Volume y No. 1 The BRITISH AKT Journal The picturesque and the homogenisation of Empire

Jeffrey Auerbach

t is more than a century since JR Seeley remarked in The Expansion of England (1H83) that the British Empire Ideveloped in 'a fit of absence of mind'.' The rea,sons for and motives unt.lerlying its expansion, whether ptilitical. diplomatic, economic, social, intellectual, or religious, are fairly well known, however much they continue tt) be debated.- In recent years scholars have also begun to explore the impact of the empire on the so-called metropolitan centre. es[xrcially ¡politically.^ and have even questioned the ver\ boundaries between métropole and periphery' particularly in the cultural realni.^ Yet serious and fundamental questions remain about the place of the empire in the British mint!. How- did Britons conceive of and represent their empire, especially during the 19th century, the period of its greatest expansi()n? How did they come to regard it as being more unified than it actually was at the administrative level?^ What, if an>'thing, gave the empire coherence, especially in the half-century bef(ïre the steamship and the electric telegraph? How did the individual regions of the empire - 'one continent, a hundred peninsulas, five huntlred promontories, a thousand lakes, two thousand ri\'ers. ten thousand ¡.slands'"^» - become pan of an imperial whole? Viliat were the vectors of empire, and if, as man>' scholars have recently suggested, they should not be characterized in metre)["H)litan peripheral terms, then on what basis?

The Victorian imagination constructed the British Enijiirc through a variety of cultural forms. The most famous of these were surely the maps of the world with the territories of the empire coloured pink, of which many versions were published beginning as early as Victoria's coronatitin in \Hy to promote imperial unity.^ In recent decades scholars have- amply documented the role of literature - especially fictitin. but also children's and travel literature and political speeches 1 iiiN:i Ki'i'fUCfl by William tltx.igt.'s. fl~7!i O National Maritime Museum, t/jndon. Ministr\- of Defence Art Collection - in constructing an image of the people and regions of the empire as backward, uncivilized, irrational, feminine, exotic. 2 (M/v Toil n. from Ihe Camp s Liay Road by dvnqic French Angas, from Tbe Kaffirs decayed, impoverished, and irredeemably other'." But most Illustnutd (1849) of the litcnir\' analysis that has followed in the wake of Said's path-breaking Orientéilism ( 1978) has focused on the Middle culture is transformed into something that is aesthetically East and Inilia. and lo a lesser degree A frica and ihe pleasing antl morally satisfying'.'- Others have ft)cused on Caribbean, neglecting, most glaringly, the white settler the construction tif the (noble) savage and the myth of colonie-i. which were central components of the 19thcentur\' empty lands.'-^ But tine limitation that has affected almost all British Empire. Photography, too, has received some of these studies, especially tho.se preoccupied with imperial attention, for constructing an empire built around racial lantls (as opposetl to the pe<)|>le of the empire), has been hierarchies, big-game hunting, [iristine mountain views, antl their ft)cus tin either a single artist or a single geographic efficient military campaigns, but phoiography admittedly area. '^ Without a comparative lens, however, there can be no drew on earlier pictorial traditions and imagery.'' comprehensive analysis of British imperial art. and therefore Advertisements, especially those produced under the no untlerstanding t)f ht)w that em|iire was constructed direction of the state-supported Empire Marketing Boartl. visually and picttirially aiso played a rt)le, largely by commodif>1ng the empire. The argument offered here is that the picturesque, the though not until the late 19th and early 2üth centuries.'" literary and visual aesthetic which tieveloped during the ;Vrt too was critical in helping British men and wt)men sectind half of the 18th centuiy helped to unite and construct and visualize their empire." This was especially homogenize the many regions of the Briiish empire. For the irue of the picturesque idiom, which had a powerful impact better part of a centur\ beginning around 177S, British artists on almtist all subsequent forms of imperial representation, who travelled the empire fretjuently constructed and including ph()t(igraph\' and ad\ertising from the miti-i9th depicted what they saw thrtJugh the lens of the picturesque. century' onwards. Most of the recent studies in this area have ]iresenting regions as diverse as South Africa. India. Australia, emphasized the 'idet)logical work" of paintings, thnuigh and the Pacific Islands in remarkably similar ways. In the which 'the apprt>priation of land, resources, labour, und prticess they integrated the far-flung regions t>f the empire,

