A Study of Factors That Contribute to Violence in South African Football

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Surname, Initial(s). (2012) Title of the thesis or dissertation. PhD. (Chemistry)/ M.Sc. (Physics)/ M.A. (Philosophy)/M.Com. (Finance) etc. [Unpublished]: University of Johannesburg. Retrieved from: https://ujdigispace.uj.ac.za (Accessed: Date). NQ A M O1LU B Ii AP Master's Degree in Business Administration (MBA)

University of Wales

A STUDY OF FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO VIOLENCE IN SOUTH AFRICAN FOOTBALL

Student: Ntokobane A. Molubi

Student No: (2008761)

Supervisor: Dr. J. van Zyl

October 2003 DECLARATION

I declare that this research is original work. Any other work of a similar nature has been appropriately referenced and this body of work has not been submitted before for any degree or examination at any University

Ntokobane A. Molubi

August 2003 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to the following people who have made a contribution in assisting me complete this dissertation:

My supervisor, Dr. Jacques van Zyl, for his guidance, assistance and for building my confidence.

My friends, Tebogo Tlhame, John Manyike and Moeketsi Maraba, for their assistance in the distribution and return of the survey questionnaires and also for the focus group co-ordination. I would not have done it without you gentlemen.

My family: my father Leswene Molubi, mother Maureen Molubi, sisters Lorraine Tshabalala, Dimakatso and Nnana Molubi, nephews Lancelot Oliphant, nieces Khumo Molubi and Celiwe Tshabalala for believing in me throughout and never doubting for one second that I will make it.

The respondents of the survey questionnaire, without whom this effort could not have borne fruit.

The interviewees, who sacrificed their time and gave freely of their input.

The focus group for their input and for giving the study balance and credibility.

My friend Eddy Gordon and his wife Jess for their motivation and support throughout this dissertation.

My wife, Cindy, for her unconditional love and support throughout our very trying times and for believing in me and being my pillar of strength.

My colleague and friend, Robert Black for his assistance with editing the graphs and keepings me sane when I was losing my mind and patience. Last, and by no means least, my daughter Boitumelo, for giving me the strength to fight back when I was staring death in the face, knowing that it meant a lot to her for me to bounce back - this one is for you my baby! EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

South African football has been besieged by a lot of violence in recent times and as a result has been attracting negative publicity and criticism from a number of sectors domestically. All these developments have been unfolding at a time when South Africa is entering the contest to host the sport's most prestigious tournament, the World Cup (by this the researcher is referring to the unsuccessful 2006 Bid, which was won by Germany and the current 2010 Bid that South Africa appear favou rites to win).

There have been a number of tragic incidences in which many people lost their lives and thereby prompting commissions of enquiry being set up to get to the root-causes of the problems with a view to eradicate them. These commissions have been met with scepticism by the public, who alleged that these were disappointing at best and were not addressing real issues but were instead protecting the people in soccer's management from taking responsibility for non- performance.

The researcher therefore carried out this research covering a wider angle of participation including as many stakeholders as possible with a view to finding out what collective solutions could be reached to stamp out violence in South African football. The aim of the research was to come up with recommendations that would be presented to the powers that be in South African football from as inclusive stakeholders as possible to tackle violence in the sport. The researcher included the following stakeholders in the study: match officials (also known as referees), players, supporters/fans, administrators (this category included: coaches, team managers, and team spokespeople).

The research methods used were a combination of a survey questionnaire, interviews with the relevant stakeholders and a focus group. The focus group was primarily used for validation and triangulation (and also to bring in a

ill dimension that the researcher might have missed) to ensure that the recommendations made (which is the aim of this research) are geared towards tackling the issues uncovered by the findings.

The researcher hopes that the recommendations made at the end of the study will be well received by the football authorities in the country and perhaps some (if not all) would be considered for implementation as the spectrum of stakeholders that participated is wide.

Too many lives have been lost needlessly and it is imperative that appropriate action be taken to stem out this tide for the good of the sport. It is important to note that all stakeholders need each other to eradicate violence in the sport and it is in everybody's interest to work together to achieve this and to see South Africa winning the Bid to host the World Cup in 2010.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Research proposal...... 1 1.1 Background...... 1 1.2 Statement of the problem...... 2 1.3 Purpose of the Study (aim)...... 2 1.4 Objectives...... 3 1.4.1 Objective 1 ...... 3 1.4.2 Objective 2...... 3 1 .4.3 Objective 3...... 3 1.4.4 Objective 4...... 3 1.4.5 Objective 5...... 3

1.5 Relevance of Study...... 3 1.6 Limitations of the Study...... 4 1.7 Research Methodology...... 4 1.7.1 Literature Method...... 5 1.7.2 SurveyMethod ...... 5 1.7.3 Tape Reviews...... 6

1.8 Sampling...... 6 1.9 DataAnalysis ...... 6 1.lOFurtherChapters ...... 7

Chapter 2 Literature Review...... 9 2.1 Introduction...... 9 2.1.1 Sport and Emotions...... 11 2.1.2 Sport Spectating Nostalgia...... 12

2.2 Sports Violence: manifestations and explanations...... 13 2.2.1 Crowd Violence...... 13 2.2.1.1 The Celebratory Nature of Sport...... 13

2.2.1 .2 The Oxford School "ritual of soccer violence" thesis...... 14

2.2.2 Player Violence...... 15 2.2.2.1 Brutal Body Contact...... 16 2.2.2.2 Borderline Violence...... 16 2.2.2.3 Quasi-criminal Violence...... 16 2.2.2.4 Criminal Violence...... 17

2.3 The Dark Side of South African Soccer...... 17 2.3.1 The Social Context...... 18 2.3.2 Kaizer Chiefs versus Orlando Pirates...... 19 2.3.3 The typical South African Soccer Scene and Supporter...... 22 2.3.4 Other factors...... 23

2.4 Soccer fan Violence (Britain vs America)...... 25 2.4.1 Comparisons...... 26 2.4.1.1 Historical development...... 26 2.4.1.2 Sport Setting...... 27 2.4.1.3 Social Conditions...... 28

2.5 Spectator Violence at Football Matches: A Social Phenomenon...... 29 2.5.1 Football Hooliganism as a Social Phenomenon... .29 2.5.2 Official explanations of football hooliganism...... 32

2.6 Soccer Violence around the World...... 34 2.6.1 Season of shame takes shine off Roma's triumph .34 2.6.2 Anger after Angola-Portugal friendly...... 34 2.6.3 Ban internationals at Vosloorus Stadium...... 35

2.6.4 Soccer fans die in Stampedes (Africa)...... 37 2.7 Violence in other Sporting Codes...... 39 2 .7.1 Hockey...... 39 2.7.1.1 The Worstof Sports...... 40 2.7.1.2 Elbowroom...... 40 2.7.1.3 A Moment's Fatal Fury...... 41 2.7.2 Softball...... 41 2.7.2.1 Parents brawl at kids' game...... 42

2.8 Conclusion...... 44

Chapter 3 Research Methodology...... 46 3.1 Introduction...... 46. 3.2 Research Design...... 47 3.3 Data Collection...... 48 3.3.1 Self-Administered Questionnaire...... 49 3.3.1.1 Aim of the questionnaire...... 49 3.3.1.2 Sampling and Sample size...... 49

3.4 Design of the Self-Administered Questionnaire...... 50 3.5 Data Analysis...... 50 3.6 Validity...... 51 3.7 Reliability...... 52

Chapter 4 Data Analysis...... 53 4.1 Introduction...... 53 4.2 Graphical representation of data...... 55 4.2.1 Factor 1 - Excessive alcohol consumption...... 56 4.2.2 Factor 2 - Overcrowding at stadia...... 57 4.2.3 Factor 3 - Player violence on the field of play...... 58 4.2.4 Factor 4 - Player dissent...... 59

4.2.5 Factor 5 - Poor officiating .60

4.2.6 Factor 6 - Use of drugs...... 61

4.2.7 Factor 7 - Betting on match outcomes...... 62

4.2.8 Factor 8 - Supporters' lack of understanding of the rules of the game...... 63

4.2.9 Factor 9 - Refusal to accept the referee' decision .... 64 4.2.10 Factor 10- The media's creation of hype around games...... 65 4.2.11 Factor 11 - Administrators' conduct...... 66 4.2.12 Factor 12 - Excessive emotional involvement on the part of supporters...... 67 4.2.13 Factor 13— Selling more tickets than the stadia capacity...... 68 4.2.14 Factor 14— Poorly trained security personnel...... 69

4.3 Findings...... 70 4.3.1 Excessive alcohol abuse...... 70 4.3.2 Overcrowding at stadia...... 71 4.3.3 Player violence on the field of play...... 73 4.3.4 Player dissent...... 73 4.3.5 Poor officiating...... 74 4.3.6 Use of drugs...... 75 4.3.7 Betting on match outcomes...... 77. 4.3.8 Supporters' lack of understanding of the rules of the game...... 78 4.3.9 Refusal to accept the referee's decision...... 79 4.3.10 The Media's creation of hype around games...... 80 4.3.11 Administrators' conduct...... 81 4.3.12 Excessive emotional involvement on the part of supporters...... 82 4.3.13 Selling more tickets than the stadia capacity...... 84

4.3.14 Poorly trained security personnel .85 4.3.15 Other factors...... 86 4.3.15.1 The screening of the match on the stadium big screen while the match is underway...... 86 4.3.15.2 Money...... 86 4.3.15.3 Too much interference by management...... 86 4.3.15.4 Players' celebration styles...... 87 4.3.15.5 Confusion over kick-off time of certain games. 4.3.15.6 Non-fielding of supporters' favourite players..87 4.3.15.7 Sitting with opposition fans...... 87 4.3.15.8 Late arrival of fans at the stadia...... 88

4.4 Video tape reviews...... 88

Chapter 5 Conclusions and Recommendations...... 89 5.1 Introduction...... 89 5.2 Aim and objectives...... 89 5.2.1 Aim...... 89 5.2.2 Objective 1 ...... 89 5.2.3 Objective 2...... 89 5.2.4 Objective 3...... 90 5.2.5 Objective 4...... 91

5.3 Conclusions...... 91 5.4 Recommendations...... 93 5.5 Value for future study...... 95 LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1 (Survey questionnaire) .96

Appendix 2 (Match Review 1)...... 98

Appendix 3 (Match Review 2)...... 99

Appendix 4 (Match Review 3)...... 101 LIST OF GRAPHS

Graph1 ...... 56 Graph2...... 57 Graph3...... 58 Graph4...... 59 Graph5...... 60 Graph6...... 61 Graph7...... 62 Graph8...... 63 Graph9...... 64 Graph10...... 65 Graph11 ...... 66 Graph12...... 67 Graph13...... 68 Graph14...... 69 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 ...... 20

Table 2...... 21 CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH PROPOSAL

1.1 BACKGROUND

It is nine years since South Africa was re-admitted into international football by the world controlling body FlEA. It must be noted that the country has made tremendous strides since then (achieving a world ranking in the top 30) on the field of play. This was also capped by winning the African Nations' Cup in 1996, which we hosted very successfully (www.safa.net , 13 January 2003).

Off the field, the sport has been besieged by a lot of negative publicity in recent times with match officials (referees) to a greater extent, and administrators to a lesser extent bearing the brunt of it. A lot of criticism has been levelled at match officials' handling of matches, and in some instances even suggesting that the standard of officiating in this country is

exceptionally poor (www.supersport.co.za , 22 December 2002).

This has also been accompanied by an increase in spectator violence at soccer matches, which, is apparently in protest against bad (unfair) match officials decisions and other factors that contribute to negativity surrounding the sport. This increasing phenomenon (violence) is bad for the game of football especially when one considers how severe the consequences are in European countries (Holland), with death being common (Rusluin, 2001:15).

All of this is happening at a time when South Africa is bidding to host the 2010 World Cup soccer tournament. Very recently, South Africa lost the 2006 bid to Germany after satisfying all requirements as required by FIFA. This negative publicity is without doubt doing a lot of damage to South Africa's bid chances. The economic spin-offs that the country will enjoy if it the bid is successful could be huge. Similar trends were experienced in 1995 with the Rugby World Cup, in 1996 with the African Cup of Nations and the World Cup Cricket in 2003 that were successfully hosted in South Africa.

Major benefits would be employment opportunities for at least 150 000 people, as well as business growth in sectors such as: transport, the hospitality industry (hotels), the food industry in general, the telecommunication industry, travel agencies, foreign currency exchange agencies, the entertainment industry, the tourism industry (as some people might stay over for longer just to tour the country after the tournament, as was the case with the Rugby World Cup and the World Cup Cricket). These benefits, taking into account the time value of money then, will amount to billions (which will be a big boost for the economy).

On September 10 2003, the Sports Minister, addressed a media briefing at parliament that the 2010 World Cup finals in South Africa would contribute over 20 billion rand to the country's gross domestic product, with about 160 000 new employment opportunities being created (www.sa2010bid.co.za: 11 September 2003)

South African football has become a multi-million rand business in the last couple of years. In April 2003 South African Airways took over sponsorship of the top 8 competition (teams that finish in the top eight in the league). The sponsorship is worth 55 million rand over 5 years.

2 Two of the top teams in the Premier league, (Kaizer Chiefs and Orlando Pirates) are sponsored by the same company (Vodacom) to the value of 20 million rand each and both these teams have at least 8 sponsors each. A lot more companies are expected to become involved in South African football with the realisation of the publicity mileage they can get through football as the biggest sport as has been the trend in the last three years.

The study is also aimed at preventing the needless loss of lives, as happened with the Orkney disaster in 1991 (where 41 people were killed) and the Ellis Park disaster in 2001 (where 44 people were killed). In both the above disasters, supporters lost their lives through stampedes at stadia.

The researcher will present the findings to football management with a view to persuading them to consider integrating them in their planning and overall management and administration of football in the country. The researcher contends that if the recommendations of the study are considered, they could be incorporated into security planning and in the long run prevent the needless loss of lives.

This proposal in its final dissertation seeks to establish through investigation, which factors contribute to football violence and how these can be overcome to rid the game of negative publicity and minimise the outbreak of violent incidents.

