View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Loughborough University Institutional Repository This item was submitted to Loughborough’s Institutional Repository (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/) by the author and is made available under the following Creative Commons Licence conditions. For the full text of this licence, please go to: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.5/ Where have all the games gone? An exploratory study of digital game preservation by Joanna Barwick A Doctoral Thesis Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University July 2010 © Joanna Barwick 2010 CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY This is to certify that I am responsible for the work submitted in this thesis, that the original work is my own except as specified in acknowledgments or in footnotes, and that neither the thesis nor the original work contained therein has been submitted to this or any other institution for a degree. ……………………………………………. ( Signed ) ……………………………………………. ( Date) i Abstract It is 50 years since the development of the first computer game and digital games now have an unprecedented influence on our culture. An increasingly popular leisure activity, digital games are also permeating other aspects of society. They continue to influence computer technology through graphics, animation and social networking; an influence which is also being felt in other media, in particular film and television. They are a new art form and they are seen to be influential on children’s learning and development. However, despite their pervasiveness and apparent importance within our society and culture, they are still largely ignored as part of our cultural heritage. Dismissed as disposable, entertainment products, they have not specifically been addressed in most of the academic literature on digital preservation which represents a serious omission in past research. This was justification for an exploratory study into the preservation of digital games and the aim of this study has been to explore the value of digital games, their significance in our culture, and the current status of their preservation. Investigating the relationship of games to culture; reviewing current preservation activities and drawing conclusions about the value of digital games and the significance of their preservation were the study’s objectives. These have been achieved through interviews with key stakeholders – the academic community, as potential users of collections; memory institutions, as potential keepers of collections; fan-based game preservation experts; and representatives from the games industry. In addition to this, case studies of key game preservation activities were explored. Through this research, a clearer picture of attitudes towards digital games and opinions on the need for preservation of these cultural products has been established. It has become apparent that there is a need for more coherent and collaborative efforts to ensure the longevity of these important aspects of digital heritage. Keywords: preservation / digital preservation / games / computer games / digital games / video games / cultural heritage / value ii Where have all the games gone? An exploratory study of digital game preservation Contents Abstract ii Contents iii Acknowledgements viii 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Aims and objectives 4 1.2 Significance of the research 7 1.3 Structure of thesis 8 2. Digital games 10 2.1 Games and game studies 11 2.2 The historical development of digital games 27 2.3 The business and economics of the digital games industry 36 2.4 The impact and influence of digital games 45 2.5 The special characteristics of digital games 57 2.6 Conclusions 68 3. Cultural heritage and preservation 70 3.1 Preserving cultural heritage 72 3.2 Digital preservation 80 3.3 The preservation of digital games 95 iii 3.4 Conclusions 109 4. Methodology 111 4.1 Developing the research 113 4.2 Methodological approach 116 4.3 Methods 121 4.4 Data Analysis 130 5 Findings and discussion 134 5.1 The cultural significance of games 139 5.1.1 The relationship of digital games to other media 140 5.1.2 The relationship of digital games to people’s lives 143 5.1.3 Growing academic interest in digital games 145 5.1.4 A change in perception towards digital games 149 5.1.5 Summary 153 5.2 Digital games as part of cultural heritage 155 5.3 The stakeholders in the preservation of digital games 161 5.4 The current status of digital game preservation 171 5.4.1 Introduction to the case study organisations 172 5.4.2 The exhibition and interpretation of digital games 174 5.4.3 Long-term preservation 176 5.4.4 Selection 178 5.4.5 Summary 180 5.5 The barriers to digital game preservation 181 5.6 Summary of main findings 191 iv 6 Conclusions and recommendations 193 6.1 Conclusions 195 