CHAPTED I CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER LAYOUT
§ 1 FIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF BUDDHISM 21 § 2 ASOK- THE GREAT UPSSAKA 25 § 3 THE TEACHING OF LORD BUDDHA 36 § 4 THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS 42 4.1 THE FIRST NOBLE TRUTH: DUKKHA 42 4.2 THE SECOND NOBLE TRUTH, THE ARISING OF DUKKHA-SAMUDAYA 46 4.3 THE THIRD NOBLE TRUTH. THE CESSATION OF DUKKHA: DUKKHA-NIRODHA 49 4.4 THE FOURTH NOBLE TRUTH: THE PATH: MAGGA 52 § 5 THE DOCTRINE OF NO-SOUL; ANATTA 54 §6 THE THIRD VERSE SAYS; 57
§ 7 MENTAL CULTURE-BHAVANS 59 § 8 THE BUDDHA'S TEACHING FOR THE WORLD TODAY 62 § 9 THE RELIGIOUS PERSONALHT 71 § 10 SHORT - TERM MONKS 72 § 11 NOVICES 73 § 12 LONG TERM MONKS 75 § 13 THE EIGHT REQUISITES; POSSESSIONS OF A MONK 75 § 14 THE MONK AND THE LAITY 76 § 15 LAY BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS MONKS 78 § 16 THE RELIGLOUS OBJECTS 79 § 17 AN OVERVIEW OF THE BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES 81 § 18 THE BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES 84 § 19 WILAT ARE THE PURPOSES OF THE PREACHING OF THE BUDDHA? 93 §20 ORDINATION 94 20.1 MSGHA PDJA DAY 100 20.2 VISAKHA PUJA DAY 101 20.3 ASANHA PCTJA AND BUDDHIST LENT 102 20.4 TAK BAT DEVO AND CHAK PHRA FESTIVAL 104 20.5 KATHIN CEREMONY 105 §21 BUDDHISM AS PHILOSOPHY 107 §22 BUDDHIST ECONOMICS 114
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CHAPTER I
§ 1 FIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF BUDDHISM
The Buddha's personal name was Siddhattha (Siddhartha in Sanskrit), and family name was Gotama (Skt. Cautama). Eighty years before the commencement of the Buddhist Era a great man was bom into the world. He was the son of king Suddhodana and queen Siri Maha Maya of Kapilavastu of the Sakkha Country which is now within the boundaries of Nepal. His name was SiddhSlha. Thirty-five years later Prince Siddhartha attained Supreme Enlightenment and thereafter became known as the "Enlightened One" or the "Lord Buddha". He proclaimed the "Dhamma" or Dharma as in Sanskrit or Universal Truth to the people.
After his Enlightenment, Gotama the Buddha delivered his first sermon to a group of five ascetics, his old colleagues in the Deer Park at Isipatana (modem Sarnath) near Benares. "From that day, for 45 years, he taught all classes of men and women - kings and peasants. Brahmins and outcasts, bankers and beggars, holymen and robbers - without making the slightest distinction between them. He recognized no differences of caste or social groupings, and the Way he preached was open to all men and women who were ready to understand and to follow it."'
Venerable Dr. W. Kahula; yVhat the Buddha taught; Printed in Thailand, by Kumsapha Press, 1990. P.XV. 22
The exact dates of his birth and Parinirvana 'Physical death' are still the subject of controversy. In all probability, those given by the Ceylon Chronicles, the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa (excluding its continuation the Culvamsa, the dates of which are sixty years out), equivalent to 563-483 B.C. are not too far wrong. C > "His personality, as it emerges from the ancient was a unique combination of dignity and affability, wisdom and kindliness. Together with a majesty that awed and daunted kings he appears to have possessed a tenderness that could stop to comfort the bereaved and console the afflicted. His serenity was unshakable, his self-contldence unfailing, ever mindful and self-possessed he faced opposition and hostility, ev^n personal danger, with the calm and compassionate smile that has lingen d down the face. In debate he was urbane and courteous, though not withoui a vein of irony, and almost invariably 2 succeeded in winning over his opponent."
It is well known that the Buddha himself wrote nothing, spiritual influence and personal example apart. His teaching was communicated entirely by oral means through discourses to, and discussions with his disciples and members of the public, as well as through inspired spontaneous utterance. As far as the language part was concerned he rejected the more "Classical" Sanskrit in favour of the vernacular, especially the dialects of Kosala and Maghadha. The Buddha never allowed his discourses to be put into Vedic verse. He commissioned his disciples (monks) that his message should be taught in his own dialect. The Buddha lived 80 years of life he was enlightened at the age of
Bhikshu Sangharakshita; "A Cultural History of India"; Clarendon Press Oxford, 1975 p. 83. 23 thirty-five. During his Hfe time, his teaching spread throughout the kingdoms of Magadha and Kosaia, as well as in the Circumjacent principalitites and republics. His disciples were recruited from all classes of society, and included both men and women. Besides instructing an extensive circle of lay adherents, he trained a smaller, more select band of monks and nuns who constituted the Sangha proper and upon whom after parinirvana the responsibilities for carrying on his mission mainly developed.
The Buddha had a very definite aim or mission for the world. He realized the unrest of the people, having achieved enlightenment his vision became quite clear about the purpose he got enlightened, the following verses clearly suffice his mission for the world, for the human beings:
"Go ye forth O Bhikkhus, on your journey, for the welfare of the many, for the happiness of the many, out of compassion for the world, for the good, the benefit, the bless of gods and men".
The above mission was commissioned to first group of sixty disciples to propagate the Doctrine in the second year of his preaching, this shows how and why Buddhism has survived for so long and succeeded in converting a large part of mankind to its cause.
"No doubt as long as the Buddha lived on this earth, Buddhism spread rapidly through the great personality of the Buddha himself and through the spirit of renunciation self-discipline and sacrifice of the disciples who formed the Sangha and followed the Buddha's example. After his death, the disciples still living upto these ideals, continued to spread Buddhism far and wide."
Phra Kajavaramuni; ''Thai Buddhism in The Buddhist World"; Mahachulalongkom Buddhist University, Bangkok, Thailand. 1987. p.28. 24
In the first century of the Buddhist Era, two Buddhist Councils were held to protect and preserve the purity of the Buddha's teachings. The first Council was held by 500 Arhants at Rajgaha under the royal patronage of king Aja- tasatru of Magadha three months after the death of the Buddha. The purpose of the Council was to fix the Doctrine and the Discipline as taught and laid down by the Buddha.
In B.C. 273 or B.E. 218 there came to the throne of India one of the greatest men in history, king Ashoka, the first Buddhist emperor who ruled the Mauryan Empire for 41 years. "In his efforts to establish a kingdom of righteousness after the highest ideals of a theocracy, he has been likened to David and Solomon of Israel in the days of its greatest glory: in his patronage of Buddhism. Would religion, he has been compared to constantine in relation to Christianity."^
In the early years of his reign Ashoka was a fierce king. The Southern legends are far wide of the truth in making Ashoka a fi-atricide, the murderer of 99 brothers for the sake of the throne, for which he is dubbed Chandashoka. The Ashoka-avadana represents him as killing his officers and wives and setting up a hell where some innocent people are subjected to the most refined tortures.
Yuan Chwang records the tradition of "Ashoka and his queen, in Succession, making determined efforts to destroy the Bodhi Tree".
4 Radhamuknd Mookerji; ''Ashoka"; Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 1995. New Delhi. Ashok's hell - is given in greater details by Fa-hien (pp. 56-58 in translation of Giles), p.l 25
§ 2 AsHOKA - THE GREAT UPASAKA
The most important Buddhist layman in history has been the Emperor Ashoka. who ruled most of India for the middle of the third century B.C. India accepted by recognizing him a great moral and spiritual ruler India ever had, therefore the Wheel of the Dharma which Ashoka erected on the capital of one of the pillars, India chose to adorn the flag of her people, thus India and her people recall their "religious ruler". Before Ashoka Buddhism had spread through the northern half of India, but it was his patronage which made it a world religion.
Ashoka had as though only one goal in his mind, he had clearly mentioned in these words, "For I am never satisfied with my efforts and with setting business because I think I must work for the \/elfare of the whole world". This view of his is a solid proof that after embracing Buddhism, his entire personality was changed to humanitarian. His conviction was so strong that he fully believed. People's progress in Dhamma is achieved in two ways, by Dhamma rules and by conviction. Rules count for little, most is by conviction.
Rock Edict 24 mentions Ashoka's missions. In it he says that he has won a Dhamma victory by sending messengers to five kings and several other kingdoms, this mission left a great influence on world history. He also established a model for Buddhist rulers who followed his in later years. It is believed that he built 84,000 monasteries and as many stupas.
Ashoka was an ardent Buddhist, his inscriptions certainly proves that he took keen interest in the unanimity and purity of the Sangha. The great Sinhalese
^ Rock Edict, I 26
Buddhist reformer Anagarika Dharmapala whose assumed name Dharmapala means "Defender of the Faith" called Ashoka "The greatest democratic empire". While the Sinhalese Poet D.C. Vjayavardhana who regarded the Buddha as somehow anticipating Karl Mark, described Ashoka as "the Lenin of Buddhism"/
The Mission: According to the Mahavamsa, the Third Buddhist Council met in the time of Ashoka at his capital Pataliputra and was presided over by the monk Moggalliputta Tissa (Upagupta in the northern texts). This Council deputed missionaries to different countries which are named below.
Missionary Country
1. Majjhantika Kashmir and Gandhara 2. Maharakshita Yavana or Greek 3. Majjhima Himalayan country 4. Dharmarakshita Aparantaka 5. Mahadharmarakshita Maharashtra 6. Mahadeva Mahishamandala (Mysore) 7. Rakshita Vanvasi (North Kanara) 8. Sona and uttara Suvamabhumi (Far East or Burma) 9. Mahendra Srilanka Some of the names of these Missionaries are corroborated by epigraphic evidence. In his inscriptions, Ashoka tells of the foreign missions which he sent
Behert. Vol. I (Frankiurt & Berlin, 1966) p. 128 Ibid. 27 abroad not only for the work of preaching the Dhamma but also for humanitarian work. These missions he sent to the peoples on his frontiers, as stated in R.E. II and V. Some of these were at work in distant foreign states under Hellenistic kings beginning with Antiochus (II). Those of Syria, who was Ashoka's immediate neighbour. They also visited other Greek kings who ruled in egypt, Macedonia, Cyrene and Epirus (or Corinth). They all carried Ashoka's message of non-violence coupled with measures for the relief of suffering of all living creatures - men and cattle.
Though history does not give any information about the result of these missions but Buddhism was well known in Alexandria. Ashoka tells that the Dhamma was practised not only in these countries but also through them in other foreign lands not visited by his missionaries.
Ashoka was so moved by Dhamma that he became a puritan in other ways. His was a total pursuit of non-violence in every sphere. He abolished all public pastimes and popular sports of the country which were stainted with blood and which included the slaughter of animals or the cruel fight of animals. He also curtailed the slaughter and sacrifices of animals in the name of religion. He replaced royal pleasure trips (Viharayatra) by Dhamma yatra like Bodh-gaya Lumbini. His Dhamma of non-violence led Ashoka to enforce by law the sanctity and security of all living creatures. "A piece of Comprehensive legislation was enacted by him, in the 26 year of his reign to restrict the slaughter and injury of specified creatures".
** Rock Edict, XIII. 9 Radhakumar Mookerji; "The Age of Imperial Unity"; Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Lid. New Delhi, 1995, Vol. II, p. 85. 28
In the eighth year of his reign, he invaded and conquered Kahnga, a country of brave people in the South. The horrors of this conquest made him so remorseftil over the suffering of the people that he gave up war completely. And it was at this time that king Ashoka became converted to Buddhism. "From this moment he adopted the policy of Dharmavijaya (conquest by righteousness or conquest of men's hearts by the Law of Duty or Piety) in place of Sanghamavijaya (Conquest by war), and spent the rest of his life promoting the Dhamma or the Law of piety throughout his empire. He was changed from Chandashoka, or Ashoka the Fierce to Dharmashoka, or Ashoka the Righteous whose example all later kings tried to follow."
Religion: His personal religion may be taken to be Buddhism, although there is a view that it was Jainism. That he was a Buddhist is apparent from several of his Edicts and other proofs. In the Minor R.E.I, he tells us of the stages in his progress towards Buddhism, and according to the reading of M.R.E.I. Maski and Rupnath, by Hultzsch, he also openly declares himself in that Edict to be a "Sakya", and a "Buddhist Sakya" i.e. a Buddhist in the Bhabru Edict he speaks with an air of authority over the Church, pointing out several passages from the scripture to be recited and meditated by the monks and nuns, and also by the laity; male and female and declaring his faith in the Buddhist Trinity (known as the Triple Gem, i.e. The Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha).
In the Minor Pillar Edicts at Samath, Kausambi and Sahchi, he stands out as the Defender of his Faith and proclaims the penalties for Schism, while, according to tradition he himself held a Council which defined the canon under
Phra Rajavaramuni; "Thai Buddhism in the Buddhist World"; Mahachulalongkom Buddhist University, Bangkok, Thailand 1987. pp. 28-29. 29 the presidency of Moggalliputta Tissa, who produced the Kathavatthu treatise for the purpose.
The Third Buddhist Council was weld under his patrona;ge at Pataliputra, his capital, with the object of purging the Sangha of heretics and preserving the pure teachings. It is said that 1000 Arhants participated in this Council and the Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa was the President.
"After the Council, nine missions of elders were sent out to preach the Dharma in various states and foreign countries. Of these, the first mission headed by the elder Mahindra, son of king Ashoka himself, carried the message of Buddhism to Ceylon. The Second mission headed by the elders Sona and Uttara was sent to Suvamabhumi which some scholars identified with Nakom Fathom Province in Central Thailand."
It is also proved according to the Edicts, that Emperor Ashoka also sent his Dhamma Messengers and Ambassadors to preach the message of Piety in the kingdoms of the West in Asia. Europe and Africa such as Egypt, Cyrene and Greece. There are also other facts which prove his respect and acceptance of Buddhism, his pilgrimage to the holy places of Buddhism, his various measures for protecting animal life, his abolition of meat diety for the royal household, and objection of all animals; his abolition of bloody sacrifices (R.E.I), his observance of the Uposatha. Buddhist holidays and his appointment of the Dharma- mahamatras to look after 'the interest of the Sangha' (Sanghathasi) as distinctly specified, and not for their supervision as is implied by the expression used for the other sects (P.EVII).
"' Ibid. p. 29. 30
"Lastly, we may note Ashoka's attachment to a definite Buddhist symbol in the Edicts, the symbol of the White Elephant indicated by an inscription at Gimar at the end of R.E. XIII and represented by a figure cut on the rock at Dhauli and incised at Kalsi with the label gajatame "The most perfect elephanf. The elephant recalls the Buddha descending in that form into the womb of his mother."
It is quite obvious to note here that Ashoka dedicated his Edicts, to the Buddha himself
"Along with this association of the inscriptions with the Elephant, we should also note the association of the Ashokan Pillars, with the four animals of the Elephant, the Bull, the Horse, ai d the Lion, figuring as their capitals, and chosen for the purpose as symbols ot different stages in the field of the Buddha. Thus the Elephant typifies the Corception, the Bull (as presiding over) the Nativity, the Horse the Great Depanure (Renunciation), and the Lion "the lion among the Sakyas" (Sakyasimh), the appellation by which the Buddha was known." '
Ashoka, however, did not inherit, but was an ardent convert to Buddhism. It is not easy to define the degree of his devotion to his new faith. It is partly proved by his own statement in the M.R.E.I that he had intimately associated
12 The descent of the Bodhisattva into the womb of his mother is referred to in texts like Digha Nikaya or the Jatakas "Bodhisatto Selavaravarano Hutva " [Fausboll I 501 and in the Bharhut inscription, Bhagvato Ukramti and is represented in sculpture at Bharhut [Plate XVIII 2 of Cunningham's Stupa of Bharhut], and Sanchi lEastem Gate, lop sculpture on the interior face of the right jamb], and later at Amravati and most Correctly in Gandhara (see Plate 111 of Poacher's Beginning of Buddhist Art]. n Radhamukund Mookerji; Ashoka"; Motilal Banarsidass Publisheres Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 1995, p. 62. 31 himself with the Sangha and also by his dedication of his son and daughter to the direct service of the Sangha. He also favoured the sect of worshipers of the previous Buddha's by doubly enlarging the stupa of Buddha Konagamana and paying a personal visit to the Shrine.
"In connection with his personal religion of Buddhism of which he as such a zealous follower, we may note that what appealed most to the essentially spiritual mind of Ashoka were not its external elements, its rituals and regulations, so much as its aids to inner development or self realization. As a Buddhist, Ashoka takes more interest in the regulations for the life spirimal than in those for the collective life of the Sangha though as emperor he was keenly interested in its prosperity and preventing and punishing disunion in the Sangha.""
The particular cast of his mind is indeed, envisaged in the different canonical texts selected by Ashoka for the religious instruction in Bhabru Edict. He shows a preference for the ideal of the Muni as set forth in two of the texts cited by him, viz., the Munigatha and Moneya-sute, the recluse who is free from all desire, has renounced the world and lives by himself in solitude and meditation leading up to nirvana. In the Aliya-Vasani is emphasized the need of simplicity and asceticism as regards food, dress, dwelling, and the need of meditation.
'The necessity for strenuous self-extortion in spiritual life is emphasized against the unforeseen hindrances to it from the Anagata-bhayani, such as disease, decay, famine, war, or schism. No less are the internal hindrances to it
''* Ibid. p. 67. 32 which are to be guarded against by constant self-examination, scrutiny of every act of the body, mind, and speech as laid down in the Laghulovada." Buddhism was its ideal of purity and asceticism, and the aids it prescribes for the life spiritual, rather than its external rituals and regulations or those special and sectarian elements which distinguished Buddhism from other systems.
This also leads us to infer that by the word Sangha as used in the Edicts, Ashoka meant the entire Buddhist Order, which in all probability remained undivided up to his time, so that Ashoka's Buddhism was not the particular Buddhism of any of its special sects or schools. This view, though borne out by the Edicts (e.g., the P.E.VII and Bhabru Edict where the Sangha does not denote any sect of Buddhism, but the whole order). But it is not in Consonance with tradition according to which, by the time of the third Buddhist council hold at Pataliputra in the 10 year of Ashoka's reign, there were already in the Sangha not only its two divisions called Theravada and Mahasanghika, but also two subdivisions of the former and four of the latter (see kevn's Manual of Indian Buddhism).