47 The BRITISH ABJJottrnal Volume Y No,l

providing a measure of coherence and control that were William Hotiges employed when he painted Tahiti Revisited clearly lacking on the ground at a time when it could take (PI 1) around 1776, divided the landscape into three anyw'here from three to six months to travel from London to distances: a darkened and detailed foregr(.>und, a strongly lit Calcutta, a time lag vt-hich delayed the circulation of news and and deep-toned middle-ground, and a hazy background. made virtually impossible the execution of government Features such as trees and ruins were ttj be positioned so as policy^'' Although there wa.s, within the picture,sque to create a balanced composition that provided a sense of framework, ,some freedom to capture and convey local both harmony and variet\'. and to push the viewer's eye to differences, everywhere it was deployed it served to conceal the middle distance, as in a stage .set. In a typical picturesciue the hardships and beautify the frequently unpleasant scene there would be a winding river; two coulisses, or side surroundings that characterized life in the imperial zone, screens, which are the opposite banks of the river and which, refracting local people and conditions through a single, in conjunction with some hills, mark the persjiective; a front formulaic lens,"^' screen which points out the winding of the river; and a hazy, Moreover, in so far as the picturesque had initially been rugged, mountainous background. There was also an used to represent the Engii.sh landscape, depicting imperial identifiable picturesque tint, the soft golden light of the landscapes in these same terms meant that Britisii artists Roman Campagna, which, as a number of scholars have travelling overseas ended u[i portraying so-called peripheral suggesteti, artists transposed first onto the English territories as similar to, rather than different from, so-called landscape, and then carried to [he furthest reaches of the metropolitan territories. In short, the picturesque was about British Empire,^^ the creation of sameness rather than difference, though this BUI while .scholars of the picturesque have generally is a point that requires some clarification as 'sameness' focused on its English origins, in the writings of Knight and carries a number ot" different meanings. In the late 18th Price, it is important to note that many of its foremost century, Richard Payne Knight and Uvedale Price, two of the practitioners drew their inspiration as much from the empire founding theoreticians of the picture,sque, challenged the itself as from the English Lake District. Hodges, for example, fashionable style of landscape gardening exemplified hy the was a student of Richartl Wilson, the Welsh laniLscape painter work of Capability Brown, They accused him of creating only who wa.s strongly influenced hy Claude and one of the 'eternal smoothness and sameness' in place of which they founders of the English landscape school, but instead of wanted to see 'roughness', meaning features such as moss- completing his art education with a Grand Tour to Italy as his grown terraces and other intricate details to break up teacher had done, he instead became the draughtsman for otherwise smooth vistas,''' Cook on his second voyage to the Pacific, and carried to India The analysis that follows, however, uses sameness as an tropical ideas of light and vegetation, in addition to English antonym not of roughness but of strangeness and difference, ideas about picturesque com position, ^3 in order to take into account a certain tension l">etween the This explains, in part at least, a number of the tensions in picturesque and the exotic. The arrist's purpose in travelling to Tahiti Revisited.-* The painting certainly illustrates the India or rhe South Seas was often to report on their es.sential elements of the picturesque, but it also reveals strangeness or difference, but as Giles Tillotson has put it in his Hodges' struggle to combine classical idealism, scientific book on William Hcxlges, 'the application of an English accuracy, and Bougainvillian exoticism. He has replaced aesthetic co Indian scenes seived rather to restrain than to conventional cla,ssical motives - olive trees, cypresses, and reveal their exotic nature','^ Tiie images di.scussed here will Arcadian shepherdesses - with breadfruits, coconut palms, also demonstrate that sameness can be used to describe the and Tahitian girls bathing near the water.-^ In the interest of substantive and stylistic similarities between paintings and empirical recording, he has painted the girls not as ideal aquatints executed across the many regions of the British beauties, but with characteristic tattoo markings.^** And, the Empire, To be sure, liifference (whether in the linguistic or the clouds around the mountaintops reflect n(jt an idealized postcolonial sease) and .sameness (meaning identification, Italian countr^'side, but are the outcome of Hf)dges trying to mimicry, mimesis) are complementary opposites and cannot render faithfully the atmosphere of the tropics, Hodges' truly be divided, '^ But the analysis that follows is an attempt to openness to new environments and cultures, his (modest move the discussion of .sameness antl difference from its focus and occasional) questioning of the supremacy of classical on language anti people, which is now well-trodden terrain, to prototypes, and his concern for scientific truth - itself of that of place,-^'i' This is especially impi)nant becau.se the course a problematic and eulture-bound notion - were picturesque was not simply carried from England overseas, but always in conflict with the Claudean, picturesque principles rather developed as much overseas as in Britain, and therefore demanded of the landscape artists of his day But because he moved not unidirectionally from the imperial centre to the had in effect completed his artistic education in the South periphery, but frequently around the periphery, liiis in turn Seas, he had some freedom from contemporary academic suggests the importance of envisioning the British Empire not practices, and was able to capture for the first time the so much as a '.spoked wheel' - imperial centre and periphery brilliant light of the tropics. What this painting reveals - and - hut as a 'web' built around "multiple centres' or 'bundles of it needs to be underscored here that this is obviously not a relationships', not least of which were horizontal linkages preliminary sketch, but a finished oil ¡Kiinting, and that between colonial sites, regions, experiences, and cultural Hotiges was paid ¡¿,^50 per year by the admiralty to produce products,-i paintings of his journeys that wtmId promote commerce and empire - is Hodges at once both capturing the light and feel of the South Pacific and introducing an element of exoticism, he [liccuresque took a.s its starting point the idea that transforming Tahiti into a sensual and even sexual paradise, Tnature was imperfect and needed to be organized when but at the same time subsuming that difference antl it was painted. Artists, frequently using a Claude glass, a small exoticism beneath the familiar structure tif the picture.sque. convex mirror that brought everv' scene within the compass of a picture, employed a formulaic method of cotnposition A remarkably similar picturesque frame can be seen in that was based upon certain rules of cla.ssical proportion, and Cape Totvn. from tbe Camp's Bay Road (PI 2), by George which pRKluced images with an identifiable picturesque French Angas, an artist, get)logist, and expltirer who later structure, composition, and tint. The picturesque, which became director of the Government Museum in Sydney, and

48 Volume y No.l The BRITISH AKT Journal

who [luhlished a book ailletl 'í'bc Kitjfirs lUtistratt'ä in 18-49 from which this plate is taken. As Angas himself wrote, 'Cape Town... is most picturesquely situated on the shores of Tiible Bay', and he claimed that nothing could exceed the beauty of the .scene, with 'bold, abrupt, rugged mountains, the fertile plains and gardens, and the deep blue waters of the Bay". This image illustrates the picturesque use of the foreground, with the steps and stone building and minuscule figure in the left-corner creating an impression of grandiosity; the slo[3es (.if the hills on either side that serve as framing devices and channel the viewer's eye towards the middle-ground, which is Cape Town; the rich blue colour of the water, contrasting with the greens and browns of the landscape: and. in the ttistance, the faded grey mountains and the pale blue sky. The .scene is in perfect harmony, in terms of perspective, colour, and relationship between the human world and the natural world. Angas has also pointedly inclutled, in the foreground, a number of kniphofia. more commonly known as red hot 5Holiart Town, taken fwm tbe Carden wbere I lived by ]O\\Í\ I..I>JII,I, i.i.i^. DixsDii pukcrs, pereniuais which have striking red flowers in the Galleries, State Library of New South Wales winter and are native to South Africa, although they have 4 View of l'on Bowen. Queensland by William We.stall, 1811. © National Maritime since became identified with English cottage gardens and Museum, London. Ministry of Defenie An Coik-aion have al.so been widely imported to Australia and New Zealand, They provide just a touch of local colour and underlying Angas' work, was to present regions of the empire flavour, but without ever threatening the formal ;is safe and familiar for potential European settlers.-^ In short, requirements of the picturesque. within the picturesque aesthetic the art of empire served Hodges and Angas in these two paintings u.sed similar important and changing strategic purposes. techniques to turn the distant and unfamiliar into the knowable anti the familiar, to make what was a foreign and n almost identical yet odtlly mirrored version of Angas' fundamentally "different" landscape, with unusual flora and Apainting is Hobart Town, taken from the garden where / fauna, appear remarkably 'similar' to those landscapes with lii'ed (PI 3), by John Glover, who arrived in Tasmania in 1831 which they antl their audiences would have been familiar. and executed this work a year later. The painting was made There are, however, important differences between these in front of Glover's residence, Stanwell Hall, a two-story twcj paintings, Hodges ha.s presented Tahitian society as stone structure that had been built in 1828 in the Georgian pristine and untouched by Europeans; nowhere is there .style, featuring the plain and symmetrical facade found in evidence of Cook's visit.^" Angas has done the opposite: his many domestic dwellings in England at the time. The hou.se painting maps the linear streets of Cape Town and the extent and garden overk)ok the town, a thriving settlement of of European settlement. Angas" painting aLso lacks the 10,000 that was the second largest in size in Australia, with elements of the sublime, which are present in Hodges' the Derwent River, named after its Derbyshire counterpart, mountains. Yet both the.se images reflect certain imperial beyond, dotted with .sailing vessels. Also visible is a white interests that were pervasive at the time they were produced. church, with Government House just to its left and the In the late lMth century the idea was to find previously Barracks to its right, suggesting that beyond the boundaries undiscovered, Edenic lands that would stimulate interest in of personal property implied by the painting's subtitle, the exploration and exploitation,^^ By the mid-19thcentury, as church, the executive, and the military remain the dominant emigration and settlement became paramount, the idea. features of the colonial scene. Despite the obvious

