Proclaiming the Gospel by Healing the Sick? Historical and Theological Annotations on Medical Mission

Christoffer Grundmann

edical mission is a controversial issue. Advocates of med­ know of medical and pharmaceutical activities of the early mis­ M ical ministries assure us that "the future of medical sionaries to the Americas, to Africa, the Philippines, China, and mission promises to be as exciting as its past."t But at times others japan," and we have numerous accounts of the institution of have wondered "whether a missionary does not lose rather "misericordia societies" in the New World settlements of the than gain influence ... by the exercise of medical knowledge.r" Portuguese, Spaniards, and Italians;" While some argue that "the histor~ of Medical Missions is the In the Protestant tradition we know of initiatives by Gotthilf justification of Medical Missions," others object because "the A. Francke and the Tranquebar Mission in commissioning the soul is more precious than the body, and the concern for the soul first physician ever to work overseas, Kaspar Gottlieb Schlegel­ is the supreme concern.:" milch in 1730; and of the initiative of Count Zinzendorf in sending As long as it is held that proclamation of the Gospel through Dr. Grothaus to St. Croix, West Indies, in 1735. 11 Dr. J. Scudder the preached word is the proper missionary means, and that to sailed as the first American physician in missionary service to cater to the bodily ailments of individuals is secondary to spiritual India in 1819; and the Rev. Dr. R. Morrison from the London afflictions, conflicts are unavoidable. Missionary Society (LMS), who, in cooperation with a Dr. Liv­ That there should exist such conflict, however, takes an un­ ingston of the East India Company, opened a dispensary at Can­ biased mind with surprise. Rooted in the ministry of Jesus him­ ton as early as 1817 and another at Macao in 1820 for the poor. self, the concern for the physical sufferings of individuals has Dr. W. Lockhard and Dr. B. Hobson were sent as physicians by been understood throughout the centuries as part and parcel of LMS to China in 1838 and 1839 respectively. t2 the Christian witness. It became an issue only when medicine But none of this was called medical missions nor did one speak matured as a scientific discipline, which the missionary move­ of medical missionaries prior to the nineteenth century (unless ment employed as a means to an end. in retrospect against the background of modern medical mis­ In challenging the body-soul dichotomy, medical mission raises sions). What this rich tradition impressively shows is that physical a principal question of Christian mission. To come to terms with human needs always prompted Christians to respond to the best this intricate issue we will first sketch the history of Christian of their ability and medical knowledge. Terms indicating an care for the sick with special reference to work in foreign countries awareness of medical mission per se, and of a special ministry of prior to the emergence of medical missions per se; secondly, we the medical missionary first appeared in the middle of the nine­ will focus on Peter Parker and the inception of medical missions; teenth century. They denote a new phenomenon in the history and finally we will attempt a brief theological investigation into of Christianity that is inseparably linked with the heyday of Chris­ the matter. tian mission activities and to modern medical, surgical, and phar­ maceutical achievements. I. Compassionate Care and Medical Activities Having himself been a medical missionary to China, Dr. L. in Mission Maxwell, in an article written in 1914 entitled "God's Hand in Medical Missions," acknowledges: "There is something in the Compassionate care for the sick has been present throughout the history of [medical missions'] development which is in itself a history of the Christian church and in all strata of the Christian contribution to the miracle of history in its relation to the Kingdom community. Beginning with the time of the Apostles (cf. Mark of God.... The great mission work to the world had begun, but 16:17-18; Acts 3:1-10; 5:12-16, etc.), Christians introduced "the was progressing very slowly. It needed what the medical art in most revolutionary and decisive change in the attitude of society service to Christ could alone give. But mark this: -If the medical toward the sick," for "Christianity came into the world as the andsurgical arthadremained asit stood [in 1840] theassistance rendered religion of healing, as the joyful Gospel of the Redeemer and of byit would have been comparatively limited. . . . There would be no Redemption. It addressed itself to the disinherited, to the sick great progress until God gave us the power to operate without and the afflicted, and promised them healing, a restoration both pain. . . . God opened a great and wide door . . . by Lister's spiritual and physical.i" We know ofaxenodochium (a house for famous discovery of how to guard against septic poisoning after the care of strangers and the sick) founded in A.D. 372 by Basil operations" and by Dr. Patrie [Manson's] "discovery of the the Great (33~379)6 and of the Benedictine Rule according to role of the mosquito in malaria.... This constantly increasing which the care of the sick had to be given much attention. We knowledge has made the position of the medical missionary one are well informed about the special care for lepers in the Middle of singular value for the propagation of the Gospel."t3 Ages" and about the establishment of religious orders devoted to The more medicine became a scientific art, the more effec­ the care of the sick, like the Order of 51. John of Jerusalem in tively it alleviated diseases that had been fatal since the time of 1113, the Hospitaller of St. John of God (Do Good Brothers) in the Fall. That accounts for the euphoria with which the idea of 1540, and the "Bethlehemites" in Mexico in 1667.8 We also medical mission got accepted, not only by the mission boards for their overseas work and personnel but by the general public as well. In a comparatively short time medical missions were estab­ Christoffer Grundmann is theological consultant oftheGerman InstituteforMed­ lished all around the globe as benevolent philanthropic agencies, ical Missions in Tiibingen. He is also convener for the study project on healing partly to counteract colonial exploitation, partly to serve as spear­ of theInternational Association forMission Studies. He served on thestaffof the heads in mission strategy. The effectiveness of the cures and their Tamil-Nadu Theological Seminary at Madurai, India (1979-83). reliability made medical mission "the heavy artillery of the