"But the tradition may be brought in to conformity with what we find in the Edicts, if we agree with some scholars (Dr. D.R. Bhandarkar who forcibly advances this view in his Ashoka (pp.93-96) that the Second Buddhist Council at Vaisali really came off at the time of Ashoka (called Kalashoka in tradition) when the Sangha was for the first time threatened with a Schism, due to the Ten points about Discipline raised by the Vrijian monks who were, however, defeated in the controversy, and the split in the sangha was averted.
'^ Ibid. p.67. '" Ibid. pp. 67-68. 33
This explains very apparently Ashoka's fear of schism, and his measures to prevent it, and his references in the Edicts to the Sangha as an undivided unity which must be preserved at all costs. Here, in this contexts and are outstanding fact must be made clear viz, "We hear from him nothing concerning the deeper ideas or flmdamental tenets of that faith; there is no mention of the Four Grand Truths, the Eightfold Path, the Chain of Causation, the supernatural quality of Buddha, the word and the idea of Nirvana fail to occur; and the innumerable points of difference which occupied the several sects are likewise ignored". (Cambridge History p. 505) Vincent Smith also points out, "the zeal of Ashoka for Buddhism is proved not by his presentation of Dharma, but by his references to the canon, by the cast of his language, by his pilgrimages to Buddhist holy places, and by his active control of church.
The Dharma of the Edicts comprises two fold aspects viz, Moral Law [R.E. XII] (i) doctrinal. In its practical aspect, it prescribes a comprehensive code of conduct embracing the various relations of life.
(1) Susrusa, obedience, to
(a) Father and mother [R.E. Ill, IV, XI, XIII, and P. E. VII] (b) Elders [ R.E. IV (anupatipati) P.E. VII] (c) Teahcher (gurus) [R.E. XIII, P.E. VII] (d) Men of high caste of pay [agrabhuti or bhuta - R.E. XIII]
(2) Apachiti respect,
(a) Of pupils (antevsi) towards their gurus [M.R. II] (b) Towards gurus [R.E. IX] 34
(3) Sampratipatti, proper treatments , towards:
(a) Ascetics [R.E. IV P.E. VII] (b) Relations [M.R.E. II R.E. IV and XIII] (c) Servants and dependents (dasa-bhataka) [R.E. IX XIXII. E. VII] (d) The poor and miserable (kapanavalaka) [P.E. XIII] (e) Friends, acquaintances, and companios [R.E. XII]
(4) Danam, liberality towards:
(a) Asectics brahmana and samana [R.E. Ill, VIII, IX and XI] (b) Friends, comrades and relatives (mita-samstuta-na-tika) [R.E. Ill and XI] (c) The aged (thairanam hiramnapatividhano "gift of gold to be aged" in R.E. VIII)
(5) Prananam anarambha, absent e from slaughter of living beings |R.E. Ill, IV, XI and P.E. Vlll.
Prananam Samyamo, restraint of violence towards living beings (R.E. IV. P.E. VII]; Sarva bhutana akasti Samyamam [R.E. XIII]; Pranesu drahyitavyam. [M.R.E. I].
By the inclusion of these duties, the king no doubt aimed at the purity of domestic life so essential to the well-being of society, of which the family is the basis and unit. The circle of domestic relations embraced even the Brahmana and Sramanas. thereby recognize the duty of householders to support the ascetics who left their household in the interest of their spiritual life.
Besides these moral aspects of Dharma. These were also mentioned in Ashoka's Edics: 35
(1) Daya-Kindness - P.E. II and VII. (2) Danam - Liberality - R.E. VII. (3) Satyam -Truthfubess - M.R.E. II, P.E. II and VI. (4) Saucham - Inner and outer purity - P.E. II and VII. (5) Mardravam - Gentleness - E. XIII and P.E. VII. (6) Sadhuta - Saintliness - P.E. VII. (7) Apa-Vyayata and apa-bhandata - Moderation in spending and saving R.E. III. (8) Samyama - Self-control of heart (I. b). (9) Bhav Sudhi - Purity of heart (lb). (10) Kritajnata - Gratitude (lb). (11) Dridha bhaktita - Firm devotion - [lb and R.E. XIII]. (12) Dharma-rati - Attachment to morality [R.E. XIII]. In R.E. XIII the Dharma is comprehensively described - right attitude towards all manifesting itself in:
(1) Akati - Non-injury. (2) Samyama - Restraint. (3) Samacharam - Equal treatment and (4) Mirdavam - Mildness in respect of all creatures, human beings as well as best and birds (sarva-bhutanam). In P.E.I. The following requisites are mentioned for attaining happiness in this world and the next:
(1) Dharma-kamata - Love of Dharma. (2) Parikasa-self examination (3) Susrusa - Obedience. 36
(4) Bhaya - Fear (of sin) and (5) Utsaha - Enthusiasm (for Dharma). The practical side of Dharma is also emphasised by defining it positively as consisting in an abundance of good deeds. These must be fully abandoned - chandyam rage or fury, nisthuryam - cruelty, krodh - anger, manam - pride; and irsa, envy, hi R.E. X the Dharma is also negatively defined as opari-sravam i.e. freedom from parisrava or apunya, evil. To man his highest gift has been Dharma-danam [R.E. XI], the gift of dharma, or chaksu-danam [P.E. II] the gift of spiritual in sight (ib) to lower creation it was prana-dakasina (lb) . Ashoka also insists on dharmanusasanam, preaching of morality or dharmanusasati (R.E. rV XIII and P.E. VII). He asserts the promotion of the good of all (sarvaloka- hita) as the most important duty of the king, which could only be duly discharged by "exertion and dispatch of business" (uttanam and artha-samtiranam).
§ 3 THE TEACHING OF LORD BUDDHA
It is important to know what is Buddhism after all. As William Macquitty puts it "With the advance of science and psychology many of the older faiths have suffered, their beliefs went against the new knowledge and the new knowledge won".
But this never happened with Buddhism. It is worth mentioning here the view portrait by a great scholar Dr. Sunthom Plamintr, Buddhism is a result of the human quest for the ultimate truth and aspiration for that which is the highest and noblest in life. It is based on the Buddha's wisdom, on his enlightenment, attained through the complete eradication of ignorance, fear and all other 37 defilements from his mind. His teaciiings called the Dhamma have stood the Rest of time for more than twenty-five centuries.
Francis Story, a British scholar was, so moved by Buddha's teachings and out of Buddha-Dhamma stand today, as unaffected by the march of time and the expansion of knowledge as when there were enunciated. No knowledge can extend man's mental horizon within the frame word of the Dhamma there is room for the acceptance and assimilation of further discovery".
Buddhism is total independence of divine elements. It suggest its seekers to be self reliant, have faith in own ability.
"Buddhist philosophy is anthropocentric in its outlook and practical implementation, placing man at the centre of its metaphysical and ethical systems. It is a religion that insists primarily on nan's own effort and perserverance to achieve his goals be they material or spiritual rather than prayer
18 or wishful thinking." Dr. H. Gunaratana has viewed Buddhism through these words: " Buddhism is as whole is quite different from the theological religions with which Westerners are most familiar. It is a direct entrance to a spiritual or divine realm without addressing deities or other 'agents'. Its flavor is intensely clinical much more akin to what we would call psychology than to what we would call religion. It is an ever-ongoing investigation of reality, a microscopic examination of the very process of perception. Its intention is to pick apart the screen of lies
17 Sunthorn Plamintr, Ph.D.; "Getting to know Buddhism"; Printed in Thailand, published by Buddhadhamma Foundation, Bangkok 1994. p. 3. "ibid. 38 and delusion through which we normally view the world, and thus to reveal the face of ultimate reality".
There is no doubt Buddhism is scientific in nature, because its teachings are logical and its methods are compatible with scientific approach. The Dhamma is an ancient spiritual legacy that can benefit mankind as much to day as it was more than twenty-five hundred years before.
Blind faith is anathema to Buddhism, which clearly urges to think freely and not to accept things blindly. It believes in human potential. It also emphasizes on human equality, personal and social responsibilities, based on the principle of Kamma (Karma action and result). Buddhism postulates on kindness, compassion, and tolerance. Fhis clearly expounds why religious war is alien in the long history of Buddhisrr From this point of view Buddhism stands out to bring people to harmonious li' ing, where as history of some religions is fiill of blood-sheds and hatred and violence. It could be plainly described a religion of great tolerance and philanthropy. Aldous Huxley has rightly contributed his conviction "Buddhism made its way without persecution, censorship or inquisition".
The Buddhist Attitudes: It is of great importance to note that among the founders of religious the Buddha preferred to be known as a teacher of the noble truth a simple and pure human being. He claimed no inspiration from any god or external power either "He attributed all his realization, attainments and achievements to human endeavour and human intelligence." Every man can
Venerable Dr. W. Rahula ; "fVhat the Buddha taught"; Printed in Thailand, by Kurusapha Press, 1990. p.I. 39 attain the enlightenment thus become Buddha because he or she possesses potentiality, there is a need of will and endeavour.
According to Buddhism, right attitude is closely connected with understanding and knowledge. It means, it concerns with a man he is the master of his own, and therefore he only fmalizes his destiny rather than any supreme power. Buddha made this icnown to human beings refuge. He taught, encouraged and stimulated each person to develop himself and to work out his own emancipation, for man has the power to liberate himself from all bondage through his own personal efforts and intelligence. The Buddha says "You should do (work out), for the Tathagatas only teach the way. This is what the Buddha did, he showed the way, the path which he himself discovered - the Path of Nirvana now it is upto man to tread the Path himself to attain Nirvana.
And with right attitude it's so clear that Buddhism not simply a system of beliefs, but a teaching that offers an effective system for exploring reality and the deeper levels of mind, one that leads to the very foundation of consciousness Itself.
It is on this principle of individual responsibility that the Buddha allows freedom to his disciples. This freedomo f thought was unique in the sense, it was never heard in the canons of religions. In the Mahaparinibbana sutta, the Buddha says that he never thought of controlling the Sangha (Order of Monks). He said that there was no esoteric docfrine in his teaching, nothing hidden in the closed- fist of the teacher (acariya mutthi). The Buddha emphasized this freedom emancipation depends on his own realization of Truth, and not on the benevolent 40 grace of a god or any external power as a reward for his obedient good behaviour.
The Buddha gave a full freedom to realize for themselves to follow the right, wholesome (kusala) even he told the Bikkhus that a disciple should examine even the Tathagata (Buddha) himself, so that he (disciple) might be fully convinced of the true value of the teacher whom he followed.
According to the Buddha's teaching doubt (vicikiccha) is one of the five Hinderances (nirvana) to the clear understanding of truth and to spiritual progress. It is an undeniable fact that as long as there is doubt, perplexity, wavering, no progress is possible, in order to get rid of doubt one has to see clearly, i.e. perception. The Buddha was always eager to dispel doubt. Even just a few minutes before his death, he requested his disciples several times to ask him if they had any doubts about his teaching. | I, , ,
The second aspect of his teaching is the tolerance. Once a prominent wealthy man was sent by Jaina Mahavira to Buddha to defeat him on the discussion of Karma. The rich man namely Upah was convinced that in the end his master's views on the subject were wrong and Buddha's were correct. He desired to be his disciple. Yet Buddha requested him to continue to respect and support his old religious teachers as before.
This spirit of tolerance and understanding has been from the beginning one of the most Cherished ideals of Buddhist culture and Civilization. That's the reason why there hasn't been any case bloodshed in converting people to Buddhism, or in its propagation during the long history of 2,500 years. It spread peacefully all over the continents of Asia, having more than 500 million 41 adherents today. Violence in any form, under any pretext whatsoever, is absolutely against the teaching of the Buddha.
There has been a debate on the two aspects; whether Buddhism is a religion or a philosophy ? It does not matter what one calls it. Buddhism remains what it is whatever label you may put on it. Truth need no label, it is neither Buddhist, Christian, Hindu nor Muslim. It is not the monopoly of any one. Sectarian labels are a hindrance to the independent understanding of Truth, and they produce harmfiil prejudices in men's minds. To the seeker after Truth it is immaterial from where an idea comes.
"Almost all religions are built on faith- rather blind faith it would seem. But in Buddhism emphasis is laid on 'seeing' knowing, understanding, rather than on mere faith or belief.'
In Buddhist texts there is a word Saddha (Skt, Sraddha) which is usually translated as 'faith' or 'belief. But Saddha is not 'faith' as such, but rather 'confidence' bom out of conviction. According to Asanga, the great Buddhist Philosopher of the 4 century A.C. Sraddha"has three aspects (I) full and firm conviction that a thing is, (ii) serene joy at good qualities and (iii) aspiration or wish to achieve an object in view. The question of belief arises when there is no seeing - seeing in every sense of the word. The moment one sees, the question of belief disappears.
It is always a question of knowing and seeing, and not that of believing. The teaching of the Buddha is qualified as ehi-passika, inviting you to "Come and see", but not to come and believe. According to the Buddhist texts the Truth
20 Ibid. p. 8. 42 has these aspects "Dhamma Cakkhu has arisen - he has seen Truth, has attained Truth, has known truth, has penetrated into Truth, has crossed over doubt, is without wavering. Thus with right wisdom he sees it as it is (yatha bhutam). With reference to his own EnUghtenment the Buddha said " The eye was bom, knowledge was bom", wisdom was bom, science was bom, light was bom. It is always seeing, through knowledge or wisdom (nana-dassana), and not believing through faith.
The Buddha as not interested in discussing unnecessary metaphysical questions which are purely speculati^'C and which create imaginary problems. He considered them as 'wildemess of opinions'.
§ 4 THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS
4.1 THE FIRST NOBLE TRUTH: DUI:KHA The heart of the Buddha's teaching lies in the Four Noble Tmths (Cattari Ariyasaccani) which he expounded in his very first sermon to his old colleagues, the five ascetics, at Isipatana (modem Samath). The common people have ver>' erroneous idea about Buddhism. It is interpreted that life according to Buddhism is nothing but suffering and pain. This view is absolutely unsatisfactory and misleading. Many people label Buddhism as pessimistic whereas it takes a realistic view of life and of the world. It looks at things objectively (yathabutam). It is tme that Pali word 'dukkha' in ordinary usage means "suffering" "pain" sorrow" or "misery". But the term 'dukkha' which represents philosophical meaning and connotes enormously wider senses, also includes deeper ideas such as "imperfection' Mmpermanence' 'emptiness' 'insubstantiality'. 43
It is difficult, therefore, to find one word to embrace the whole conception of the term "Dukkha" as the First Noble Truth"'' The Buddha does not deny happiness in life when he says there is suffering. He was realistic and objective. He says, with regard to life and the enjoyment of sense-pleasures that one should clearly understand three things (1) attraction (assada) (2) evil consequences (admava) (3) liberation (nissarana). The conception of Dukkha may be viewed from three aspects: (1) Dukkha as ordinary suffering (Dukkha - Dukkha) (2) Dukkha as produced by change (viparinama - Dukkha) and (3) Dukkha as conditioned states (Samkhara - Dukkha). First two kinds of Dukkha are easily understandable because they are felt by individual personally such as death, old age sickness, loss of loved ones etc. But the third form of Dukkha as conditioned states (Samkhara dukkha) is the most important philosophical aspect of the First Noble Truth, and it's understanding requires some analytical explanation. According to Buddhism an "Individual" is only a combination of ever-changing physical and mental forces or energies, which may be divided into five groups or aggregates (Pancakkhandha). The Buddha says these five aggregates of attachment are Dukkha.
The Five Aggregates: The first is the Aggregate of matter (Rupakkhandha). In this four great elements (Cattari mahabhutani) namely: solidity, flexibility, heat and motion and also derivatives are included, i.e. our five material sense-organs, which are
Venerable Dr. W. Rahula; "IVhat the Buddha Taught", Printed in Thailand, by Kurusapha Press 1990. P. 17 44 visible forms - eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body and also some thoughts or ideas or conceptions which are in the sphere of mind-objects (Dharmayatana). Thus the whole realm of matter both internal and external, is included in the Aggregate of Matter. The second is the Aggregate of sensations - (Vedanakkhandha). All our physical and mental sensations are included in this group. "The term "Mind" (manas) in Buddhist philosophy is unique, it is not spirit as opposed to matter. Buddhism does not recognize a spirit as is accepted by most other systems of philosophies and religions. Mind is only a faculty (indriya), it can be controlled and developed like any other faculty, and the Buddha speaks quite often of the value of controlling and disciplining the six faculties. Mind can conceive ideas and thoughts as an eye can see the different colours. Ideas and thoughts which form a part of the world are thus produced and conditioned by physical experience and are conceived by the mind. The Third is the Aggregate of Perceptions (Sannakhandha) like sensations. Perceptions also are of six kinds, in relation to six intemal faculties and the corresponding six external objects. The fourth is the Aggregate of Mental formations (Samkharakkhandha). In this group are included all volitional activities both good and bad. Karma comes under this group. The Buddha's own definition of Karma must be understood here, "O Bhikkhus, it is volition (cetana) that I call karma. Having willed, one acts through body, speech and mind. Volition is mental construction, mental activity. Its function is to direct the mind in the sphere of good, bad or 45 neutral activities" Volition is of six kinds just as sensations and perceptions. They are connected with the six internal faculties and the corresponding six objects. Sensations and perceptions are not volitional actions. They do not produce karmic effects. It is only volitional actions that can produce Karmic effects such as - attention, will, determination, confidence, concentration, wisdom, energy, desire, repugnance, ignorance, conceit, idea of self. The fifth is the Aggregate of consciousness (Viiinanakkhandha). Consciousness is a reaction or response which has one of the six faculties (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind) as its basis, and one of the six corresponding external phenomena as its object. For example, visual consciousness has the eye as its basis and visible form as it object. Mental Consciousness (Mano-viiiiiana) has the mind as its basis and a mental object i.e. an idea or thought (Dhamma) as its object. Thus consciousness is connected with other faculties. Therefore, like sensation, perception and volition. Consciousness is also of six kinds in relation to six internal faculties and corresponding six external objects. The real meaning of the Noble Truth of Dukkha is most important to understand as the Buddha himself explained as he who sees Dukkha sees also the arising of Dukkha, sees also the cessation of Dukkha, and sees also the path
23 leading to the cessation of Dukkha." From this one should not derive conclusion that the life of a Buddhist is melancholy or sorrowful, but, in fact, a true Buddhist is the happiest person. He has no fear, no anxiety, he is always calm and serene. The Buddha was
" Anguttara-nikaya, ed. Devamitta Thera (Colombo, 1929) and PTS edition. (Abhisamuc, P.6) "^ S.V. (PTS) p. 437. 46 described by his contemporaries as "ever-smiling" (mihita pubbam gama). According to Buddhism one of the principal evils in life is repugnance (pratigha). It creates unhappy states and bad conduct. Thus it is wrong to be impatient at suffering. One should not nurture anger or impatience in the face of suffering, but knowing the reason of it and think how to get rid of it and work through with patience, intelligence, determination and energy. Buddhism is quite opposed to the melancholic, sorrowful, penitent and gloomy attitude of mind which is considered a hindrance to the realization of Truth. On the other hand, it is interesting to remember here that joy (piti) is one of the seven Bojjhangas or Tactors of Enlightenment', the essential qualities to be cultivated for the realization of Ni-vana.