49 The BRITISH AKT Journal Volume Y No. 1

picturesque structure and elements, its needs to be beautiful country nor curiosity from their singularity'. acknowledgeti that the painting is ,s(imething of an anomaly Westall's paintings are especially important because they are within Glover's Australian oeitvre, arguably being concerned so clearly at odds with his written descriptions of the more with informational topography than with picturesque landscape. In his 1811 \^ew of Port Bowen, Queensland (Pi view making.^f As John McPhcc has pointed out. behind the 4), he depicts the triumvirate of Australian novelty - flora, screen of the artist's hou.se and garden, the picture marks the fauna, and Alioriginal people - but the ¡ungle ,setting conflicts achievements anci expansion ofthe cok)nia! settlement 'with with his description ofthe coast as 'barren', and it is also not several view-points incorporated.,, so that the whole of the in keeping with his description of the general appearance of town may be shown, and the landscape rather flattened so Australia as 'differing little from the northern parts of that all streets and buildings could be included','' England'.'^ And st) here is an artist who initially was unable to Hobart Totim also illustrates what Alfred Cix>sby h;is termed find the picturesque in Australia, yet ended up depicting 'ecological imperialism', the process by which European Australia as a land very different from his native England, but carried flora, fauna, and disease around the globe,-'' ckiing ,so through familiar picturesque devices. Regardless, Geraniums and ro.ses, [>ainted in meticulous detail and when he accepted a commission in 1809 for a series of oil mentioned in Glover's inscription, dominate the foreground, paintings of Australian land.scape views and exhibitcil them in Gerajiiums were especially popular in the new colony becau.se London, there was considerable interest in his depictions of they could thrive on very little water. Several varieties are places that had never before been seen by Europeans.-'^ indigenous to Australia, but others arrived on board one of the Nor was Westall the only early artist who shared the view first ships from England in 1788, and additional varieties, that the Australian landscape lacketl heauty'" Thomas native to southern Africa, were unwittingly carried into Watling, a young painter from Dumfries who was transported Australia in seed form on the coats of animals taken on board to Australia for forging Bank of Scotland guinea notes, ships that called at Cape Tuwn,-'^ By the time Glover arrived in famously decried his inability to find or mould the what was then called Van Dieman's Uind, settlers had already picturesque from the land.scape ofthe penai colony Watling attempted to cultivate virtu:üly all European vegetables, and had been trained in the picture.sque mode of landscape the Glover5 in fact brought with them a range of northern painting, and it was the absence of typically picturesque hemispheric seedlings, ¡Uthough not all survived the journey. features - old and gnarled trees, winding mountain paths. Glover's son recorded that their tangerine .saplings died en peasant cottages, and ¡agged and rocky cliffs - that depressed route., but enough ofthe plants survived that the L:ind Board, him, 'The landscape painter', he wrote to his aunt, "may in in endorsing Glover's application for a land grant, recorded vain seek here that kind of beauty which arises from happy- approvingly that 'he has imported English song birds and opposed off-scapes. Bold rising hills, or azure distances would shrubs',3** In this painting, therefore, the flowers create an be a kind of phenomena. The principal traits of the country impression of homeliness, familiarity, and connectedness are extensive woods, spread over a little varied plain'." But between the regions of the British Empire. Not only did Watling knew well enough that picturesque paintings were immigrants import English vegetation in order to acclimatize not simply transcripts of nature but arrangements of it, their environment; they refoshioned that environment - both incorporating motifs culled from a number of sketches. As he physically and representationally - in order to resemble the put it. 'I confess that were I to select and combine, I might typically picturesque English landscape.^^ avoid that ,sameness, and find engaging employment,' which is exactly what he did with works such as A direct North Elsewhere in this painting, however. Glover has made general view of Sydney' Cove, which Bernard Smith has concessions to a vastly different environment. He has toned discussed in terms of its application of Gilpin's theories about down the rich greens of the English countryside, iind has shown and drawings of the I^ke District, but which also bears a the trees as distinct entities, befitting the somewhat sparse striking resemblance tu Wilson's Rome from the Villa Australian forests, rather than as part of the dense foliage that Madama (1753).^^ Wilson's painting, executed for the Eari of characterized European forests. And, the large areas of greenery Dartmouth, portrays one of the most famous prospects of present in Hobart Town constitute a marked departure from the Rome, the point from which ¡lilgrims had traditionally caught closely packed villages and towns of rural England.-^'' Ultimately their flrst sight ofthe city, and thus was an appropriate model this painting is .simiiiLr to Angas' Cape Town in terms of the for Watling, who had to do iittle more than substitute some overall picturesque structure of the work; the ways in which it newly-built cottages for the famous loggia of the Villa reprïxluces femiliar English elements, such as the Georgian Madama, designed by Raphael for Ripe Clement VII, that StanweU Hall, the roses and geraniums, and the river Derwent; appears in the lower-right corner of Wilson's work;'^ and, simultaneously, its incori.X)nUion of indigenous Australian characteristics, but subsumed within the picturesque. Perhaps no artist painted Austraiia to looií more like At least in the eady years of the 19th century, however, England than Conrad Martens, who arrived in New South translating the Australian landscape into the picturesque Wales in 1835 after having .sailed on the Beagle with Charles proved quite challenging, as it occasionally did for Glover.37 Darwin. His Vt'etv from Rose Bank (PI 5), painted for the William Westall, who accompanied the mapmaker Matthew commodities merchant Robert Campbell, shows a garden Flinders on his circumnavigation ofthe continent of Australia piazza looiiing over the newiy established villas surrounding from 1801-3, was disappointed by his search for scenery from WooUoomooloo Bay Martens has skilfully rendered the which to make oil paintings to be displayed in London after houses of the wealthy colonists as though they were Italian the fashion of his colleague William Daniell. who had villas (which is how they were often described in successfully shown his views of India ai the Royal Academy, contemporary literature), but he gives no hint that these For Westall the coastline did not yield the exotic subject houses lacked antiquity; in fact, none of the houses that matter he had hoped to find, and he considered Australia to could be seen from the terrace at Rose Bank in 1840 when be pictonally unpromising. Shortly after leaving Australian Martens produced this work was more than a decade old. shores, he summed up liis years on the Flinders voyage as a This painting illustrates the process not .so much of creating barren experience, and he was pessimistic about the drawings 'New Wodds from Old', as an exhibition of 19th-century he had made, about which he wrote: 'When executed [they] Australian and American landscape paintings put it, but can neither afford pleasure from exhibiting the face of a rather of creating old worlds from new,'** Volume X No. 1 Tf^e BRITISH PiKt Journal