Based on the findings, recommendations will also be made with a view to closing performance gaps (if any) and bringing

3 different stakeholder closer to each other for the good of the game and South Africa's bid chances.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

As has been the case recently with a bombardment of publicity on the increase in violence at football matches, the following problem statement has been formulated:

Violence is increasing in South African football, which is a bad reflection internationally and it might also jeopardise the country's chances of hosting the FIFA World Cup 2010

As earlier stated the media has been very critical of this aspect, especially the officiating (quality) side of the game. As a result, this research will investigate factors that contribute to football violence broadly, resulting in the following research question:

What factors contribute to violence in South African football?

1.3 AIM (PURPOSE OF THE STUDY)

This study will seek to make recommendations to the South African Football Association and the Premier Soccer League about methods that can be used to keep spectator violence to a minimum (or eradicate it if at all possible).

11 The study will seek to address the following (1.4) objectives:

1.4.1 Review literature study to highlight previous research on the topic 1.4.2 Conducting fieldwork to elicit data from spectators, administrators, players and match officials (also known as referees) and administrators. 1.4.3 Deducing recommendations from the data collected 1.4.4 Validating the data with the relevant stakeholders 1.4.5 Final recommendations

1.5 RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY

There has been a huge outcry from soccer administrators and club owners about the apparently "appalling" standard of officiating in South Africa soccer lately. This has been followed by a spate of damagingly negative media publications, which in some instances have shown ugly violent scenes that erupted at a number of matches affecting other off-the-field factors as well. (The Sowetan, 30 January 2003).

This study will help all stakeholders understand the importance of working together (as opposed to against each other in tackling a common problem of violence) for the benefit of the game of football.

The study will serve as the foundation of the solution (of eradicating football violence) by seeking the views and the opinions of the different groups involved (referees, coaches, administrators, players and most importantly, supporters/fans).

5 The study will recommend methods (based on the study of how other countries are going about this), which can be practical for the South African environment.

1.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The unavailability /unwillingness of some administrators for interviewing will also impact on the realities (source) faced by administrators in tackling this problem.

This factor (unwillingness) extends to some players and coaches as in their opinion, their participation in this study would put their respective careers in jeopardy. This despite anonymity being assured.

The availability of sufficient literature on this subject in the country is also regrettable as South Africa has different circumstances to most countries (e.g. infrastructure) taking into account the amount of money invested in the sport.

1.6.1 Assumptions

The following assumptions are made with respect to this study:

Conditions affect all stakeholders the same way throughout the country. The views expressed by the sample is representative of that group (e.g. referees) is the same /similar throughout the country. 1.7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The data to be collected includes primary and secondary data. The methods/ techniques to be employed to fulfil this are a combination of: Literature review and surveys. The focus of this research will be qualitative in its nature since it will seek people's views and opinions.

1.7.1 Literature Method

As earlier stated, not much literature is available covering this topic in the country but a selection of available published documents (abroad) will be reviewed on the topic only in as far as they shed light on the subject and helps clarify the perspective (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2000:73)

The major reasons exist for reviewing the literature (Saunders et al: 42) The preliminary search helps with the generation and refinement of research ideas Broadens a researcher's perspective of the research topic by way of critical review.

The extensive literature review that will be conducted will cover journal articles, books, newspaper articles, as well as web-based publications and case studies.

7 1.7.2 Survey method

This is a data collection method by rraking use of questionnaires and interviews to a great extent. In this study, both techniques will be employed to gather information on:

• Factors that lead to violence in sport generally • The challenges and difficulties faced by the different stakeholders • Factors that lead to football violence in South Africa specifically

1.7.3 Tape Reviews

The use of tapes of previously played matches will also be employed to ascertain without bias whether certain decisions made by the officials were in fact in harmony with the laws as prescribed by FIFA (sabc topsport: 2003). Other factors will also be scrutinised at length to determine their contribution to the problem.

1.8 SAMPLING

The sample for this research will be drawn from Gauteng province because of logistical practicalities (this is also where the majority of teams in the Premier League are based). A convenience sampling method will be used to achieve this objective (whereby some supporters will be approached during live game situations). Convenience sampling involves selecting those cases that are easiest to obtain (Saunders et al, 2000:176). The researcher chose this method because of the

8 relatively little or no variation in the respondent groups countrywide.

As earlier mentioned, the sample will be drawn from the Gauteng province largely because of the concentration of most teams (both professional and amateur) and also because of the level of intensive football activity compared to other provinces in the country. Because of this density in football activity, the researcher's task of selecting respondents randomly will be made easy.

Some of the identified benefits of sampling include the following (Wisniewski & Stead, 1996:10)

• Saves time - because the selected group is concentrated in a certain area, it saves the researcher time in covering the sample as opposed to covering the entire country.

• Economical - saves the researcher financial, resources by limiting the travel to only a certain geographical area as opposed to the entire country.

• Ease of analysis - sample data volume is more manageable and thereby easier to analyse than the entire population.

A sample of soccer supporters was chosen at random, so were referees at both professional and amateur level, administrators and players. 1.9 DATA ANALYSIS

A combination of techniques will be used to analyse the data such as multiple bar charts.

Survey questionnaires will be used to collect the data. These will be constructed in a very uncomplicated and unambiguous manner for easier understanding and interpretation, thereby improving the probability of a higher rate of completed questionnaires.

This would be complemented by interviews with major stakeholders and videotape reviews with a focus group for validation and triangulation purposes.

1.10 FURTHER CHAPTERS

1.10.1 Chapter 2: Literature Review

The importance of critical literature review can never be over emphasised (Saunders et al, 2000: 42). This section will review all available literature on the research topic (including studying other sporting codes that are exposed to similar conditions). This review will be very extensive as it will give meaning to the study.

1.10.2 Chapter 3: Research design and Methodology

This chapter will cover the methodologies employed in the study and also give rationale as to why they were deemed appropriate.

10 1.10.3 Chapter 4: Research findings

This chapter will detail the finding that will havE come out from the research and will include all the necessary detail (graphs, tables and charts).

1.10.4 Chapter 5: Conclusions and recommendations

Conclusions that will flow from the findings will be highlighted in this section.

Recommendations will also be made based on practices elsewhere in the world that could assist the South African football authorities minimise violence in the sport.

1.11 APPENDICES

All the necessary appendices that relate to the study will be contained herein. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

The researcher regarded it important to look at the background of violence before discussing football violence specifically. Therefore a number of articles will be reviewed in as far as they give clarity on the topic and lay the foundation for a detailed discussion.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Miller (2001:37) researched the role that exposure to media violence played in people's behaviour. His findings revealed that exposure to violent films among a sample of people selected stirred angry and aggressive feelings. These people were also more prone to high blood pressure. They tended to over-react and were overly harsh to things and people in general. The kind of company that they surrounded themselves with also did not help the situation as this promoted this kind of aggressive behaviour if they viewed their companions to be in agreement with their actions.

Miller (2001:38) also went on to examine behaviour outside the laboratory setting. He contended that there was general agreement that violent behaviour was influenced by many factors, such as: innate or acquired hostility or aggressiveness and attitudes, beliefs and values related to violence. Situations and circumstances are also very important because experts say that violence is more likely to occur when a person feels frustrated, uncomfortable, insulted or attacked. This part would be directly relevant as most spectator violence is situational and is perhaps as a result of frustration on the part of fans perceiving things not going their team's way.

Organizational Behavioural theorists (Kreitner, Kinicki & Buelens, 1999:138) bring an interesting dimension to this topic by looking at the power of emotions. They list both positive and

12 negative emotions but the focus will fall on the negatives, as these are the ones that lead to violence. Among the negative emotions they discuss are: anger, anxiety, envy, jealousy and disgust. They argue that depending on how strongly the pressure is on to elicit some kind of situational reaction, a negative physical reaction is a strong possibility.

Kreitner et al (1999:139) further argue that when a powerful stimulus from the environment (in this case a soccer match) triggers a strong reaction, the outcome could be quite extreme (bad). To emphasize a point, a perceived unfair action or decision on the field of play could possibly spark a riotous reaction from the crowd (such as missile throwing), leading to either disruption of a match or complete abandonment thereof.

Frustration is another emotion these theorists express that could push people over the edge. This is without doubt the most expressed emotion at soccer matches and perhaps the one that leads to most violent outbreaks.

Lashley (1992:46) discusses the real causes of violence and in her view the causes range from poverty, racism, Social neglect, unemployment, drug and alcohol abuse. It is quite evident from the above that quite a lot of factors come into play in contributing one way or another to violence. This is however a very broad analysis and for the purpose of the topic under discussion, the researcher will focus on drug and alcohol abuse because a discussion beyond that will fall outside the scope of this research.

13 2.1.1 Sport and Emotions

According to Duquin, E. (in Coakley and Dunning, 2000:477) sport is movement, belief and desire, bound together in a multisensual event whose epicenter is emotion. From ecstacy to agony, whether participating or spectating, emotions underlie our motives for play, our most vivid and memorable experiences, and often our reasons for leaving the arena. She continues to say that sport experiences can enrich emotional development by cultivating capacities for care, self-worth strength of will, good judgement, compassion, understanding, love and friendship.

Sport experiences can also undermine interpersonal relations and self-worth by contributing to feelings of fear, resentment, envy, malice, self-pity, despair, insensitivity and alienation (Duquin, E in Coakley & Dunning 2000:477). These examples illustrate the importance of emotions in understanding the impact of sport and leisure on individuals and social relations.

The same author maintains that emotions are significant in the construction of athletic identities, as well as in the formation of culture, class, gender, race, sexual and moral identities. Rojek, C (1985:55) expands on this theory by stating that much of modern sport involves learning to control emotions, of disciplining the self and managing emotional lives. He further argues that the extensive research on the normalization of pain and injury in sport reflects this emphasis on repression and managing emotions.

The above discussion clearly emphasises a great deal the importance of emotional discipline and self-restraint and control by the athletes involved as well as the fans and spectators in sport

14 2.1.2 Sport Spectating and Nostalgia

Sport fans experience a broad spectrum of emotions, both personal and communal when watching sport (Duquin, in Coakley & Dunning 2000:483). Researchers studying emotions in sport spectating have been primarily interested in describing the motives of sport fans, the pleasures of spectating, and the effects of sport fandom and sport nostalgia.

The nature of the interpretive community in which the sport fan places him/herself and the degree of psychological identification with the athletes contributes to dimensions of both breadth and depth in fan mythic identification (Real and Mechikoff, 1992:324). For many fans, spectating is enjoyable because of the excitement, suspense, aggression and drama involved in sporting contests (Bryant, 1994).

When fans identify closely with the teams they tend to feel deep emotions both positive and negative. Fans experience anxiety, frustration, anger, hostility, sadness and depression when their team does poorly. They feel ela.tion, ecstasy, enjoyment, self-fulfilment, self-esteem and social prestige when their team does well (Zhang, J. 1996:82).

2.2 SPECTATOR VIOLENCE AT FOOTBALL MATCHES: a social phenomenon

Dunning, Murphy & Williams (1986) looked at spectator violence and gave a sociological explanation. They focussed on the pattern of fighting between rival groups that have become associated with soccer, particularly in Britain. They discuss their article under the following headings:

15 2.2.1 Football Hooliganism as a social phenomenon

As a form of behaviour, the disorderliness of football fans that has come to attract the label, "football hooliganism", is complex and many-sided (Dunning et al, 1986:221).

In the football context, hooliganism refers to among other the following behaviour patterns (Dunning et al. 1986:221-222) & (Roadburg, 1980:

Fighting among rival groups Skirmishes with the police Pitch invasions Disruption of matches Throwing objects with the intent to injure Chanting abusive songs at matches that either insult or degrade the other group Excessive violence Disobedience for authority (including the law) Punching soccer officials (referees) Breaking windows Trashing stores Missile throwing Crude petrol bomb throwing (extreme but few cases)

In this fan's life, the match itself is not the highlight of the day but the hype and obsession take centre stage. He starts this during the course of the week and continues it long after the match has ended The post-match sprees that include roaming the streets stirring trouble (Dunning et al, 1986:222). The statement below, albeit exaggerated, gives one a clearer insight into the psychological make-up of a hooligan.

A fan (Frank) who was interviewed had the following to say: "I go to a match for one reason only: the aggro. It's an obsession, I can't give it up. I get so much pleasure when I'm having aggro that I nearly wet my pants... I go all over the country looking for it...every night during the week we go around town looking for trouble. Before a match we go round looking respectable...then if we see someone who looks like the enemy we ask him the time: if he answers in a foreign accent, we do him over; and if he's got any money on him we'll roll him as well" (Dunning et al, 1986:222).

A lot of studies conducted into football hooliganism, including Dunning et al (1986) and Roadburg (1980) confirm that the participants (or culprits) are adolescent and young adult males from particular groups within the socio-economically lowest sections of the working class. They are regarded as having lost a sense of control over the game and consequently tries desperately to regain control by measures such as pitch invasions.

This is the type of fan whose main objective in attending matches is to confront and fight opposing fans and to "take their end". They often travel without identifying colours to avoid advertising themselves too soon to rival fans and the police. It must be noted though that "hard core" hooligans are not dominant in number, but enough to cause serious trouble if not closely monitored.

Dunning et al (1986:225) differ with Marsh, Rosser and Harre (1978) in their focus and consequences. Marsh et al (1978) contend that the media exaggerates the violence in football

17 and that is really nothing more than an "aggressive ritual" in which people rarely get seriously hurt.

This view according to Dunning et al (1986:226) is dangerous because it leads to people addressing the issue lightly than it really is. For instance: underestimates the seriousness of the violence, which is sometimes involved in the fights between rival fans. This view also neglects fighting outside and away from the ground, and the aerial bombardments that occur at football matches and which regularly includes the throwing of dangerous missiles.

2.2.2 Official explanations of football hooliganism

The two main official explanations according to Dunning et al (1986:226) are excessive drinking (alcohol) and violence on the field of play. Both have limitations though. Take drinking for example: this cannot be said to be a significant cause of hooliganism because not every fan that drinks takes part in hooligan activities. As earlier stated, such extreme troublemakers are aggressive in nature and do not need a drink to go over the boil. Having said that, it should however be noted that enough alcohol consumption is one of a series of conditions that can facilitate football hooligan violence, and does so because alcohol is an agent or substance that lowers inhibitions (Dunning et al, 1986:226).

Violence on the pitch itself can also serve as a trigger for football hooliganism. This, in the hooligan's frame of reference, is sufficient justification to start his own "fight" on the stands and elsewhere. It also provides the fans involved an opportunity to act out hostilities with the police established in a

18 non-football context and gives them a public stage for expressing their disregard for respectable values.