120 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH LeamtoMake Strong Disciples Discover the joy ofAsbury's mission for ministry at the E. Stanley Jones School ofWorld Mission and Evangelism. Master of Arts in World Mission and Evangelism Master ofTheology in World Mission and Evangelism Doctor of Missiology Doctor of Ministry Doctor of Philosophy (cooperative with University of Kentucky) Faculty participating in Asbury's emerging research tradition in discipling include: Ronald Crandall, P.Th. D., Fuller Allan Coppedge, Ph .D ., Cambridge Steve Harper, Ph .D ., Duke George Hunter, Ph.D., Northwestern Reginald Johnson, Ph.D., Edinburgh Donald Joy, Ph.D ., Indiana John Kilner, Ph.D., Harvard Kenneth McElhanon, Ph.D., Australian National University Steve O'Malley, Ph .D ., Drew Darrell Whiteman, Ph .D., Southern Illinois Mathias Zahniser, Ph.D., Johns Hopkins In addition to its emerging research tradition in discipling, the ESJ School also features courses and research opportunities in theology of mission, history of mission, world religions, church growth and mission strategy, mission anthropology and indigenous Christianity, leadership and change agentry, communication and evangelism, urban mission and social reform. Contact Admissions for complete information. In continental U.S .A., call TOLL FREE 1-800-2-ASBURY In KY (606) 858-3581, Eastern Time Zone

Asbury Theological Seminary WIlmore, KY 40390

HearPresidentDavid Mctcenna's radio commentary every weekon "OurWorld," broadcast byIMS News. Consultyour areareligious station. mIssIonary army'<'" and the medical missionary "the repre­ which spread rapidly among the resident foreigners as well as sentative of all that was most admired in the ... missionary among the Chinese. "In the first three months of its existence movement.v " it had accomplished more toward breaking down the wall of prejudice . . . than had been brought about by years of ordinary II. Peter Parker and the Origin of Medical missionary toil.,,20 To support the hospital and "in order to Missions give a wider extension and permanency to the efforts that have already been made to spread the benefits of rational medicine The new phenomenon of medical missions was signaled by the and surgery among the Chinese," Parker in cooperation with career of the Rev. Peter Parker, M.D. (1804-1888), the first medical other foreigners organized in February 1838 the Medical Mis­ missionary." A graduate of Yale College, he topped preparation sionary Society in China, the first of its kind ever." for mission service with a full-fledged medical study program and The astonishing level of interest this comparatively modest degree. When sent to China as an ordained minister by the Amer­ enterprise generated was due not only to Parker's success (es­ ican Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mission (ABCFM) in pecial~ his surgical work." which was prominently noted in The 1834, he was charged: "The medical and surgical knowledge Lancet ). The political circumstances at a time of outspoken Chinese you have acquired, you will employ, as you have opportunity, hostility against foreigners must also be taken into account. As a in relieving the bodily afflictions of the people. You will also be place of "disinterested benevolence," the hospital enjoyed the ready, as you can, to aid in giving to them our arts and sciences. confidence of all parties and incidentally led Parker into politics. 24 But these, you will never forget, are to receive your attention only While out of China during the Opium War (1840--42) he contacted as they can be made handmaids to the gospel. The character of high ranking politicians of an American mediation delegation in a physician, or of a man of science, respectable as they may be the United States as well as in Europe, that is, England and in evangelizing China-you will never suffer to supersede or in­ France. In addition, he canvassed for the support of the Medical terfere with your character as a teacher of religion.r " Practical Missionary Society in China with the pamphlet "Statements experience very soon exposed this as mere theory. Respecting Hospitals in China,,,25 and by means of public ad­ As early as February 1835, while still in Singapore for lan­ dresses and press releases. Thus the idea of medical missions guage study, Parker confesses: "As it respects my intercourse spread in influential circles. As a result, associations were orga­ with the Chinese and my medical and surgical practice among nized to aid the cause of medical missions, the first at Edinburgh them, it far exceeds all of which I ever thought,',18-a sigh fre­ in 1841. 26 quently repeated in his diaries. When he moved to Canton later As soon as he returned to China, Parker resumed the hospital that year he opened an "Ophthalmic Hospital,,,19 the fame of work, not losing sight of his missionary task. "When the mis­