5 Vieu'from Rose Bank by Conrad Martens, 1840. National Gallery of Australia, Can tierra

6 A vieil-of Benaras hyWiWiam Hmlges. 18 U. By Permission of The British library, i^4

GrtKr by Thomas Daniel!, 11791. Private Collection. tCounesy of Cbarles Greig, F.sc¡

rtists carrieti many of the.se .same picturesque principles Awith them to India, where, as elsewhere, they represented the landscape as harmonious, with great emphasis placet! on intricately detailed foregrounds, irregular hills and buildings, and some reference to man's jiresence in [he landscape, along with a ruin that was picturesquely irregular as well as a reminder oí man's transience. Artists wht) made picturesque paintings of Intlia also remtïved, or at least softened, what many Europeans would have regarded as its exotic features, Indian architecture, for instance, was either shown in conventionally picturesque ruins, or had it.s (tt) European eyes) startling lack i)i symmetry reduced tti symmetrical forms. The first prtjfessional British landscape painter to visit India was >X^illiam Hodges, in 1780, and his View of part of the city of fíenaras (sic) (PI 6) dated the following year shows a number of the.se elements, nt)tably in the varied and irregular outline formed by the buildings, further enlivened by tufted trees; in the sense of mtivement, created by small, scattered details such as the figures and boats; and in the broken dabs of colour,"'^ But as with his Tahiti painting, this one is also life with contradictions. In his Select Vietvs in India (London, 177S-8), Htxiges wrote that the artist's responsibility was to eschew "fanciful representation' and keep the imagination 'under the strict guitlance of cool judgment', yet his own Indian paintings contratiict this very aim, composed as they are according to European notions of the picturesque that emphasized the loftiness of monuments though the use of foreshtjrtened perspective and exaggerated proportions. Despite hi.s time in the South Pacific, Hodges' finished oils are firmly within the picturesque tradition, and remain true to the Claudean principles of his teacher Richard Wilson, whose wtjrk he so often imitated.'"''

Although Hcidges was the first, the most famous British lantiscape painters to visit Intiia were Thomas Daniell and his nephew William, who, after seven years of travels, brought back with them to England .some 1,400 drawings, which they used to produce six sumptuous volumes of aquatints. Although the Daniells repeatedly disparaged their predecessor's work for containing all sorts of inaccuracies, by an artist in an imaginary arrangement - and share the same their goal of fidelity was continually undermined by the basic structure and features: ruins on the left, trees on the constraints of the picturesque aesthetic. Searching always for right, a river winding through the centre ttjwartts a distant the Sublime antt the Beautiful, the Daniells generally mountain that is rountietl rather than steep and craggy, antt portrayed grandiose views carefully framed with palm and several figures in the ftireground. thtJugh there is a greater banyan trees, and, on at least one occasion, enhanced the sense of stasis in Daniell's painting, whereas in Claude's the beauty of a scene with the addition of a temple."*^ Part of the figures are turning and gesturing, giving those works a greater lure of India was its st range ne.s.s, and in fact a fascination with sen.se of movement. A much more immetiiate link, however, the exotic was a part t)f the piccure.sque repertoire, and yet as in the case with Ht>dge.s, wa-s Kichart! Wilson, as Daniell's the treatment of Intiian subjects in a picturesque manner painting both recalls and develops from such Wilson tempered, rather than exaggerated, their exoticism, by imitations of Claude as Kew Gardens, the Ruined Arch (1762), making them conform to a set of supposedly universally a picture which for a Itmg time was thought to show an actual applicable values derived from Eurtjpean art. Roman ruin somewhere in At the hands of Thomas Daniell, ftir exaniple, the Muslim tomb at Gaur was transformed into a Gothic folly in an he picturesque not only tended to homogenize the Arcatiian park. View in Gaur (PI 7) is in fact a strikingly Tregions of the British Empire; it also blurred all sorts of Claudean work, similar to several of the 17th-century master's boundaries between Britain and it.s empire, between home paimirigs including Pastoral caprice with the Arch of antl abroati. métropole and periphei"}; even self and other.^" Consiantine (1651) and Landscape with the father ofPs\>che There are, for example, some important similarities between sacrificing at the Temple of Apollo (1662).'*''All of these make Thomas Daniell's watercolour of The Ealls of Poppanassum u.se of architectural capricci - actual building.s put together (1804) and the Scottish landscape painter Jacob More's The The BRITISH AKT Journal Volume \. No. 1