The media is also to blame as it has created a national status hierachy of football hooligans and a struggle for status between different "football ends". This leads to desires by rival hooligan groups to knock each other off the pedestals onto which the media have placed them. A case in point here is the reference by the media to Manchester United supporters in the late 1970s as "Doc's Red Army" (Dunning et al, 1986:226).

In the hooligan world there are two league tables: one is official, the other is unofficial and in part media created. The official one is about matches won or lost and league points gained. The second one is about who ran, where and from whom, and whom officialdom and the media currently brand as the most "evil" and "destructive" hooligans in the country.

Overcrowding is another cause of violence, which also leads to all sorts of unnecessary panic and fatalities at football matches (Roadburg, 1980:270). This especially applies to "needle" matches in which the stakes are quite high such as derbies between Kaizer Chiefs and Orlando Pirates in South Africa, Real Madrid and Barcelona in Spain, Manchester United and Arsenal in England, Inter Milan and AC Milan in Italy, to mention a few. These are the types of matches that fans like to flock to to witness the action live. It goes without saying that adequate crowd control measures should be at their strictest, not only for the safety of the players but also to safeguard human life.

19 2.3 SPORTS VIOLENCE: manifestations and explanations

The following section will be a brief discussion of the history of sports violence and the possible explanations for it and will also be discussed under a number of headings.

2.3.1 Crowd violence

Sports crowd disorder is considered to have become a critical social problem in many countries. Fans of British and European sport, particularly football, have gained notoriety for violent proclivities inside and outside stadia (Young, in Coakley & Dunning, 2000:382).

Young maintains that violent crowd disorders are not unique to Britain and Europe alone as some violent disturbances have occurred elsewhere in the world, including Australia and New Zealand, Central and South America, Africa, Asia and North America. Young, in Coakley and Dunning (2000:382) also maintains that disorderly incidents have occurred in almost all societies containing rich sports cultures and consistent spectator followings.

2.3.1.1 The celebratory nature of sport

The organization and structure of sport encourages expressive and often aggressive behaviour by players and fans alike, normally under carnival-like conditions (Young, in Coakley & Dunning 2000:382). He also argues that because many sports spectators are more informed about their game, they can

20 immediately identify the significance of a particular event either in terms of seasonal goals (making the playoffs, winning the championship) or in terms of the relations and rivalries that have developed historically between the competing teams.

The result, according to Young (in Coakley & Dunning 2000:383) is that sports crowds show a vested interest - a fanaticism - in the outcome of the event a hand. Combined with factors caused by aggregation (physical closeness, milling, tension, noise) sporting contests are thereby characterised by emotionally charged behaviour by both participants and spectators alike where proceedings can easily "get out of hand".

2.3.1.2 The Oxford School "ritual of soccer violence" thesis

Following observational work done in the 1970s, Peter Marsh and his colleagues became the first principal exponents of the "ritual of soccer violence thesis" (Young, in Coakley & Dunning 2000:385). Marsh conceptualised aggression as a constructive means of controlling the social world in the process of achieving certain goals. He argued that this is the specific culture of groups that determine how aggression is expressed.

Marsh et al (1978:134), whose focus was on British soccer at the time, viewed soccer crowd disorder as a unique cultural adaptation to the lower working class environment, which manifests itself rather aggressively, but largely symbolic and harmless rituals in soccer stadia. They further argue that this facilitates the release of aggressive impulses for young working class adolescents.

21 Marsh et al (1978:134) cautioned the British authorities that the catharsis offered through soccer-related aggression contained social value and advised the authorities to take away opportunities for boys and young men to engage in structured aggro.

Young in Coakley & Dunning (2000:385) criticises this view especially because of its contention that hooliganism is a ritualistic "fantasy" of violence. He further argues that Marsh et al's argument fails to recognise the regularity with which serious, and violent soccer fans have caused at times fatal injury.

2.3.2 Player violence

This is an area that has received much less attention and public concern in the past compared to crowd violence. This has traditionally been seen as condoned as "part of the game" (Young in Coakley & Dunning, 2000:390). He argues that this can be seen in the way that aggressive and injurious practices are encouraged to occur as routine components of games that would be socially and legally intolerable were they to occur in other areas of life.

Smith in Coakley & Dunning (2000:391) classified player violence in four categories:

2.3.2.1 Brutal Body contact

These include what Smith referred to as the "meat and potatoes" of most popular sports such as: tackles, blocks, body

22 checks, collisions, hits and jabs. Depending on the sport, most of these are acts that can easily found within the official rules and to which many would agree that consent is given or implied.

2.3.2.2 Borderline violence

These are acts forbidden by official rules of a given sport but which can occur routinely and are more or less accepted by the people concerned. They include among others, the following: the wandering elbow in basketball, the knockdown pitch in baseball and the bouncer in cricket. Sanctions imposed by sports bodies for borderline violence have traditionally been very light and the fines even covered by the clubs themselves.

2.3.2.3 Quasi-criminal violence

This is the type of violence that violates the formal rules of the sport in question, the law of the land and to a great extent, the norms of the players involved. This type of violence results in serious injury and normally punishable by serious fines and suspensions. This would include acts such as the "cheap shots" of "sucker punches" in hockey.

2.3.2.4 Criminal violence

These are cases so serious that they are outside acceptability margins and are handled as criminal from the outset. A case most cited in this regard is of Toronto hockey player Paul Smith who as a teenager in 1973, assaulted and killed and opponent in the parking lot after a local game (Young in

23 Coakley & Dunning 2000:391). It must be stated however, that reported cases of this nature have been fewer in number compared to the other categories already discussed above.

2.4 THE DARK SIDE OF SOUTH AFRICAN SOCCER

Burnett, C (1999:17) discusses research undertaken in South Africa on the subject of soccer violence but looks at it from the viewpoint of matches between the two biggest football clubs in the country, namely Kaizer Chiefs FC and Orlando Pirates FC (FC stands for Football Club). The aim of that study was to contribute to the field of sociological enquiry and to create insight into soccer violence as a unique phenomenon within the South African context.

2.4.1 The Social Context

The core market of football consists of black males, as they account for approximately 86% of the 8.5 million following, which has been showing a 4% annual increase. Football is sometimes referred to as their "second religion"; a symbol of unification represented by the collective consciousness black people, who had always experienced empowerment through their identification of powerful soccer clubs, leagues and leaders embraced (Burnett, 1999:19).

Black people in South Africa have generally lived in dehumanising conditions of poverty, lack of financial resources, little opportunity for meaningful employment and no socio-political power (World Bank in Burnett, 1999:19). Mechanisms to deal with poverty included endeavours such as the formation of same-age peer group networks, competition

24 for scarce resources and violence as a resource to exercise control (Kotze in Burnett, 1999:19)

The psychological result of poverty is the erosion of compassion, a sense of marginality and inferiority, vulnerability, insecurity, anxiety, powerlessness and live-for- the-moment mentality (Kotze in Burnett, 1999:19). Coping with these manifestations, South African black men usually found a public place to violently vent out their frustrations, finding temporary relief from anxiety through physical violence and alcohol abuse without considering the consequences in their quest for excitement and temporary empowerment (Burnett, 1999:19).

2.4.2 Kaizer Chiefs versus Orlando Pirates

Kaizer Chiefs is the most supported team in South Africa with several million supporters and well over 100 000 card-carrying members who are affiliated to supporters clubs countrywide (Nyatsumba, 1994:13). Kaizer Motaung, a former Pirates player formed it, in 1970 together with a number of former players and administrators (of Pirates), causing a rift among their supporters. They are also known as Amakhosi (Zulu for Chiefs), the Phefeni Glamour boys (Phefeni is a township in Soweto).

Orlando Pirates on the other hand, were formed in 1937 and are the oldest team in the country and are second to Chiefs in terms of following, also with several millions supporters and over 80 000 card carrying members nationally. They are known as the "Sea Robbers", the "Ghost", "Amabhakabhaka" and also the "Buccaneers" (Nyatsumba, 1994:13).

The rivalry that exists between the two teams is ascribed according to the fans of both teams to the distinction in class

25 and lack of humility - the son (Kaizer Chiefs) should not be greater and mightier than the father (Orlando Pirates). The intense rivalry marks the stormy relationship between these two teams as they have always been at loggerheads, competing for top honours and all available silverware in the then National Professional Soccer League (1971-1985) and the National Soccer League (1985-1998) (Burnett, 1999:20).

The incidents of violence that erupted between the supporters of these two clubs overall in all soccer-related violence during the period April 1977 to August 1998, were the highest reported in the media compared to the rest of the other clubs in the country. For this reason, focus will only be on incidents between the supporters of these clubs as highlighted in the table below (Burnett, 1999:20).

Table 1

DATE PLACE/STADIUM INCIDENT SOURCE

Referee attacked June 1978 Soweto by knife wielding The Sunday fans Times (11/11/79:15)

Referee attacked Die Vaderland May 1979 Rand Stadium by mob (22/05/79:26)

Overflowing

31 Jan 1983 Orlando Stadium stadium - "flare The Sowetan (Soweto) up" between (31/01/83:1) player and his bench Bucs followers 11 May 1983 Ellis Park Stadium threw missiles on The Sowetan

(Johannesburg) the pitch - (11/05/83:20) dispute decision by referee Angry Pirates 20 July 1983 Ellis Park Stadium fans invaded the The Sowetan pitch in protest (20/07/83:16)

26 against referee Excited crowd 21 June 1984 Ellis Park Stadium rushed onto the The Sowetan field after Chiefs' (21/06/84:24) goal, disrupting the game Angry Pirates 16 July 1984 Ellis Park Stadium fans invade the The Sowetan pitch and (16/07/84:1) interfere with linesman 26 Nov. 1988 Ellis Park Stadium Two supporters Die Transvaler killed and (29/11/88:8) security guard injured Nov 1988 Ellis Park Stadium Pirates The Pretoria supporters News blamed referee (18/11/88:9) for disallowing goal. Supporters and security guards injured 13 Jan 1991 Harry Oppenheimer Pandemonium New Nation Stadium (Orkney) and fighting (24/01/91:32), broke out between armed Beeld spectators. (16/02/91:1), Overcrowding and

fighting - 40 The Star deaths (14/01/91:1) 27 Aug 1993 Ellis Park Stadium Riot broke out The Sowetan among angry fans (27/08/93:45) when gates did not open at 17:00 15 Nov 1993 FNB Stadium Fans attacked The Sowetan (Johannesburg) each other (15/11/93:23), outside the (16/11/93:25) stadium. Many injured October 1993 FNB Stadium Free-for-all fight The Sowetan between rival (25/11/93:23) fans, 76 injured and 1 shot dead Jan 1994 FNB Stadium A number of City Press spectators got (22/01/94:1) injured when Pirates fans started fighting 24 Jan 1994 FNB Stadium 100 000 people The Star crammed into (24/01/94:3) stadium with 80 000 capacity. 90 people injured 22 March 1994 FNB Stadium Violence erupted The Citizen among Pirates (25/05/94:4), fans after Chiefs were awarded a The Sowetan controversial (02/06/94:1) penalty. They stormed the pitch

27 and vandalised the stadium 21 May 1995 FNB Stadium Fans set fire to Die Beeld seats. Inadequate (31/05/95:3) security arrangements. 19 Jan 1997 Ellis Park Stadium 80 000 tickets City Press sold - stadium (19/01/97:2) capacity 65 000. Two men stabbed, police officer injured 30 March 1998 FNB stadium Chiefs fans threw The Sowetan missiles in (30/03/98:35) protest of referee's decision 10 Oct 1998 Ellis Park Stadium Violent clashes City Press with police when (11/10/98:1) thousands of supporters could not gain entry to the already full stadium

Source: Burnett (1999:24)

2.4.3 The typical South African soccer scene and supporter

This section will briefly discuss the atmosphere that normally prevails at soccer matches as well as the typical fanatic behaviour and level of involvement in the game.

Attending a top-level match is like experiencing a carnival where thousands of black supporters, most of whom are relatively young men, create a festive mood by chanting and bragging noisily about their teams, and displaying a colourful assortment of paraphernalia. Before they enter the grounds, many people coming from work might buy food and liquor from the vendors outside the stadium (Burnett, 1999:23).

Supporters are fanatical about their team affiliation and there was a case in which a young man killed his brother in a brawl where each one defended his club's honour, e.g. Chiefs and

28 Pirates (Burnett, 1999:24). During an interview, a Pirates fan agreed that he feels provoked to "fight" when his team has lost. He feels ridiculed and belittled when "the glamour boys" defeat his team.

He explained: "It makes me angry if they (Chiefs) laugh at us. I am so messed up when my team loses. Chiefs get trophies with penalties and referees on their side. They have more sponsors and supporters - so they are a crowd-puller. If your team loses and you come home after the game, they even mock you at the taxi rank. You feel that you have been robbed. I want to fight when they laugh at me. At the shebeen we watch the game to prove a mistake at the replay. Then we start fighting and people can even kill each other. Some have been drinking the whole day and smoked ganja (marijuana)" (Burnett, 1999:24).

Winning becomes obsessively important for individuals who are betting on the result of a match. Gambling away their hard- earned money may have serious consequences for them and their dependants. If they (their team) lose of at the prospect of losing, scapegoats of circumstances that are perceived to be contributing to the loss may infuriate them to the point of violence (Burnett, 1999:26). Self-blame is fairly absent as people often remark that "we wuz robbed" or "cheated out of victory", so they feel justified to retaliate.

29 2.4.4 Other factors

Another factor that leads to stampedes and violence in South African soccer is the late coming on the part of supporters. The

normal kick-off for matches is 15H00 (www.psl.co.za , 18 June 2002), but supporters have the habit of arriving at matches in their thousands either 5 minutes before kick-off or a couple of minutes later. They (supporters) become impatient and want immediate entry upon arrival. This results in a lot of matches starting later than originally scheduled (Laduma on SABC topsport, 20 April 2003).

A South African football analyst, and soccer show presenter (of the Laduma soccer show) raised this sentiment as another 20th match was delayed by half an hour on the April 2003 in Bloemfontein because of the late arrival of supporters. The match in question was a knockout tie between hosts Bloemfontein Celtic and Sundowns Football Club in the ABSA Cup Challenge.

Supporters' lack of understanding of the rules of the game was also identified as a contributing factor during a discussion on the MTN Soccerzone program's Know Your Game slot (SABC nd , 2 December 2003).

