. Mostin MyPsychLab of these genes are found in other animalsRead as well, in butMypsychLab others are genetic characteristics by way of coded instructions for the structure of proteins. uniquely human, setting us apart from chimpanzees, wasps, and mice. Many genes Map contributethe Cincepts directly in MyPsychLab to a particular trait, but others work indirectlyMap by in switching MypsychLab other genome The full set of genes in each genes on or off throughout a person’s life. Everyone inherits many genes in the same cell of an organism (with the exception of sperm and egg cells). form as everyone else; other genes vary, contributing to our individuality. Chromosomes containing genes DNA Cell nucleus Cell M03_WADE0354_05_SE_C03.indd Page 73 15/10/14 10:03 PM user /203/PHC00110/9780205960354_WADE/WADE_PSYCHOLOGY05CE_SE_9780205960354/SE/MAIN/M03 ... Chapter 3 Genes, Evolution, and Environment 73 Within each gene, four basic chemical elements of DNA—the bases adenine, genetic marker A segment of DNA that varies among individuals, has a thymine, cytosine, and guanine, identified by the letters A, T, C, and G—are arranged known location on a chromosome, in a particular order: for example, ACGTCTCTATA. This sequence may contain and can function as a genetic landmark thousands or even tens of thousands of “letters,” which together constitute a code for for
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