Falls of Clyde (Cora Linn) (1771), both in their formal simultaneous addition of the Indian subcontinent and loss of elements - the lushness of vegetation, the direction in which the thirteen American colonies, became increasingly a the water is flüwing, and the angle of the trees hanging over tourist's empire, not just symbolized but made possible by tbe the river - and in their approach to composition (Pis 8, 9). concomitant development of the picturesque. Although some Both [xiintings emphasize the grandeur of the scenes by scholars have argued that the English picturesque was mainly placing several small figures in the foregrountl. tourists who a late-18th century aesthetic which supposedly fell tiut tjf are in each case dwarfed by the thuntiering falls above them. fashion during the first half of the 19th century, it should be But one has to look very closely at Daniell's painting to locate mentitmed that, contrary to such conclusions, the aesthetic two slender palm trees, the only indication that the.se falls are framework continued to prevail so that the picture.sque mode not locatetl in Europe, and even the twt) figures are of is easily recognizable in late-19th- and even 2()th-century Indeterminate t)rigin, and thus if they are Indian, they have photography and advertisements.''"' been stripped of their "otherne.ss". The paintings by Daniell and More also share certain here are, of course, numerous other aspects of the fundamental similarities with Wilson's Lydford Waterfall. Tpicturesque in the colonial context that need to be Tai'istock (c"1771-2), and all three probably drew on the explored, inclutling its relationship to labour, an issue that writings of Alexander Cozens, who made extensive was often discussed in picturesque texts even as it was observations of nature in order to clarify the link between frequently disavowed in picturesque images.^^ There are also landscape phenomena and aesthetic feeling, and to identify some limitations to the analysis and approach offered here, what it was about natural events that stimulated specific which has subsumed beneath the broader picture.squc rubric emtnional responses in the viewer.^' In The Various Species the subtle differences between the topt)graphical, the of Landscape Composition (1759), Cozens identified sixteen beautiful, and the natural, or what Ann Bermingham has 'compositions' or basic landscape themes, the eighth of called landscapes of sense, sensibility, and sensation.^^ which was 'a waterfall'. Daniells and More, tike Wilson before Although there are tt^pographical elements in the work of them and the American Thtjmas Ct;le after them, took wild, Angas and Glover, and although the Daniells were highly seemingly inht)spitable scenes and made them less accomplished topographical artists, landscape engravings frightening, rendering the natural and the sublime moving such as theirs were not intended to function simply as a rather than terrifying, with escape always assured.^' While topographical record. As noted earlier, the use of formal perhaps owing mtjre to the romantic than the picturesque structure, figures,an d atmospheric effects transformed a real tradition (though the relationship between the two is too and visitable site into a picturesque repre.sentation, elevating complicated to discuss here), the paintings by Daniell and it to the status of a visual souvenir. And. there was a More illustrate yet again the extent to which late-18th- naturalistic element in British and continental picturesque century aesthetics htimogenized the empire and de- views that is, for the most part, ntjt characteristic of imperial emphasized its difference from the British and the familiar. art.'''-' Nevertheless, Bermingham's ratitanale for adopting these new terms, however, tt) 'shift the focus from style to Given their similarities in terms of elements and approach the moral, politieal, and social values each type of landscape to composition (if not in actual composition), these two was intended to awaken", as well as to provide a framewt)rk images raise the important question of how colonial sites can that could accommodate works that traditit)na!ly do not fit be differentiated frt)m the non-colonial. This point takes on into the traditional categories, including amateur additional urgenty because the picturesque form represented pnxiuction, is exactly the argument being made here. a wide range of tourist sites both inside and outside of Britain and its empire, including Spain, Italy, and the German Rhine. It is hoped, however, that the examples offered above - and It hardly needs to be pointed out, however, the above the Egyptian work of David Roberts would fit as well - are waterfall example notwithstanding, that there were representative enough to suggest that the picturesque was a substantial differences between so-called picturesque views of dynamic force in the creation of the Bdtish Empire. One of tourist sites In Britain and on the European continent on the the implications of Edward Said's work is that Orientalism - 'a one hand, and those of the British Em[-)ire on the other.^^ Western style for dominating, restructuring, antl having '\S1iereas in íate-18th-century Britain the picture.sciue implied authority over the Orient''^" - made colonialism pt)ssible. But the avoidance of anything precise or tame, instead t)ne of the limitations of the Orientalist approach is that it emphasizing, variety, novelty, ruggedness, and wild, unkempt focuses largely, though no longer exclusively, on the Middle beauty - Gilpin specified that 'ideas of neat and smotKh... East. Scholars have applied Said's thesis to India, but have not strip the objec... of picturesque beauty'^' - imperial art, applied its tenets to South Africa and Australia, and woultl especially in India, consistently stiftened, regularized, and have difficulty- in doing so. The picturesque, tm the other beautified the natural landscape.'''' Consequently, a potentially hand, was a much more comprehensive trope than dangerous curiosity about colonial people and places, one Orientalism, and unified the empire hy refracting local that might involve violence, confiict, and tippression, has differences thrt")ugh a single lens. And it is revealing, in this been diverted into the quest for aesthetic novelty It is context, that the picturesque became popular at the very imponant to recognize, therefore, the paiticularity of the moment when the British empire was undergoing its most picturesque in the colonial environment and the pleasures it massive expansion, and that the picturesque lost its vogue - offered, even while ntning the general similarities between and value - as the empire became more physically integrated the domestic and the imperial picturesque. during the sect)nd half of ihe 19th centur>'. when the electric Wliat then tloes it mean when colonial .sites are subjected telegraph and the steamship allowed for greater levels of to a form of visual representation so closely asscxiiated with communication and control.^' tourism? Given the primary function of the picturesque in the The paintings discus.sed here also make the point that establishment of both ilomestic aiid foreign tourism, it would imperial repre.sentations were not exclusively concerned seem that the ctilonial and the touristic gaze have collapsed with the creation of'otherness', on the presumption thai the into each other, normalizing the imperial experience. If the imperial periphery was different from the imperial so-called first British empiie was a commercial and trading metropt)lis.''- Rather, artists were also engaged in what empire, the second British empire, beginning with the near- cultural anthropologist James Boon has called "the Volume y No.l The BRITISH ART Journal

Ciïnstruction of affinities',"- Indeed, picturesque representations were in large part about what David 8 The Falls uf Puppanassum by Thoma.s Daniel!, IH04, The BrttLsli Museum, i'annatiine has identified as 'the domestication tif the exotic': Eteparinicnt of PrinLs and Drawings regartling and reordering the foreign to look very much like 9 The Falls of Clyde (Cora Unn) by Jacob More, 1771, The Naüüiml Gallery of England itself,'^ And this point needs to be underscored: the Scotland exotic is still very much present in the picturesque, but largely stripped of its difficult otherness, allowing the viewer Hodges travelled through the South Pacific before he ever to remain in his or her visual comfort zone, secure in the went to India, and numerous scholars have noted that kn( >wledge that the Ganges ltxiked basically like the Wye. Not infiuence; the Daniells were in South Africa before their only were British artists in India, South Africa, and Australia journey to India; and Angas moved several times between never very influenced by indigenous artistic traditions; their England, South Africa, and Australm, In short, the picturesque style was only minimally affected by the land,scape itself, in was not simply an aesthetic that was carried frtjin the English contrast to that of European artists working in the .so-called Lake District to Table Bay and the (ianges River, but developed Oriental world,'''^ In fact, there is considerable evidence to through contact with non-English regions, and moved suggest that painters sought out landscapes that looked - tir throughout the British Empire without, at times, England even could be made to k)ok - like England itself. as a reference point. And in this way it did its part to integrate Finally, it should he clear that the vectors of imperialism did the British empire, by blurring boundaries, tempering the not work solely (or perhaps even largely) in a binary, exotic, providing a measure t>f familiarity for would-be metropole-periphery, home-abroad, fashion. As noted earlier. travellers, and most of al!, homogenizing differences.

