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19 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW This Chapter Provides Theories for the References in This Research. This Chapter Is Named Litera perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter provides theories for the references in this research. This chapter is named Literature Review which contains some studies conducting by other researches which are related with my thesis. The writings used for this literature review are comprehended from various sources, such as journals, books, and articles distribute information about American politics and American society in 1970s era. This chapter is classified into four subchapters. The first subchapter discusses Taxi Driver movie literature and short review as the main data for this thesis. The second subchapter defines the American situation in 1970s decade, including the political and the socio-cultural condition of 1970s America which includes New York as American urban city and the cases of presidential assassinations in 1970s. The next subchapter comprises information about American presidencies in 1970s era and in what way they relate with Richard M. Nixon as the most notable president through the decade. Then, I explain the film semiotics theory in the last subchapter. The theory is used to observe the signs in the film, including the basic terminology of cinematography. commit to user 19 perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id A. Movie Literature: Taxi Driver (1976) In this research, I am going to put a deeper discussion regarding a movie entitled Taxi Driver made in 1976. Written by Paul Schrader, the genre of this movie is melodrama thriller with a heavy element of film noir. Tim Dirks in Filmsite mentions that this film became popular as it carries the essence of urban hostility related with the history (http://www.filmsite.org/taxi.html). This movie was directed by Martin Scorsese and was produced by four production companies, including Columbia Pictures as the copyright holder. It was filmed on June to September 1975 and released in February 8, 1976. It took Manhattan, New York City as the filming location. With budget around US$ 1 million, Taxi Driver gained US$ 21,100,000 grosses in USA by the end of the year since it was filmed (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0075314/business?ref_=ttloc_sa_4). It receives many awards as it sets off with a non-mainstream idea. Considered as one of Hollywood atypical movies, it has unique plot and characters which become the factors that make it stands out among other movies in its era (Frank, 2011, p. 9). Taxi Driver was made ten years after the Vietnam War started. It attempted to represent the raging political situation in the 1970s as it appeared after a decade of the war in far South in 1976 and after the Watergate crisis and the subsequent resignation of Nixon presidency. Jannucci in Bright Lights Film Journal states: commit to user 20 perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id Five years later, when the movie was linked to would-be presidential assassin John Hinckley and his obsession with Jodie Foster, it became prima facie evidence for those on the political right who believed that violence in film translates into crime in real life― (Jannucci, 2005, p. 1). The movie has a story about a Vietnam veteran named Travis Bickle who comes back to America. He works as taxi driver at night in New York City. Travis often examines the society around him and does not like the fact that it is not a nice place since many prostitutes and drug dealers loiter in the city. In the movie, the main cast played by Robert De Niro becomes the anti-hero character who wants to clean the city which he regards as dirty. He meets Betsy, a government employee who works for a presidential candidate. After failed in attempting to get close to her, Travis gets low spirited and sees the society in a closer look. One day, a teen hooker named Iris runs into his taxi and he conceives this event as a part of life where he can make the city a better place by saving her. Furthermore, he decides to shoot the presidential candidate when the politician is having a speech. Travis tries to assassinate the candidate by tracing the date and location they can meet again. In the end of the movie, Travis can save Iris by killing the people he thinks are responsible for making her work for an inappropriate job. commit to user 21 perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id B. Socio-political Condition of America in 1970s The 1970s was a notable decade as it dealt with various political and social issues, particularly during the era of Nixon’s presidency whose policies affected American life. There were some social raging issues within the society, such as the Watergate Scandal; the problems concerning big cities in America, including New York; the bankruptcy and the strike protest in New York City; and also the attempts of presidential assassination. In American history of 1970s era, President Richard Milhous Nixon was famous for a big case which was regarded as a great scandal called as Watergate Scandal. History.com (2009) mentions that due to the scandal, Nixon was mentioned as the first American president who resigned while he was officially still on duty. It caused social raging after the case revealed to the public. Eventually, Nixon’s Watergate Case brought American society into an upheaval situation since it made the citizen disbelieve about what the president did for the re-election at that time. John Gardner in Public Broadcasting Service states that ―At the same time, the scandal fed into a growing disillusionment and lack of faith in government that exists to this day‖ (http://www.pbs.org/johngardner/chapters/6c.html). Perry (2000) states that this issue was mainly investigated by two notable journalists of The Washington Post, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, who kept on working on the case from 1972. In his article entitled Watergate Case Study, James M. Perry talks about this popular scandal. It started with headline news on the newspaper about an commit to user 22 perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id unauthorizedly breaking in at the Democratic National Party headquarters on Sunday, June 18, 1972. One of the suspects, James McCord, currently worked for Republican National Committee for the presidential re-election in serving the security field. It was known later that the breaking in case was part of the attempt in interrupting the campaign of Democratic Committee and sabotaging the presidential re-election. Moreover, this case also involved the official boards of the White House and the Committee for the president re-election, and surely affecting Nixon as it was revealed that he gave heaps of money for the law-breaking. Reference.com mentions that Nixon resigned from his position on August 8, 1974. His infamous scandal made the public disbelieved in the government. Also, the executive administration boards were reported to be involved in corruption (https://www.reference.com/history/did-watergate- scandal-affect-america-ddf9b446307e096c). Even though it may be categorized into an outrageous case, the aftermath of Watergate Scandal can be observed both from good and bad viewpoints. The U.S. News Staff (2014) in its website states that the case delivered American politics to be more transparent to the public. Besides, the campaign aid was revolutionized related with the Freedom of Information Act in 1986. The media were more eager in digging information concerning the political cases of the governmental boards (http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2014/08/08/effects-of-watergate-the- good-and-the-bad). New World Encyclopedia (2013) says that in commit to user 23 perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id November, the Democratic Party got 5 places in Senate and 49 others for the House of Representatives on the chairs election. Furthermore, Gerald Ford as the successor of the presidential seat was urged to hurry in drawing back the American soldiers in Vietnam. Later, the communist in Vietnam also seized the Southern region. The Scandal also gave impact to other political cases in which the ―-gate‖ suffix was attached. The Koreagate, Whitewatergate, and Zippergate were the examples (http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Watergate_scandal). The political matters may concern with the situation of American society, especially in the urban areas as they contain more citizens than in the rural. Regarding this matter, the majority of American governmental boards were located in Washington D. C as one of the American urban states. It is significant to discuss about urban area as it helps me to observe the relationship of the political condition within urban society. Generally speaking, Washington as an urban area has problems which are similar with other big cities in USA. The traffic jam, economic gap, lack of social awareness, and high unemployment are the common problems happened in urban areas. Through decades, big cities are famous as places with more citizens than the small cities. It is mostly because the citizens want to have better jobs with better wages in big city. In 1970s decade, the urban cities in America were well-known for the cultural shift. There was a social change between the older and younger generation. It was a raging era since the society tended to change abruptly. commit to user 24 perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id The citizens needed to adapt if they wanted to keep on track. Rich Kleinfeldt and Ray Freeman (2007) report in VOA that due to the 60s as a decade full with social movements, the decade later became a period of social issues. In the 1970s American military stopped its conflict in Vietnam after being in the war for many years.
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