Author's Reply

To the Editors: or matter. Rahner extends the idea of the sacramental mediation of grace through natural matter from the explicit Christian media In his response to my article "Catholic Teaching on Non-Chris­ to the concrete material and historical elements of other religions tian Religions at the Second Vatican Council" (April 1990), Paul as well. He created a theoretic model but did not go into detail Knitter stresses "the bonds between grace and nature within about how supernatural grace is present in other religions. Catholic theology. Grace must always have a medium in nature Certainly Rahner was one of the main theological figures who and history" (p. 63). As Knitter points out, Karl Rahner is the major affected the theological substance of Vatican II. But Rahner-much Catholic theologian who suggested that non-Christian religions more than his students and followers-was aware that his particular could be understood as incarnated or sacramental media of God's idea about the non-Christian religions as a sacramental mediation supernatural salvific grace. of supernatural grace did not gain conciliar recognition. He ex­ In his well-known article "Das Christentum und die nicht­ pressed his disappointment over this in his article "Uber die christlichen Religionen" (published in Schfriften zur Theologie, Bd. Heilsbedeutung der nichtchristlichen Religionen" (Schriften zur 5 [Einsiedeln: Benziger Verlag, 1962], pp. 136-58), Rahner offers a Theologie, Bd. 13 [Einsiedeln: Benziger Verlag, 1978], pp. 341-50). new way of thinking by emphasizing that non-Christian religions Rahner says that in the Nostra aetate declaration, "the proper are not only reflections of the natural human cognition of God, but theological quality of non-Christian religions remains undefined." they also contain a mediation of grace that adds something to our With profound insight into the conciliar teaching, Rahner notes natural relation as creatures to the Creator. According to Rahner, that the text does not acknowledge any specific status of the salvific a non-Christian religion "not only contains elements of natural mediation in other religions. He expressed his astonishment at the knowledge of God," but "also supernatural instances of the conciliar teaching and asked how atheists-lacking the incarnated grace which God presents to man because of Christ." For people mediation of grace--could be in the same position as the religious who do not know the Gospel, their own religions are "legitimate non-Christians: how could "explicit, verbalized and institutional religions," that is, God uses them as channels of supernatural religiosity be superfluous in all human life for the relation of man saving grace. to God?" Rahner did indeed introduce a somewhat novel Catholic ap­ In general, Rahner's understanding of the conciliar teaching proach to non-Christian religions. His concept is founded on the on non-Christian religions is in line with the analysis I offered in principle of incarnation: God does not offer supernatural saving my article. On the whole, the Second Vatican Council clung to the

grace /Idirectly"; grace is always incarnated in concrete elements traditional Catholic interpretation of other religions, the natural

122 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH sionary aim of these labors is borne in mind, neither the profes­ the term 'medical men' is the same as 'medical missionary,' a sion nor others will deem misplaced the mention of the moral technical term by which those are designated who endeavor, in treatment, in connection with the physical and surgical. . . . And their imperfect manner, to follow the example of [Jesus Christ], ... as the gospel [is] replete with authority for this mode of mis­ permit me to ask if, in sending such to China, you are not, in the sionary labor, ... we trust that while life is protracted and our most successful manner, sending 'preachers'Y''" faculties are continued it will be our honorable endeavor . . . to Parker, obliged to yield, continued his work independently, imitate [Jesus Christ] .... While rejoicing that these labors are now taking on political responsibilities, first as secretary and appreciated and approved by the most enlightened, devoted, and Christian communities, and by the highest personages, civil and ecclesiastical, of the age, the deepest consolation is in the humble hope of the approbation and blessing now, and the future reward The medical missionary of that Saviour whose kingdom we devoutly desire to see estab­ became lithe representa­ lished in China.,,27 Paradoxically, about the same time as Parker was spelling tive of all that was most out his conviction (fall 1845), the American Board's Prudential admired in the ... Committee resolved "that Dr. Parker be advised to seek his support from the Medical Missionary Society in China," since his missionary movement." work appeared to be almost entirely of a medical character. This caused great disturbance to their faithful missionary" and kindled a major discussion on the subject. Rufus Anderson, then senior Chinese interpreter to the Mission of the United States to China, secretary of the ABCFM, declared: "I am certain that too much later as charge d'affaires, and finally as the United States Com­ reliance has been placed upon it [the medical mission at Canton], missioner to China." Returning home for good in 1857, he joined and that the great eclat of the world that has attended it is fitted the Evangelical Alliance and soon became a leading figure of the to increase our apprehension that it is not the way to secure the movement. In 1871 the ABCFM rectified their former decision by glory of God and the gospel of his Son; and, of course, not the making Parker a corporate member of the board. He died on way most likely to secure the blessing of the Holy Spirit. ,,29 Re­ January 10, 1888, at eighty-three years of age, in Washington, sponding to Anderson's discounting of "medical men" in mis­ D.C., and was buried as "a prominent figure in the vast un­ sion work, a defender of Parker argued: "If the idea is merely dertakings of modern evangelical missions, keenly alive to every­ medical men, I would ask who has ever advocated such? But if thing that concerns the highest welfare of mankind.,,32