Administrators have also been quick to utter spur-of-the- moment negative words to the media when heated up and this to a certain extent could also be responsible for inciting supporters and making them justify their inappropriate, unsporting behaviour (Sowetan, 13 March 2003).

30 I

2.5 SOCCER FAN VIOLENCE (Britain vs America)

Britain is regarded as the world capital of soccer hooliganism. This statement sums it up: "all across Britain, brawling soccer fans have exploded in mindless orgies, hurling bricks and bottles at one another, kicking and punching referees and policemen, roaming the streets on post-game sprees, breaking windows and trashing stores" (Roadburg, 1980:265).

This statement is made in a journal comparing factors that precipitate fan violence between Britain and North America. Before going in-depth with a discussion of the journal, the following comparison of fan comparison demographics is important between the two countries:

The table below is an important element of discussion, as the researcher will point out some similarities with the South African environment, which might help put the subject matter in a practical local perspective.

Table 2

BRITAIN AMERICA

Historical Development

• Evolved over 600 years • Introduced & promoted in 10 years

Sport Setting

• Fans walk to stadia: • Fans drive to stadia: mingle before and after privatised the_game

31 • 70 % standing • 100 % seated • Crowded • Not as crowded • Movement among • Lack of movement among spectators spectators • Game part of the day's • Game is the day's primary sequence of events event • Heavy alcohol • Light alcohol consumption consumption • Supporters for each team • Primary home supporters

Social conditions

• Working class male • Mixed audience audience • Team affiliation based on • Team affiliation based on peer, family and religious proximity: tends to be influence: tends to be fickle strong • Primary sporting interest • Multiple sporting interests • Adolescent supporters • Adolescent supporters look upon club as a tend not to look at club as possession to be defended a possession to be defended • Most supporters have • Few supporters have played organised soccer played organised soccer for a number of years for a number of years

Source: British Journal of Sociology (1980: 265)

25.1 Comparisons

A comparison will be made on the different sections laid out in the above table:

2.5.1.1 Historical development

It is a known fact that the game of soccer (or football) started in Britain sometime in the sixteenth century (Roadburg, 1980:268). This explains to a large extent the level of fanatical

32 support the game receives there and also the severity of fan involvement.

Soccer was only introduced in America late in the twentieth century after a number of entrepreneurs recognised the profit potential based on British case studies (Roadburg, 1980:280).

Nobody can clearly state when the game was introduced in South Africa, but during the early introduction times when it was introduced, was segregated according to racial groups (www.psl.co.za , 14 April 2003).

The South African supporter could be regarded as very similar to the British in terms of involvement and level of support as discussed by Burnett (1999:23). This is due to the fact that soccer is arguably the biggest sport in Britain because of history, while in America is could be fifth after Basketball, American football, Baseball and Hockey.

Another distinct difference with the South African environment is that teams are not supported based on location (local people do not necessarily support the local team). Only a handful of teams enjoy national support while the rest battle for the remainder of supporters. Kaizer Chiefs and Orlando Pirates are the most followed teams in the country and except for cup finals are the only teams that fill the FNB Stadium (the biggest soccer stadium in the country) with ease during an ordinary league game (Burnett, 1999:20).

2.5.1.2 Sport setting

South Africa and North America have very much in common on stadium layout. The stadiums were built to accommodate a maximum of seated spectators as opposed to Britain, whose

33 layout is about only 30 percent seated and 70 percent standing (Burnett, 1999:25), (Roadburg, 1980:266). South Africa and Britain's stadium proximity to transport infrast.ructure is also similar because most stadia are built close to public transport amenities such as train stations (as well as taxi ranks, but this applies only to South Africa). This may also be an economical reason due to the fact that most supporters use public transport to get the stadia.

Fans of opposing teams seat facing each other. Movement is slightly limited among fans and during the game itself. The tacit understanding of one team dominating one half of the terraces and the opposing team the other half seems also prevalent in South Africa. South African alcohol consumption at soccer matches (at the stadia) is not as big in magnitude compared to the levels reported in England (Burnett, 1999:25).

As earlier stated, most games are not crowded and the less supported teams benefit when they play against the bigger teams or when it is a match of some significance.

2.5.1.3 Social Conditions

There is really a mixed audience in South Africa ranging from working class male to the female unemployed. Team affiliation tends to be rather loyal but based on the team that plays a particular brand of football that appeals to a certain kind of supporter (Nyatsumba, 1994:13). Like in Britain, many South African supporters (mostly males) are likely to have played organised soccer for quite a number of matches. This could explain the difficulties that most coaches face: there is a common saying in soccer circles that one could coach a team but there are as many unqualified coaches in the stands frustrated that he is not coaching properly, who would readily give instructions out of frustration (Burnett, 1999:23).

34 2.6 SOCCER VIOLENCE AROUND THE WORLD

This section will cover a number of football violence-related incidents, which have resulted in damage to property, injury and even death of people around the globe.

2.6.1 Season of shame takes shine off Roma's triumph (Italy) (www.supersport.co.za , 18 June 2001)

Pitch invasions in Rome and Turin interrupted Roma's win over Parma and Juventus' victory against Atalanta with supporters finding it all too easy to ruin the occasion by rushing past disorganised and ineffective police.

Inter Milan supporters cause their team to be barred from playing their home matches in Milan as a result of their fans' unruly behaviour. The ban was imposed after their fans hurled a motor scooter from the second tier of a stand during Inter's game against Atalanta - the most spectacular example of anarchy that has reigned inside stadia in 2001.

Black players are jeered and abused at stadia across the country every week, which led to former Italy national coach labelling Italian grounds "the most uncivilised in Europe".

Fireworks now being used as weapons by hooligans who cannot take defeat sportingly.

2.6.2 Anger after Angola-Portugal friendly (www.supersport.co.za , 15 November2001)

An exhibition match between Angola and Portugal delivered a fiasco and a bad advertisement for soccer after four Angolan players were sent off for brutal tackles and dissent. The game,

35 which was being played in Portugal, was abandoned with 20 minutes left to play with Portugal leading 5-1.

It was reported that back in Angola, there was anger at the referee who was accused of bias and racism. The trouble started when one Angolan player protested that a Portuguese player should have been sent off after a scuffle between the players. The referee ignored this and this angered the Angolan players, who responded with brutal tackles towards their opponents. This continued for a while until four Angolan players were sent off and the game abandoned. Angolan fans tore up seats and threw them onto the pitch. Many walked out of the stadium and later scuffled with riot police at a subway station.

The above is a good example of how violence on the field of play can influence spectators to join in as well as discussed earlier on.

2.6.3 Ban internationals at Vosloorus Stadium - Balfour (The Sowetan, 27 November 2000)

This was the view expressed by the South African Sports Minister; Mr Ngconde Balfour after spectator violence marred the final of the African Nations Women's Cup match between hosts South Africa and defending champions, Nigeria (on the 25th November 2000).

Trouble started soon after Nigeria scored their second goal 16 minutes before the end with South Africa having not registered a single goal in the match. This seemed to spell the end for the hosts after starting the tournament like a house on fire, thrashing all their opponents en route to the final with high margins.

36 As if this was not enough for the players to contend with on the field of play, it was even more unbearable for supporters who could not bear defeat as their team was being outclassed with very little, if any hope of staging a comeback.

Fans started pelting the Nigerian goalkeeper and assistant referee with bottles, stones and bricks. The match was halted for a while until calm was restored, albeit temporarily. Players were repeatedly struck by all sorts of objects thrown from the stands. Under the circumstances, it was practically impossible to continue with the game and Nigeria was declared the victors and the game abandoned.

Thereafter, fans went on the rampage, destroying cars and any property they could (in true English hooligan style). This incident brought a great deal of shame and embarrassment to South African football as it was still priding itself of being a more "civilised" footballing country with virtually no soccer violence compared to the rest of Africa.

2.6.4 Soccer fans die in stampedes (Africa)

Three separate stampede incidents will be reviewed that led to the untimely death of spectators in Africa.

2.6.4.1 Stampede kills soccer fans in South Africa stadium (www.firstsearch.coza, 30 April 2001)

A stampede that broke out in a packed soccer stadium in Johannesburg, South Africa, killed at least 43 people and injured 160.

Gates that lead to the stadium were closed during the match between two of South Africa's most popular soccer teams-

37 Kaizer Chiefs and Orlando Pirates at Ellis Park stadium, after it had filled to its capacity of 60 000. Thousands of fans still outside climbed over the gates and shoved their way into the stadium. Reportedly, over 100 000 people had packed into the stadium (almost double the stadium's capacity).

It is believed that the trouble started when a Pirates player scored a goal. Apparently the fans pushed the fence down and the spectators that were at the back stepped on those in front. Security personnel were unable to stop the crowd from pouring into the already full stands and several hundred people were jammed against barbed wire barricades as the fans panicked.

2.6.4.2 Z i m police blamed for soccer stampede (www.supersport.co.za , 05 April 2003)

Zimbabwe police overreacted and unnecessarily fired teargas at a World Cup qualifying match that led to the deaths of 13 fans in a stampede in the year 2000, a court has ruled. Harare Magistrate Faith Musinga had ordered the investigation.

The court's findings were that the police should shoulder the blame as they acted negligently by firing teargas at spectators. The World Cup qualifying match was between South Africa and Zimbabwe and was abandoned after fans hurled bottles and other objects onto the field. South Africa was leading 2-0 at the time.

The police action was uncoordinated and indiscriminate (said Faith Musinga). Trouble-makers in the crowd could have been identified and arrested.

38 2.6.4.3 Stadium violence undermines SA bid (The Star, 04 December 2002)

South Africa's Premier League soccer chief, Trevor Phillips, who was recently brought back to try and bolster the country's chances of staging Africa's first World Cup bid, slammed the standard of security and infrastructure after the violence- marred weekend Cup Final.

Kaizer Chiefs' fans hurled bottles at players and officials (and referee Daniel Bennett) during the Coca-Cola Cup final between Jomo Cosmos and Kaizer Chiefs after the referee did not award their team a penalty they thought their team deserved.

The Chief Executive went on to say that soccer in the country had a poor infrastructure compared to the likes of rugby and cricket. Also he mentioned that there were not enough trained security personnel in the country to handle football supporters. He also hinted that there was insufficient co-ordination between the police and security personnel at football matches.

2.7 VIOLENCE IN OTHER SPORTING CODES

As noted in Chapter 1, other sporting codes will also be looked at in as much as their violence is concerned to give the researcher a holistic view in tackling the problems in soccer and most importantly, for triangulation. Sporting codes that will be looked at closely are Hockey, and Softball.

2.7.1 Hockey

The discussion hereunder will centre on the American National Hockey League as its material and articles are readily available and in abundance.

39 The game of hockey is not immune to violence. Interestingly, it is among the most violent sports in America, as the following incidents will give a clear understanding:

2.7.1.1 The Worst of Sports (Chidley, 1996:47)

In a game between the University of Moncton's Blue Eagles and University of Prince Edward's Island Panthers (played on 24 February 1996), the Panthers' Tyler Ertel's shot headed straight into the Eagles' net just under the crossbar and popped back out immediately. This seemingly happened so fast that even the referee got confused and did not initially signal for a goal. After consulting with the goal judge, he changed his mind and gave a goal (which gave the Panthers a decisive 3-2 victory).

A melee followed, started by the Eagles' goalkeeper when he put his arm around the referee and accused him of "blowing it". His teammates the swarmed the referee, backed him into a corner and took turns in throwing punches. As if that was not enough, the Eagles' coach pulled a metal net mooring out of the ice and threw it, shattering a pane of rinkside Plexiglas. In a later press conference, the Eagles' players issued an apology, saying that some of them had lost control of their emotions.

2.7.1.2 Elbowroom (Caseneuve, 2001:80)

One player blindsided another with what appeared to be a vicious elbow to the head in a game between Maple Leafs and Devils. The sentence that followed was very light according to the sport's experts and players alike. The offending player got away with a six-game suspension, a sentence considered a

HC joke in hockey circles. This "light sentence" gave casual fans another reason to turn away from a sport that seemed to revel in gratious violence (Sports illustrated: 14 May 2001).

The sentence was considered a joke because Gary Bettman, the league's commissioner who proclaimed to have a mission to raise the bar on supplemental discipline, suspended another player for one full season for a slash to the head of another. Another incident that escaped punishment was of a hockey coach who had grabbed a photographer around the neck and pushed him aside as the photographer tried to take pictures.

The disciplinary commission, in its rationalisation of the sentence, commented, "at least the elbow is part of the body". This had threatened to split hockey apart as administrators were blamed for favouritism and their inconsistency responsible for perpetuating violence in the sport.

2.7.1.3 A moment's fatal fury (Alex Tresniowski, Sports Illustrated, 2002:50)

In the worst incident reported to date, one parent (Michael Costin) was killed in an apparent fit of rage related to hockey in America. The offending parent (Thomas Junta) became frustrated after watching his son take an elbow to the face and confronted Michael Costin, who was supervising the youngsters. Costin's reaction was unsatisfactory to the aggressor and a scuffle ensued thereafter. Junta is said to have bashed Costin three times to the side of the head while Costin lay on the floor, which caused his death.

41 2.7.2 Softball

The incident below was taken from a softball game in United States and is relevant in highlight the prevalence of violence in the sport

2.7.2.1 Parent brawl at kids' softball game (Sports illustrated, 2002: 50)

Still on the same article, another incident is articulated where a former professional baseball player and one-time Cincinnati Reds manager, Ray Knight got involved in a fight with another parent. At the time, Knight was coaching his 12-year-old daughter in a softball game.

Knight is said to have struck Jimmy Smith, another parent whose child was playing for the opposing side after a disputed call. Knight was charged with disorderly conduct for the incident and both parents were fined $265. Afterwards, Knight admitted afterwards that he lost control but that Smith had baited him. He was later reported to have said, "it wasn't about the game or the sport-I wanted to nail him. Never again will I be in a situation where I am verbal with anyone. I will turn and walk away".

In another girls' softball game in July 2000, dozens of parents rushed to the field after a player was tagged too roughly (according to their perspective). Two mothers, both of them coaches, spent 10 days in jail because of the attack that followed on the referee.