1 JR Secley. The Fjvjxtnskm ofFugtauJ. ikiughton's The Victorian Frame of Constantine, • "Bringing ihe 1995, Botb F.li/abetbjobnsífí«/., üjnclon, ltW.í, p8, Mitul. 1830-1870. New Haven, 19S7, Empire Alive": 'Ilie F:mpin¿ Nm- Wortdsfrom Old: 19th Certlwy 2 The literature on this point i.s except bdefiy in cbapters on 'antl- Marketing Board and Imperial Australian & American Uindscapes, voluminous. Tht niosi inteliectualism'. 'the worship of Propaganiia, 1916-23', in Canberra. 1998, anil Tim Barringer, comprdieasivt" siiinmaiion may be force', and 'pairiotism', Jobn M MacKenzie, op cil. ppl92-231, and 'Impedal Visions: Resptinses to found in \X1Iliam Roger tjiuis, ed, MafKen/ie, etI, Imperialism and idem, Buy & Build: The Adi^ertising india and Africa in Victorian An Tlx Oxford Histury of ihe Briitsb Fdpular Culture. Manchester, 1986, Posters of Ihe Empire Marketing and Design', in MacKenzie, ed. The i;m(»re. 5 mh. Oxford, 1998-9, For focu,ses on tbe age of high Board, l^ndon, 1986; Anne Victorian Vision. pp31S-33, focus on a brief survey ouiliniiin the varioui. imperialism, after lHSO, as does McClinttx.k. Imperial Leather: Race. two regions, meihoilologkal approaches is Jamt's Mords, Fktx Britannica. The Gender and Sexuality in tbe Colonia} 15 On tbe difficulties of administering Aiii-lrew t\»rttT, ¡iurujieaii Climax of Empire, New York. 1968, Contest. New York, 1995, pp2()7-31, tbe empire from Lontlon, see DM Imperialism, 1860-191-i, London, who writes of tbe Diamond Jubilee 11 The mosi comjirehensive overview Young, The Colonial Office in Ihe 1994, On pre-modern conceptions baving crystallized the new of the field of imperial an is Jeffrey Early Nineteenth Century. London, of the British Empire, see David conception of Empire', p37, Auerbach, Art and Empire', Oxford 1961; Jobn W Ceil, British Colonial Armiiagc. The Itieologícal Oiifiitis of 6 GP C"i(XK:h, ! !nder Six Ret^zs. History of the Brilish Empire, vol V Administration in the Mid-Nineteenlh ¡hi.' britisb Umpire. Cambridge, 2000, London, 1958. pl23. ed Robin W Winks, Oxford, 1999, Century, New Haven, 1970, On the S Andrew S Thompson, Imperial 7 John M MacKenzie, Empire and the pp571-83, challenges of running tbt- empire Britaiv: The Empiiv in Briiisb ¡Cities Global Gaze', in The Victorian 12 See especially Beth Fowkes Tobin, from tbe peripheiy, see William i: I880-I9.ÍJ, Edinburgh, 2000; Vision: hwetiting Neiv Britain, IHcluring Imperial Power Colonial Denison, VatietiesofVice-Rei^lUfe, Antoinette Burton, ed, Miticsand London. 2001, i)p 241-2. Subjects in Eighteenth Century British 2 vols, ümdon, 1870; James Pope- limpirv ill Victorian tiriiain. New H Here too the literature borders on Muting, Durham, NC, 1999, p2; Hennessy, Verandah: Some Episodes Yiirk, 2001; Jonathan Schnt'tr, ihe unmanageable, but in tbe wake Pratapaditya P-al antl Vidya Debijia, in the Crown Colonies: 1867-1889, lontion I'Mi '¡'he Imperial of Etiward Said's Orientalism, New From Merchants to Emperors: British New York, 1964, Metmptilis. New Haven, 1999. York. 1978, a selection of recent Artists and India. /757-/9J0, Itbaca, 16 On [be sanitising effc-cLs of die 'I Antoinette Bunon, At the Heart of the works would bave to include Sara 1986, 16, The most influential picturesque in British India and Umpire Indians and the Colonial Suleri, The Rhetoric of F.ngUsh India. work taking ihis approach, thougb elsewhere, see Suleri and NcK:hlin. Encounter in late-Victorian Britain, Chicago, 1992; Deirdre David, Rule not Focused on ibe Britisb Empire, 17 Uvedale Price, An Essay on the Berkeley, 199R; Micbael Fisher, Thv Britannia: 'Women. Empire, and is Linda Nochlin, 'The Imaginary Piciuresifue. London, 1794, pp9, 20; TViWels of Dean .Mahomet. BL'rkeley, Victorian Ihivel Wiling, ttbaca, Onent'.Artiu.\menca. 71 (1983), Richard Payne Knigbt. 7'he 1997; Edward W Said, Culture and 1995; lnderpal Grewal. Home antl ppîl8-31ff LatuUcape: A Didactic Foem in Three Imperialism. New York, 199:i; Ann Harem Nation, Geiuter, Empiiv, ami 13 BernartI Smiib, Euivpean Vision Books. London, 179-5, pp23,31, Laura Stoler and Frederick Cooper. ihe Cultures of Trat el, Durham, NC, and the South Pacific, 2nd edn. New 1« Tillotson, p55, 'Bfiween Meiropole and Colony: 1996; Nancy L ftixton, Writing Haven. 1985, 19 Jacques Derritia. OfGrammutology, Rfibinking a Research .Agenda, under Ihe Raj. New Brunswick, NJ, 14 For example, Jane Carrutbers and trjns. Ga>'airt Chakravony Spivak, Tensions of Umpire: Colonial Cultures 1999. More generally, see Mary Marion Arnold, The Life and \Vork of Baltimore, 1998, in a tlourj^'ois World, ed Frederick Louise Prait, Imperial Eyes: TYavet Thomas Baines.'VVjuiheîg. 1995; 20 On i,s,sue,s of identity and alterity, C(>o|ier and Ann Laura Stoler, Writing atid TYansculluration, Giles Uliotson, TheAnifidat ,see Martin Daunton and Rick Bcrkeiey, 1997, ppl-S6; Julie F London, 1992, Empire: The Indian Landscapes of Halpern, ed. Empire and Others: Cfulell and Dianne Sachko 9 James R Rpn, Ficiuring the Empire. William Hodges, Richmond, 2000, British Encounters wiih Indigenous ,Mac!eod, Orientalism 'IVansposcd: Phoiography and thv Visualization of Once exception, tbough it makes People.';. m)O-mo. Philadelpbia, 'Ibe impact u/lhi- colonies on Brilish the Brilish Empire. Chicago, 1997, no attempt to articulate a unified 1999, culture, Altlershoi. 1998. W Thomas Richards, Tbe Commodity imperial vision, is Micbael Jacobs, 21 Tbe idea of tbe empire as a web S It Ls telling ihat the empire figures Culture of Victorian England, Ihe Fuinted Voyage. Art TYavet and comes from Tony Ballantyne, almosi nowhere in Waller F. Stanford. 1990, ppll9.-67; Stephen Exploration 156^1875. London, Orientalism and Race: Artwiisin and The BRITISH MXV Journal Volume y No. 1

the BritiA Empire, HoundsmilLs, 27 In feet, Europeans are absent ñ\in\ much of the Ulswater [si'c] Gilpin. His Drawir^s, Teacbing and Basingstoke, 2002, ppM7. TJie the vast majority of Htxiges' character' and described the Theory of tbe Picturesque, Oxford: phmsf 'bundles oF reiation.shi[is' is paintings of tiie Sf»iith Padfti, masses of hills ;ii 'strong and Clarendon Press, 1963, plOO. On from Eric Wr>lf. F.umi>e and ibe People notable exceptions being A view of striking, and ver)' like the the Indian picture.sque, sec Pal and without History', Beriieley, 19H2, p3. Matavai Bay in tbe Island of Otabeite, management of Gaspard Poussin's Dehejia, pp97-l29. Recent work suggesting the limit.s of 1776, Vieti' in Pickersgill Harbour landscapes, ie good school for ihc 55 On the 'truth' claims that can be ihe '.spoketl wheel' mcxlel include.s Dusky Bay Netv Zealand (cl773), cbiaro-scuro light and shadowing'. associated with tbe topographical RiclianI Grove, (Jreeri ¡mperiiilism: and Tbe landing at See Jobn Richardson Glover to panorama, see Svetlana Alpers, The Colonial F.vpansioit. 7k)pical Island Erranuinga (1776). all at tbe Mar>' Bowles, 20 February 18.31, Art of Describing: Dutcb Art in the Edens, and the Origins of National Maritime Museum, Mitchell Libraiy Sydney, and Seventeentb Centuiy, Cbicagi.i, 1983, &wironme>t!cdtsnt, idOO-tSóU. l.ondon. Hansen. 56 Jeffrey Auerbach, An, Advenising, Cambridge, 199S. and SB Cook. 28 Barbara Maria Stafford, Voyage into 38 Westall to Banks, 13 January 1804, and Legacy of Empire'._/t)iinia/o/ Imperial Affinities: Nineteenth Centuiy Substance. Art, Science, Nature, and quoted in Smith, Australian Popular Culture, i'i (2002), ppl-23. Anato0es and Fjxhanges hetu-een tbe Illustrated Tratiel Account, 1760- Painting, pi 3. 57 On labour and the picturesque in tndiaantllivUind, Newbiiry, CA. tmo, Cambridge. MA, 1984. 39 Andrew Sayers, 'Tlie Shaping of tbe domestic as opjxxsed to ¡993. On the problematic concept 29 Ged Martin and Benjamin E Kline, Australian Landscape Painting', imperial context, see John Barrell, of'metrópoli.-', see Stoler and 'British Emigration and New íVejí' Worlds from Ola, p55. Tbe Dark Side of the Landscape: Tbe Cooper; Tilomas Metcalf, 'Empire Identities', Tbe Cambridge Illustrated 40 See also Baron Field, Geographical Rural Poor in English. Painting ¡730- Recenterwl: India in llit- Indian History cftbe British F.mpire, pp254- Memoirs on Neiv South Wales (1825). 18^0, Cambridge, 1980; Christiana Ocean Arena', in Ciregory Blue, 79; Lawrence James, 'the Rise and Pall in Bernard Smith, ed. Documents in P;!yne, Toil and Plenty: btuiges of the Manin Bunton, and Ralph Croi7.ier, oftbeBritisb Empire. New York, 1997, .\rt and Tttste in Australia ¡770-19^1, Agricultural Lanelsia/K in England ed. Colonialism and tbe Modern 307-11; CAiisy\y. Imperial Meridian: Melbourne, 197S,36. 1780.1890, New Haven, 1993^ Nancy WbrW. \t1iife Plains, W, ¿mZ, ¡iiii'i- '11K Hritish F-mpire and tbe mríd ¡7S0- 41 Thomas Watling, Letlersjrom an Armstrong, 'Tlie Picttiresque 39; Douglas M Hayne^, Imperial 1830, London, 1989, ppl57-8; Exile at Botany Bay to bis Aunt In Effect; Landsta|5e and LalKiur in Medicine: Patrick Mansori and the Bemarci Rmer, TJx Lion's Share, 2nd Dumfries, IVnrith [1794]8-9. Victtidan Photography', exh, Yale ConqjuKt ofTivpicat Disease. c-dn. Uindon. 1984, pp7-8. 42 •«'atling,9; Bernard Smith, British An Center, 1992. On labour Philadelphia, 2002; Alan lister, 30 DavicI Hansen,_/o((w Clover 11767- Australian Painting ¡7S8-I96(I, and empire more generally. See tmperial Networks: Creating identities 184')) and tbe Colonial ñcturesque, Melbourne, 1962,11-15, and Madliavi Kaie, ñ-agments of Empire. in nineteenib-century Sotnh Africa and Hobart, 2003. European Vision and the Soutb Cjipital, Slaver}', and Indian Britain, t/indon, 2001; Cacherine 31 John McPhee, rte/lrt q/7ofjK Pacific, 182-5. Indentured l^hor in the Briiish HaJI, Cii'ilimigSuhfects: Colony and Glover, Melbourne, 1980, p27. 43 David H Solkin, Ricbard Wilson: Tbe Carihhean, Philadelphia, 1998. Metropole in ibe tinglish Imagination. 32 Alfreti W Crosby, Ecological Landscape of Reaction, London, 58 .'\nn Birmingham, Learning to m(f-l867, ChiL-ago, 2002. Imperialistn: The Biological 1982, ppl84-5. Draw. Sttidies in tbe Cultural History 22 Malcolm Andrew.s, The Search for F.xpansionofFumpe, 900-1900, 44Sayere, p59. of a Polite arui Useful Art, New tbeñcturesque, Stanford, 1989, Cambridge, 1986. 45 Tillotson, ppl-4. provides an Haven. 2000, p78. pp29-30, 89; Pheroza Godrej and 33 Artbur Bowes Smyth, the surgeon excellent formal analysis of this 59 On the relationship between tbe Pauline Rohacgi, Scenic Splendours: almard the iady Penryhti, one of painting. topographical and tbe jjicture.sque, tndia Ibrotigb the Painted Image. tbe ships of the First Fleet that 46 Jacobs,pp 60-2; WG Constable, see Aniii'ew Hemingway, landscape London, 1989. ppl9-20; Mildred sailed to Australia in 1788. wrote in Ricbard Wilson. Cambridge, MA, Imagery and Urban Culture in Early Archer, British Drawings in the Lndia hi.s journal: ''Sth January' 1788. A pl39. According to EK Nineteenth-Centuty Britain, Office LJhiarv. vol I, London, 1969, very fine breeze. This night was so Waterhouse, Hridges was 'probably Cambridge, 1992, ppÍ63-8. p]9;Jo!in ,M MacKen/.ie, 'Art and vet^' bot tbat 1 was obliged to tbe most accomplished painter of 6ít Said, Orientalisiii. p3. Ihe Emjiire', Cctmbridge I¡Utstr¿tted throw off tbe bedclothes. There fake 'itilsons'. See his Paittting in 61 Tills argument Ls CTimplementary to, History of the Brilisb Empire, ed PJ are now in the cabin geraniums in Britain 1530-1790, London: Penguin, rather ihan incotniiatible witb. that Marshall, Cambridge, 1996. tn the full blossom and some grajievines 1953, pi78. ¡Dut forwaiil by Ann Berminghani, interest of not being which flourish very much, there 47 Jacobs, pp67-8. See also Mildred Land'icape and Ideology: TheHnglish overdeterministic, it should \K are also myrtles, bananas and Archer. Early Views of India- Tbe Ruslic Tratiition, l740-tS(iO. Berkeley, empba.slzed that the picturesque other son of plant briiught friim Picturesejiie Journeys of Thomas and 1986, e.sp iip73-83, in which she was hardly a .stable or unitary Rio de Janeiro.' See Paul G Fidkm miliam Oaniell. 1786-1794, New argties that tbe picturesc¡iie was an aesthetic. Altliovigli Christopher and RJ Ryan, ed, TbeJomtiatof York, 19H0; Jagmoban Mahajan, ideological respcinse' lo ihe Hussey in The tHcturescjue. Studies in Arthur Bowes Smyth: Surgeon, Ladv PicturesífiÁe India: Sketches and changing relationship ix!tween a Point of View, London, 1927, Penrybn, 1787-1789, Sydney, 1979. travel ofTbomas and Veilliam iaiidlords and [xasants and the established ihe picturesque as an 34 Sharon Morgan, Land Settlement in Ztonte//, New Delhi, 1983. atteiiciatit segregation of six'ial 'interregnum befween classic and Early Tasmania, Cambridge. 1992,p 48 H Diane Russell, Claude Lorrain cla.sses during the agricultural romantic art. necessary in order to 99. Foreign ¡jlants were brought lo 1600-1682. VCasbington, DC, 1982, icvoiution, and that iLs 'anti- enable the imagination in form ihe Van Dieman's Land ai such a rate antl Htimpbre>' Wine. Claude: Tbe industrialism' was iti response to the habit of feeling through the eye' thai by the time Kevd W Spicer PoeliclandKape, London, 1994. eariy years of the industrial (p4), there were debates about look his weed census in 1S78 More generally, see Elizabeth revolution. It is also not incomjiatlble what it was ai ihe time, as there more than one hundred exotic Wheeler Man waring. Italian with Sara Suleri's allument in 7he bave been ever since. See specieii had become naturalized. Landscape in Eighteenth Centwy Rhetoric ofEngfisb India, Chicago, Andrews, p239; Stepbcii Copley See WW' Spicer, Men Plants', England, New York, 1925. 1992, that women deiiloyed tbe and Peter Garside, ed, Tbe Politics ñnpers and Proceedings of the Royal 49 Michael Rosenthal, British picturesque in oRier to minimize the ofthePictttresque, Cambridge. 1994, Society' of Tasmania, Hoban, 1878. Landscape Ittinting, Oxioni. 1982, threats posed by life in the imperial esp ppl-2. 178; Kim Ian Micha.siw, pó4. John Richardson Glover to pâ4; Constable, pl79. subcontineni (pp75-6). 'Nine Revisionist Theses on the Mary Biiwles, 8 September 1833, 50 See Ibbm. esp pp81-138; Jill 62 Davitl Cannadine. Ornamentalisni. Picturesque', Representations, 38 Mitchell Library, Sytiiiey; I^nd Lepore, Tbe Name of War: King How the British Saw Their Empire, (1992) pp7C)-100. Board Report 753, 11 May 1831, Philip's War and the Origins of Uindon, 2001,pxix. 23 Til I Olson, esp pp43-'i3- Archives Office of Tasmania; American Identity, New York, 1999; 63 James A Boon, /^inities and 24 It should be ¡xiinted out that Hansen. Dauntun and He!pern. Exttvmes: Crisscrossing tbe Bittersweet Hodges' Tabiti Revisited does not 35 Tim Bunybady, The Colonial Eartb. 51 Constable (pl84; pi 52b) identified Etbiiotc^' of East Indies History, fall exclusively or perfectly witbin Melbourne, 2000, pp69, 90-9. Lvdford Waterfall, Tavistock a.s A Hindu-Balitiese Culture, and Indo- the picturesque iradition, 36jobns, pl22, Welsh WSiterfall (Pistyll Cain, European Allure, Chicago, 1990. For Espedally in the context of the 37 Tbe most 'unpicturesque' of Merionethshire)'. See Solkin. a discussion of this point oiher paintings he executed fur Glover's paintings is Caivoodfrom ppl 3^6, concerning people, rather than the tht- Aiimirjlty after his return Iriim tbe OuseRiver (\niii), which is 52 Rosenthal, pp56-64i Tbomas Cole, landscape, and in tbe Romantic ihe South Seas, tbere is a ;ilmost anti-Claudean in its •F,ssay on American Scenery', TIK peritid, see Harry Uebersohn, bistoricising quality to bis work structure, featuring a convex American Magazine 1 (1836|. ppl- Discovering Indigenous Ntibility: thai narrated the voyage, rather tban concave foreground, 12; Andrew Wilton and Tim Ihcqueville, Ghamisso, and contributed to the debate over an absence oí coulisses, and almost Barringei; American Sublime: Romantic Travel Writing', American buman origins and civilization, barren hills in the distance. In Landscape Painting in the United Historical Review 99:3 (1994), and, in the absence of any heroic most otber instances, however. States, 1820-1880, Princeton. 2002. pp746-66. figure.s, elevated tbe landscape to Glover's work is comfortably 53 See Brian Dolan. Exploring 64 Cannadine, p xix; on tbe complex prominent status. picturesque. The River Derwent and European Frontiers: British Travellers intersections of the tíome.stic and 25Smilh, pp62-4. Hoharl Town (c"1831), for example, In the Age of Enlightenment. Ixindon. the exotic, see Guest. 2Ó Harriet Guest, 'Curiously Marked: provides a view, appropriately 2000', Jeremy Black, The Biitisb (i5 Mari'Anne Stevens, ed, We TUttotïing, Masculinity, and enough, of .Salvator Rosa's Glen, Ahroad: Tbe Grand Thur in Ihe Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse, Nationality in Eighteenth-Century and is loosely based on Poussain's Eigbteentb Century, New Haven, New York, 1984, 15; John British Perceptions of the South Abrabam and Isaac (1655-60). Ii is 1997; Edward Daniel Clarke, Sweetman, The Orietital Ohsession: Pacific', fainting and tbe Folilics of also worth noting thai Glover's TYavels in tbe Various Countries of Islamic impiralion in Britisb and Culture: Nine Bssavs on Britisb Art. son, John Richardson Glover, Europe. A««, and Africa, 6 vois. American Art and Aixbitectiire ¡500- ¡700-1850. edjohn Barrell. Oxford, cbaracterizL'd the coast near London, 1810-23. 1920, Cambridge, 1988, pl3'5. 1992, pplOl-34. Launceston where they settled as 54 Quoted in CP Barbier, William