cognition of God (Rom. 1:20) and natural moral law (Rom. 2:14­ there exists an urgent need for an analysis of modus gratiae, that is, 16). of how this grace works in the religions. The strong emphasis of sacramentalism was generally adopted As I understand it, the classical line of trinitarian theology is by the conciliar teaching on ecclesiology: the church is the sacra­ implied by William R. Burrows in his comment on Knitter and me, ment of the whole world (see Lumen gentium 1, e.g.). But the idea as he seeks a more profound understanding of "what is meant of sacramentalism was not extended to the conciliar understanding by the encounter with God in the depths of conscience" (p. 64). of non-Christian religions. Neither did the council's teaching on This certainly includes the encounter of human beings with the religions acknowledge the idea of cosmic Christology, as repre­ Holy Trinity. sented in preconciliar theology by Henri de Lubac. Two final remarks: First, Knitter blames me for a "dualistic One of the most interesting and promising lines of interpre­ understanding of the orders of creation and salvation." In my ar­ tation that has not yet been worked out very much in relation to ticle, I attempt to demonstrate how the classical Catholic idea of non-Christians is the classical idea of the indivisibility of the works grace perfecting nature is the backbone of conciliar teaching. Eo of the Holy Trinity. The opera adextra of the Trinity may be distin­ ipso this means that nature and grace are inseparable. But this does guished but not separated from each other. According to this, for not mean that nature and grace cannot be distinguished from each instance, creation is not only the work of the Father, but all was other. Quite on the contrary, it is the essential basic skill of every created through, in, and for Christ (cf. Col. 1). Furthermore, the theologian to be able to make a distinction between "natural" Holy Spirit as Spiritus Creator works in the very act of creation (cf. and "supernatural" (Catholic) or "law" and "Gospel" Gen. 1:2; 2:7). The Holy Trinity is always present in all that God (Protestant). Without this distinction we lose the uniqueness of the does; consequently, God's "natural" creative grace and God's Gospel, humankind being saved sola gratia. "supernatural" salvific grace are simultaneously present. Second, I do not believe that the council limited the term re­ This line of trinitarian theology has its foundation in the fathers velatio to the explicit Christian meaning only "out of a respect of the church, especially Irenaeus. In modem times de Lubac and for tradition," as Knitter suggests. A conclusion like that is truly some others have attempted to develop this interpretation. But an argument ex silentio. I am much more inclined to believe in the there is a need for further clarification on the trinitarian effect on theological consistency of the conciliar teaching. non-Christians. This approach does not necessarily place any spe­ cial emphasis on religions as media of grace. Even if it is admitted Miikka Ruokanen that God uses other religions as a mediation of supernatural grace, Helsinki, Finland