The above few incidents reflect a more emotional and intense involvement by parents in their children's sporting life and seems to be producing less-than-desired results Dan Doyle,

42 founder of the Rhode Island-based Institute of International Sports (Sports illustrated, Jan 28 2002:51). He goes on to say that parents should be prepared to exercise self-control because they will see their children make mistakes and get bumped and bruised.

It seems that parents have lost sight of their role of support for their children's dreams and exchanged that for pressuring their kids to succeed and overreact to failure. It seems like losing a game or competition is no longer part of growing up but a stigma of being a lifelong "loser" (Curt Schilling in Sports illustrated, 28 Jan 2000:51)

Professor Leonard Zaichkowsky, of the University of Boston (Sports illustrated: 2002:51) stresses that there is a fine line between providing support and being a negative force on parents being too involved in their children's' sporting life. The problem, he adds, is that parents who become volunteer coaches "have no experience as teachers and don't understand how to deal with the issues other parents bring to the table". This theory could very well apply to sports in general.

2.8 CONCLUSION

Having reviewed available literature, the researcher has noted that there is widespread violence in sports generally. The literature has also revealed quite a number of causes across various sporting codes as well as similarities. The following factors have been identified as causes and/or contributing to spectator violence is South African soccer:

43 2.8.1 Excessive alcohol consumption 2.8.2 Overcrowding at stadia 2.8.3 Player violence; specifically 2.8.4 Player dissent (which incites supporters) 2.8.5 Poor officiating (refereeing) 2.8.6 Use of drugs 2.8.7 Betting on the outcome of matches 2.8.8 Supporters' lack of understanding of the rules of the game 2.8.9 Supporters' refusal to accept the referees' decisions 2.8.10The media's hype creation on certain matches, (such as "do or-die", "mother-of-all-battles"). 2.8.11 Administrators' utterances (incites supporters) 2.8.12 Excessive emotional involvement on the part of supporters 2.8.13 Selling more tickets than the stadium's actual capacity 2.8.14 Poorly trained security personnel

The researcher has also noted that while violence is a reality wherever soccer is played, South Africa is not as severe as Europe in terms of the extent and frequency of violent incidents. The South African supporter has not reached "hooligan" status and administrators have the responsibility of keeping this phenomenon under control, for the good of the game and the 2010 World Cup Soccer Bid.

The reasearcher will therefore use the above-identified factors in the survey questionnaire to test whether they are indeed contributors to violence in South African football.

44 CHAPTER 3- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter covers the research methodology employed in the study of violence in South African soccer. The data analysis methods employed will also be discussed.

The research philosophy, methodology and strategies will be discussed in this chapter. This section will basically be the embodiment of the assumptions, values and views that will re- inforce the rationale and standards used by the researcher in data interpretations and conclusions.

The phenomenological philosophy was the approach favoured by the researcher. Phenomenology as a philosophy holds that the world of business and management is too complex to lend itself to theorising by definite "laws" in the same way as physical sciences (Saunders et al, 2000:86). They also argue that rich insights into this complex world would be lost if the complexity is reduced entirely to a series of law-like generalisations. The opposite of phenomenology is positivism, which is rooted in the belief of generalising findings from a particular observation the same way as in physical sciences (Saunders et al, 2000:85).

The researcher thereby felt that this approach was relevant because the South African situation is unique when compared to England, the rest of Europe and even United States of America for that matter. The researcher also contends that too generalistic a view would have come short of really revealing the causes, symptoms and forces that are at play in the South African environment, and in the process rendering this study as

45 an exercise in futility (hence the phenomenological philosophy was chosen).

A survey questionnaire was employed to conduct the research. This is the data collection method used to gather data in the most economical way. (Net, P Radel, S Laubscher, M, 1993:17). The design of the questionnaire was critical to ensure that the correct research questions were addressed and that accurate and appropriate data for statistical analysis was collected.

Personal interviews and focus groups were also used to validate the research findings (and also for triangulation). This included a sample of interest groups affected one way or another by the soccer violence in the South African soccer fraternity.

The chapter concludes with a discussion of the data analysis

that also covered the techniques employed in the process.

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

The research design selected for this study was empirical. This is a qualitative, exploratory descriptive study because it solicits people's opinions.

In the literature study background was given and the importance of this study in the South African context highlighted; previous research on the subject explored and contributing factors were identified that led to violence in the South African soccer environment.

WO From the factors identified in the literature study, a questionnaire was formulated, which will test whether these factors were indeed causes or are practical in South African soccer. These were distributed randomly among players, supporters and other interest groups in soccer.

The findings derived from the returned questionnaires were validated through interviews and a focus group. The focus group included a player, supporter, an official (referee), a security official and an administrator. This, in the researcher's view, made the research more reflective of the actual situation and perhaps gives the study credibility.

The analysis of the study was done qualitatively through focus groups and interviews and also quantitatively where the focus group was requested to rank the factors in terms of their seriousness of impact.

3.3 DATA COLLECTION

A population in statistics refers to the entire set of data that exists for some variable (Wisniewski. M, & Stead. R, 1996:9). This is basically the potential number of persons or institutions that are potential sources for the required data. A sample on the other hand is described as a carefully chosen and representative part of the population (Wisniewski & Stead, 1996:9).

The data collection method employed is a self-administered questionnaire together with interviews. While questionnaires will aid the researcher in terms of speed and economy, the biggest drawback is the reluctance of some people to participate (Cooper. D, Schindler. P, 2001:313). The following

47 concerns were taken into account when gathering the data (Wegner, 1993:18):

• Ambiguous questions were avoided • Technical jargon was avoided • Questions did not require calculations • Instructions were clear and explicit • Questions were kept as short and simple as possible

• Leading questions were avoided

3.3.1 Self Administered questionnaire See appendix 1

3.3.1.1 Aim of the questionnaire

To ascertain whether the factors identified in the literature review were indeed seen as contributing to violence in South African soccer by the different groups involved in the survey.

3.4 DESIGN OF THE SELF-ADMNISTERED QUESTIONNAIRE

The question/response format used in the study was structured with structured responses. Dichotomous questions were used in the questionnaire itself to achieve this objective. Dichotomous questions are fixed alternative questions in which only two alternatives are listed, for example, "yes/no", "male/female", "agree/disagree" (Nel et al, 1992:237).

The questionnaire consisted of 14 dichotomous questions and 1 open ended question which enabled the respondents to state other factors that could not have been covered by the literature review. This format was used because of its ease of completion and the minimum confusion and misinterpretation that could possibly result from these. It also simplified the tallying and analysis. Another advantage of this method is the elimination of "unsure" responses because respondents either agreed or disagreed on whether the factors identified contributed to violence.

3.5 DATA ANALYSIS

Editing was a crucial element of analysis to pick up any errors from the returned questionnaires and eliminating those responses that are either misunderstood or filled in inaccurately. This was done with the objective of achieving the following (Cooper & Schindler, 2001:423):

• Accuracy • Consistency with the questions and other information in the survey • Uniformity • Completeness • Arranged to simplify coding and tabulation

After the returned questionnaires had been received, the data was tabulated; the top issues raised as the most critical and severe (by the respondents in the different categories) were identified. This was done through interviews and the focus group. The researcher is of the opinion that focussing on a few issues first and getting them under control first was more important than trying to tackle everything at once and losing track of everything.

lull For each of the factors in the survey, a bar graph was constructed to indicate the percentage of "yes" or "no" responses from the different categories. This made it easy to analyse the data and identify those factors that stand out and need immediate attention.

3.6 VALIDITY

It was important to validate the findings of the research. Validity is described as the extent to which differences found with the measuring tool reflect true differences among respondents being tested (Cooper & Schindler, 2001:211).

The measurement tool must was sensitive to all nuances of meaning in the variable and to changes in nuances of meaning over time.

Validity consists of three forms (Cooper & Schindler, 2001:211), namely:

Content validity - the content validity of an instrument is the extent to which it provides adequate coverage of the investigative questions guiding the study.

Criterion validity - this is a reflection of the success of measures used for prediction of estimation. The objective here would be either predicting an outcome or estimating the existence of current behaviour or a condition.

Construct validity - this is used to measure or infer the presence of abstract characteristics for which no empirical validation seems possible.

50 Video tapes of few games were reviewed with soccer players, referees, soccer analysts (experts) and supporters club representatives to validate the data as received from the

q U e St iOfl n a i re.

Interviews were conducted among the above interest group categories to validate the data. Focus groups were also employed to ensure that triangulation took place and to cover as many bases as possible for maximum accuracy.

3.7 RELIABILITY

Reliability is the degree that a measure supplies consistent results (Cooper & Schindler, 2001:215). As earlier stated a dichotomous survey questionnaire was used with the least possible outcomes and with the minimum probability for confusion. Interviews and focus groups were employed to corroborate the validity of the outcomes as derived from returned questionnaires.

The more consistent the responses from the survey were with interviewee opinions and focus group views, the more reliable the study was.

To prove reliability, different graphs were drawn for the questionnaire responses, interview opinions and focus group views. If the patterns were relatively similar, the researcher concluded that the methodology was reliable.

51 CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter addresses the manner in which the data collected from the returned survey questionnaires was analysed. The data will be analysed per question on the questionnaire and this will cover all categories that responded to the questionnaire. A total of 120 questionnaires were randomly distributed and 117 were completed and returned (97.5%).

A number of interviews were conducted with each respondent category that participated in the survey to validate the questionnaire analysis. A total of 7 people were interviewed: a referee, a team manager (who represented administrators), a player, a security official and three supporters (one supporting Kaizer Chiefs another supports Sundowns and the other Orlando Pirates). The interviewees' views will be included in the in-depth analysis when the individual factors are discussed at length to avoid unnecessary repetition. Most of the interviewees' views, unless otherwise stated in the discussion, corroborated the questionnaire outcomes.

The researcher will not divulge the names of the interviewees as this was a condition on which they allowed to be interviewed but can confirm with certainty that they are actively involved in the sport currently.

The chapter also addresses the videotapes reviewed with the focus group and views on the contributing factors to violence in South African soccer generally. The focus group's overall contribution and ranking of the different factors in order of importance is also covered herein.

52 The respondents' views are fairly representative of a wide base as they cover most of the provinces in South Africa. Some of the respondents support teams that are based in other provinces other than Gauteng (where the sample was drawn from). Some of the teams included the following:

> Orlando Pirates Kaizer Chiefs Moroka Swallows Sundowns ..- Supersport United .'- Wits University Football Club ,- Jomo Cosmos

All the above-mentioned teams are based in Gauteng province.

Teams from other provinces included:

,- Golden Arrows ..- Amazulu (recently renamed Zulu Royals)

Both these teams are based in Kwazu lu-Natal province).

> Santos Ajax Cape Town

These teams are based in Western Cape province)

Other teams based in Limpopo province include:

.- Dynamos .- Black Leopards

53 The lone team representing the Eastern Cape province was Umtata Bush Bucks.

The provinces from which these teams draw support are regarded as soccer strongholds in South Africa (hence Gauteng has so many teams supported and represented in this study).

The questions as stated on the questionnaire were stated affirmatively, as contributors to soccer violence in South African soccer and respondents indicated their agreement or disagreement with each question by ticking YES (for agreement) and NO for disagreement respectively.

Brief comments will be made per factor based on the graph and a more detailed overall analysis will be made at the end that will incorporate the video reviews and focus group input.

4.2 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA

The data collated from all the returned survey questionnaires will be graphically presented below and a brief analysis of each graph will then follow below it.

54 4.2.1 Factor I - Excessive alcohol abuse

Graph I

Excessive alcohol abuse

120

in DYes E;ff. UNb U) G) I- Total 0 C.,

Ell

91

[I: Referees stcs Rayers &çx*ters TOU Respondents

From the above graph (graph 4.1), the following is clear: 75% of referees agreed that excessive alcohol abuse contributes to violence in South African soccer while the other 25% disagreed. An overwhelming 86% of the players contended that excessive alcohol abuse is a major contributor while 14% disagreed. All administrators (100%) agree that alcohol abuse is a significant contributor while only 62% of supporters also agree that it is a contributor. 68% of the total respondents agree that excessive alcohol abuse is a contributor to soccer violence while 32% disagree.

55 4.2.2 Factor 2 - Overcrowding at stadia

Graph 2

Ovettnwlung at stadia

140

120

100

• N D Total F0 U)60

40

20

0 Referees Mrrfflstrators Players Supporters Total Respondents

The above graph represented the respondents' views as follows:

75% of referees agreed that overcrowding at stadia is a contributor to violence in South African soccer while 25% felt otherwise. 80% of administrators felt that this factor was a contributor while 20% disagreed. The majority of the players (90%) supported the statement and a huge proportion of supporters also agreed with the view that overcrowding was a contributor. The overall proportion of respondents (85%) agreed that overcrowding at stadia was a contributor to soccer violence in South Africa.

56 4.2.3 Factor 3 - Player violence on the field of play

Graph 3

Player violence on the field of play

140

117 120l -

100

80 [iYe E 0 UNo ' 60 LDTota1

40

20

0 Referees Administrators Players Supporters Total Respondents

The graph reflects the respondents' views as follows:

All referees (100%) agreed that player violence on the field of play contributes heavily to violence generally, especially inciting supporters. 86% of the players also concurred that player violence on the field is a significant contributor to overall violence in soccer, while 14% negated the statement. All administrators (100%) also agreed with the statement while the majority of supporters surveyed also agreed that player violence is a significant contributor to soccer violence in general. Of the total number of respondents, a large proportion (83%) agreed with the statement that player violence on the field of play does contribute to violence in South African soccer.

57 4.2.4 Factor 4 - Player dissent (foul language towards the referee)

Graph 4

Player dissent

140

120

100

80 S DYes 0 0 C/) •No 60 DTotaI

40

20

0 Referees Adrninstrators Players Supporters Total

Respondents

The respondent's views were represented as follows:

75% of referees felt that player dissent (foul language and unnecessary gestures towards the referee contributed in also inciting supporters into violent activity. All administrators (100%) also agreed with the statement while only 76% of the players expressed a similar view. The other 24% of the players disagreed with the statement. A large proportion of supporters also agreed that player dissent played a huge part in inciting them into violent activity because it was deemed to be condoned by their heroes on the field of play. The above representation (76% of total respondents) means that the majority of respondents regard player dissent as a major contributor to soccer violence in South Africa.