4.2 THE SECOND NOBLE TRUTt:
THE ARISING OF DUKKHA: SA JUDAYA The second Noble Truth deals with the origin of Dukkha. There are good numbers of definitions found in the Original texts such as one given here: "It is this "thirst" (tanha) which produces re-existence and re-becoming (ponobhavika) and which is bound up with passionate greed (nandiragassahagta) and which finds fresh delight now here and now there (tatratatrabhinandini), namely (1) thirst for sense - pleasures (kama - tanha) (2) thirst for existence and becoming (bhava-tanha) and (3) thirst for non-existence (self-annihilation) (Vibhava-tanha)
Thirst, greed, desire give rise to all kinds of suffering. According to Buddhism one cause to give rise to suffering is not solely responsible because everything is relative and inter-dependent and depends on the circle which is
"'' Mhvg. (Alutgama, 1992), p. 9 S.V. (PTS) p. 421 and Passim). , a 47 y
.y known as Conditioned Genesis (Patticca-sampuppada). 'Thirst' is not only limited to sense-pleasure but also includes attachment to ideas, ideals, opinions, belief, conceptions and theories. The Buddha has explained that selfish thirst whether it is in small form or greater, such as personal quarrel or war between nations, is the root cause. All kinds of problem pertaining to society, economy or politics, depend on selfish "thirst". The Buddha believes world lacks and hankers, and is enslaved to "thirst" (tanhadaso). It is rather essential to know some important aspe cts of karma theory and rebirth. "The re are four Nutriments (ahara) in the sense of'cause' or 'condition' necessary for the existence and continuity of beings: (1) Ordinary material food (Kabalinkarahara) (2) Contact of our sense-organs (including mind) with the external world (phassahara), (3) Consciousness (Vifinanahara) and mental
25 volition or will (Monosaiicetanahara), Mental volition can be compared with Tibido' in modem psychology is the will to live to exist, to re-exist, to continue to become more and more it creates the root of existence and continuity, striking forward by way of good and bad actions (Kusalakusala kamma) volition is kamma as the Buddha himself has defmed. Kamma, mental volition, thirst all denote the same thing, they denote the desire, will to exist, to become more and more, to accumulate more and more this is the cause of Dukkha. Thus Dukkha has within itself the nature of its own arising, and has also within itself the nature of its own cessation. According to Buddhism Kamma means only 'Volition action', not all actions, nor does it mean the result of Karma as wrongly thought by many. In
•^MI, p. 48. 48
Buddhist terminology Karma never means its effect, its effect is known as the 'fruit' or the result' of Karma (Karma-vipaka) Good Karma (kusala) produces good effects and Bad Karma (Akusala) produces bad effects. Thirst, volition, Karma whether good or bad. has one force as its effect: force to continue. Whether good or bad it's relative and is within the cycle of continuity (Samsara). For an Arahant there is no rebirth, because he is free from thirst for continuity free, from all defilements and impurities (kilesa, sasvadhamma). The theory of Karma is the theory of cause and effect, of action and reaction, it is a natural law, which has nothing to do with the idea of justice or reward and punishment. Every volitional action produces its e.fects or results, it is not justice or reward, or punishment meted out by anybody or any power sitting in judgement on your action, but this is in virtue of its own i ature, its own law. Death - A being according to buddhism is nothing but a combination of physical and mental forces or energies. What we call death is the total non-frinctioning of the physical body. Buddhism believes that in such a state of body all these forces or energies do not stop. Will, volition, desire, thirst is a tremendous force that moves whole lives, even the whole world and this is the greatest force and energy in the world. According to Buddhism, this force does not stop with the non-functioning of the body, which is death, but it continues manifesting itself is another form producing re-existence which is called rebirth. As long as there is 'thirst' to be and to become, the cycle of continuity goes on. It can stop only when its driving force 'Thirst', is cut off through wisdom which sees 2 Reality, 'Truth, Nirvana. 49
4.3 THE THIRD NOBLE TRUTH:
THE CESSATION OF DUKKHA: DUKKHA-NIRODHA The Third Noble truth is that there is emancipation, liberation, freedom from suffering, from the continuity of Dukkha. This is called the Noble Truth of the Cessation of Dukkha. (Dukkhanirodha ariyasacca), which is Nibbana (Nirvana). To eliminate Dukkha completely one has to eliminate the main root of Dukkha, which is 'Thirst' (Tanha) and extinction of Thirst which is known as Tanhakkhaya.
What is Nirvana It is said human language is not capable to express the very meaning of this Absolute Truth or Ultimate reality. Psychologically, Nirvana is a state of absolute illumination, supreme bliss, intimate love and compassion, unshakable serenity and un-restricted spiritual freedom. Onthologically, it is, for the Hinyana, an eternal, unchanging, exfra-mental spiritual entity, wholly unconnected with the cosmic process and for the mahayana, the Absolute Reality franscending all opposition including that between itself and Samsara "As the supreme object of the spiritual Consciousness, or Dharmakaya, it is the embodiment of Great Wisdom and Great Compassion and embraces all possible virtues and perfections. It is the Infmite Light (Amitabha) and the Boundless Life (Amitayus), which has nothing to do with personal immortality".
"It is the complete cessation of that very "thirst" (tanha), giving it up,
27 renouncing it, emancipation from it, detachment from it". It is not correct to say that Nirvana is negative or positive. The ideas of "Negative' and 'positive' are relative and are within the realm of quality. These terms cannot be applied •'6 Bhikshu Sangharakshita ; A Cultural History of India; Clarendon Press Oxford 1975. p. 97 "^ Mhvg. (Alutgama 1922) p. 10, SN. V. p. 421 50 to Nirvana, Absolute Truth, which is beyond duality and relativity. Nirvana, Mutti or Vimutti, the Absolute Freedom, is freedom from all evil, freedom from craving, hatred and ignorance, freedom from all terms of duality, relativity, time and space. The Arhant stage is thus "Finished is birth, lived is pure life, what should be done, nothing more is left to be done". This is the knowledge which is absolute wisdom of the extinction of all Dukkha. A person so endowed with this Absolute Truth, which Noble Truth is of course, (Parmam ariya-Saccam) is Nibbana, which is reality. Some other places the Buddha also calls Truth in place
28 of Nibbana," I will teach you the Truth and the Path leading to the Truth." Generally, it is asked what is Absolute Truth? According to Buddhism, the Absolute Truth is that there is nothing absolute in the world, that everything is relative, conditioned and impermanent, and that there is no unchanging, everlasting, absolute substance like self, soul or Atman within or without. This is the Absolute Truth. The realization of this Truth, i.e. to see things as they are (yathabutam) without illusion or ignorance (Avijja) is the extinction of craving 'Thirst' (Tanhakkhaya), and the cessation (Nirodha) of Dukkha, which is Nirvana. The Mahayana View of Nirvana is not being different from Samsara. The same thing is Samsara or Nirvana according to the way one looks at it - subjectively or objectively. This Mahayana View was probably developed out of the ideas found in the original Theravada Pali texts. Nirvana is neither cause nor effect. It is beyond cause and effect. Truth is not a result nor an effect. Nirvana is the Ultimate Truth. It is Ultimate, there can
"^ SN.V. (PTS), P. 369. 51 be nothing after it. There is another popular question: If there is no Self, no Atman, who reahzes Nirvana? It is wisdom (Panna), realization, that realizes. There is no other self behind the realization. Now Dukkha, samsara, the cycle of continuity, is of the nature of arising, it must also be of the nature of cessation. Dukkha arises because of 'Thirst (tanha), and it ceases because of wisdom (Panfia), 'Thirst' and wisdom are both within the Five Aggregates, as earlier mentioned. The well knovm statement of the Buddha is worth mentioning here, "arising as well as cessation within the Five Aggregates". The Buddha said, "within this fathom-long sentient body itself, I postulate the world, the arising of the world, the cessation of the world, and the path leading to the cessation of the world".'" It means that all the Four Noble Truths are found within the Five aggregates i.e. within ourselves, here the world means Dukkha. This also means that there is no external power that produces the arising and the cessation of Dukkha. In almost all religions the summum bonum can be attained only after death. But Nirvana can be realized in this very life, it is not necessary to wait till a person dies to attain it. Nirvana is beyond all terms of duality and relativity. It is beyond logic and reasoning (attakkavacara) Nirvana is to be realized by the wise within themselves, (paccattam veditabbo Viimuhi).
''^ AN. (Columbol929)P. 218. 52
4.4 THE FOURTH NOBLE TRUTH;
THE PATH; MAGGA The fourth Noble Truth deals with the path of cessation of Dukkha (Dukkha nirodhagamini patipada- ariyasacca) since it avoids two extremes, these are (i) The search for happiness through the pleasures of the senses, this way the common people seek happiness. (ii) The search for happiness through self-mortification, which is painful and unworthy as well as unprofitable. Both of these paths the Buddha himself tried but found useless. Therefore with his own personal experience, the Buddha discovered the Middle path, which given Vision and knowledge and leads to calm, Insight, Enlightenment, Nirvana. The Middle Path is also known as the Noble Eightfold Path. (Ariya-Atthangika-magga): (1) Right Understanding (Samma ditthi) (2) Right Thought (Samma Sankappa) (3) Right Speech (SammaVaca) (4) Right Action (Samma Kammanta) (5) Right Livelihood (Samma Ajiva) (6) Right Effort (Samma Vayama) (7) Right Midnfolness (Samma Sati) (8) Right Concentration (Samma Samadhi) The total teaching of the Buddha somehow or the other deals with these Paths. These sight categories or divisions must be practised by an individual side by side because they actually contribute to each other in ones self development. 53
These eight factors are very important as far as the Buddha's Teachings are concerned because they promote Ethical conduct (Sila) Mental Disciplines (Samadhi) and Wisdom (Panna). Ethical conduct (Sila) is built on the vast conception of universal love and compassion for all living things on which the Buddha's teaching is based The Buddha gave his teaching for the good of the many, for the happiness of the many, out of compassion for the world"." (bahujana hitaya bahujana sukkhaya lokanu Kampaya). According to Buddhism an individual needs compassion (karuna) and wisdom (panna) for the total development or perfection. Compassion is comprehensive which includes - love, charity, kindness, tolerance, and other noble qualities of the heart. Wisdom represents qualities of the mind. These both qualities must be developed side by side to be a noble - intellectual being.
Ethical conduct includes Right Speech, Right Action and Right Livelihood. Right Speech elaborates a vast explanation: Abstentions from telling lies, backbiting, slander talk creating hatred, enmity, disunity, and disharmony, harsh, rude, impolite, malicious and abusive language. Right Action aims at promoting moral honourable and peaceful conduct. Right Livelihood means abstaining from harmfril profession to others, such as selling arms and weapons, intoxicating drinks; killing animals, and cheating. Buddhism is sfrongly opposed to any kind of war affairs. Mental Discipline includes. Right Effort, Right Mindfiilness, Right concentration. Right Effort means - preventing evil and unwholesome states of
30 Venerable Dr. W. Rahula; "fVhat the Buddha taught"; Printed in Thailand, by Kurusapha Press 1990. p. 46. 54 mind. Right Concentration leads to the four stages of Dhyana, for which these are to be discarded from mind-passionate desire, unwholesome thoughts, such as worry, lust, sceptical doubts etc. Right Thought denotes the thoughts of selfless renunciation, thought of love, non-violence towards all beings. Right Understanding is the highest wisdom which sees the Ultimate Reality. According to Buddhism there are two sorts of understanding: anubodha- it is not very deep. Real deep understanding is called penetration - pativedha, seeing a thing in its true nature. This is only possible when mind is free from all impurities and is fully developed through meditation.^ If this path be practised, and developed, it is the correct way of life. It is self-discipline in body, word, mind, self-development and self-purification. It has nothing to do with belief, prayer, worship or ceremony. It is a path leading to the realization of Ultimate Reality, to complete freedom, happiness and peace through moral, spiritual and intellectual perfection.
§ 5 THE DOCTRINE OF NO-SOUU ANATTA
The word soul in Sanskrit is Atman, it which also known as Self or Ego. It is believed that there is in man a permanent, everlasting and absolute entity, which is unchanging substance behind the Changing phenomenal world. Some other religious docfrine accept that an individual needs soul as a gift of God which after the death of a man goes for ever either in hell or heaven, judged by
^' Vism. (PTSXP. 510. 55 its Giver-God, they hold the view that it goes through many lives till it is fully purified or sacrificed and fmally emerges in God.
"This soul or self in man, is the thmker of thoughts, feeler of sensations and receiver of rewards and punishments for all its actions good and bad. Such a
32 conception is called the idea of self" But Buddhism is absolutely unique in this matter and does not believe in the existence of soul, or self or Atman. According to the teaching of the Buddha, the concept of self or Soul is imaginary, false and it produces harmful thoughts of 'me' and 'mine', selfish desire, craving, attachment, hatred, ill-will, pride, egoism. It is even said that is the source of all the troubles in the world, all the evils in the world. It is an absolute man made idea formed by him for his own satisfaction. According to Buddhism our ideas of God ;ind soul are false and empty. It is termed as mental project, meta-physical and philosophical phraseology. Such ideas are deeply rooted in man's , mind, which does not allow any other ideas to replace it.
The doctrine of Another or No-Soul is the natural resuh of, or the corollary to, the analysis of the Five Aggregates and the teaching of Conditioned Genesis (Patticca-Samuppada). According to conditioned Genesis nothing in the world is absolute. Everything is conditioned, relative, and interdependent. This is the Buddhist theory of relativity "Conditioned Genesis", which consist of twelve factors:
' Venerable Dr. W. Rahula; "fVhatthe Buddha taught"; Printed in Thailand, by Kurusapha Press, 1990. p. 51, 56
(1) Through ignorance are conditioned vohtional actions or karma- formations (Avijapaccaya Samkh^'a). (2) Through Vohtional actions is conditioned consciousness (Samkha rapaccaya Vinnanam). (3) Through consciousness are conditioned mental and physical phenomena (Viimanapaccaya namampam). (4) Through mental and physical phenomena are conditioned the six faculties (Namarupapaccaya Salayatanam). (5) Through the six faculties is conditioned (Sensorial and mental) contact (Salayatanapaccaya Phasso). (6) Through (Sensorial and mental) contact is conditioned sensation (Phassapaccaya Vedana). (7) Through sensation is cor ditioned desire, 'thirst' (vedana paccaya tanha). (8) Through desire is conditioned clinging (Tanha Paccaya Upadanam). (9) Through clinging is conditioned the process of becoming (Upadana Paccaya Bhavo). (10) Through the process of becoming is conditioned birth (Bhavapaccaya Jati). (11) Through birth are conditioned. (12) Decay, death, tormentation, pain etc.(Jati Paccaya Jaramaranam). Each of these factors is conditioned as well as conditioning, therefore, they are all relative, interdependent and inter connected, and nothing is absolute or independent. So conditioned Genesis should be considered as a circle and not as a chain. 57
According to the doctrine of Conditioned Genesis as well as according to the analysis of being into Five Aggregates, the idea of an abiding, immortal substance in man or outside whether it is called Atman, T Soul, Self, or Ego, is considered only a false belief, a mental protection. This is the Buddhist doctrine of Anatta or No-Soul or No-Self.
"There are two kinds of truths viz., Conventional truth (sammuti-sacca, Skt. Samvruti-Satya) and Ultimate truth (Paramatha-Sacca. Skt. Paramartha Satya)."''
In daily life such as T , 'You' , 'being' , 'individual' are used as convention of the world, but 'ultimate truth, is that there is no such things, T or 'being' in reality. Mahayana Sutralankara has rightly mentioned. A person (puggala) should be mentioned as existing. Only in designation (prajanapati)
34 (i.e. conventionally there is a being) but not in reality (or substance or dravya). According to the Buddha's teaching, a being is composed only of these Five Aggregates, and nothing more. In the Dhammapada there are these three verses, very important and rather base is of the Buddha's teaching. They are 5, 6 and 7 of Chapter xx or verses 227, 228, 229.
The first two verses say, " All conditioned things are impermanent and all conditioned things are Dukkha.
§ 6 THE THIRD VERSE SAYS:
"All Dhammas are without self. According to the Theravada teaching, there is no self either in the individual (puggala) or in Dhammas. The Mahayana
"Saratha 1 l(PTS), p.77. •'^ Mh. Sutralankara, XVIII 92. 58
Buddhist philosophy maintains the same view, putting emphasis on Dhamma - nairatmya as well as on puggala -nairatmya.
Here any Soul - Theory in Buddha's teaching, he would have explained it. The Buddha explicitly states that an Atman or Soul, or Self is nowhere to be found in reality, and it is foolish to believe that there is such a thing as Atman.
The Buddha was not only a human being; he claimed no inspiration from any god or external power either. He attributed all his realization, attainment and achievements to human endeavour and human intelligence. A man and only man can become a Buddha. Every man has within himself the potentiality of becoming a Buddha, if he so wills it and endeavours. We can call the Buddha a man par excellence." ^
In Buddhism, as far as a man is concerned, he holds a supreme position, because, he is his own master, and there is no other so called power superior or higher that sits in judgment over his destiny. The Buddha himself said "One is one's own refuge, who else could be the refuge."' He taught, encouraged and stimulated each person to develop himself and to work out his own emancipation, for man has the power to liberate himself from all bondage through his own personal effort, and intelligence. The Buddha says: 'you should work out your own salvation, for Tathagatas are only the shower of the Path". The Buddha placed very high and free responsibility on individuals. In the Mahaparinibana-Sutta the Buddha says that he never thought to controlling the Sangha (Order of Monks), nor did he want the Sangha to depend on him.