JULY 1990 123 III. Proclaiming the Gospel in Imitating Christ profession.?" This applies, of course, to medical service in gen­ eral; as far as helping to build a rationale for medical service in In spite of the fact that medical missions were established with missions, the issues remain. a clear-cut objective of advancing the Gospel, many medical mis­ Yet it is possible to break the deadlock by arguing that medical sionaries suffered from controversies similar to the one that em­ mission "imitates Christ" in bringing about healing. The broiled Parker. 33 This reflects, Ibelieve, the failure of the supporters "imitatio Christi" motif, so far neglected in this controversy, of medical work to develop an adequate rationale. Several at­ is a longstanding principle of Christian ethics. Based on the Jewish tempts to do so failed;" and the statement on "The Place of "imitatio Dei," Paul the Apostle counseled others to imitate Medical Missions in the Work of the Church," adopted by the him as he imitated Christ (1 Cor. 11:1; 1 Thes. 1:6, et al.). The World Missionary Conference at Jerusalem in 1928, could only church fathers used the "imitatio" principle to admonish the reiterate the postulate: "In the missionary enterprise the med­ faithful to carry the cross and to show mercy upon fellow human ical work should be regarded as, in itself, an expression of the beings. 39 spirit of the Master, and should not be thought of as only a pioneer Without a conscious recollection of this tradition, pious peo­ of evangelism or as merely a philanthropic agency. ,,35 The specific ple in the modern era interpret the potential of scientific medicine difficulties faced by Catholics (which had the effect of delaying to cure disease as a special gift of God to this generation. Dis­ their engagement in medical missions until 1922)centered around pensed with purely "disinterested benevolence," the gift is the placement and role of medical personnel in relation to the loosely identified with Christ's healing power. Supporters of med­ "religious" and the "laity" in the mission apostolate, as ical mission who take this approach fall short of a true theological rationale, because medical cures on the whole work successfully even without such a claim. The underlying question is how heal­ ing correlates with redemption. Reflection on medical Healing touches upon the very question of life and therefore mission followed rather upon one's entire weltanschauung. Like the experience of illness, than preceded the healing too is common to all mankind, denoting the recovery of strength and ease after a time of disease. In the Judeo-Christian establishment of medical tradition this will be understood as a personal and bodily expres­ missions. sion of God's ongoing creation (creatio continua) and as a token of God's desire to restore humans to what they ought to be. To perceive healing as a potential encounter with redemption! recreation, and to enable people to avail themselves of it, requires defined by canon law. 36 The Roman Catholic debate on medical the explicit proclamation of the Gospel. Witnessing for healing missions, which we cannot develop here, would further highlight as the gift of God by means of scientific medicine, thereby facil­ the intricacies of our subject. itating the call of redemption which requires a personal response, Given the fact that reflection on medical mission followed rather constitutes the specific ministry of a medical missionary. (And, than preceded the establishment of medical missions, and that nowadays, this is no less a critical mission toward medicine!) The all participants in the discussion sought either to impede or ad­ claim to imitate Christ must be seen in line with the ancient ethical vance what was already in place, it should not be surprising that principle of the "imitatio Christi," and it must cojoin words a rationale acceptable to all was not forthcoming. Even as recently (preaching) with deeds (medical skill). As the goal of life, the as 1964, when medical missions were rightly interpreted as part "imitatio Christi" is a stimulating vision for medical mission­ of "the Christian ministry of healing," the specifics of the aries and all their missionary colleagues. discussion were neglected;" It is simply asserted that, "A Proclaiming the Gospel by healing the sick distinguishes the proper understanding of the healing ministry excludes the con­ unique ministry of Jesus Christ. Proclaiming the Gospel in imi­ cept of medical missions as a specialized service. Christian med­ tation of him is the ongoing challenge for genuine Christian mis­ ical service in Asia and Africa (as in Europe and America) is an sion. expression of stewardship on the part of Christians in the medical

Notes ------­

1. D. Hilton, "The Future of Medical Mission," International Review 5. Thus the assessment of H. Siegerist, professor of the history of med­ of Mission. no. 301 (1987), pp. 7~1, cit. p. 78. icine, in his book Civilization and Disease (Ithaca, N.Y., 1943), pp. 69­ 2. H. Venn, Secretary of the Church Missionary Society (CMS), London, 70, as cited in Ronald L. Numbers and Darrel W. Amundsen, eds., December 11, 1851; cited in P. Williams, "Healing and Evangelism: Caring andCuring: Health andMedicine in theWestern Religious Traditions The Place of Medicine in Later Victorian Protestant Missionary Think­ (New York: Macmillan, 1986), pp. 47-48. ing," The Church and Healing, Studies in Church History, vol. 19, ed. 6. "Bishops were directed to provide accommodations for the des­ by W. J. Sheils for the Ecclesiastical History Society (Oxford: Basil titute. These buildings were originally called xenodochia, a term that Blackwell, 1982). pp. 271-85. cit. p. 272. eventually gave way to hospitia or hospitalia. These were usually 3. Cited in McAll, "Medical Missions," p. 445, in The Encyclopedia of attached to a cathedral or other church. It is a mistake to envision Missions. Descriptive, Historical, Biographical, Statistical, ed. under the these facilities for the most part as hospitals in anything approaching auspices of the Bureau of Missions by H. O. Dwight, H. A. Tupper, the modern sense. Some, particularly in the sixth and s.eventh cen­ E. M. Bliss, (New York and London: Funk and Wagnall's, 1944). 2d turies were designated for the extension of medical care by a staff of edition, pp. 445-47. trained physicians, but these were probably an exception. The vast 4. Th. Cochrane. "The Basic Principle of Medical Missions," in Basic majority of xenodochia simply provided refuge in the form of shelter, Principles in Educational' and Medical Mission Work, by Fl. E. Hamilton food, and a few amenities" (Darrel W. Amundsen, "The Medieval and Th. Cochrane (London: World Dominion Press, 1928), p. 14. Catholic Tradition," in Caring and Curing, p. 83.)