58 4.2.5 Factor - Poor officiating

Graph 5

Poor officiating

140

120

101 100

87

75 .l)

0 F13 Yes C., Ci)

•No

0 Total 40

20 12

5 5 -

0 rL_F1 E1 0 EJ Referees Administrators Players Supporters Total

Respondents

The respondents' views to this particular factor were expressed as follows:

75% of referees surveyed agreed that poor officiating contributed to soccer violence, while the remaining 25% disagreed. 86% of the players also agreed that poor officiating contributes heavily to violence while all administrators (100%) and 86% of supporters also agreed. Of the total number of respondents, 86% also agreed that it is a major contributor to violence in soccer.

59 Factor 4.2.6 - Use of drugs (marijuana/dagga)

Graph 6

Use of drugs

140

120

I,

DYes 0 •No 0 Cl) 0 Total :;1I

40

20

Referees Administrators Players Supporters Total

Respondents

Respondents' views to this factor were expressed as follows:

75% of referees agreed that the use of drugs does contribute to violence in soccer while the other 25 % disagreed. 76% of the players also agreed while 24% felt differently. All administrators (100%) also agreed with the above statement while 69% of the supporters also agreed. The overall proportion of all respondents who agreed to the above statement was 72%. This means that the total number of respondents do feel that the use of drugs is a contributor to soccer violence.

M.

Factor 4.2.7 - Betting on match outcomes

Graph 7

Betting on match outcomes

140

120

100

EYes

80

0 •No U C,) 60 DTotaIj

40

20

0 Referees Administrators Players Supporters Total

Respondents

The respondents' view to the above factor were as follows:

All the referees (100%) and administrators surveyed concurred with the statement, thereby agreeing that betting on match outcomes does lead to violence while 76% of the players also agreed with the statement. Only 53% of the supporters supported this view while the other 47% disagreed. Of the total respondents, 61% agreed that betting on match outcomes does contribute to soccer violence but not significantly.

61 Factor 4.2.8 - Supporters' lack of understanding of the rules of the game

Graph 8

Suppoiters lack of understanding of the rules of the game

140

110

noi

o Yes U) 8° a) 0 U OTc(aI

riii

Refees Mmnstrators Hayers Supçxers Totai

In this statement, once again all referees and administrators (100%) agreed that supporters lack of understanding of the rules is a huge contributor to violence as this leads to many interpretations on the part of supporters. 86% of the players also supported the statement while 14 % disagreed. Only 60% of the supporters supported the statement while 40% negated it. 76% of the total respondents agreed with the statement. The above data therefore suggests that supporters' lack of understanding of the rules is a major contributor to violence in soccer.

62 Factor 4.2.9 - Refusal to accept the referee's decision

Graph 9

Refusal to accept the referee's decision

140

120

100

DYes TiJ U) • No ci) DTotaI 0

60

40

20

Referees Administrators Players Supporters Total

Respondents

t

Respondents' views to the above factor were as follows:

75% of referees supported the statement while the other 25% disagreed with it. All administrators (100%) supported the statement. A whoppirtg 81% of the players supported the statement while the other 19% felt differently. A massive 89% of supporters also concurred with the statement. The total proportion of respondents that supported the statement accounted for a massive 87%, thereby suggesting that this is a significant contributor to violence in South African soccer.

63 Factor 4.2.10 - The media's creation of hype around games

Graph 10

The media's creation of hype around games

140

120

100

80 DYes C,(h 0I.- U •No Cl) 60 OTotal

40

20

0 Referees Administrators Players Supporters Total

Respondents

Respondents' views to the above factor were as follows:

75% of referees supported the statement and the other 25% rejected it. 57% of the players agreed with the statement while 43% disagreed. 80 % of the administrators were also in agreement with the statement while 20% disagreed. Only 53% of supporters agreed with the statement while the other 47 % disagreed with it. Of the total number of respondents, 56% supported the statement. This leads the researcher to believe that while the proportion of respondents that support the factor is higher than those that do not, this factor is a very slight contributor to soccer violence in South Africa.

MI A Factor 4.2.11 - Administrators' conduct (negative media utterances)

Graph 11

Administrators' conduct

140

120

100

DYes

80 C) UN0 0 C.) 60 OTotal

40

20

0 Referees Administrators Players Supporters Total

Respondents

I-.

100% of the referees supported this statement. 67% of the players supported the statement while the other 37% felt differently. 80% of the administrators themselves agreed with the statement while 20% disagreed. 62% of supporters also supported the statement while 38% negated it. Of the total number of respondents, 65% supported the statement while 35% did not. This leads the researcher to believe that administrators negative media utterances does contribute to soccer violence though not significantly. Factor 4.2.12 - Excessive emotional involvement on the part of supporters

Graph 12

Excessive emotional involvement (Supporters)

140

120

100

DYes 80 0 w I- 0 C.) •No Cl) 60 0 Total

40

20

0 Referees Administrators Players Supporters Total

Respondents

All referees and administrators supported the statement. 57% of the players supported the statement while 43% disagreed with it. 75% of supporters also agreed with the statement while the other 25% disagreed with it. Of the total number of respondents, 74% agreed with the statement. Based on this data, the researcher thereby concluded that excessive emotions on the part of supporters is bad for the game and is therefore a major contributor (and in some instances makes it difficult to accept defeat). Factor 4.213 - Selling more tickets than the stadia capacity

Graph 13

Selling more tickets than the stadiums capacity

140

120

100

80 U, DYes I... 0 C.) 60 UNo 40 LiJ 20

0 Referees Administrators Players Supporters Total

Respondents

Respondents' responses from the graph are as follows:

All the referees and administrators supported the statement. An overwhelming 90% of players also supported the statement while 10% felt disagreed with it. 89% of supporters also agreed with the statement while 11% opposed it. 90% of the overall respondents agreed very strongly that this factor was a significant contributor to violence in South African soccer and contributes directly to overcrowding.

67 Factor 4.2.14 - Poorly trained security personnel

Graph 14

Poorly trained security personnel

140

120

100

() 80 a) 0 U 60

40

20

0 Referees Mninistrators Players Supporters Totad

.: i.

75% of referees agreed with the statement while the other 25% disagreed. 86% of the players also agreed with the statement. All administrators (100%) agreed with the statement. 90% of supporters also agreed with the statement compared to the other 10% that disagreed. Of the total respondents, 89% also supported the statement, thereby leading the researcher to conclude that poor training on the part of security personnel is a major contributor to soccer violence in South Africa.

sr' 4.3 FINDINGS A more detailed, consolidated analysis of the findings will now be discussed below.

4.3.1 Excessive alcohol abuse

The literature review in chapter 2 identified excessive alcohol abuse as a major contributor to violence generally in South Africa especially when the country's history is taken into account. Alcohol was a common denominator when people got together socially and in sporting or defiant atmospheres (section 2.3 in the literature review).

Black people consumed alcohol in pre-democracy South Africa to try and forget the dehumanising conditions of poverty and suffering that they were living in at the time. Soccer was among the only sports that black people in South Africa could participate in and this naturally explains why soccer is the sport with the majority following in the country.

The literature review also identified alcohol in soccer violence in Britain and other parts of the world as a major contributing factor. People generally behave differently when their state of consciousness is altered and excessive alcohol abuse is no exception in this regard. Emotions are more heightened and rationale suspended when alcohol is consumed excessively.

Burnett (1999:19) discusses the relationship between excessive alcohol abuse and violent outbreaks that followed in South Africa prior to the current democratic dispensation both within sporting and political contexts. This re-inforces the close interrelationship between alcohol consumption and violence to the researcher in a general context and when takes into

69 account the euphoria and emotions that engulf supporters during a game situation, it is easy for the situation to get out of control.

The situation would normally be exacerbated if the stakes were high in a particular match (such as a cup final or derby match). It was discussed in the literature review that these kind of matches generate a lot of energy and tension just in themselves and the excessive consumption of alcohol is likely to let things go over the boil in a controversial moment of a match (such as a suspected dubious decision by a referee).

Taking all table, graph and literature on this particular statement into account, the researcher concludes that excessive alcohol abuse definitely contributes to violence in South African soccer.

4.3.2 Overcrowding at Stadia

This factor has become a serious consideration on the part of all stakeholders in football and has become alarming since the Ellis Park disaster in which 43 people died in a stampede in Johannesburg on 11 April 2001. This led to instituting a commission of inquiry by the Sports Ministry of South Africa to investigate the causes and role of different stakeholders that led to the unfortunate loss of lives.

Without doubt an overwhelming majority of respondents regarded this factor as a massive contributor to the outbreak of violence. In the literature review (section 2.3.2) reference was made to the Ellis Park incident as well as the Orkney disaster in which the stadium rafters collapsed as there was too much weight for them to cope with (more people being crammed into the stadium than the official capacity).

70 rII

Among the findings of the Ellis Park commission's report (Justice Ngoepe, B M & Adv. Semenya, I A M 2002), the following findings were made:

• Failure to learn from past experiences: this was in reference to the Orkney disaster of a similar nature in which the very same teams (Kaizer Chiefs and Orlando Pirates) were playing each other. The specifics referred to were the following: - the stairways and access ways were not kept clear - in view of the magnitude of the game, insufficient security personnel was employed on the day - the security personnel were not properly positioned in such a way that they could have a clear and unobstructed view of supporters and be able to control the latter's behaviour - security personnel were not always visible to spectators

• Security personnel allowing spectators through the gates after corruptly receiving monies (bribes) from them, resulting in ticket-holding spectators being unable to enter the stadium

• thousands of complimentary tickets being used, thus swelling the numbers far beyond projections

• the unsupervised issuing of complimentary tickets

71 • the culture of selling tickets shortly before the event, resulting in the ticket selling points being unable to cope with the pressure brought onto them

The questionnaire responses to this statement coupled with the literature review and the commission report clearly support the fact that overcrowding is a major contributor to violence in South African soccer.

4.3.3 Player violence on the field of play

An overwhelming 83% of the total respondents agreed that this factor does indeed lead to violence. Of particular interest are the administrators (coaches) and referees responses (100%), as they are the people closest to the action and experience the effect of player violence directly and possibly have the biggest influence on it. This aspect is heavily dependent on the match officials to stamp their authority heavily on the match to prevent them losing control of the game and for it to end up being a rough display.

Of particular importance is the extent of the violence as discussed in the literature review

4.3.4 Player dissent (foul language and gestures towards referee)

This aspect is closely linked to the afore-discussed statement as it affects the players directly and the match officials are also tasked with the responsibility of keeping things under control on the field of play. Most comments made on this statement during the study were that this factor is mostly a contributor if the stakes are high and one team is in the lead.

72 When the losing team's player(s) engage in such behaviour, it is likely to encourage the losing team's supporters to follow suit and get out of control. This is likely to be used as an excuse in the event that their team eventually loses the game.

The Ellis Park commission report (2002:25) notes that South African soccer spectators are regarded as among the best behaved in the world. The compliment and accolade is obviously valid for the vast majority of spectators and at most game attendances. It is also true though, that South African soccer has recorded occasions of massive damage to property.

It was discussed in the literature review that soccer is a game of emotions and frustration. Taking this and the respondents' views into account it is evident that while player dissent does somehow contribute to violent outbreaks occasionally, recorded incidences in South Africa are very few and therefore supports the view that this factor does lead to violence, albeit very insignificantly.

4.3.5 Poor officiating

This factor is without doubt among the hotly debated and frequently discussed topics not only in South Africa but also in world football generally. Responses from the questionnaires reflect an overwhelming confirmation that this factor contributes immensely to violent outbreaks. The literature review discussed this at length. When one has a brief look at the tabulation of violent incidents in the country's soccer history, a lot of them involve the match officials. The Kaizer Chiefs vs. Jomo Cosmos Coca-Cola Cup Final match as mentioned in the literature review is an example in this regard.

73 A number of violent incidents were discussed in Chapter 2, which were apparently reactions in frustration against the referee's decision(s). The match against Angola and Portugal produced violence after it was abandoned on 15 November 2001 in Portugal. The match was abandoned after four Angolan players were sent off for brutal tackles and dissent. Angolan fans that were at the stadium expressed their frustrations by tearing seats and throwing them onto the pitch and a lot of skirmishes with the police followed as well.

In March 1994 violence erupted between Pirates and Chiefs after Chiefs were awarded a "controversial" penalty. Pirates fans responded by invading the pitch and vandalising the stadium in frustration against the referee's decision. Pirates supporters threw missiles on the pitch in May 1993 in protest against the referee's decision. In July the same year they (Pirates fans) again invaded the pitch in protest against a "biased" referee. It must be noted that all the above incidents were in matches involving Orlando Pirates and Kaizer Chiefs.

The respondents made a number of comments on this issue and the overwhelming majority, barring only a few, emphasised that this single factor was among the most significant contributors in South African soccer.

4.3.6 Use of drugs

The most common drug consumed at soccer matches in South Africa is dagga (also known as marijuana or weed) according to interviews and comments from respondents on the survey questionnaires returned. Respondents agree that other drugs could be consumed but dagga is the most commonly smoked

74 openly at matches. In fact, one interviewee even went to mention that it appeared easily available and spectators on open stands seemed to smoke it so freely that one would be forgiven to think that it was not a banned drug in South Africa.

Respondents also agreed that while this drug is openly and heavily smoked in South Africa, it does somewhat contribute to violence as the consumers' state of consciousness is altered. This, respondents agreed, would contribute like any other drug when excessively consumed in people getting more emotional than the norm thus triggering tempers at any given opportunity (a disputable moment in a match).

Interviewees also alluded to the fact that this group (the dagga brigade) are mostly embroiled in scuffles with security personnel as the latter keep trying to maintain order in the stands. One interviewee mentioned an incident in July 1999 at the Charity Spectacular tournament (an annual event in South Africa) in which a fight broke out among a section of the crowd as a result of the dagga. According to the interviewee, the trouble started when non-smoking supporters complained about the severity of the smoke inhalation they had to endure and the dagga brigade refused to stop.

As the format of the tournament (Charity Spectacular) is a one- day, matches start early in the morning and spectators could spend as much as ten hours at the stadium on the day. The fight lasted at least fifteen minutes and a heavy security contingent accompanied by the police had to escort many of the dagga brigade spectators out of the stadium, after which order was restored.

Respondents and interviewees agreed that while dagga smoking does contribute to violence, cases have been too few

75 and therefore the contribution is not very significant in the South African environment.

4.3.7 Betting on match outcomes

As has been noted on the tabulation, 61% of respondents agreed that betting on match outcomes does contribute to violence. The literature review also did discuss this issue albeit briefly. The interviewees unanimously agreed that this factor was extremely rife in the 1 980s and early 1 990s.

Interviewees emphasised the extremeness of the losing party's actions especially when the stakes were high and it was a needle game. While the researcher could not find any documented incidents of this nature, respondents and interviewees were adamant that betting on outcomes still continued unabated in South Africa.

This having come to light, the researcher has only come across literature and incidents of this nature as being very rife in strong soccer playing nations where the richest leagues in the world are (especially in the United Kingdom). Germany, Spain, Italy and Turkey are some countries with reported incidents of betting that have turned very ugly.

After reviewing all the data, the researcher hereby concludes that betting on match outcomes does contribute to violent outbreaks in South African soccer. The rate of occurrence of this deed is however very low in South Africa and while the severity of these incidences could be as catastrophic as death in some cases, it remains a low occurrence incident in the country.

76 4.3.8 Supporters' lack of understanding of the rules of the game

This has been another hotly debated topic in South Africa in recent times. Of particular interest once more are referees and administrators responses to this statement on the questionnaires (all of them agreed unanimously). The total number of respondents who concurred is a staggering 76%, an emphatic majority of the total respondents.

When the number of incidents tabulated in the literature review are scrutinised carefully, most of them are violent incidents that were really frustrated reactions to the referees' decisions by supporters. Despite the average supporter being regarded as relatively well behaved compared to the rest of the world by certain experts, the match officials feel otherwise. Some of them have borne the brunt of angry fans voicing their disapproval of their decisions physically.

South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) currently has a soccer television program every Monday night 21 HOO on Channel 1 (SABC1) called MTN Soccer Zone. The program's content includes reviews of the previous week's matches, both local and international and also has a 5-minute slot known "Know Your Game". This particular slot's purpose is to review referees' "controversial" or hotly contested decisions and review tapes from specific matches. The reviews are normally conducted by experts (a soccer analyst, who is a former player and the director of referees).

The most hotly debated decisions are the offside and penalty decisions as these are the ones in which a lot of controversies emerge. This is due to the differences in interpretations between referees and supporters. The differentiating factor, which the program has proven time and time again because of

77 the benefit of reviews and slow- motions, is that the referees apply the rules as stipulated in the relevant texts while supporters use emotions.

4.3.9 Refusal to accept the referee's decision

The above statement and this one are not far apart, as heavy emotions are present in both instances. In the soccer world and perhaps in sports generally, there is a standing rule that: "the referee's decision is final". While this is noble in maintaining order, the downside is that the very same referees are human and prone to mistakes like anybody else.

Miller's research (2001:37) as discussed in Chapter 2 (section 2.1) contended that situations and circumstances contributed immensely because violence is more likely to occur when people feel frustrated, uncomfortable, insulted or attacked. Duquin (2000:477) also hinted in chapter 2 (section 2.1.2) that emotions are an integral part of sports and these cannot be divorced from each other. Taking this theory into account and the number of incidents that included violent reactions to referees' decisions in South Africa as per the tabulation in Chapter 2, the researcher does not find it difficult to see the connection between emotional supporters who would seek whatever excuse to discredit the referee to justify their team's defeat.

The interviewees and focus group also agreed overwhelmingly that emotional supporters occasionally find it difficult not only to accept the referee's decisions but also do not handle defeat very well. The emotions involved in soccer matches coupled with the electric atmosphere that sometimes prevails at matches becomes too much for some spectators to bear and

78 they end up resorting to extreme and desperate measures such as violence.

The literature review briefly discussed above as well as the interviewees' comments and focus group's input convinces the researcher that this factor is a significant contributor to soccer violence in South Africa.

4.3.10 The media's creation of hype around games

In chapter 2, the effect of exposure to media was discussed at length and Duquin's research (2000:477) also revealed that people who were more exposed to violent messages through the media were negatively affected. This means that they would be more prone to violent behaviour (consistent with the message they would have been exposed to).

The respondent categories in the questionnaires (bar the supporters) were highly in agreement with the media's contribution to violence. Almost half the supporters disagreed with this view. This presents a very interesting picture, as supporters would be the people directly engaged in violent behaviour (most times). Supporters conceded that the only time that this would lead to a direct response would be when only negative images of their team was being presented and the content of the presentation deemed biased.

From the interviews conducted, only players and administrators agreed very strongly with this view while supporters and referees expressed marginal views. Referees felt that there was no real direct link between the hype created in the media and the violence. Supporters' views were that this particular

79 phenomenon was a huge contributor overseas (especially in Europe and the United States of America). They really did not view it as a problem is South Africa that warranted significant attention.

The conclusion based on all the respondents' views, interviews and available literature is that the media hype normally created around certain games does not directly contribute to violence in South African soccer violence.

4.3.11 Administrators' conduct

The surveys reflect and overwhelming agreement by referees and administrators, about two-thirds of players and a fair number of supporters to administrators' conduct (negative media utterances) as being a contributor to soccer violence.

Public Relations Officers (PROs) are employed by most teams in South Africa as their mouthpiece and primary contact with the public. Their conduct has left a lot to be desired in recent times, radically different from the professionalism they are expected to project at all times. Specific incidents will be reviewed involving administrators' conduct:

Sundowns' PRO, has been making headlines for the wrong reasons recently. In June 2001, he went on the Loftus stadium's Public Address system and called the referee a man without a soul and a cheat. This was immediately after the referee blew the final whistle in a match between his team and Orlando Pirates, which ended goalless. He blamed the referee

all for the sending off of one of Sundowns' players for a second bookable offence (SABC TV Laduma: 24 June 2001). Sundowns supporters went on the rampage thereafter, damaging property and clashing with security personnel (who were trying to restore order).

The same PRO was hauled before the PSL disciplinary committee in March 2003 for bringing the league into disrepute after he had commented negatively about Dynamos players' dirty tactics (crunching tackles) applied against his team. His team lost the match 1-0. He went on to say that this was Dynamos' management game plan to break down his players' flowing style of play and further accused them of "killing" soccer in the country by so doing (Sowetan: 12 March 2003).

Sundowns' team manager, was also fined RiO 000 by the leagues disciplinary committee in February 2003 for using foul language directed at match officials and the opponents' coach (the coach of Supersport United). This was after Supersport United had taken the lead against his team in a game his team eventually won 2-1 (The Star: 11 February 2003).

The interviewees' responses were unequivocal in support of the questionnaire responses that irresponsible behaviour by administrators is highly unnecessary and does infact lead to violence in soccer.

4.3.12 Excessive emotional involvement (on the part of supporters)

While South African soccer supporters are renowned for good behaviour compared to their counterparts overseas, the respondents surveyed paint a different picture: (65 % of total respondents' views were that the typical South African

81 supporter is excessively emotional and that this behaviour contributes to violence.

A number of incidents will be reviewed to emphasize the emotional involvement of the local supporter. During the 1998 World Cup in France, a Gauteng school teacher and soccer fanatic died shortly after witnessing his hero Helman Mkhalele (a South African international soccer star then) miss a golden opportunity to score (City Press: 23 June 1998). This was in a match between South Africa and Denmark in the first round (group stage) of the tournament.

Two of the interviewees (both supporters) brought it to my attention the heated arguments that sometimes lead to physical confrontations between supporters of rival teams that normally erupt when supporters watch their teams in the same environments (especially sports taverns). In another incident, my interviewees informed me, a physical fight almost broke out between Chiefs and Cosmos supporters when Chiefs fans were pelting the match officials with objects in protest against a penalty they were not awarded. Apparently a Cosmos supporter remarked that Chiefs supporters' actions were hooliganic. The comment apparently irked the ire of the Chiefs faithful and a skirmish almost ensued between the two groups of supporters and security personnel had to intervene quickly to prevent a free-for-all brawl.

In another incident, which has already been discussed in literature review in Chapter 2, South African supporters caused the abandonment of the Women's African Nations Cup Final between South Africa and Nigeria on November 25 2000 in Vosloorus, South Africa. This was when fans went out of control and started throwing objects at Nigerian players after Nigeria scored the second goal. The prospect of defeat on

82 home soil after so much was expected of the home team seemed too much for the supporters to bear.

On televised Orlando Pirates matches on the Laduma sports program on SABC1 Channel, the cameras always capture a die-hard fan that always cries when Pirates lose. He is now known in soccer circles as "Makhala Njalo" (Zulu for one who cries all the time, more like "cry baby"). Based on the above review, the researcher contends that South African supporters are extremely involved emotionally and this definitely does lead to violence.

4.3.13 Selling more tickets than the stadia capacity All the respondent categories agreed overwhelmingly that this factor is a significant contributor violence in soccer. The Ellis Park disaster commission report was discussed earlier in the chapter and it reported on the overcrowding that took place at 1th Ellis Park stadium on the 1 April 2001, which among other factors, led to the stampede that resulted in at least 43 people losing their lives. The report detailed how close to 90 000 people were crammed into the 60 000 capacity stadium. This deed was a recipe for disaster on the part of the organisers of the match.

A similar incident occurred in Ernest Oppenheimer stadium, which was also discussed earlier in the chapter and in Chapter 2 in which the stadium rafters collapsed when they could not handle the extra weight (a result of more people having been allowed into the stadium than the capacity). The supervision of complimentary tickets becomes very critical as this is likely to spiral the numbers beyond capacity.

All the people interviewed validated the above findings and also voiced their thoughts of this factor's significant

83 r

contribution to violence. The interviewees also emphasized the close and direct link between this factor overcrowding and overcrowding (the sales of more tickets leading to overcrowding). Based on the survey questionnaires, the interviews conducted and literature review, the researcher concluded that this factor is a significant contributor to soccer violence in South Africa.

4.3.14 Poorly trained security personnel This is another factor in which an overwhelming majority of respondents (89%) agreed was a significant contributor to violence in soccer. Respondents' comments on the questionnaires were very emphatic that this was an area that needed strong and urgent focus if the security of all stakeholders was to be guaranteed.

All interviewees and most respondents hinted that the majority of security personnel employed at soccer matches were lay people who were just employed on an ad hoc basis just to make up the numbers, with no formal security training whatsoever. It also emerged that most of these personnel were not properly trained or equipped to deal with crises.

The researcher was fortunate to be introduced to one such ad hoc security person in Orlando East, Soweto and interviewed him. He confirmed that they were just handed batons and briefed about where exactly they would be deployed in the stadium. They also had to ensure that the crowd was well behaved. Their mandate also included rushing to the section of the stadium that had disorder in their numbers and deal with (beat up) "troublemakers" then physically remove them from the stadium.

Mill a

Respondents also blamed poor training or lack thereof on the part of security personnel for the weapons and fireworks that sometimes find their way into the stadia despite them being banned in South Africa. Security personnel are also accused of corruptly taking bribes to let people into the stadia, especially when it is already full, leading to overcrowding and subsequently stampedes (Ellis Park commission report, 2002:11).

4.3.15 Other factors

This section will just mention some factors that were mentioned by the respondents, which were not analysed at length but for which provision was made at the end of the questionnaire. Some of these factors are the following:

4.3.15.1 The showing of the match on the stadium screen while the game was underway was heavily criticised. Some respondents hinted that this could lead to violence if the slow motion reflects a different version to the referee's decision (especially if the stakes are high).

4.3.15.2 Money. There was a strong conviction that a lot of money changes hands in South African soccer behind the scenes, which corrupts certain people to manipulate the outcome of matches.

4.3.15.3 Too much interference by management. There was a belief that management gags people that voice different opinions. An example was the national senior men's side coaching situation. Since the build-up to the England game against South Africa in May 2003, relations between the coach and SAFA management have soured tremendously because of interference by management. Management have been dictating to the coach which players to pick for certain matches and this infuriated the coach and brought him to the brink of quitting his position.

4.3.15.4 Players' celebration styles. Some players' celebration styles were regarded as provocative. This was said to be the case when players celebrated goals on the side of opposition supporters.

4.3.15.5 Confusion over kick-off time of certain matches. When this is poorly communicated, supporters become apprehensive, anxious and impatient when the game kicks off earlier than they thought and they start pushing each other in an attempt to enter the stadium quicker.

4.3.15.6 Non-fielding of supporters' favourite players. Supporters normally pelt their own team's bench with missiles in frustration (especially if their team is not delivering positive results). In 2001 Orlando Pirates fans punched then coach Gordon Igesund at a training session for not fielding their favourite players even though the team won 2 trophies that season. They critisised the coach's style of play.

4.3.15.7. Sitting with opposition fans. This is said to create problems when one team scores and a fan celebrates while sitting on the side of the majority of opposition fans.

4.3.15.8 Late arrival of fans at the stadia. This is said to contribute to cause panic and frustration as fans start pushing to get in and thereby clash with security personnel. 4.4 VIDEO TAPE REVIEWS

This particular section of the study addresses the focus group's involvement and participation. As mentioned in chapter 1 and again in chapter 3, match reviews were conducted with the focus group for validation and triangulation purposes.

A number of video tape reviews of specific matches were conducted with the help and input of a focus group, which included two players, two referees, a manager, a stadium security officer, a coach and 3 supporters. The focus group rated the factors in order of importance as follows as representative of their collective views:

Poor officiating Overcrowding at stadia Selling more tickets than the stadia capacity Poorly trained security personnel Supporters' lack of understanding of the rules of the game Administrators' conduct (negative media utterances and on- the-field outburst) Excessive emotional involvement (by supporters) Player violence on the field of play Player dissent Refusal to accept the referee's decisions Use of drugs Excessive alcohol consumption Betting on match outcomes The media's creation of hype around certain games

On 2 of the matches 3 reviewed, the findings revealed that the referee's handling of the match was exceptionally poor and did infact lead to violent reactions from frustrated supporters.

87 In the other match, supporters' excessive emotional involvement in the game, refusal to accept. the referees's decisions and inability to accept defeat resulted in the pandemonium that followed.

The full narrations on match reviews are on appendices 2-4.

[I1'I CHAPTER 5 - CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter summarises the conclusions reached based on all the data collated from the surveys and verified through interviews and focus groups. Recommendations are made which will be presented to the powers that be in managing soccer in South Africa. These conclusions and recommendations were based on the factors identified in the literature review (chapter 2), methodology employed (chapter 3) and data analysis extensively conducted (chapter 4).

5.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

This section of the chapter will address the aims and objectives of the research as initially stated in chapter 1 and review whether or not these have been met during the research as conducted by the researcher in chapters 2, 3 and 4.