Venerable Dr. W. Rahula; "What the Buddha taught"; Printed in Thailand, by Kurusapha Press, 1990. p. 1. ^^ Dhp. XII 4. 59
This freedom of thought which was hberally aUowed by the Buddha, has its unique characteristic in the world in the history of rehgions, because the Buddha beheved. man's emancipation depends on his own reahzation of Truth, and not on the benevolent grace of a god or any external power as a reward for his obedient good behaviour.
According to Buddha's teaching, doubt (Vicikiccha) is one of the Five Hindrances to the clear understanding of Truth and to spiritual progress.
The other four hindrances are such: Sensuous lust, ill-will, physical and mental torpor and languor. Restlessness and worry. The root of all evil is ignorance (avijja) and false views (miccha ditthi). Doubt must be rooted out if one wants to progress further and to get rid of doubt one has to see clearly. The Buddha was always eager to dispel doubt. Even just a ew minutes before his death, he requested his disciples several times to ask him if they had any doubts about his teaching.
Another remarkable thing which the Buddha allowed is tolerance. In the third century B.C. the great Buddhist Emperor Ashoka following this noble example of tolerance and understanding, honoured and supported all other religions too.
§ 7 MENTAL CULTURE - BHAVANA
According to Buddha there are two kinds of illness i.e. physical illiness and Mental illness. The Buddha confirms that people may enjoy physical heahh or enjoy freedom from physical illness, but rare in this world are those who enjoy freedom from mental illness even for one moment. Yet there are who are 60 free form mental defilements, i.e. Arhants. The Buddha's teaching so far as
"meditation" is concerned it is aimed at producing a state of perfect mental health, equilibrium and tranquillity.
For meditation proper word is BhaVana which means 'culture' or
'development' or mental development or its mental culture. It aims at cleaning the mind of impurities and disturbances, such as lustful desires, hatred, ill-will, indolence, worries and restlessness, skeptical doubts, and on the contrary, cultivating such qualities such as concentration, awareness, intelligence, will, energy, the analytical faculty, confidence, joy, tranquillity leading finally to the attainment of highest wisdom which sees the nature of things as they really are, and realizes the ultimate Truth of Nirvana.
THERE ARE TWO FORMS OF MEDIT, TION:
(1) Development of mental concentration (Samadhi) which is also known as one pointedness of mind (Cittaikagrata) leading up to the highest mystic states such as "the Sphere of Nothingness" or 'the sphere of Neither- Perception -nor- non-Perception. All of these according to Buddha are mind created, mind produced, conditioned by mind. They have nothing to do with Reality, Truth, or
Nirvana.
(2) Therefore the Buddha discovered another form of 'meditation' known as Vipasana. "Insighf into the nature of things, leading to the complete liberation of mind to the realization of the Ultimate Truth, or Nirvana. This is actually Buddhist mental Culture. It is an analytical method based on mindfulness, awareness, vigilance, and observation. There are Five Hindrances as mentioned earlier which are to be overcome. 61
(i) lustful desire (Kamacchanda)
(ii) 111 will hatred or anger (Vyapada)
(iii) and Torpor Sloth (Thina-middha)
(iv) Restlessness and worry (Uddhacca-kukkucca)
(v)Sceptical doubts (Vicikiccha)
These are the hindrances or obstacles to any kind of clear understanding. When one is overpowered by them, when one does not know how to get rid of them, or cannot understand right and wrong, or good and bad.
One may also 'meditate' on the Seven factors of Enlightenment (Bojjhangas). They are as follows:
(1) Mindfulness.
(2) Investigation and research into the various problems of doctrine
(Dhamma-Vicaya)
(3) Energy or work (Viriya) with determination, till the end.
(4) Joy (Piti) contrary to the pessimistic, melancholic attitude of mind.
(5) Relaxation (passaddhi) of both body and mind.
(6) Concentration (Samadhi).
(7) Equanimity (Upekkha) i.e. to be able to face life in all its Vicissitudes with calm of mind, tranquillity, without disturbance.
The above qualities can be achieved by anyone provided one possesses a genuine will or inclination. One may meditate on the Five Aggregates is a being or on the Four Noble truths. Such meditations may lead to the realization of 62
Ultimate Truth. There are many other subjects on which one can ponder and meditate, traditionally which numbers as much as forty.
These are considered more sublime in nature:
(1) Brahma-Vihara-Extension of Universal love and goodwill to all living, like mother.
(2) Compassion (kanina) for all living beings who are suffering in trouble and affliction.
(3) Sympathetic joy (mudita) in others success, welfare, and happiness; and
(4) Equanimity (upekkha) in all vicissitudes of life.
§ 8 THE BUDDHA'S TEACHING FOR THE WORLD TODAY The Buddha's teaching, as some believe, is not possible for ordinary men and women to follow and practise, but this is absolutely a wrong conception. In fact the Noble Eightfold Path which is the Buddhist pattern of life, is meant for all. without distinction of any kind. But one can. if understands the spirit of Buddhism correctly, may follow and practise it while leading an ordinary life. The common belief that to follow the Buddha's teaching one has to retire from life is a misconception, whereas any one can practise it irrespective of place he lives. Buddhism is not a religion cut off from society, but on the contrary, it is only possible to practise while one lives in the society. The Buddha's teaching which is based on love, compassion, and service to mankind needs human society.
The Sangha, the order of monks, is also essential, since an ordinary 63 household cannot devote whole of his life for the cause of human service. Some of the most important aspects of Buddha's teaching for the society and family, are as follows: (1) Parents are sacred to their children - the Buddha proclaims: 'Parents are called Brahma (Brahmati Matapitaro). hi a good Buddhist family the children actually worship their parents every morning and evening. So the parents too do their part by providing good education to their children. They keep them away from bad companies and engage them in good and profitable activities.
(2) The teacher and pupil relation is also remarkable. A student must respect his teacher, be obedient to him; the teacher, in turn, should train and shape his students properly. (3) The relation between wife and husband is also considered in Buddhist society very religious and holy. It is called Sadara-Brahmacariya 'sacred family life' Both the partners should be faithfiil, respectflil and devoted to each other. The husband should always honour his wife, should secure her position and comfort, provide her with all the necessary things of life including ornaments, gifts etc. The wife, on the other hand, should supervise and look after household affairs, entertaining guest, visitors, fiiends, relatives, should love and respect her husband and protect his earnings, should be cleaver and energetic in all activities.
(4) The relations between fiiends, relatives and neighbours should be hospitable and charitable to each other. Speak pleasantly and agreeably, work for each others' welfare, should not quarrel but help in trouble and need. (5) The master-servant relation - the master has several obligations towards his servant. Work should be according to ability and capacity, adequate 64 wages should be paid, medical needs be provided, bonuses, donations be granted. In turn the servant must be diligent, honest and obedient and earnest in his work. (6) The relation between the religious and laity: Lay people should look after the material needs of the religious with love and respect, whereas the religious should impart knowledge and learning to the laity, and lead them along the good path away from the evils.
It is worth noting here, the harmonious structure of the Buddhist society with sound ideals and perfect beauty, discipline, cordial relations and a total devotion to ones conscious. The Buddhist society is based on Triple Gem and the members observe Five Precepis - (Panca-sila). (1) not to desfroy life. (2) not to steal (3) not to commit adultery (4) not to tell lie. (5) not to take intoxicating drinks. Buddhism is, actually speaking, a perfect way of serene life, for which the Noble Eightfold Path is pre-requisite. One also should not be led to believe when Buddhists, worship the Buddha's status. Bo-trees, offer flowers, light lamps and bum incenses it is like the prayers offered in theistic religions. It is only a way of paying homage to the revered memory of Buddha who showed a wonderful way to live and in perfect harmony to his teachings. This philosophy of noble living is not limited to lofty ideals, high moral values but it is very much interested with social aspects.
"The Buddha was interested in the happiness of men. To him happiness was not possible without leading a pure life based on moral and spiritual principles. But he knew that leading such a life was hard in favourable material 65 and social conditions."" Buddhism fully believes in well balanced social life and also recognizes that materialism can never provide peace of mind. The Buddha realized so many centuries before the dangers of materialism, which is jeopardizing the social balance in many countries and making human lives full of mental tension. "Buddhism does not consider material welfare as an end in itself: it is only a means to an end - a higher and nobler end. But it is a means which is not indispensable, in achieving a higher purpose man's happiness. So Buddhism recognizes the need of certain minimum material conditions favourable to spiritual success-even that of a monk engaged in meditation in some solitary place"." The Buddha looked at the life which is very important as far as its social, economical and political aspects are concerned. There are various discourses of his available for studies in the ancient Buddhist texts. The Buddha realized that poverty is the main cause of immorality and crimes. This has been clearly mentioned in the Cakkavattisihanada - Sutta of the Digha-nikaya (No. 26). It is said that poverty (daliddiya) is responsible for theft, falsehood, violence, hatred, cruelty etc.
The Buddha was never in favour of punishment in such crimes, but suggested a solid solution to such social problems and refuted punishment by the kings. The Kutadanta-sutta of Digha Nikaya suggests a method to adequate crime. The economic condition of the people should be improved, to the farmers, seed and other facilities should be provided, in the same way capital should also be provided to traders. There should be adequate wages to be paid to
Venerable Dr. W. Rahula; "tVhat the Buddha Taught"; Printed in Thailand, by Kurusapha Press, 1990. p. 81. '^ MA. I (PTS), p. 290. 66 the workers. Thus the Buddha was absolutely against exploitation of the common people. "When people are thus provided for with opportunities for earning a sufficient income, they will be contended, will have no fear or anxiety,
39 and consequently the country will be peaceful and free from crime." Therefore, Buddha emphasized on people's economic condition, but this should not be taken for granted that he encouraged hoarding wealth, but on the other hand this type of practice is considered absolutely against the Buddha's teaching. He also forbid trades such as, production and sale of armaments, weapons, prostitution etc. The Buddha made it very clear for the betterment of man while living in this world and hereafter. He mentioned four important things conducive to a man's happiness in this world. (1) He should be skilled, efficient, earnest, and energetic in whatever profession he is engaged, and he should know it well (Uthana - Sampda); (2) He should protect his income (arakka- Sampada), which he has earned righteously with the sweat of his brow; (3) He should have good friends (kalyana-mitta), who are faithful, learned, virtuous, liberal and intelligent, who will help him along the right path away from evil. (4) "He should spend reasonably, in proportion to his income, neither too much nor to little i.e., he should not hoard wealth variously, nor should he be extravagant, he should live within his means (Samajivikata)". The Buddha also stressed the four virtues conducive to a layman's happiness hereafter:
'^ DN. I. (Colombo 1929), p. 101. 67
(1) Saddha: he should have faith and confidence in moral, spiritual and intellectual values; (2) Sila: he should abstain from destroying and harming life, from stealing and cheating, from adultery, from falsehood, and from intoxicating drinks; (3) Caga: he should practise charity, generosity, without attachment and craving for his wealth; (4) Panna: he should develop wisdom which leads to the complete destruction of suffering, to the realization of Nirvana." The Buddha was considered a perfect financial advisor while he suggests on man's budget - here he was taking to a young man called Sigala, "he should spend one fourth of his income on his daily expenses, invest half in his business and put aside one fourth for any emergency." The Buddha once told his lay disciple namely Anathapindika who was a great banker that a layman can have four kinds of happiness if he should live ordinary family life. (1) is to enjoy economic security, wealth earned by just and righteous means (atthi-sukha); (2) Spending that wealth liberally on himself, his family, his friends and relatives, and on meritorious deeds (bhoga sukha); (3) to be free from debts (anana-sukha) (4) to live a faultless, and a pure life without committing evil in thought, word or deed (anavajja sukha). The three of these kinds of happiness are
40 AN. (Colombo, 1929), p. 786. •*' DN. Ill (Colombo, 1929), p. 115. 68
Economic. The Buddha finally reminded the banker that economic and material happiness is not worth one sixteenth part' of the spiritual happiness arising out of
42 a faultless and good life." Buddhism clearly emphasizes on spiritual and moral values, without which a happy, peaceful and contended society cannot be thought of Buddhism fully believes and advocates and preaches non-violence and peace as its universal message, therefore there is no room for hated, cruelty, violence, war and massacre. The Buddha was not only a preacher of such high humane ideals but also a practical supporter thereof He once went to the battle-field to intervene and prevent the war between the Sakyas and the Koliyas. He also stopped the war when king Ajatasattu planned to attack the kingdom of the vajjis. The Buddha was not happy while the rulers, ministers and administrators used to oppress, impose excessive taxes, exploite, and torture the innocent, and punish them severely. The Dhammapadatthakatha records that he was greatly concerned about such government. He pointed out how the whole country could become corrupt, degenerate and unhappy if the heads of its government become corrupt and unjust. The Buddha in his teaching of the "Ten Duties of the King" (Dasa-rajadhamma) as given in the Jataka text, says:- In brief, followings are the duties of a good and just king: (1) liberality, generosity, charity, he should give away his wealth and property to the welfare of the people, (dana). (2) A High moral character, in other words, he must, at least, observe the Five Precepts of the layman. (Sila)
"' AN. (Colombo, 1929), pp. 232, 233. (J^taka I, 260-369, II, 400, III, 274, 320; V, 119, 378). 69
(3) Sacrificing everything for the good of the people, even his own hfe (Prariccaga) (4) Honesty and integrity (ajjava) (5) Kindness and gentleness (maddava) (6) Austerity in habits (tapa) (7) Freedom from hatred, ill-will, enmity (akkodha) (8) Non-violence (avihimsa), promote peace. (9) Patience, forbearance, tolerance, understanding (Khanti) (10) Non-opposition, non-obstruction (avirodha) King Ashoka practised all these characters and proved himself upto the satisfaction and expectation of a real good king, according to the Buddha's ideal. The present affairs of the great power nations, need these characteristics seriously and urgently, if the human race could be saved from all kinds of deadly war-weapon and mad arms-race. If this is not stopped the result will undoubtedly be a mutual annihilation of human race along with the total destruction of living beings. The world needs nothing greater than the teachings of Buddha. The Buddha says, "Never by hafred is hafred appeased, but it is appeased by kindness only. This is an eternal truth." "One should win anger through kindness, wickedness through goodness, selfishness through charity, and falsehood through truthfulness. There can be no peace or happiness for a man as long as he desires and thirsts after conquering and subjugating his neighbour. He says: "The victor
"' Dhp. 1,5. *•* Ibid. XVII, 3 70 breads hatred, and the defeated hes down in misery. He who renounces both victory and defeat is happy and peaceful." "The only conquest that brings peace and happiness is self-conquest. One may conquer millions in battle, but he who conquests himself, only one, is 46 the greatest of all conquerors." People may not agree with above statements because they feel such an idea practically impossible. Such a view is absolutely pessimistic. There are examples where hatred is appeased by love and kindness, and the evil is won over by goodness. No doubt it needs a lot of patience and hard work, faith in the teaching of the Buddha and confidence in moral values. One may say trying it is risky but surely, it cannot be more risky than trying a nuclear war. Ashoka, the Great Buddhist emperor, who valued the teaching of the Buddha as supreme, successfully adopted it in his own administration in both internal and external affairs, and proved that the Buddha's teaching is practical and adaptable if one wishes to do so. The emperor Ashoka inscribed on Rock Edict XIII that how painfiil he felt after seeing such a carnage in the victory of Kalinga. He publicly expressed his repentance, he determined never to draw his sword again for any conquest, but that he "wishes all living beings non-violence, self control the practice of serenity and mildness. Isn't his example an inspiration to one who love human lives as precious as to oneself? Even during his reign there was no war waged against him by any neighbouring countries nor any internal revolt. "To talk of maintaining peace through the balance of power, or through
*^ Ibid. XV, 5. '"* Ibid. VIII, 4. 71 the threat of nuclear deterrents, is foohsh. The night of armaments can only produce fear, and not peace. It is impossible to contemplate that there can be genuine and lasting peace through fear. Through fear can only grow hatred, ill-will and hostility, which might be suppressed perhaps for the time being only, but sure to erupt in violence at any moment. True and genuine peace can prevail
47 only in the atmosphere of metta, amity, free from fear, suspicion and danger." The sole aim and purpose of Buddhism is to have a society where craze for power is renounced, were peace and love prevail at all times; where the persecution of the innocent is vehemently denounced, where there is no military or economic supremacy reigns over the weaker counterpart. But it aims to root out enmity, hatred, jealousy, ill-will and greed from man's mind. In such a society only the dream of the Buddha can be fulfilled, \ /here compassion is the driving force of action, where all kinds of beings live in peace and harmony, in a world of material contentment, and are directed towards the highest and noblest aim. the realization of the Ultimate Truth. Nirvana.
§ 9 THE RELIGIOUS PERSONALITY The monks - Bhikkhu is the Pali word for monk, and it is the word used in Theravada Buddhist Countries like Thailand. It means medicant. Although, the bhikkhu has renounced the lay world he is dependent on it, reliance on laypersons, for his sustenance - his food, robes, alms, bowl, and other necessities. Even his monastery and his lodgings must be built by laypersons. In turn, he Buddhist lay world is dependent on the Bhikkhu and the monastic Community - for spiritual guidance, for the maintenance and preservation of the
^^ Venerable Dr. W. Ruhula; "What the Buddha Taught"; Printed in Thailand, by Kurusapha Press, 1990. p. 88. 72
Buddhist teachings, for ceremonial rites and rituals, for administering the precepts, and for providing a medium of merit-malcing (merit-making is beheved to induce not only a better life here and now but also a propitious form of rebirth). The oldest monastic order in the world came into existence some two thousand years ago in Northern India when Gotama, having attained enlightenment as the Buddha, welcomed a small group of disciples into the Sangha and taught them how to follow the path to purification, enlightenment and Nirvana.
Monkhood in Thailand takes many forms. There are short-term "dedicated" monks who spend muc.i of their time in solitary seclusion, monks who dwell together in large urban monasteries. But for however long they choose to remain in robes, howev r long they choose to practice, they set themselves on the path of purificati( n, enlightenment and Nirvana. Some taking a few steps on the path while others following it for a lifetime.