124 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH 7. Cf. S. N. Brody. The Disease of the Soul: Leprosy in Medieval Literature 17. Thus part of the "Instructions" of the Prudential Committee of (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1974), esp. pp. 107­ the ABCFM, delivered to Parker when commissioned to China, June 47; P. Richards, TheMedieval Leper and His NorthernHeirs (Cambridge: 1, 1834, at Bleecker Street Presbyterian Church, New York: cited in D. S. Brewer, 1977). Stevens/Markwick, p. 82. 8. As far as the orders of "St. John of Jerusalem" and of "St. John 18. Ibid., p. 111; entry in his private diary. of God," which are still existent today, are concerned, sufficient lit­ 19. In his first quarterly report Parker gives the reason for this choice: erature will be found, whereas with regard to the "Bethlehemites," "Diseases of the eye were selected as those the most common in which dissolved in 1820, it is extremely difficult to get hold of the China, and being a class in which the native practitioners are most respective sources, which includes Fr. Jose Garcia de la Concepcion. impotent, and the cures, it was supposed, would be as much appre­ Historia Belemitica. Vida ejemplar y admirable del venerable siervo de Dios ciated as any other," cf. Stevens/Markwick, p. 121. In the annual y Padre Pedro de San Jose Betancur Fundator deel regular Instituto de Belen report of the hospital for the year 1845 we find the remark: "The en lasIndias Occidentales; frutossingulares desufecundo espiritu,y successos ophthalmic affections continue to receive prominent attention, al­ varios de esta religion escrita (Seville, 1723: 2d ed., Bibliotheca though the institution, as the reports have shown, has become to a "Goathemala" de la Sociedad de Geographia e Historia de Gua­ great extent a general hospital" in ibid., p. 242. temala, 1956). 20. Stevens/Markwick, p. 132. 9. Names like S. Aperger, Chr. Matter, J. Koffler, J. Siebert, M. Thomas, 21. Stevens/Markwick, p. 135. . B. Rhodes, J. Terenz, just to mention a few, have to be listed here; 22. Cf., in addition to the sources already mentioned, C. H. Hume, see also W. Bereton, "Bernhard Rhodes, Medical Missionary, 1644­ "Peter Parker and the Introduction of Anesthesia into China," in 1715," in The East and The West: A Quarterly Review for the Study of Journal of theHistoryofMedicine and Allied Sciences, vol. 1 no. 4 (October Missionary Problems, vol. 9 (1911), pp. 75-81; L. Kilger, "Heilkunde 1946), pp. 670-74. und Heilmittel in den zentralafrikanischen Missionen des 16. bis 18. 23. Cf. "Ophthalmic Hospital, Canton," in The Lancet for 1836-37, vol. [ahrhunderts," in Katholische Missionsiirztliche Fursorge (KMF), [ahr­ 2, ed. Th. Wakeley (London: George Churchill, 1836-37), p. 608; buch (1933). "Medical Establishments in China and Siam," in The Lancet for 10. Jg., C. Becker, ed., (Wiirzburg, 1933), pp. 93-119; Th. Respondek, 1837-38, vol. 1, pp. 481-82. R.M.M., "Missionsarztliche Praxis des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts 24. "My voice has been for peace, and I have exerted my little influence (unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung der spanisch-amerikanischen Ko­ to have the Chinese foresee and avoid the evil" (i.e., the coming lonien)," in KMF, [ahrbuch (1931), 8. Js.. pp. 139-55; J. Beckmann. about of the Opium War, 1840-42), Parker wrote in a letter to his "Missionsarztliche Tatigkeit in der alten Chinamission (17. und family in Apri11840. 18. Jahrhundert)," in Missionsiirztliche Caritas, [ahresheft (1941), pp. 25. P. Parker, Statements Respecting Hospitals in China, Preceded by a Letter 1-8. Cf. Costa Goodophim. As Misericordias (Lisbon 1897);J. Quelhas to John Abercombie (Glasgow: James Maclehose, 1842). Bigotte, Situa~iio [uridica das Misericordia« Portuguesas (Coimbra, 1959); 26. Originally founded as "The Edinburgh Association for Sending Jose F. Ferreira Martins, Historia da Misericordia de Goa I (Nova Goa, Medical Aid to Foreign Countries" it got named the "Edinburgh 1910). Medical Missionary Society" (EMMS) in 1843, a name under which 11. Cf. G. Olpp, "200 Jahre deutscher arztlicher Mission," in Ruf und this society is working till today: cf. J. Lowe, Medical Missions: Their Dienst der iirztlichen Mission. Zum 25 jiihrigen Bestehen des Deutschen Place and Power (Edinburgh: Oliphant, 1895), esp. pp. 199-243; Ste­ Insiitutsiur iirzliche Mission Tubingen(Stuttgart: Evang. Missionsverlag, venslMarkwick, pp. 17~219. 1935), pp. 55-83; Medical Missions at Homeand Abroad, (London: Med­ 27. Parker in his report for the hospital for the year 1845 as cited in ical Missionary Association, 1914), pp. 67-69. Stevens/Markwick, p. 243, original italics. 12. Cf. E. M. Dodd, The Gift of the Healer: The Story of Men and Medicine 28. "Suddenly and unexpectedly deprived of a foundation for sup­ in the Overseas Missions of the Church (New York: Friendship Press, port, as permanent I had supposed, as anything earthly could be ... 1964); H. Balme, China and Modern Medicine: A Study in Medical Mis­ disinherited, [I] will never cease to cherish a warm affection for the sionary Development (London: United Council for Missionary Educa­ society with which are most tenderly associated in my mind the tion, 1921); R. Schramm and W. A. R. Thomson, "Initial Medical dearest names on earth." (Parker in his letter of January 1, 1846 to Services," in Heralds of Health: The Saga of Christian Medical Initiatives, the Prudential Committee, cited in Stevens/Markwick, pp. 258-60). Stanley G. Browne, ed. (London: Christian Medical Fellowship, 1985), 29. Cf. StevenslMarkwick, p. 265. For further details of this discussion, pp.50-77. see ibid, pp. 258-68. For the particular stance of R. Anderson in 13. L. Maxwell, ed., "God's Hand in Medical Missions," in Medical mission policy cf. W. R. Hutchison, Errand to the World: American Missionsat Homeand Abroad (London: Medical Missionary Association, Protestant Thoughtand Foreign Missions(Chicago: University of Chicago 1914), pp. 67-69, 85-88, quotation pp. 68-69, original italics. N. B.: Press, 1987), pp. 77-90. In the article the name of Patrie Manson has become "Mauson" 30. StevenslMarkwick, p. 266. by a printing mistake, and further: it was not P. Manson but Ronald 31. Cf. ibid. pp. 249-314. Ross who actually discovered it. 32. Funeral address delivered by the Rev. Dr. Sunderland, cf. ibid., p. 14. Herbert Lankester, M.D., at a meeting of the Student Volunteer Mis­ 350. For the whole of this period, see ibid. pp. 315-56. sionary Union in 1900 in London; cf. A. F. Walls" 'The Heavy 33. Such controversies are mentioned in Theron Kue-Hing Young, "A Artillery of the Missionary Army'-The Domestic Importance of the Conflict of Professions" (see n. 16 above); C. P. Williams, "Healing Nineteenth Century Medical Missionary," in The Church and Healing, and Evangelism," (see n. 2 above); A. F. Walls, "The Heavy Ar­ Studies in Church History, vol. 19, ed. by W. J. Sheils for the Eccle­ tillery," (see n. 14 above); within the Adventist tradition mention siastical History Society (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1982), pp. 287-97; should be made of Dr. John Harvey Kellog and the "American quotation p. 290. "\ Medical Missionary College," Battle Creek; cf. Ronald L. Numbers, 15. C. P. Williams, "Healing and Evangelism: The Place of Medicine Prophetess of Health: A Study of Ellen G. White (New York: Harper & in Later Victorian Protestant Missionary Thinking," The Church and Row, 1976), esp. pp. 186-201. Healing, p. 285. 34. This is proven by the apologetic character of the literature, cf. K. W. 16. For the following cf. G. B. Stevens and W. Fisher Markwick, eds., Brown, Modern Medical Missions, a series of papers published by The Life, Letters, and Journals of the Rev. and Hon. Peter Parker, M.D., order of the Federation of Societies For Medical Missions, Burlington Missionary, pHysician, and Diplomatist, the Father of Medical Missionsand (Lutheran Literary Board) in 1932, pp. 173-76; H. C. Anderson, Founder of the Ophthalmic Hospital in Canton(Boston and Chicago: Con­ "Selected Bibliography on Medical Missions," in Occasional Bulletin gregational Sunday-School and Publishing Society, 1896); Th. Kue­ of the MissionaryResearch Library, New York, vol. 15, no. 4 (April 1964), Hing Young, "A Conflict of Professions: the Medical Missionary in pp.26-47. China, 1835-1890," The William Osler Medical Essay, Bulletin of the 35. Report of the International Missionary Council, Jerusalem, March 24 History of Medicine, no. 47 (1973), pp. 250-72.