5.2.1 Aim

The aim/purpose of the research, as set out in chapter 1 was to come up with a number of recommendations that would be presented to the South African Football Association with a view to minimising soccer violence (or to eradicate it if at all possible).

This aim of the research study was accomplished through the achievement of objectives 1, 2, 3 and 4 as described below: 5.2.2 Objective I

Review literature study to highlight previous research on the topic

The above objective was achieved by means of a thorough review of both local and international literature even covering other sporting codes, as covered throughout chapter 2.

5.2.3 Objective 2

Conduct fieldwork to elicit data from spectators, players, match officials (also known as referees) and administrators

This objective was achieved through survey questionnaires to all the above categories of stakeholders bar journalists (who suspected the researcher was a journalist from rival publications). This made it difficult for the researcher to get journalists to participate, therefore the researcher decided to leave them out. The results were extensively analysed by means of tables and graphs per statement.

The analysis revealed that all factors identified in chapter 2 and analysed in chapter 4 do infact contribute to violence in South African soccer, some more than others. The most notable major contributors were overcrowding at stadia, player violence on the field of play, poor officiating (refereeing), refusal to accept the referee's decision, supporters' lack of understanding of the rules of the game, poorly trained security personnel and selling more tickets than the stadia capacity.

Of particular importance was poor officiating, on which heavy emphasis was placed in chapter 1 due to the negative publicity in South Africa and its potential to affect the 2010 World Cup bid.

5.2.4 Objective 3

Validating the data with relevant stakeholders

This objective was achieved through interviews with players, match officials, administrators and supporters. Further to this, a focus group session was conducted which comprised the afore-mentioned category groups where specific match tapes (which had violent incidents) were reviewed. Finally the focus group rated the identified factors in order of importance.

5.2.5 Objective 4

Deducing conclusions from the data collected

Conclusions are made in the following section of this chapter (5.3) from which recommendations will be made. These are based on the data collected, as well as additional information volunteered by some of the interviewees who participated off the record. The combination of this contribution broadens the overall perspective from which a holistic picture can be drawn and recommendations made.

5.3 CONCLUSIONS

There were strong sentiments expressed by interviewees that security was not taken as seriously in soccer as it should be. Of interest is the commission's report on the Ellis Park Disaster, which noted that both Kaizer Chiefs (the host team)

91 and Ellis Park management disputed who was in charge of security overall on the day of the game (11 April 2001). Each party contended it was the other's responsibility (Ellis Park commission report, 2002:8).

The interviewees' concerns were based on the fact that rugby, which by its game and commands respectable following in South Africa is very seldom, if ever, embroiled in violent outbreaks. One battles to come across bad publicity (specifically violence at rugby matches) in South African media. In fact, other sporting codes in South Africa are either more organised security-wise or successfully manage to keep bad publicity away from the media.

There was overwhelming agreement among respondents as was revealed by the analysis in Chapter 4 that most of the factors identified do contribute to violence in soccer, some to a greater extent than others. This means that the literature review conducted in Chapter 2 was largely relevant to the South African environment. This was also corroborated by means of interviews conducted with some of the stakeholders in the game of soccer, as well as a focus group to validate the findings.

The researcher also discovered during the analysis the presence of other factors which also contribute to violence in soccer but which were not necessarily revealed by the literature review. These were also stated in Chapter 4 but were never discussed in detail, as they were not the focus according to the literature review.

The researcher also discovered the existence of a damning report on corruption involving referees and top South African soccer administrators, which is apparently in the possession of

92 SAFA president, Molefi Oliphant. Various newspapers in the country (The Star, Sowetan, City Press and Sunday World) have all alluded to the existence of the report but have not published further details as the report has not been made public. It is believed that the report fingers a number of top administrators as being in the forefront of fuelling corruption by bribing referees.

The referees interviewed also confirmed that corruption was rife as soccer officials constantly tried to bribe referees to fix the outcome of matches. These referees divulged this information on condition that their identity was not revealed; in fact they stopped short of swearing the researcher to secrecy.

5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

The recommendations are objective 5 of this research study and are of data collected on the topic. Objective 5 is the final objectives statement. Based on the conclusions reached, the following recommendations are made:

5.4.1 Withhold match officials' names from team administrators to avoid referees being approached beforehand with bribes to fix match outcomes

5.4.2 Dedicate a slot on soccer television programs to educating supporters about the latest rules of the game (one rule per program).

5.4.2 Institute on-going assessment and improvement programs for match officials to constantly improve their efficiency

93 5.4.3 Feature prominent soccer personalities on soccer programs to promote fair play and condemn violence

5.4.4 Supporters' club chairpersons and team owners must publicly discourage the consumption of alcohol and drugs at soccer matches

5.4.5 Set up a Public Relations Committee to regulate the public behaviour of administrators (especially to the media)

5.4.6 The league and SAFA must punish out-of-line administrator behaviour very harshly to discourage bad sportsmanship

5.4.7 Implement an electronic system to control the issuing of tickets to be made available for sale (this must include complementary tickets and those issued to sponsors) to avoid overcrowding. Install metal detectors at the turnstiles (at the stadia entrances) to avoid objects being taken into stadia

5.4.8 The respective bodies must spell out clearly and unambiguously who is in charge of security for all matches (to avoid disputes such as the Ellis Park situation)

5.4.9 Security must be increased for crucial games and derbys (such as Cup Finals and those games that attract full capacity crowds)

5.4.10 Each team must send their security personnel for crowd control and basic security training and not just hire anybody from the street on an ad-hoc basis

5.4.11 Teams must consider subcontracting security companies if the above option (training their own personnel) proves too expensive for them

5.4.12 Effective searches must be carried out at stadia entrances to prevent alcohol, drugs, fireworks, and any other objects which could be used as missiles during the game being taken into stadia (effective training will contribute greatly here)

5.4.13 Dismiss security personnel who are caught taking bribes to let more people into the stadia (as this also leads to overcrowding)

5.4.14 Restrict the sales of crucial and derby games to computicket outlets, large distribution centres and the internet (but NO tickets should be sold anywhere close to the stadia vicinity on the day of the game)

5.4.15 Security personnel must ensure that rival supporters are separated as much as possible (such as different seating sections)

5.4.16 All teams should consider setting up supporters' financial services packages that incorporates accident and death cover for their supporters (similar to the one that Kaizer Chiefs have at present)

5.4.17 Players should refrain from celebrating goals on the opposition fans' side as this is said to incite fans to throw objects at them in frustration

5.4.18 The league should punish out-of-line players (dissent) harshly to discourage this kind of behaviour

95 5.5 VALUE FOR FUTURE STUDY

The main factors analysed at length and on vhich the focus group participation centred were the ones on the questionnaire. The researcher discovered other factors, which were mentioned by respondents and interviewees, which were not part of the main focus. These were mentioned in section 4.3.15 above.

The researcher therefore acknowledges that these "other" factors present an area that should also be explored and can be valuable input for consideration by the relevant soccer authorities. These factors are the following:

The showing of the match on the stadium screen while the game was underway .#- Money. There was a strong conviction that a Jot of money changes hands in South African soccer behind the scenes, which corrupts certain people to manipulate the outcome of matches Too much interference by management. There was a belief that management gags people that voice different opinions .- Players' celebration styles. Some players' celebration styles were regarded as provocative Confusion over kick-off time of certain matches Non-fielding of supporters' favourite players Sitting with opposition fans ,- Late arrival of fans at the stadia

In conclusion, there are many issues that management has to examine closely and implement effectively for soccer to be better managed in the country. This study provided a synopsis

Im of issues that could be incorporated in security planning and management as it revealed contributors to violence in the sport.

The researcher, through interviews, established that other aspects of the game still need improvement, such as: consistency in the treatment of teams for similar offences, communication in general needs to be improved between the motherbody (SAFA) and the league PSL and the coaches regarding the national team fixtures and players' availability. The researcher therefore concludes that there is merit in conducting future studies in this regard.

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4 :

'5

102 Appendix 1

SA SOCCER VIOLENCE SURVEY

This is an independent survey aimed at minimising violence in South African Soccer. Your contribution will help us achieve this objective.

The factors below have been identified as causes or contributors to violence in South African Soccer. Please indicate whether you agree/disagree by ticking the appropriate blocks below.

Please name the team you support (optional).

Please state the nature of your involvement with soccer (e.g. supporter, referee, etc).

These factors Cause/Contribute to Violence in SA Soccer:

Excessive alcohol consumption

Overcrowding at stadia

Player violence on the field of play

Player dissent (foul language towards referee) FIJ i1 Poor officiating (refereeing) II

Use of drugs (marijuana/dagga)

Betting on match outcomes

Supporters lack of understanding of the rules of the game

Refusal to accept the referee's decision

10.The media's creation of hype around games

11 .Administrators' conduct (negative media utterances)

12. Excessive emotional involvement (supporters)

103

13.Selling more tickets than the stadium's capacity

14. Poorly trained security personnel

15.Other (This applies to other contributing factors not covered above, if any)

15.1 ...... 15.2 ......

15.3 ......

104 Appendix 2

Match Review 1:

(30th Kaizer Chiefs vs. Jomo Cosmos November 2002, Coca-Cola Cup final: FNB Stadium)

Tension was high for the game as this was a repeat of the previous year's final in which Chiefs outclassed Cosmos with a 5-0 scoreline. The opening moments of the game were characteristic of a cup final (very tense with no team giving any quarter and very few chances created). It was evident that it was going to be a fiercely contested match as tackles started flying very early.

Jomo Cosmos scored a goal from an off-side position in the first half (36th minute), which all the members of the focus group agreed to. The game threatened to get out of control as rough play continued on both sides. Late in the second half, a Chiefs player and a Cosmos player were involved in a short pulling tussle, which the referee spotted but never penalised immediately.

As the situation progressed between the 2 players, the Chiefs player was eventually brought down in the 18 area, with the Cosmos player completely missing the ball and taking the Chiefs player's legs from underneath him. The referee blew the whistle but penalised the Chiefs player for a foul.

This resulted in pandemonium breaking out at the stadium with Chiefs fans started throwing bottles and all sorts of objects on the field (some players were struck by these objects) in protest against the referee. By this time, it was very late in the second half with only 5 minutes of official time remaining before the end of the game. Focus group's final views: referee's handling of the game was very poor and led to the violent outbreak that erupted at the stadium.

105 Appendix 3

Match Review 2: (23rd South Africa vs. Nigeria November 2000, Women's African Cup of Nations final: Vosloorus Stadium, South Africa)

The above match was the second to be reviewed by the focus group. The build-up to the game was characterised by a great deal of hype created by the media because it was the first time that the South African team had reached the final. Naturally, expectations were high for a victory on the part of the South African public. As a result of this excitement, entrance to the stadium was free (from the video tape, one could see that the stadium was packed beyond capacity with some spectators hanging from the grandstand supporting pillars)

The game started at a blistering pace with both teams going for the kill very early on. As the game progressed, the heat seemed to take its toll on the players as the pace slowed down dramatically compared to the opening few moments. Nigeria scored their first goal towards the end of the first half, to the disappointment of the local supporters. Immediately thereafter, the South African supporters started insisting to the coaching staff to make substitutions. The teams went into the half-time break with Nigeria leading by the solitary goal.

The South African team started the second half with a lot more purpose and determination attacking a lot more but the Nigerian goalkeeper, who had an excellent game, thwarted their efforts. Frustration began to show on the South African players and one player was cautioned for rough play on the Nigerian goalkeeper (an act that drew the referee a lot of booing from the supporters).

106 As time went by, the crowd started getting more restless and pelted the South African bench with objects in an attempt to force them to make a substitution and the game was stopped temporarily. After a few minutes, order was restored and the game continued. In the 73rd minute, a South African player (Joanne Solomons) could not believe her eyes when the Nigerian goalkeeper saved her shot on the goalline from point blank range. The local supporters were already on their feet to celebrate the would-be goal.

(74th The Nigerians scored their second goal a minute later minute) and the local supporters never took kindly to it. After this, all hell broke loose from a small section of the crowd, who started throwing all sorts of objects onto the field and the Nigerian goalkeeper was hit on the head. The game was stopped as security attempted to restore order. The security personnel's efforts were unsuccessful as the throwing of missiles continued unabated. Some security personnel were seen on tape running away from the crowd that they were supposed to keep in check.

After about 45 minutes the authorities decided that it was impossible for the game to be played to the regulated 90 minutes and the game was abandoned. Nigeria was declared the winners.

The focus group's notes cited excessive supporter emotional involvement, inadequate security arrangements and poorly trained personnel as the main reasons for the pandemonium that broke out at the stadium.

107 Appendix 4

Match Review 3

nd Orlando Pirates vs. Kaizer Chiefs (22 March 1994, Castle League: FNB Stadium)

This was a derby game between two teams with the most following in the country. Games between these two sides are always treated as needle games because of the rivalry that exists between them (as discussed in the literature review, Chapter 2).

The game was a league encounter that was sure to attract a lot of interest because both teams were in the running for the league championship. The stadium was packed to capacity and the atmosphere electrifying as supporters of both teams chanted their respective songs.

Like any other game between these two teams, this particular game was a close encounter, which was bitterly contested. The game threatened to get out of control very early as both teams' players tackled very hard and sometimes went over the top. In these early stages, the referee never stamped his authority by booking rough tackling players.

The game was stopped briefly in the first half after Chiefs supporters threw objects at the referee seemingly in protest about the referee's inconsistency (blowing for fouls in certain cases and in some not). The game progressed two minutes later after order was restored and 371h Chiefs scored their first goal in the minutes of the first half. The teams went into recess with Chiefs still leading by the odd goal.

The second half continued the same way the first half did with 72nd referee's decisions very questionable. In the minute the referee

108 blew for a penalty in Chiefs favour and this drew the ire of Pirates who had by then had enough. They threw missiles and thereafter invaded the pitch. They then ripped some section of the stadium seats and burnt about a quarter of the stadium. One side of the stadium poles (in which goals are supposed to be scored) were also rooted out Security personnel were ineffective in handling the crowd and restoring order.

Police had to be called in to dismiss the out of control supporters and the game was abandoned, as it was impossible to continue with play. Chiefs were declared the winners and awarded the two points at a disciplinary hearing four weeks later and Pirates were fined R100 000 for their supporters' behaviour.

4.

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