§ 10 SHORT-TERM MONKS A Buddhist monk does not take a life long vow; he may disrobe at will. A man may enter and leave monastic life as often as he wishes, however, more often than three times is fi^ownedupo n in Thailand. He may wear the robes for as brief a period as a few days, in some cases, such as at the death of a parent, grandparent or other relative, for even one day. It is usually young male children who wear the robes (of novice) for one day as a way of making merit for the deceased relative.
Many Thai males elect to be ordained only for the duration of the three months rainy season (Vassa, the rain retreat, also known as the Buddhist Lent, 73 called, in Thai Pansa) after which they disrobe. This is a way for a Thai male to earn great merit, for himself and for his parents especially for his mother, as well as an opportunity for him to study the Buddhist teachings, and to meditate. For this temporary service in the monkhood, although it is understood that he will not become a full-time monk, he is nonetheless admired and respected; in fact, a man who has never served as a monk, even if only for the Pansa period, is referred to as a dip, the Thai word for unripe, raw, or immature.
Thai governmental agencies allow Civil Servants to take a three month paid leave of absence while they wear the robes during Pansa. Short-term monks do not permanently renounce lay life, family, sexual relations, or society. They merely take a leave of absence, knowing that they will resume their normal lives when they disrobe. For these temporary monks the reward is reflected in the respect of their peers and in the conduct of their subsequent lay lives. They are now regarded as suk, ripe, mature, finished. They have a better understanding of Dhamma, a greater awareness of the rewards of the desirability of moral behaviour. They have an appreciation of the rewards of meditation. They have earned merit. They are better prepared to play their future role as caring husband, good parent and conscientious citizen.
There are relatively few Thai men who have never been ordained, although these days the ever-increasing, intensely competitive pressures of earning a livelihood or pursuing a business, professional, or academic career make it difficult for some Thai men to renounce the lay world even temporarily.
§ 11 NOVICES Novices ordinarily range in age from 8 to 20. They wear the robes of 74 monks but they are not fully ordained. Through their novitiates these young people are assured of shelter, food, and education - an especially strong motivation for the sons of poor, profound initiation and indoctrination into the life of the Sangha and the Buddhist teachings. Some choose to be Ordained as monks and remain in the robes after they have reached maturity, having by then come to appreciate the spirimal life.
A novice is not properly a member of the Sangha. He cannot participate in monastic assemblies concerning discipline and administration. He eats apart from the Bhikkhus, the ordained monks, even if only a small distance apart. He is expected to observe the precepts rather than the 227 rules of the monk. The lay Buddhist undertakes to observe five precepts: abstention from taking life, from stealing, from improper sexual conduct, from lying, as well as false and harsh speech, and from intoxicants on special days, holy days know as Wan Pra (flillmoon day, and the eighth day thereafter and the day of the new moon and the eighth day thereafter). Some lay Buddhists undertake eight precepts. The Third precept to refrain from improper sexual conduct becomes more rigid, i.e. abstention from all sexual activity. And the additional precepts are abstention from eating after midday, from wimessing or participating in performances of music, song, or dance, from using garlands, scents or unguents, and from sleeping on a high, wide softly bed. The Buddhist novice permanently undertakes these same precepts, abstaining, like the monk, not just from improper sexual conduct but from all sexual activities (Celibacy being a requirement of the monastic life, which calls for renunciation of all attachments). He also, like monks, undertakes a tenth precept of abstaining from receiving gold or silver or items beyond a certain value. 75
§12 LONG TERM MONKS
Most monks, the core of the Sangha, are long-term renunciates: those who are donned the robes with the intention of remaining in monkhood for indefinitely long period, or for the rest of their lives, many of the long-term monks, among whom are some of the most revered in Thailand, had began their monastic careers as a young novices.
Among the renunciate monks are those who live reclusive, contemplative life in the small and remote forest temples, and those who live mostly cremation grounds. They have no permanent monastic residence. They are "wandering" monks, treading lonely path, with a large special kind of umbrella-tent and mosquito net being their only shelter, the forests and the jungles and caves being their places of sanctuary. Most renunciate monks are not recluses or cremetic, they are cenobitic, residing with fellow monks and participating in rituals, ceremonies, and communal activities (Monk cannot vote however, having renounced civic responsibilities)
§ 13 THE EIGHT REQUISITES: POSSESSIONS OF A MONK A monk ought to possess the eight requisites: his three robes (outer, upper, under), an alms-bowl (large enough to contain about a gallon and a half), needle and thread, a razor, a water strainer and a cloth belt. He is also allowed, in addition, to possess a cloth bag, flint and steel, mosquito net, a mat, blankets, sandals, an umbrella, towels, dishes, a kettle, a cloth sling for his arm bowel, and a cloth to sit on when doing his devotions. In the early days of the Sangha monks were not allowed to possess 76 money. These days a monk may need money in order to pay for local or distant travel needs, for books, or for other necessary purchases. Some monks ask a layman to accompany them in order to handle money transactions when they make purchases, but most do themselves. Those monks who do not wish to possess money, deposit it with a lay member of the monastery's Congregation to be withdrawn when needed.
§14 THE MONK AND THE LAITY
Monks conduct worship services for their lay congregations and participate in lay ceremonies outside the temple - merit making occasions, house blessings, dedications and funerals, cremations. Some monks are heads of orphanages and drug-rehabilitation centres, some assist, and often supervise, ecological activities, such as tree-|!anting and other form of environmental preservation. Some help villagers ii farming, marketing, or fmancial matters, and help them build dams, roads and other facilities. A Buddhist monk is not a priest. He has no ministry, he does not listen to the confessions of lay persons, does not administer communion, does not baptise, does not Christen, does not officiate at wedding, what's more a Buddhist monk does not directly proselytite or covertly try to convert members of other religious; he influences only by example and by teachings. A monk, however, participates in certain ministerial like functions. He counsels lay-persons on religious and personal matters, administers the precepts, and, if qualified by the Sangha's Council of Elders to do so, he presides over ordinations. He concludes worship services on holidays, or state occasions, on Wan Pra days, and on the sacred occasions commemorating significant events in 77 the life of the Buddha. Magha Puja, third month of the full moon cycle, which commemorates the anniversary of the Spontaneous gathering of 1,250 Arhants before the Buddha, at which time he gave the first recitation of the Patimokkha (the rules and regulations of the monastic order); Visakha Puja, sixth lunar month, the anniversary of the birth, the enlightenment and the death of the Buddha; and Asalha Puja, eighth lunar month in commemoration of the Buddha's first five disciples (the birth of the Sangha, the third gem of the Triple Gem; Buddha, Dhamma. Sangha) and his first discourse (sutta), on the setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dhamma.
On Magha Puja, Visakha Puja, and Asalha Piija lay persons gather at their temple to earn merit by offering food in the morning and to listen to monks in the evening preaching the Dhamma in order to affirm their devotion to the Triple gem, to recite the Buddhist precepts, to meditate in silence for several minutes with the monks and to walk Clockwise around the vihara or the Chedi three times holding in tented hands, at chest level, a lighted candle, three incense sticks, and a floral offering, all of which they then offer to the Buddha image of the temple.
These are very special, sacred occasions when the monks and the laity come together to express their devotion to the Buddha and his teachings. The Pali canon prohibits monks from practising astrology, sorcery, and divination, but in Thailand these prohibitions which are however not prescribed as offenses among the official 227 monastic precepts are overlooked especially in the case of astrology. Most Thais, predominantly villagers and farmers, have a tradition of animism, a belief in spirits and the supernatural. Many Thais 78 including such urban sophisticates as distinguished pohticians, statesman, military leaders and businessmen, look to astrological counsel on significant occasions in their lives. Some senior Thai monks, responding to the desires, needs and traditions of Thai laypersons, practice astrology and give advice based on chart reading, and some even participate in certain Brahmanic, non-Buddhist ceremonies, such as the ceremony to invoke rain.
§15 LAY BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS MONKS
A monk is greeted with a wai by laypersons, with the hands held together respectfully in front of the face; a monk does not return the wai in the same manner, but may respond with a few words of greetings or with a smile. Senior monks, those who have worn the robes for ten years, ten consecutive vassas, are known as Theras, or elders. A monk is referred to as Pra, an honorific denoting a higher status, and is addressed by Thais as luang phu, luang pho, luang phi - venerable grandfather father, or brother. A lay person does not shake hands with or embrace a monk; a layman maintains a discreet distance from a monk. In gathering with laypersons a monk is always seated separately in a higher position. When offering food or gifts to a monk a layman places them directly into his hands while a laywoman places them on a piece of cloth in front of his hands. Even the king of Thailand, a revered and exalted monarch, who is the protector, defender, and pafron of the Sangha, and who was himself ordained in 1956 and wore the robes for a fortnight, shows his respect for monks by observing the lay protocols of behaviour toward them, even greeting them with a wai and assuming a physically inferior position in their presence. 79
§ 16 THE REUGIOUS OBJECTS
Temple-monasteries:- One of the Thailand's greatest glories is its wats (temples), distinctive and splendid in their architecture and art, meaningflil in the spiriuial and ritual lives of all lay Buddhists, hallowed sanctuaries where resident monks follow the path. But there are many older temples which are notable for their simplicity, with wooden structures of immense charm, and with interiors containing extraordinary murals, antiques and sacred artifacts.
There are 29,015 temples in Thailand: city, village and forest temple, and one hundred "royal" temples which were built or supported by Thailand's monarchs. Temples may differ in architecture design, ornamentation, and size, but they have certain characteristics in common in that they contain within their boundaries five basic structures: (1) A Sala, an open-sided assembly hall used in ihe villages not only for worship services on those holy days when many people gather together, but also as a sort of social and civic centres, a school for the lay children, as a polling place on election days, and even as a place where travellers can stay overnight sleeping on the floor. (2) A Vihara: a temple used for lay persons and monks to assemble for religious services and where monks also gather together in mornings and evenings for their own Communal devotions. Within this temple are an altar on which stands revered Buddha image, mural paintings, and often, painted or ornamented ceilings. (3) An uposatha or Ubosoth, the most sacrosanct building in the wat, a temple used primarily by the monks for such Sangha Ceremonies as ordinations, and confessional recitations. On such occasions lay persons cannot be present. 80
The uposatha is erected on consecrated ground marked by what are called sima stones which are placed beneath the surface of the ground at four cardinal points and four intermediate points of the compass, with other stones placed on the surface to mark the sites. A ninth sima is buried in consecrated soil under the floor of the uposatha. (4) A Chedi or stupa, a bell shaped tower, some of which (the most sacred) contain, near the base, actual relics of the Buddha, while others contain relics of the Buddha's disciples or ashes of royal personages, or even religious documents. All Chedis are sacred ai d revered as symbolic representations of the Buddha. Large wats may contain se\ ival additional structures: multiple chedis, burial stupas, building which house? the symbolic "footprints" of the Buddha a repository for the many volumes of i le Tripitaka (the Buddhist canon), a gallery or museum, a school, a crematorium, some may also have accommodations, far removed from those of the monks, for female renunciates called Mae Chi. Although often referred to as "nuns", these are women who have chosen to follow the path to enlightenment (without having been ordained since only men may be ordained in theravada Buddhism.), they shave their heads, wear white robes, and undertake eight precepts. Some wats also have accommodations for laypersons who wish to learn how to meditate, to study Dhamma, and to approximate the experience of monastic life. The Buddha described a "favourable" monastery as having five characteristics: (1) not to far from, nor too near a lay community and with a path for 8]
going and coming. (2) little frequented by day, with little sound, and few voices by night. (3) Little contact with mosquitoes, flies, wind, burning sun, and creeping things. (4) Where robes, alms, food, lodging and medicine are easily obtainable. (5) Where elder monks reside who are learned, well versed in the Scriptures, observers of the Dhamma, observers of the vinaya (the monastic discipline) and capable of explaining and teaching.
§ 17 AN OVERVIEW OF THE BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES
A. The Pali Canon: The Tipitaka (Three Baskets) I. Vinaya-pitaka (Basket of Discipline)
1. Sutta-vibhanga (Analysis of the Text) - the rules of the Patimokkha codes with explanations and commentary. a. Mahavibhanga (Great Analysis) - the 227 rules for monks. b. Bhikkhuni-vibhanga (Nuns's Analysis) - the 310 rules for nuns. 2. Khandhaka (Groupings) a. Mahavagga (Great Chapter) - rules for ordination, observance Day, Rainy season retreat, clothing, food, medicine and procedure of the Sangha. b. Cullavagga (Lesser Chapter) - judicial procedures, miscellaneous rules, ordination and instruction of nuns, history of the First and Second Councils. 3. Parivara (Appendix) summaries and classifications of the rules. This is a 82 n. Sutta-pitaka (Basket of Discourses) 1. Digha-nikaya (Collection of Long Discourses) - 34 suttas. 2. Majjhima-nikaya (Collection of Medium Discourses) - 152 suttas. 3. Samyutta-nikaya (Collection of Connected Discourses) - 56 groups of Suttas. 4. Anguttara-nikaya (Collection of Item-More Discourses) - more than 2,300 suttas grouped by the number of factors in their topics. 5. Khuddaka-nikaya (Collection of Little Texts) a. Khuddaka-patha (Little Readings) - a breviary. b. Dhammapada (Verses on Dharma) - 423 verses in 26 chapters. c. Udana (Utterances) - 80 exalted pronouncements of the Buddha, with circumstantial tales. d. Itivuttaka (Thus-saids) - 112 short suttas. e. Sutta-nipata (Collection of Suttas) - short suttas, mostly in verse of high poetic quality. f. Vimana-vatthu (Tales of Heavenly Mansions) - gods tell the deeds that earned them celestial rebirths. g. Peta-vatthu (Tales of Ghosts) - how various persons attained that unfortunate rebirth. h. Thera-gatha (Verses of the Elders) - staiizas attributed to 264 early monks. i. Theri-gatha (Verses of the Eldresses) - stanzas attributed to 73 early nuns. j. Jataka (Lives) - tales ostensibly reporting the former lives of Sakyamuni. The verses in each tale are supposed to have been uttered by 83
the Buddha, and so are considered canonical; but the 547 tales themselves are extracanonical. k. Niddesa (Exposition) - verbal notes to part of the Sutta-nipata. The Niddesa is second or third century C.E. 1. Patisambhida-magga (The Way of Discrimination) - scholastic treatment of doctrinal topics. m. Apadana (Stories) - lives and former lives of the saints. n. Buddhavamsa (Lineage of the Buddhas) - lives of 24 previous Buddhas, of Sakyamuni, and of Maitreya, presented as being told by Sakyamuni. 0. Cariya-pitaka (Basket of Conduct) - verse retelling of jatakas illustrating the Bodhisattvas's practice of the perfections. ni. Abhidhamma-pitaka (Basket of Scholasticism) 1. Dhamma-sangani (Enumeration of Dharmas). 2. Vibhanga (Analysis) - more on sets of dharmas. 3. Dhatu-katha (Discussion of Elements) 4. Puggala-pannatti (Designation of Persons) - classifies types of individuals according to their spiritual traits and stages. 5. Katha-vatthu (Subjects of Discussion) - arguments about theses in dispute among the Hinayana and early Mahayana schools. 6. Yamaka (The Pairs) - arranged in pairs of questions; deals with distinctions among basic sets of categories. 7. Patthana (Conditional Relations) - 24 kinds of causal relation and their almost infinite permutations.
48 RICHARD H. ROBINSON AND OTHER; The Buddhist ReUgion: A Historical Introduction Fourth Edition; Printed in The United States of America, 1995. pp. 311 -312 84
§ 18 THE BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES
The purpose of this chapter is to analyse the texts of the various recensions of the Canon mainly with the view of indicating the legendary and historical matter which they contain. Although they form a closed collection of authoritative utterances, they possess certain distinct features distinguishing them from the Scriptures of other religions, and these features are found in all the compilations held by different sects to be the word of Buddha. The Earliest known form is the Canon of the Theravada school, preserved in the Pali language, but we also possess portions of the recensions of other related sects in Sanskrit, as well as in translations into Chinese and Tibetan made from Sanskrit or in some cases probably from Pali or a similar dialect. There are further the documents of the schc )ls that sprang from the great docfrinal developments known as the Maha^ ina. In these the discourses are usually modelled on the form of earlier work s, and claim to have been delivered like the other discourses in definite places by Buddha himself. They frequently embody older matter identical with passages in the Pali texts.
It will be convenient to treat in the first place of the most completely preserved collection, the Pali Canon. This, although now forming the Scriptures of the Singhalese, Burmese, and Siamese Buddhists, arose in India. It is divided into Sutta (Discourses), Vinaya (Discipline), and Abhidhamma (a systematising and development of the doctrines of the Sutta). These three collections are known from the time of the commentaries as the Pitakas (Baskets), or the Tipitaka (Threefold-basket). The texts do not profess to form a uniform whole, every word of which is revealed, as in the case of the Vedas, the Bible, or the Koran. That which is 85 revealed is the word of Buddha (Buddhavacana) or the word of the Lord. But in the texts there is much which does not claim to be in any sense Buddha's utterance. This is recognised by the Buddhist commentators themselves, as when they explain that certain sentences or whole verses have been added by the revisers at one of the Councils. It is also recognised or implied in the considerable number of discourses which are attributed to various disciples, and this not merely in the commentaries, but in the text itself In some cases these discourses are said to have been given after the death of Buddha. In the two oldest collections of discourses, the Digha and the Majjhima, there are over twenty discourses attributed to disciples, and the Anguttara contains a legend of a disciple and king Munda, who reigned half a century after Buddha's death. In other cases one of the disciples, especially Kaccana the Great, is said to expound at length a sentence or short discourse given by Buddha. Theologically these facts are not important, as all the doctrine taught by the disciples is held to have been first expounded by Buddha, and hence in a doctrinal sense these later discourses may be held to be the word of Buddha also. But they do show that the Scriptures as we possess them make no claim to be exclusively the utterances of Buddha in the form on which they might conceivably have stood as remembered immediately after his death.
A still more important fact is that some of the Suttas are not proper discourses but legends. A legend may possibly be as old as the discourse to which it refers, but many of the acmal legends are evidently inventions. When we are told of four gods who visit Buddha, and give him a spell to ward off evils spirits, or of a disciple who visits the thirty-three gods, and when being shown over the heavenly palace startles them by shaking it with his toe, we are 86 evidently dealing neither with the word of Buddha himself nor with historical tradition. Even in the case of non-miraculous legends we have no reason for putting them on the level of the actual discourses and treating the matter as a uniform whole. When historical or legendary passages occur in a discourse and are attributed directly to Buddha, the question in each case arises whether they are to be treated as transformed legendary matter. But apart from these there are many purely narrative portions that can be clearly separated from the actual discourses. Such portions are usually quite stereotyped, and recur with the same phraseology in various places.