JULY 1990 125 to April 8, 1928, Vol. 8, Addresses and Other Records, London 1928, "Provida Mater" (1947), the Motuproprio "Primo Feliciter" (1948), and pp. 197-200; quotation p. 197. the Instruction "Cum Sanctissimus" (1948); cf. }. Beyer,S.}. DeInstitutis 36. Rev. Chr. Becker, S.O.S., founded the "Missionsarztliches Insti­ Secularibus Documenta (Rome: Pontificiae Universitatis Gregorianae, tut," the first of its kind within the Catholic Church at Wiirzburg in 1962). 1922, and the "Catholic Medical Mission Board" was established 37. Cf. "The Healing Church," World Council Studies, no. 3. (1965); S. in Washington, D.C., that same year; again, it was Washington, D.C., G. Browne, "The Healing Church: An Ambiguous and Misleading where in 1925 the "Society of .Catholic Medical Missionaries" was Concept," In the Service of Medicine, no. 61 (April 1970). founded by Sr. Anna Dengel; the "Medical Missionaries of Mary" 38. M. Scheel, "Missionary Work and Healing," International Reoieui was founded in Drogheda, Ireland, by the nurse Mary Martin in 1937; of Missions (Iuly 1964), p. 271. cf. M. A. Mathis, C.S.C., "Medical Mission Vocation," in The 39. Cf. A. Marmorstein, "The Imitation of God (Imitatio Dei)" in The Ecclesiastical Reoieui (june 1934); P. Charles,S.}., Medical Missions: The Haggadah: Studies in JeuJish Theology, TheMarmorstein Memorial Volume, Necessity forMedical Missions, Their History, Development, and theMany ed. }. Rabbinovitz, Oxford: (Oxford University Press, 1950); H. }. Obstacles ToBeOvercome in Their Fulfillment (New York: America Press, Schoeps, "Von der Imitatio Dei zur Nachfolge Christi," in Aus 1949); A. Dengel, Mission for Samaritans: A Survey of Achievements and {ruhchristlicher Zeit, Religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen (Tiibingen: Opportunities in the Field of Catholic Medical Missions (Milwaukee: Bruce Mohr, 1950), pp. 286-301; A. Schulz, Nachfolgen und Nachahmen, Stu­ Publishing Co., 1945). The provisions for fostering medical mission(s) dien iiber das Verhiiltnis der neutestamentlichen Jungerschaft zur urchris­ on part of the church law, the CIC, were the Apostolic Constitution tlichen Vorbildethik (Munich: Kosel, 1962).