6.2 Recommendations 204 Bibliography 208 Appendices 229 Appendix I : Mind map - Literature Review 230 Appendix II : Personal gaming history 233 Appendix III : Preliminary data analysis 238 Appendix IV: Code families 240 List of Figures and Illustrations Figures Figure 1 Game definitions 14-15 Figure 2 Software sales 2003-2009 36 Figure 3 UK Top 20 games in 2009 39 Figure 4 The value chain 41 Figure 5 Top selling PC games in 2010 49 Figure 6 Top selling console games in 2010 50 v Figure 7 Migration and emulation strategies 86 Figure 8 Establishment of a new medium – film 97 Figure 9 Establishment of a new medium – games 98 Figure 10 Establishment of a new medium – film and games 98 Figure 11 Digital Games Canon 107 Figure 12 Five influences on social research 116 Figure 13 Differences between qualitative and quantitative research 120 strategies Figure 14 Code family: cultural significance 132 Illustrations I Game of Twenty Squares 27 II SpaceWar! 28 III Prototype of Pong 29 IV Magnavox Odyssey 30 vi V Burn-Out Paradise: In-game advertisement for Obama Presidential 48 Campaign VI Momento Mori, online game by Tate Modern 51 VII Tudor Exploration Game by National Maritime Museum 52 VIII Real Time Strategy Group: Civilization IV by Eastwood 53 IX Barney Doom 61 X Time magazine 63 vii Acknowledgements I would like to thank the Department of Information Science for providing me with the opportunity, and funding, to undertake this research. I am particularly grateful to my supervisors, Dr James Dearnley and Dr Adrienne Muir, for their advice and support through the PhD journey. I am also thankful to all the participants in this study for their time and their interesting views on my research area. In particular, I must thank all the partners in the National Videogame Archive for sharing their ideas and experiences with me. From a personal perspective, this thesis would not have been possible without the support and encouragement of my husband, Jeff. Thank you for your patience and understanding. viii Chapter One: Introduction Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Chapter One: Introduction Chapter 1: Introduction Over 50 years have passed since the invention of the first computer game, Tennis for Two (1958). This game was the inspiration for the first truly successful digital game, Pong; versions of which provided the platform for development of the commercial digital game industry in the 1970s. In the 50 years since Tennis for Two, digital games have become an increasingly visible and popular leisure activity. They are part of many people’s everyday lives: they are an entertainment; a way to relax; something to share between friends (virtual and physical) and family. For many, especially a generation which grew up in the 1980s or later, digital games have been part of their childhood; they are part of their present and will be there in their future. Traditionally associated with socially inept teenage boys, statistics now reveal that the average gamer is 35; 26% of gamers are over 50 and there are more adult female players than boys under 17 (Entertainment Software Association, 2008). Year-on-year increases of software sales also suggest a rise in popularity of gaming; and in 2007, an average of nine games was sold every second of every day (Entertainment Software Association, 2008). With this growth in sales, the games industry has become a significant force in the creative industry sector. Valued at $5.1 billion in 1997, the industry has expanded considerably and is estimated now to be worth $22 billion (ESA, 2009). Furthermore, the games company, Nintendo is currently Japan’s third most valuable company (Lewis 2007) and in the UK digital games represent 30% of all media exports (UK Trade and Investment 2007). Games are also challenging the popularity of other forms of entertainment. According to statistics by the Entertainment Software Association, “Halo 3, the best-selling title of 2007, took in more revenue in its first day of sales than the biggest opening weekend ever for a movie ("Spider-Man 3") and the final "Harry Potter" book's first day sales” (ESA 2008). This record has now been challenged by Grand Theft Auto IV, which “racked up first- week sales of $500 million” (Richtel 2008). In recent years, with the successful launch of products designed to appeal to a wider audience, such as the Nintendo Wii in 2006, digital games have now become a mainstream form of entertainment. 2 Chapter One: Introduction Alongside this obvious increase in popularity, there is a “growing scholarly interest in the study of games and related interactive media” (Lowood 2004, p.1). There are now a growing number of academic departments, journals and conferences dedicated to the discipline of game studies. Game studies has had distinctive periods of intensity and received interest from a wide range of disciplines.