The simplest form of these additions is the introductory part of a sutta, stating where Buddha was at the time, and adding that he then addressed the monks. Longer passages also occur, which evidently belong to the stock fraditions of schools of reciters. Sometimes a discourse appears with an introduction in one place, and is repeated without it in another or with a different introduction. These explanatory passages however are quite distinct from the later commentaries proper, and now form a part of the Canon. They represent the fradition as it existed when the Scriptures were finally revise.
To speak without qualification of the final revision of the Scriptures is perhaps to take too much for granted, but it is usually held that the general arrangement was fixed at the third Council, 247 B.C. There are certain works, particularly in the fifth Nikaya discussed below, concerning which other conclusions may be drawn.
It is form this period, more than two centuries after Buddha's death, that we must start in an inquiry about the age of the canonical texts. In the present state of our knowledge we cannot in any instance declare that Buddha said so 87 and so. The fact that we start from is that we have a collection of documents, which were held some two centuries after Buddha to contain his utterances. The Chronicles tell us that in the time of king Vattagamini Abhabya (29-17 B.C.) the monks of Ceylon, seeing the decay of beings, assembled and caused the three Pitakas with their commentary, which they had before handed down orally, to be written in books. This official recording in writing would not exclude the possibility of much of the Canon having already been written, but what is quite certain is that originally and for a long period the Scriptures were preserved only by memory. We know in particular of two schools that applied themselves to learning different sections of the texts, the Dighabhanakas, 'reciters of the DIgha,' and the Majjhimabhanakas, 'reciters of the Majjhima.' We also know that these schools preserved contradictory legends concemmg the discourses. It is easy to see how with this method of preserving the Doctrine differences of tradition would arise. There would be no certain method of preserving a definite order, as in the case of a written and numbered record. There would also be the danger of unwittingly including discourse, or commentaries which might be expositions of the pure Doctrine, but which were not an original part of the collection. An instance occurs in the case of the Satipatthana-sutta. It is found both in the Digha (No.22) and Majjhima (No. 10), but in the former case a long passage of commentary on the Four Truths has been incorporated.
We have a direct piece of evidence to show that differences in the Canon did arise at an early period, and they are just such differences as we should expect would develop in an orally preserved Canon. It is a common tradition of all the schools that sects began to develop in the second century after Buddha's death. The statement in the Dipavamsa is that after the second Council (held a century after Buddha's death), the defeated monks held a council of their own known as the Great Council and the members of it are also said to have revised the Scriptures. The account of the changes that they introduced is of course an ex parte statement, made from the point of view of the Theravada school, but it is clear that the author of the record knew of another form of the Canon differing in certain important respects from that of his own school. The account is as follows: The monks of the Great Council made a reversed teaching. They broke up the original collection and made another Collection. They put the Sutta collected in one place into another. They broke up the sense and the doctrine in the five Nikayas. The monks not knowing what was taught with exposition and what without exposition, the primary st ise and the inferred, composing another utterance established another sense. Under cover of the letter tho: e monks destroyed much sense. Rejecting some portion of the Sutta and the profound Vinaya they made another counterfeit Sutta and Vinaya. The Parivara, the summary of the sense (of the Vinaya), the six sections of the Abhidhamma, the Patisambhida, the Niddesa, and some portion of the Ja taka - so much they set aside and made others. Abandoning the arrangement of nouns and genders, the adornments of style, and the original nature (of words) they made others. These revisers are thus charged with changing the order of discourses, introducing spurious ones, rejecting certain works, and altering the grammar. We at least learn that the differences thus described were there, and they are exactly of the kind that we should expect to arise, even without any deliberate wish for 89 change, in the case of texts preserved orally by independent communities where various dialects were spoken. In the Pali Canon itself we find different recensions of the same discourse. Those portions which are said to have been rejected by the members of the Great Council are just those which modem criticism rejects as not forming an original part of the Canon. They all contain the doctrine of Buddha, and embody much which purports to be his actual words, but as distinct works they have been compiled later. On a strict interpretation of the word of Buddha it is quite intelligible that a school which had not adopted these portions into its tradition should declare them to be spurious. The reference to grammatical changes is also significant. It implies that there was a form of the Canon in a different dialect from that of the Theravada school. That there was such a form or forms we may be quite certain. Discourses preserved orally would inevitably be modified in language by a repeater whose own speech was a different dialect.
The statement has been made that Buddha allowed anyone to repeat the Scriptures in his own dialect, but the facts are these: In the Vinaya there is a story that two monks of brahmin origin came to Buddha and explained that certain monks of various names, clans, castes, and families were corrupting the word of Buddha with their own grammar (nirutti), and asked that they might draw up the word of Buddha in metre (chandaso). Buddha refused. "I order you, monks, to master the word of Buddha (Buddha-vacanam) in its own grammar." There is no need to think that this was an actual event in Buddha's life. All the rules are in the same formal way attributed to Buddha, but it implies that at some period there was a tendency to verify the texts, and that it was forbidden by this rule. Buddhaghosa in commenting on this passage explains 'in metre' as 90 meaning 'like the Veda in the Sanskrit language'. Whether Sanskrit was really meant may be doubted, but chandaso does mean in metre. It is not grammatically possible to make sakaya niruttiya, 'in its own grammar,' mean 'each in his own dialect', nor did Buddhaghosa so understand it. According to him it meant that the primitive Magadhi language, the own grammar or dialect of the texts, was to be preserved. He expressly says, 'the language of the Magadhas spoken by the All-enlightened.' The wish to versify the texts as a help to memory is seen in the Parivara, the last section of the Vinaya, which is practically a versified simimary of the Vinaya rules. In the post-canonical literature we have works like the Khuddasikkha and the Mulasikkha, both verse compendiums of the Vinaya, and the Abhidhammavatara and Ruparupavibhaga similarly summarising the Abhidhamma. All that this story allows us to infer is that there was once an attempt to versify the Canon, and that it was rejected, at least to the extent that the versifications were not allowed to take the place of the fundamental texts.
In the Vinaya there is the same division between the actual utterances attributed to Buddha, which are here the rules of discipline, and the explanatory matter. The later has long been recognised as commentarial. It consists of a verbal commentary on certain portions with a general commentary on the whole purporting to explain how each rule came to be promulgated. There can be no doubt that a body of rules must have been one of the original features of the Order, but it is also certain that what we possess is a collection of gradual growth. Each rule however is attributed directly to Buddha, and is held to have been enjoined on the occasion when the question of a certain practice arose in the Order, or when some offence had been committed. A monk was required to learn where each rule was promulgated, the person who gave occasion to the rule, and 91 the subject-matter of if. The compilation includes a history of the first and second Councils, but makes no mention of the third held in the time of Ashoka, and in the list of sacred texts said to have been recited at the first Council it ignores the Abhidhamma. The fact that the Abhidhamma is not mentioned, and that in the suttas only Dhamma and Vinaya are usually referred to, in itself merely proves that at one time the Abhidhamma did not form a separate Pitaka. It is however not held even by the Buddhist commentators to be the word of Buddha in the same sense as the suttas. One section of it, the Katha-vatthu, is said to have been 'taught' or promulgated at the second Council. The commentators say that it was rejected by some on the ground that it was set forth 218 years after the death of Buddha by Moggalliputta Tissa, and hence being only a disciple" s utterance should be rejected. But the view is taken that only the matika, the list of principles taught in it, is directly due to Buddha, who set forth the list foreseeing the heresies that would arise. "And Moggallipurta Tissa, when he taught this work, taught not by his own knowledge, but by the method given by the Teacher, and according to the matika which he had set forth, and so the whole work became the utterance of Buddha." As an example of this method the commentator mentions the Madhupindika-sutta (Majjh. i 108), in which a statement made by Buddha is enlarged and expounded by Kaccana.
So far as known the seven works of which the Abhidhamma consists are peculiar to the Theravada school, but other schools possessed an Abhidhamma, and the fact that very different views concerning it were held by different sects is shown from the account of Taranatha. a late Tibetan writer, who is probably reproducing earlier traditions. He says that the Vaibhasikas (another name for 92 the Sarvastivada school) hold the seven Abhidhamma books to be the word of Buddha; that the Sautrantikas hold them to have been composed by simple disciples, and falsely given out as the word of Buddha collected by Sariputta etc.; that some teachers say they are indeed Buddha's word, but that expressions composed by simple disciples have been introduced, as is the case with the suttas of different schools. Taranatha here records a view very like that of Buddhaghosa, and not essentially different from the modem critical view that the Abhidhamma is a systematising and development of principles drawn from the Dhamma as found in the suttas. So far as known the legendary matter in the Canon of other schools appears to be very similar to that of the Theravada. The Suttas of various sects as found in Chinese have been analysec by Professors Takakusu and Anesaki, and they are shown to present a general resemblance to the Pali with certain differences, which indicate that they go back to a common unwritten fradition, gradually diverging as it came to be preserved and commented on by different schools of repeaters. "The tradition preserved in the Chinese versions," says Anesaki, "is neither a corrupted form of, nor a later deviation form, the Pali one, but the two branches of fraditions are brothers or cousins." The differences prove that there was a development of the fradition,bu t the main lines of agreement are defmitely in favour of the antiquity of the Pali tradition as against the Sanskrit.
It is necessary to make a distinction between the earlier schools whose Canon is preserved in Sanskrit and the later Mahayana schools. Even the Maha yana teachers of the 'Great Vehicle' did not reject the older fradition, which they stigmatised as Hinayana,' the Low Vehicle,' but added to it. The chief Mahaya na work purporting to be historical is the Lalita-vistara, and it corresponds, not 93 with the older Canon, but with the matter of the commentaries. At the same time it has preserved passages as old as anything in the Pali. These passages often correspond with the Pali text, but appear to come from the Sarvastivada school. The same is true of the Mahavastu. This work has incorporated some Mahaya na material, but belongs to the Lokottaravada school, a branch of the Maha sanghikas. It contains much which belongs to a school that existed side by side with the Theravada, and drew from the same fraditions."
§ 19 WHAT ARE THE PURPOSES OF THE PREACHING OF THE BUDDHA?
In the First Sermon, Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (the Discourse of the Turning of the Wheel of Dhamma or Truth), the Buddha pointed out the Middle Way which gives vision, which gives knowledge, which is conducive to calmness, insight, enlightenment and Nibbana ( the state of being free from all defilements and suffering). In one of his discourses, the Buddha summarized his teaching with the words "Vimutti or Spiritual freedom from all defilements and suffering is the Ultimate." When sending his first sixty disciples on their preaching tour, the Buddha said: "I, now, monks, am free from all bonds of gods and men. And you too, monks, are free from all bonds of gods and men. Travel, monks, for the welfare of the many, for the happiness of the many, for helping the world, for the good, welfare and happiness of gods and men."
49 EDWARD J. THOMAS; The life of Buddha as Legend and History , Printed In Great
Britain By Lund Humphries London, 1927. PP. 149-154 94
From the Buddha's words, above mentioned, we can say that Nibbana or Vimutti is the main purpose of the preaching of the Buddha. He encouraged his disciples to walk the Middle Way in order to eradicate all defilements and sufferings and then, out of compassion for all, helping a hand to others. hi brief, the Buddha taught people how to be happy and prosperous both in a worldly as well as a spiritual sense. Those who follow His teaching can select their way of life practicable for themselves.
§ 20 ORDINATION Since the Theravada school uses the original Pali for the ceremonies of Pabbajja (going forth) and upasampada (Acceptance), as well as for the formal acts and duties performed after one's ordination, this means that candidates for ordination who do not know Pali must memorize these passages. It is true, those who have never used or unaccustomed to it, it is rather difficult to chant the contents. This is why they need a guide to know its meaning and pronunciation. Such guides give only the words to be recited with very little about the steps and procedures to be followed. They are written primarily for the use of those to be ordained.
The Candidate: The Candidate for admittance must be an adult male i.e. not less than 20 years old. Counting from the time of Conception in his mother's womb. He must not be sexually deformed - e.g. a eunuch or a hermaphrodite, and he must not be guilty of any serious crimes, such as killing his mother or
Buddhist Question and Answers; (book II) The Nation Identity Board highly appreciate the
office of the Secreatriat of the Sangha Supreme Council, Thailand 1996 pp. 110-111. 95 father, or of any serious wrongs against the religion, such as having committed a parajika offence when previously ordained as BhikJchu, or having gone over to another sect while still a Bhikkhu. Any female candidate is called vatthu - vipatti, an invalid object, and cannot receive upasampada. If a Sangha wittingly or unwittingly gives upasampada to such a candidate, the candidate does not count as a Bhikkhu in accordance with the Buddha's ordinances according to which once the mistake is found out, the candidate must be expelled from the Community.
A candidate free from the above disqualifications is called - Vatthu, Sampatti, a valid object, and may rightfullyreceiv e upasampada. Quorum: When a Sangha is to give upasampada, a full quorum must be gathered. This is called purisa - Sampatti, a Valid Quor jm. If there is no valid quorum of Bhikkhu possible the upasampada ceremony will not be carried out.
The Preliminaries: Before giving upasampada, the sangha must question the candidate to make sure that he is qualified. The questions included in the ceremony, though, do not touch on all the possible disqualifications, the candidate must find a Bhikkhu to act as his guarantor, called an upajjihaya. The Upajjhaya must be a senior Bhikkhu capable of fraining the candidate after his acceptance and must make sure that the candidate has a full set of basic requisites, a bowl, and a set of the three robes. And since upasampada is to be given only to a person who applies for it - it cannot be forced on any one, all of these activities - called pubba - kicca or preliminary duties must be completed before the announcement of the act. If any of them except for absolute disqualifications are skipped over they do not invalidate the act, but they do count as breach of custom. 96
The Announcement: only when all of the above factors are complete does the time come to announce the acceptance of the candidate into the community as a Bhikkhu. The announcement is made four times. The first time is a motion, called a natti, asking the Sangha to accept the candidate. The remaining three announcements give the opportunity for discussion within the Sangha to decide whether or not to accept the candidate. This section is called the anusavana or consultation. If during this part any member of the group objects to accepting the candidate, the proceedings are halted and the candidate is rejected. If, however, every member of the group remains silent during the anusavana, that is taken as a sign that all willingly accept him. After that, a final announcement is made saying that the Sangha has accepted the candidate, and that the Bhikkhu making the annoui :ement will remember him as having been properly accepted.
In the course of making the innouncement, the names of the candidate and his upajjhaya must be mentioned as well as the fact that the Sangha is the age giving acceptance. These points cannot be omitted. The announcement must be made the full number of times and in the prescribed pattern, without any reversal in the order. All of this is termed Kammavaca - Sampatti a Valid announcement of the act. The opposite Kammavaca - Vipatti, invalidates the act. A Sangha giving Upasampada must do so in line with these five qualifying factors if it is to be taken in accordance with the pattern prescribed by the Lord Buddha. Then to a Bhikkhu, desirous to be ordained, some very important questions are asked by the Sangha, which are as follows: "Do you have leprosy?" 97
"Do you have boils"? "Do you have ringworm"? "Do you have tuberculosis"? "Do you have epilepsy"? "Are you a human being"? "Are you a male"? "Are you free from indebtedness"? "Are you released from governmental, military, or royal service"? "Do you have the permission of your parents"? "Are you twenty years of age"? "Have you your bowl and your robes"? "What is your name"? "What is the name of your preceptor (Upajjhaya)? This interrogation, conducted in Pali the ancient literary language of Theravada Buddhism, is one of the basic steps in the process of ordination. However, easy it may be to become a monk, that is to be ordained, but really speaking it is not easy to be a monk, for once a man dons the robes he commits himself to a life of austerity, of poverty, of chastity, of renunciation of worldly pleasures. He Commits himself to long hours of meditation, to learning several chants and to studying Dhamma. He may go on to the difficult study of Pali and of the extensive texts of the Tripitaka (the three large volumes containing the Buddhist canon), and he may take the examinations which lead to a higher rank in the Sangha, as well as, to high office in the ecclesiastical hierarchy." Once
51 Gerald Roscoe; The Monastic Lifo; Published and distributed by Asia Books Company Bangkok, Thailand. P. 35. 98 a person intends to be a monk his life comes to a point where he adopts a different patterns of living. His entire behaviour is changed. He must, in order to comfort himself properly in this way of life, learn and abide by the Vinaya, which consists of the PatimokJcha (the 227 precepts - rules of discipline - of monastic life) and of the Abhisamacara (training in appropriate conduct). "Observance of the precepts is mandatory, failing these rules of discipline - all 227, he is subject to expulsion from the Sangha, or to disciplinary action, or to
52 suspension or probation, to forfeiture or expiation." Violations of the precepts are called offences (apatti) some of which are regarded as incurable, others curable, but all subject to disciplinary action depending on the gravity of the offence. The gravest offences are those whose commission results in expulsion. The monk who commits them is regarded as "defeated", in other words, he is no longer a monk and can never be ordained again. There are four such offences: (1) indulging in sexual intercourse, with a female, male, hermasphrodite "even with a female animal". (2) Stealing a thing of such value "that kings would have the robber arrested and either executed, imprisoned or banished". (3) Depriving a human being of life. (4) Falsely claiming the attainment of superhuman states like those attained by an Arhant, one who is enlightened. There are thirteen offences which are considered to be grave enough to require the Sangha to order the offender to observe penance and probation. Five concern sexual offences, eight concern offences that are detrimental to monastic
" Ibid. p. 36 99 community life, thirty rules concern the accumulation, possession and use of cloth, robes, handling of money. Ninety two offences call for expiation only - "evil conduct" "cruel conduct" "bad reputation". There are 75 additional rules concerning proper conduct - dealing with wearing the robes properly, proper behaviour in inhabitated areas, eating meals, teaching Dhamma, disrespectful etc. Besides the 227 (the Patimokkha) there are a great many training rules, the Abhisamacara, which a monk should observe such as: rules about shaving the hair, prescribing the wearing of ornaments, prescribing attendance at performances of dancing, singing or music, gambling, making floral garlands, etc. "Failure to observe the rules of the Abhisamacani carry no punishments. A monk strives to observe them, in addition to those of tne patimokkha, in order to improve himself, to be better able to follow the pathway to purity." Twice a month, on the wan Pra (Uposatha) days of the fiill moon and the new-moon, monks hold special ceremonies in their bot, at which the entire Patimokkha is recited, and confessions of any transgressions thereof made. Junior monks confess two to three times daily, if they have committed any offences to a senior monk. hi the main, as expressed in the Visuddhimagga (The Path of Purification a classic manual of Buddhist doctrine and meditation) "a monk is respectfiil, defermential, possessed of conscience and shame, wears his inner robes properly, wears his upper robe properly; his manner inspires confidence, he has a deportment, he guards the doors of his sense faculties, knows the right measure
" Ibid. pp. 38-39. 100 in eating, is devoted to wakefulness, possesses mindfulness and full awareness, wants little, is contented, is strenuous, is careful observer of good behaviour, and treats his teachers with great respect."'
20.1 MAGHA PUJA DAY Magha puja"Day is one of the most important Buddhist celebrations which falls on the full moon day of the third lunar month (about the last week of February or early March).
This day marks the great four events that took place during Lord Buddha's lifetime, namely; 1. 1250 Buddhist monks from different places came to pay homage to Lord Buddha at Veluwan '^ ihara in Rajgaha, the capital of Magadha State, each on his own ir tiative and without prior notification or appointment. \ |' , . 2. all of them were the enlightened monks (or Arahantas) 3. all of them had been individually ordained by Lord Buddha himself (Ehi Bhikkhu), and 4. They assembled on the full moon day of the third lunar month. On the evening of that days. Lord Buddha gave the assembly a discourse "Ovada Patimokha" laying down the principles of His Teachings summarised into three acts, i.e. to do good, to abstain from bad action and to purify the mind. It was unclear as to when the Magha Puja Ceremony took place. However, in a guide book of ceremonies for the twelve months written by King Chulalongkom (Rama V), it is said that, "... In the past, the Magha Puja was
^^ Ibid - pp. 38-39. 101 never performed, the ceremony has just been practised during the reign of King Mongkut (Rama IV) ..." Having reahzed the significance of this day. King Rama IV ordered the royal Magha Puja Ceremony to be performed in the Emerald Buddha Temple in 1851 and to be continued forever. Later the ceremony was widely accepted and performed throughout the kingdom. The day is declared as a public holiday so that people from all walks of life can go to the temple to make merit and perform other religious activities in the morning and to take part in the candlelit procession or "Wien Tien" in Thai in the evening.
At the same time, at this auspicious time, His Majesty the King will preside over the religious rites to mark the occasion at the Emerald Buddha Temple and will later lead hundreds of people in a candlelit procession held within the temple's compound. In fact, the candlelit procession can be held at any time suitable to the public's convenience, either in the morning or in the evening. However, in Bangkok it will usually take place in the evening at about 8.00 p.m. And the procession will be led by Buddhist monks. In general, most Buddhists are not aware of the significance of this days. As a result, a number of people taking part in the ceremony may be less than on other days such as Visakha Puja or Asanha Puja Days. Even so Magha Puja Day carries an equal meaning to all Buddhists.
20.2 VISAKHA PUJA DAY Visakha Puja Day is one of the greatest religious holidays which falls on the 15 day of the waxing moon in the 6 lunar month. The significant 102 celebration is held to commemorate the Buddha's birth, enlightenment and death (Parinibbana). In Thailand, as a Buddhist country with His Majesty the King as the Upholder of all Religions, this auspicious day is celebrated throughout the country. Religious flags are flown. Religious ceremonies and merit-makings are performed countrywide. Meanwhile, in the countryside people will wake up in the early morning to prepare food and sweets for monks, and at dawn they walk in a long line to the nearby temple where they will spend the greater part of the day in religious activities. The activities are usually centred around the temple where they attend sermons during the day and in the evening take part in the candle-lit procession that circumambulates the main chapel three times. In the procession, each person carries flowers, three incense sticks and a lighted candle in remembrance of the Triple Gems (The Buddha, His Teaching and His disciples).
On this occasion, a grand religious ceremony is also held at Phuttha Monthon in Nakhon Pathom Province where the statue of the Walking Buddha is located. Here the candle-lit procession is usually led by a member of the royal family. Buddhists from nearby and other provinces come to take part in the procession and some of them may take the time off to purify their minds through the practice of meditation and listening to the sermons.
20.3 ASANHA POJA AND BUDDHIST LENT The Asanha Puja Day is one of the sacred days in Buddhism as it marks the coming into existence of the Triple Gems, namely: the Lx)rd Buddha, His Teachings and His Disciples. The day falls on the fifteenth day of the waxing 103 moon of the eighth lunar month (July). It is an anniversary of the day on which Lord Buddha delivered the First Sermon to his first five disciples at the Deer Park in Benares over two thousand five hundred years ago.
To observe this auspicious day, Buddhists all over the country perform merit-making and observe Silas (Precepts). Some go to the temples to offer food and offerings to the monks and also listen to a sermon to purify their minds. The Asanha Piija Day falls on the day preceding the Buddhist Lent which starts on the first day of the waning moon of the eighth lunar month.
The tradition of Buddhist Lent or the annual three-month Rains Retreat known in Thai as " Phansa " dates back to the time of early Buddhism in ancient India, all holy men, mendicants and sages spent three months of the annual rainy season in permanent dwellings. They avoided unnecersary travel during the period when crops were still new for fear they might accidentally step on young plants. In deference to popular opinion. Lord Buddha decreed that his followers should also abide by this ancient tradition, and thus began to gather in groups of simple dwellings.
Buddhist Lent covers a good part of the rainy season and lasts three lunar months. In Thailand, Buddhist monks resolve to stay in a temple of their choice and will not take an abode in an other temple until the Lent is over.
The celebration of the beginning of Buddhist Lent is marked by the ceremony of presenting candles to the monks. Various institutions e.g. schools and universities, including public and private organisations will organise a colourlul candle procession leading to a temple where the offering of the candles will be made. 104
Some Buddhist followers consider the beginning of Buddhist Lent as a time for making resolution such as refraining from smoking or observing five precepts (Pancasila) throughout the three-month Rains Refreat.
20.4 TAK BAT DEVO AND CHAK PHRA FESTIVAL There is a Buddhist myth that during one Rains Refreat or "Khao Phansa'.' Lord Buddha went to heaven to deliver a sermon to his mother who died after giving birth to Lord Buddha (then Prince Siddhratha) and was bom again in heaven. The sermon given was said to last for the entire period of the Rains Refreat (3 months). Upon completing his mission n heaven, Lord Buddha then retumed to earth and was greeted by a crov d of his disciples and followers. To commemorate this event, two public festivals are held, namely; the 'Tak Bat Devo" in the central region and the "•"hak Phra" in the South. Both portray the event of Lord Buddha's return to earth and annually take place immediately after the end of the 3-month Rains Retreat. However, the celebration of these two festivals may be different in its preparation and practices. In other words, Tak Bat Devo means "offering of food to Buddhist monks". The celebration is an imitation of Lord Buddha's descent from heaven. Thus, a high place such as the hill is preferably used as a starting point, the Golden Mount of Wat Sraket in Bangkok is a good example of this. But for the temple built far away from the hill, the consecrated assembly hall (or Uposatha) can also be used as a starting point.
When all is ready, the row of Buddhist monks, headed by the image of a sanding Buddha carried by men representing God Indra and God Brahma, will 105 move slowly along the path arranged in advance. People then offer a variety of food and fruit to the passing monks. The rite ends when the last monk in the row finishes the entire route. Meanwhile, Chak Phra literally means "pulling of the Buddhist monks" and it is celebrated in many southern provinces such as Nakhon Si Thammarat, Patani, Phatthalung, Songkhla and Yala. The most impressive Chak Phra festival is on the Tapi River in Surat Thani Province. To mark this occasion, two float- pulling ceremonies are held, one on land and the other on water. On land, the splendidly adorned floats are pulled aaoss the town by the participants of the ceremony. At the same time, on water, the ceremony is highlighted by a float decorated in colourful Thai design of a float made to carry the Buddha image. This float is then towed to the middle of the river for a religious ceremony. On the following day, the float carrying the Buddha image is towed along the river so that people can worship and make merit. Both land and river events are highly colourful. The Chak Phra festival then concludes with an exciting boat race and a traditional game.
20.5 KATHIN CEREMONY With the end of the 3-month Rains Retreat (about July to September), monks throughout the country are free to move from place to place and are eligible to receive new robes in an annual presentation ceremony called 'Thot Kathin" . Besides new robes, Buddhist literature, kitchen equipment, fmancial contributions and building materials e.g. nails, hand-saws and hammers etc. are also presented to monks on this occasion. 106
In fact, the word "Thot" means "making an offering to the monk" and the word "Kathin" literary means the " embroidery frame" used in sewing the yellow robes which, in those days, were collected from rags on dead bodies in the jungle since clothes were not available in plenty as nowadays. Buddhist people regard the "Thot Kathin" ceremony as the most significant form of merit-making next to the ordination of their close kin. Thus, once in their lifetime everybody is looking forward to having an opportunity to be the sponsor of a Kathin ceremony as it involves a lot of time, manpower and expense. Above all, an advance booking must be made with the temple, otherwise, the chance to be a sole sponsor of the Kathin may not be possible especially with the reputable temples. Nontheless, those who fail to be the sole sponsor of Kathin can also take part in the ceremony which, in this type, is known as "Kathin Samakki" or the "United Kathin".
Meanwhile, for the royal temples such as the Tempel of Dawn or the Reclining Buddha Temple etc. The King or his representatives will be the sponsor of the ceremony, and usually His Majesty the King himself will present the royal Kathin robes to the Buddhist monks of Wat Po (The Reclinig Buddha Temple) and other leading temples in Bangkok especially the famed riverside Wat Arun (The Temple of Dawn). On the special occasion, the King will take a journey on board the Royal Barge accompanied by a colourful fleet of escort barges along the Chao Phraya River from the Wasukri Royal landing stage to Wat Arun. The grand waterbone procession of the royal barges is the most beautiful event and visitors to Thailand should not miss a chance to take a glimpse which will remind them of Thailand forever. 107
Sometimes a Kathin group will travel for several hundred kilometers by bus, train, boat or even by plane to present the Kathin robes and other necessities to monks in remote temples or in other countries where Buddhist temples are established. People thus hold this merit-making festival not only for earning merit for themselves but also for enjoying a fim-filled holiday free from the daily hectic life full of stress and strain in the city. During the Thot Kathin period, it is very common to see Kathin processions fraveling to and for throughout the country. In fact, anybody can take part in the event through the simple method of enclosing a small amount of money in the white envelope given by friends or relatives. It is to be noted that Kathin and Pha-pa (or the Forest Robe or a robe left for the monks to take as a discarded cloth) are totally difi"srent from one another, in other words, while the Kathin ceremony can be performed only once a year and only after the end of the Rains Retreat, the Pha-pa ceremony can be performed all the year round and at any time suitable. In addition, while each temple is allowed to accept the Kathin robes only one time in a year, the Pha-pa robe can be presented to monks as often as possible. Evidently, the Pha-pa ceremony is less significant than the Kathin ceremony which requires greater preparation. Thus, the Kathin is treated as one of the most significant religious events and can take part from the king to the poor people in rural areas. ^^
§ 21 BUDDHISM AS PHILOSOPHY Generally speaking, philosophy, etymologically meaning "Love of
Thanapol Chadchaidee; Essays on Thailand; Thaicharoen Panit Press Pvt Ltd. Bangkok,
Thailand, 1994. P.P. 113-114, 88, 16, 8, 94-95. 108
Wisdom" represents a personal attitude or view of things. It signifies a natural urge in human beings to interpret and understand themselves and the world in which they live, move, act and hair their being. It stands for an intellectual as well as a spiritual quest for facts and truths, and tries to inquire with a critical spirit into the deepest nature and most essential meaning of things. Philosophical attitude depends upon one's own appreciation of creative contemplation and wisdom." Philosophy thus intends the totality of things, aims at self-consistent understanding of things observed. It also clarifies, evaluates, and synthesizes all aspects of knowledge. 'As per Indian view point the term philosophy describes "darsana" the root of which is "dris" neaning "to see" To see is to have a direct intuitive experience of the object, or rather to realize it. In the eastern cultures philosophy and religion hand in hai 1, both originate from the same root and develop integrally. There is no separation between philosophy and religious thoughts. In the Pali tradition, the word "Panfia" refers to the "embodiment of wisdom as such". In Buddhist concept wisdom is understood as the methodical contemplation of Dhammas", to be more exact and precise, the methodical realization of truth. Buddhaghosacariya's definition of the term goes this way", Wisdom (Panna) has the characteristic of penetrating into the real nature of Dhammas, it has for its taste the destruction of the darkness of delusion which covers the real nature of Dhammas; it has for its function the being not deluded; it has for its proximate basis the concentration because of the statement, "he who
^^ Siddhi Butr Inder; "The Social Philosophy of Buddhism "; Published by Mahamakut Buddhist University Bangkok, Thailand 1995, P. 3. 109 is concentrated knows and sees what really is."^ The "right view" (Sammadithi) in Buddhism offers its own solution. The entire Buddhist culture comprises of threefold principles or a scheme of enculturation: (1) Observance of moral principles, (2) the practice of concentration and the highest scheme represents wisdom. In order to modify this view, the Buddha said: "The concentration being well cultivated on the basis of morality, is of great fruit and advantage; wisdom being well cultivated on the basis of concentration, is of great fruit and advantage, the mind being well cultivated on the basis of Wisdom, is set quite
58 free from the defilements." If we consider the above statement, it is quite obvious from Buddhist point of view that goodness is a function of wisdom and the same is justified by goodness, as beauty is of health and the other way round. When the Buddha began his teaching mission, there was never an issue whether he would establish a religion or found a school of philosophy. He had realized the Dhamma, overcome Samsara, and achieved Supreme Enlightenment. Buddha's desire was to establish lasting peace and happiness in the world. He was so curious to let the whole world knew the supreme knowledge he had attained. Those who listened to him and accepted his teachings and views as right became Bhikkus, collectively known as Sangha. Lay persons continued to practise the teachings and took the responsibility of
Vism, p. 370, cp. pp 507. DN. II, p. 94, 123, cp. DB II. p. 100, 132. no supporting the Sangha. This is how Buddhism evolved and developed gradually. No doubt, the Buddha very sincerely wanted, his teaching to be properly understood and practised by the people. He wanted the Dhamma-vinaya to be the centre of their lives. This way of life is exactly what Buddhism is. It is not simply a system of beliefs, or a speculation about values and reality, is it the service and worship of God or the supernatural. It is a system of noble principles for man to
59 understand and practice; it is the truth." No doubt. Buddhism has all the necessary components to qualify it as a religion, but one should never lose sight of the fact that the Buddhist religion is fundamentally a way of life. It is possible that some may approach Buddhism through its religious perspective or philosophical aspect, or academically attempt to evaluate its ethical relevance in to day's social context, according to one's preference. Terms like philosophy and ethics are used to designate certain disciplines of human thought and behaviour. These usually result from logic and speculative thinking; but the Dhamma is the Truth discovered by the Buddha as a result of his supreme enlightenment. The Dhamma is a way of life, a system of thought by which we live and on which we base our moral conduct. Both philosophy and ethics can be found embodied in the Dhamma, but the Dhamma covers a much wider scope." The Buddha never intended to establish any school of though, the simply explained the Truth and the course of action to follow in order to lead a happy 59 Sunthorn Planintr; "Getting to know Buddhism"; published by Buddhadhamma Foundation,ThaiIand, 1994 p. 27. ** Ibid p. 71. Ill and useful life. For example, when he gave his first discourse to a group of five ascetics, he began with a warning against the two courses of practice that were in vogue at that time, but which he considered to be useless, ignorable and unprofitable, the two extremes of indulgence in sensual gratification and the practice of self-mortification. Then he explained the Four Noble Truths, which represent the reality of existence in all its aspects. Finally, he taught the Nobel Eightfold Path, which is the discourse of practice to realize the Dhamma. At the end of the discourse, one of the ascetics is said to have attained to the higher knowledge known as the Eye of Truth (Dhamma Cakkhu).
According to the Buddha, the best way of worship is by fulfilling one's duties in the light of those relationships, which is the highest form of worship, which is the core of duty to society. The Buddha mentioned six kinds of relationships - parents are compared to the eastern direction, teachers are likened to the southern direction, spouse and children to the west, fhends to the north, servants and employers to the nadir and monks to the zenith. The following are the great philosophers and thinkers who have given their views about Buddhism. Albert Einstein: The religion in the future will be a cosmic religion. It should transcend a personal God and avoid dogma and theology. Covering both the natural and the spiritual, it should be based on a religious sense arising from the experience of all things, natural and spiritual, as a meaningful unity. Buddhism answers this description. If there is any religion that would cope up with modem scientific needs it would be Buddhism." Bertrand Russell - Buddhism is a combination of both speculative and scientific philosophy. It advocates the scientific method and pursues that to a 112 finality that may be called rationalistic... it takes up where science cannot lead because of the limitations of the latter's instruments. Its conquest are those of the mind".
Schopenhauer: The German philosopher, says, "If I am to take results of my philosophy as the standard of truth I should be obliged to concede to
Buddhism the pre eminence over the rest".
Professor Carl Gustav Jung, "As a student of comparative religion, I believe that Buddhism is the most perfect one the world has ever seen. The philosophy of Kamma were far superior to any other creed".
Dr. Graham Howe, an eminent British psychiatrist, puts it: To read a little
Buddhism is to realize that the Buddhists knew, 2500 years ago, far more about modem problems of psychology than t ey have been credited for. They studied these problems long ago and found th( answers also. We are now discovering the ancient wisdom of the East".
H.G. Wells, "Buddhism has done more for the advance of world civilization than any other influence in the Chronicles of mankind. It is possible that in contact with western science and inspired by the spirit of history, the original teaching of Gotama, revived and purified, may yet play a large part in the direction of human destiny".
The great poet, Sir Edwin Arnold, expressed this appreciation of
Buddhism, "I have often said, and I shall say again and again, that between
Buddhism and modem science there exists a close intellectual bond".
Aldous Huxley writes: "Alone of all the great world religious Buddhism made its way without persecution, censorship or inquisition".
Francis Story: The doctrine of Buddha Dhamma stand today, as 113 unaffected by the march of time and the expansion of knowledge as when they were first enunciated. No matter to what lengths increased scientific knowledge can extend man's mental horizon, within the framework of the Dhamma there is room for the acceptance and assimilation of further discovery". Miss. LB. Homer - "Many people in the West can no longer believe in a creator God who is both all powerful and all merciful for the tragic events they see all around them, the occasions of suffering and distress do not support such a hypothesis. At the same time many people have strong wish for a rational way of life; something they can turn to use as a barrage against the almost overwhelming materialism of our times. This is what early Buddhism gives". Another Western writer expressed his view of Buddhism in these words: "Buddhism is a plan for living in such a way as to derive highest benefit from life. It is a religion of wisdom where knowledge and intelligence predominate. The Buddha did not preach to win converts but to enlighten listeners". Anatole France, a famous French poet and novelist says: "It seemed that the kindly aesthetic, eternally young, seated cross-legged on the lotus of purity with his right hand raised in admonition answered in these words: If you wish to escape from suffering, from fear practise wisdom and compassion". Hemann Keyserlig, German philosopher, says: "I know nothing more grand in the world than the figure of Buddha. This grandest creation of art, the figure of Buddha, surely could not have been produced by a pessimistic reUgion". Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru: "His message was one of Universal benevolence, of love for all. It was an ideal of righteousness and self-discipline. Buddha relies on reason and logic and experience and asks people to seek the truth in their own 14 mind. It is remarkable how near this philosophy of the Buddha brings us to some of the concepts of modem physics and modem philosophic thought.
Buddha's method was one of psychological analysis and, again it is surprising to find how deep was his insight into this latest of modem science".
Further he says, "It is essentially through the message of the Buddha that the individual, national and intemational problems of today can be looked at from the right perspective".
§ 22 BUDDHIST ECONOMICS
It is often said that Buddhism is devoid of substantial economic theory.
Such a view arises because of the erroneous belief that Buddhism is a religion more other - worldly in its nature than being concemed with the day to day mundane problems of the present world we live in. Buddhist teachings state how the righteous life first lead in this world eventually would lead to a happy life in the next world (dhammacari sukham seti asmin loke param hica). The emphasis in Buddhism is always on the good and virtuous life in this world, and not that of the other world. Even Nirvana, the final enlightenment desired by a Buddhist could be attained in this every world itself.
Buddhist economic thought is not available presented in one discourse as a separate coherent theory. One has to glean through numerous discourses and collect material pertaining to economics, and then weave these into a system consistent with the spirit of the Buddhist doctrine (Dhamma). The Buddha has already provided us with a practical test in order to verify whether a teaching falls in line with his doctrine or not. 115
In one discourse we come across a simple verse which in a nutshell contains the essential features of Buddhist economic thinking. According to this verse, an individual is expected to divide what he earns (i.e. resources) into four equal shares. The first share or portion is to be spent on his basic needs such as food, clothing etc. The two next shares or portions should be expended on fruitful or meaningfril activities such as agriculture and trade. The last portion or share is to be saved in order to meet any exigency such as an unexpected illness or external danger (i.e. flood, fire, robbers, danger from kings etc.). "One portion let him spend and taste the fruit. His business to conduct let him take two and portion four let him reserve and hoard. So, there'll be wherewithal in times of need".
This simple verse needs carefril interpretation beyond what it openly conveyed in its face-value. In the verse, indicators of economic development or prosperity of an individual, group or a state are found. The basic economic policy of a state is also outlined. Unless the verse is analysed carefully, keeping the spirit of Buddha's teachings in mind, it is not easy to unravel the above-implied meanings. An individual in a Buddhist society, whatever his work should be, is assured of a fixed income. This may come to him in the way of resources. He should be able to meet his basic needs comfortably with one-fourth of such resources or income. If one applies this principle to a country, every able-bodied man or woman is assured of an income by way of suitable employment; others assisted by the state which provides them with such resources or income. In this manner, full employment should be guaranteed. If there is no such employment, the state should assist those out of employment, until they secure 116 such employment. Those who are physically or psychologically handicapped need assistance from the state without any damage being caused to their human dignity. Two indicators to measure economic prosperity in a state that practises Buddhist economics are found in the following:
1. Is everybody assured of a permanent income (by way of productive employment or assistance)? 2. Is it possible to satisfy one's (a family's ) basic needs, expending only one-fourth of such a total income? The basic needs are: food, clothing, shelter, medicament and education (i.e. spiritual development). The essential food-stuffs should be available so that anyone living in such a state could procure it without much trouble. The level of economic progress is gauged by the fact that with one-fourth of one's income, one is able to meet these five basic needs. The broad outline of a state's economic policy is thus structured to suit these objectives.
The second line in the verse states that half of one's income should be channeled to fruitful or meaningful activities. Such activities in a Buddhist sense should be productive and not conducive to one's own downfall or those of others. Development of skills, training, experience, fulfilling the basic needs of others are such fruitfril activities. In a way, this is the basic approach to investment in a Buddhist economy.
The fourth line deals with savings. Savings are to be encouraged in the case of eveiyone living in a Buddhist society. Unless one possesses savings, one would be faced with economic problems in times of a crisis; particularly when sudden Illness takes place. If there are no savings available, an individual or a nation would inevitably fall into debt. 117
Economic development is measured by the following additional indices: 1. The extent of the psychological and physiological well-being of a nation or state. Health is regarded as the highest gain a person could achieve.
2. Judicious utilisation of available natural resources including the safeguarding of one's environment. Natural resources are not to be exploited and wasted. The environment, including fauna and flora should be careftiUy protected. Living in a pleasant environment is regarded as a great blessing (patirupa-desa vasa).
3. Non-exploitation of either human beings or animals. Exploitation means the use of others to achieve one's own material or social gain while providing such individuals with very low returns for their labour or service rendered. In an economically-prosperous state, such exploitation should be totally absent, or if this is impossible, reduced to the minimum.
4. Judicious distribution of resources: access to material as well as non-material resources (i.e. educational opportunities) should be made possible for all those living in that state. No individual or group should hold sway over others. 5. Peace and tranquillity should prevail because in an economically prosperous state anti-social acts would be reduced to the minimum. "Then those men, following each his own business, will no longer harass the realm; the king's revenue will go up, the country will be quiet and at peace, and the populace pleased 18
one with another and happy, dancing their children in their arms, dwell with open doors". There are five principles that Buddhist teachings lay down as necessary to be formulated as a national policy in a state which practises Buddhist economics. Such a state cannot openly or clandestmely encourage or deal in five areas or types of economic activities. These are:
1. The production and sale of arms and ammunitions (armaments). 2. The production of poison. 3. The production, distribution and sale of alcohol and dangerous drugs. 4. Rearing of animals for the purpose of killing them. 5. Sale of flesh. The Buddhist economic theory looks at life from a holistic point of view. While surveying the material production, the relationship of such material produce to non-material aspect of life is underscored. Development of an individual is related to a family; a family to a group; a group to a state or a nation; a state to other states. All human beings are thus the focus of development. One does not forget even animals, birds, fish as well as trees and plants. These are bound to human beings so closely that in attempt to initiate economic production if are forgets or ignores these that would to initiate economic production if are forgets or ignores it these that would result in disastrous consequences in the future. Economic production, Buddhist economics teaches us, has to centre on human beings. Then it has to look at man in relation to the economic activity initiated by him. Is this economic activity for the purpose of increasing one's own matenal possessions at the expense of other people? An economic act has to be weighed together with other acts and undertaken only when it does not;
(i) exploit others; (ii) increase additional wants while depriving some others of their basic
needs; (lii) does not fall within the five areas stated earlier; (iv) would not lead to undue waste, or the creation of ill-balance in material resources available or disturb the ecological balance. The Buddhist economic theory is indeed not value-free. It postulates happiness and contentment or well-bemg for the great majority of the people (bahujana hitaya bahujana sukhaya). An economic act is also a volitional act- a kamma which would inevitably have its own result; pleasant or unpleasant. It is therefore of utmost importance to engage in volitional economic acts (kammas) that result in pleasant consequences both in the present and in future lives. Kamma is one force in our life which conditions our existence: "man is conditioned by heredity (bija niyama), by his physical, social and ideological environment (salayatana paccaya phasso etc.) by his psychological past (citta niyama) includmg his karmic heritage (kamma niyama). But he is not determmed by any one or all of them". The free will of a human being is there, counter-manding ail those factors and influences-a free will which a human being could exercise, if he so desires.
Kamma, as much the other four factors could determine your birth in a poor or nch family. But it does not mean that by virtue of this alone you are destined to be poor or rich always. It is your present action, your industry and application that matters. That is why in Buddhism heedflilness is always 120 emphasised. The crux of economic development is embedded in this principle: "Be heedfiil, strive own with diligence". Poverty is recognised by the Buddha as something for which an immediate solution has to be found. When the four or five basic needs are denied to an individual, he is steeped in object poverty. The duty of the state is to redeem all those steeped in such object poverty. If such poverty is found in a country, that country is economically backward. No increase in per capita income or gross national product could transform the economy of a country to what Buddhist economics would call-a developed economy without the people steeped in object poverty, being first rescued from their unfortunate position.
In Buddhism, the strategy of economic development is based on four important principles: (1) Those involved in economic production, particularly in agriculture and industry should be provided with all what they require - seeds, cattle, manure, land, water, irrigation implements etc. In fact, such assistance is considered as meritorious when undertaken by the state. The state economic policy should give agriculture pride of place, and together with it, encourage agro-based industry and other industries associated with the satisfaction of the basic needs. (2) Trade and commerce should be encouraged by providing the essential capital, and all other amenities to those engaged in such activities. The state should also supervise such trade and commerce and see that under no conditions the workers or the consumers are exploited in any way by those engaged in trade 121
and commerce. Excessive rates of interest etc., for money borrowed from banks should not be the rule. (3) The officials serving the state, as well as all professionals should be encouraged by the grant of a satisfactory remuneration, promotion, leave, incentives and other privileges so that they would be contended at their respective work-places and not be lured or attracted by bribery or corruption, nor alienated from their work.
(4) The state should extend its support to all those engaged in the sector of spiritual development. Economic development presupposes careful economic planning. Buddhist economics refer to such planning at the individual-family level, and at national- state level. There are four characteristics that such planning and the eventual carrying out of such planning should involve. They are:
(1) Attainment of energy (Uthana sampada), (2) Attainment of watchfulness (Arakkha sampada). (3) Association with people who are able, constructive and endowed with good qualities (Kalyanamittata). (4) A balanced life (Samajivita). Attainment of energy means whatever one's occupation is, be it that of a farmer, a labourer, a professional man, a trader or an industrialist-he should be skilful and industrious. He should never be indolent. Such a lazy man would always postpone work attributing it to external reasons such as hot and cold weather or to time, morning or night, or to other reasons saying: " I am now hungry", "Now I am too full" etc. 122
He will thus not engage himself in work and thus lose his productivity. A nation too likewise should be industrious, ever vigilant and productive. Attainment of energy or being vigilant is highly praised by the Buddha in many a discourse. Once, King Pasenadi asked the Buddha if there is anything of profit attainable in the things of the present world which would also be of value in the world beyond. The Buddha replied: "Vigilance".
The second characteristic, the attainment of watchfulness is the care of one's possessions without allowing it to get wasted unnecessarily. Whatever one has acquired "by constant diligence by the strength of his limbs, by the sweat of his brow, by well-concerted plans, 'tie must safeguard it. Wealth needs such protection from enemies and disagreeable relatives.
Such wealth could dissipate from indulgence in: (1) unlawful sexual intercourse; (2) use of intoxicating i quor; (3) indulgence in gambling, and (4) indulgence in associating unrightecjs friends. "If a lake, well-fortified by embankments has four feeding streams and four outlets; and if the four inlets be blocked, and the passage of the four outlets be cleared up by the removal of slit to facilitate the outflow of water, and if there be no currents of air to obstruct the movement of water, the lake will gradually flow out and the lake will be emptied. In the same way, the wealth of a person who indulges in the above four activities will dissipate". When such wrongful activities become prevalent in a country, the wealth of the country is sure to disappear. Thus the society would disintegrate eventually.
The third characteristic of economic development is the association with able, constructive and good people. Such people should be educated, thus intellectually developed, capable of discerning what is right and wrong and 123 providing useful advice when such advice is needed. They should be people who will not tempt or lead one into the commission of counter-productive activities. Finally, the necessity of leading a balanced life is emphasised. Here, having realised the difficulty of earning wealth, one should spend it carefully- becoming moderate in his expenditure. A life-style of conspicuous consumption has to be abandoned. A simple style of life founded on maintaining one's mental as well as physical wealth is the basis of a balanced way of living. Living without becoming a weight on oneself as well as on others is commended in Buddhism (subharo sallahukavutti). The manner in which one should spend his individual wealth is laid down. In the case of happiness that a layman enjoys (Gahapati sukha), the judicious enjoyment of one's income (Bhogasukha) is often commended: (1) Expenses incurred on procuring basic needs, beginning with food. (2) Maintaining the wife, children and servants. (3) For ilbess and other emergencies. (4) For charitable purposes. (5) For activities such as the treatment of one's relatives and visitors, fulfilling obligatory duties to the dead by undertaking various acts like offering of alms on their behalf, offering merit to the deities, and for the payment of state taxes. As mentioned earlier, m the carrying out of such activities, excessive spending is to be avoided. Debt, when incurred individually or as a state or a nation leads to undesirable consequences. A person ( or even a state or nation) derives a singular pleasure when there are no debts to be paid (Anana sukha). 124
Economic activity in a Buddhist sense could be better understood with the doctrine of merit. Accumulation of merit by engaging in activities beneficial to oneself as well as to others-primarily to human beings, but also animals and other creatures as well as to the environment is the basis of the doctrine of merit (see Ratnapals 1983, 66-70). It is because of this doctrine of merit that the provision of irrigation water, the cuhivation of crops and the planting of trees are referred to as meritorious acts. What is economically good and desirable should contribute to the wealth and welfare of the multitude (bahujana hitaya, sukkha ya). In this, all works of social utility were highly commended as meritorious:
"Planters of groves and fruitful frees, and they who build causeway and dam and wells construct and watering-sheds and (to the homeless) shelter give-of such as these by day and night forever doth the merit grow. In righteousness and virtue's might such folk from earth to heaven go". Such a doctrine rendered a new dimension to labour and earned wealth. Labour consists not only of physical exertion but also the intellectual performance. Once the Buddha met a brahmin who accused him of not being engaged in any productive work. The Buddha told the brahmin that the labour in which he was involved in was important than mere physical labour: "I also, 0 Brahmin, both plough and sow, and ploughed and sown, I eaf asked to explain, the Buddha points out that in intellectual labour: "Faith is the seed, penance the rain, understanding my yoke and plough, modesty the pole of the plough, mind the tie, thoughtfulness my plough-share and goad.... Excertion is my beast of burden... the purpose of this labour is for the benefit and happiness of the multitude of human beings." 125
In Buddhist teachings, the mind is the forerunner of everything, and as such, even when physical labour is involved, it is the mind that is foremost: "Mind foreruns (all evil and all good) conditions; mind is chief, mind made are they. "In such a sense, one becomes satisfied with whatever work he selects, and as such, alienation does not set in.
The principle of alienation is referred to when people who are frightened, seek reftige in trees, mountains, outside agents or forces. The simple creations of the people begin to hold sway over them with the passage of time. No satisfaction is derived in labour engaged in. Ignorance of reality is the root cause of such alienation. Proper education or means of providing correct information is emphasised here.
Buddhist economics does not preach socialism in 'he sense we understand socialist economics today. In the community of monks where personal needs are reduced to only eight requisites, community ownership was commended in order to facilitate the practising of spiritual principles necessary for such a life. Even in such a life, when individual consideration arose, individual ownership was allowed within certain limits. In normal society, human beings beset with craving would always treasure individual property. The idea of banishing the notion and practice of private property in this context looks unreal in a Buddhistic sense. What is necessary is for us to understand our ignorance which ultimately lead to the inordinate acquisition of private property to a level that we ourselves cannot control it, and we on the other hand deprive others of their due share. Education and state policy is necessary to strike the correct balance here. To get at this correct balance and establish it as the economic policy, recognising the individual freedomo f human beings to possess whatever they want, but at the 126 same time not to allow human beings engaged in such positions to cause the ultimate detriment of others is the pragmatic foundation of Buddhist economic theory.'^ "No one seems to think that a Buddhist way of life would call for a Buddhist economics...." (E.F. Schumacher, Small is Beautiful) The Buddha once refused to preach to a man because he was hungry and till his hunger was not appeased, he did not consider it was appropriate to preach him Dhamma. The Buddha felt that the layman should develop both his material and spiritual welfare, therefore the economic factor is a significant determinant of social change. To day in the Thai society it is an accepted belief The Buddha advocates nature ;md reciprocal relationships which deny any symbolic attachment, abnormal domi lation or dependence. The Buddha offers a social ethics which combines a fme t lend of self-reliance, self-development and altruism.
'Tor the development of Co-operative efforts in group living and nation building, narrow acquisitive pursuits and selfishness have to be eliminated. Thus the doctrine of "egolessness" provides a basis for group living, which is a very necessary basis for common economic pursuits." A way of "life-style based on permanent and limitless expansion in a fmite world cannot last long" says Schumacher. He further mentions that the important question is not our competence as regards means but our realism and wisdom as regards ends. Instead of making a futile attempt to use the limited resources to gain an ever increasing horizon of ends, why not have a second look
Nandasene Ratnapaia; Buddhist Sociology; Indian Books Centre, Delhi-India, 1993 pp. 97-115. Dr. Padmasiri de Silva: ""The Search for Buddhist Economics" Buddhist Publication Society, Kendy Srilanka, 1975 p. 11. 127 at the ends one is pursuing. Here the Buddhist insistence on clear awareness of both the purposeflilness and the suitabihty of an action becomes significant (Satthaka-sampajanna, sappaya-sampajanna). One can ehminate certain artificial needs that emerge out of an obsession to consume. Certain needs can be reduced and others diverted to more productive ends. Mahatma Gandhi rightly remarked, "Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's need but not every man's greed". One should do away with unhealthy life-styles, fed by a single-minded pursuit of wealth, and economy propelled by a frenzy of greed and false patterns of consumption. This is what the Buddha wanted through Right Livelihood, in which no greed or hoarding of any material goods is involved.
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