Book Reviews

Fields White unto Harvest: Charles F. Parham and the Missionary Origins of Pentecostalism. By James R. Goff, Jr. Fayetteville, Ark.: Univ. of Arkansas Press, 1988. Pp. ix, 263. $22.00; paperback $12.00.

In recent years, scholarly studies of he returned to Kansas, rented a large apostolic faith) essentially as a mis­ Pentecostalism have appeared at an as­ home in Topeka, and advertised the sionary movement, it is amply evident tonishing rate. The movement's size opening of Bethel Bible College. There, that Parham did consider that tongues and diversity can no longer be ignored, in January 1901, he announced the full speech should facilitate evangelism. It and its worldwide impact is generally restoration of the apostolic faith in the seems equally clear, however, that he acknowledged. Yet much of the move­ end-times. The event that heralded the believed that Spirit baptism had es­ ment's story remains to be explored. restoration was the occurrence of chatological significance as the

Goff's book addresses an obvious gap tongues speech among those of his fol­ 1/sealing of the Bride" that enabled by examining one of American Pen­ lowers who prayed for the baptism with participation in the much-anticipated tecostalism's pivotal characters, Charles the Holy Spirit. Parham proclaimed this secret rapture of the church. Parham Fox Parham. A controversial figure in as "Bible evidence" of the experi­ eventually brought his message to his day, Parham was ignored by many ence and concluded that his ministry Houston; from there, three of his black Pentecostals who preferred to believe embraced all the features of New Tes­ followers traveled to Los Angeles, and that God, not a man, had established tament Christianity. He set out to pro­ their efforts shortly made a rundown their movement. claim the apostolic faith and spent the mission on the city's Azusa Street the A native of Iowa, Parham spent rest of his life itinerating from his home hub of an emerging global revival. his formative years on the frontier in near Columbus, Kansas. Goff's book fills a large void in the south-central Kansas, where his res­ Goff painstakingly reconstructs story of Pentecostalism. Parham played . torationist message evolved out of pri­ Parham's life with constant attention a vital role as a founder---or progenitor, vate meditation on Scripture and to the cultural and social impulses that as he preferred to say---of a millenarian lengthy discussions with the common surrounded him. Whereas Pentecos­ restorationist movement that has cir­ folk. After interacting with several other tals like Parham often considered that cled the globe and become a major turn-of-the-century restorationists their message was uniquely inspired, stream in the story of twentieth-cen­ during a visit to the northeast in 1900, Goff reminds the reader that Parham tury Christianity. Goff's story of how was shaped by his milieu and cannot Parham related to other prophets in be understood apart from it. He ex­ the populist religious subculture of his amines the allegations of sexual mis­ day is also a revealing account of the Edith L. Blumhofer isAssociate Professor ofHis­ conduct that haunted Parham most of dynamic of an often-overlooked seg­ toryat Wheaton College and Project Director at his life, for the first time documenting ment of American religion. the Institute for the Study of American Evan­ their sources. -Edith L. Blumhofer gelicals. Her doctoral dissertation at Harvard While some might debate Goff's \ University and much of her work since has fo­ contention that Parham understood cused on American Pentecostalism. Pentecostalism (which he called the

126 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH