SRAC Publication No. 7206

VI December 2007 PR

Species Profile—Florida Pompano

Kevan L. Main, Nicole Rhody, Michael Nystrom and Matthew Resley1

Florida pompano,Trachinotus carolinus, and yellow ventral surfaces (Fig. 1). It Temperature is one environmental is a member of the jack family is a coastal, shallow-water, pelagic variable that may be a constraint on (Carangidae) and highly prized by species that grows to 25 inches total pompano culture. Pompano are cold recreational and commercial fishers. length (TL) (63.5 cm) and can weigh 8 intolerant and show stress at low tem- Other common names for this species pounds (3.6 kg). There are no obvious peratures, which may restrict their are pompano, common pompano, morphological differences between potential for outdoor culture. Research Atlantic pompano, sunfish, pom- male and female pompano, other than has shown that mortalities occur at paneau sole (French), and pompano the larger size of some mature temperatures of 50 to 53 °F (10 to 12 amarillo (Spanish). Pompano is a great females. Pompano is a warmwater °C). Mortalities also occur when there tasting fish with a mild flavor and species found from Massachusetts to are extreme changes in temperature flakey texture. It commands a high Brazil. In the northern hemisphere, over a short period of time. The opti- price in the seafood market and they migrate north in the spring and mal temperatures for juvenile growth demand exceeds supply from the south in the winter. Pompano are appear to range from 77 to 86 °F (25 small and unpredictable commercial commonly seen in schools along to 30 °C), although juveniles have catches. sandy beaches and in bays and estu- thrived at temperatures as high as In the 1960s and 1970s, researchers aries. They are diurnal feeders that 93 °F (34 °C). and commercial producers examined eat mollusks and crustaceans, such as The exact size and age of maturity the potential of Florida pompano as an coquina clams, mole crabs, shrimp varies; however, most males and aquaculture species. Although early and other invertebrates. females are believed to mature by 14 spawning, larval rearing and juvenile Juvenile and adult pompano tolerate a inches TL (35.6 cm), with some growout trials were successful, reliable wide range of environmental condi- maturing as small as 10 inches fork hatchery, nursery and growout meth- tions, including low levels of dissolved length (FL) (25.4 cm). About half of ods were not developed. In the late oxygen (≥4 mg/L) and salinities rang- females mature during their first year, 1990s, researchers and commercial ing from 0 to 50 ppt. Research has at a size of 11.8 to 12.8 inches FL farmers began to reevaluate the cul- shown that, if acclimated properly, (28.5 to 32.5 cm), with all females ture of pompano because of advances juvenile and adult pompano adjust in techniques for captive broodstock well to lower salinities; however, in maturation, spawning and larval rear- the hatchery phase higher salini- ing; the development of methods for ties are necessary for buoyancy producing new live foods; and new and survival of the eggs feed formulations for marine fish. and young larvae. Natural history The life history and ecological require- ments of Florida pompano are not completely understood. What is known is mainly based on populations in southeastern U.S. coastal waters. Pompano is a deep, thin-bodied fish that is silver with green to grey dorsal

1 Mote Marine Laboratory, Center for Aquaculture Research and Development, Sarasota, FL Figure 1. Illustration of Florida pompano (©Diane Rome Peebles). reaching maturity between 2 and 3 spawning activity inshore or in estuar- Spawning behavior years at 14.8 to 15.7 inches FL (37.6 ine waters and many questions remain to 39.9 cm). Males are also believed regarding the reproductive biology and There is limited information on spawn- to mature at approximately 1 year of behavior of this species. However, ing behavior in captive pompano. age. Collections of sexually mature recent studies indicate that there may Kloth (1980) described the spawning adult pompano for captive spawning be more inshore spawning habitats behavior of two females that were in southwest Florida support these than previously thought. induced to spawn using hormones. observations. Of 175 individuals col- One female began by swimming slow- Fecundity has been estimated to range ly around the bottom of the tank and lected from March through May in from 133,000 to 800,000 eggs per sea- 2005 and 2006, mature males had a then rose to the middle of the water son. Early authors examining ripe column with one of four males follow- mean weight of 1.5 pounds (680.4 g) females reported one individual, and a mean length of 12.1 inches FL ing her. She remained stationary for 15 weighing 1.3 pounds (590g), with an seconds, with the male positioned (30.7 cm), whereas mature females estimated 630,000 eggs. Others esti- had a mean weight of 1.7 pounds below her, and then returned to the mated 425,000 eggs in another mature bottom of the tank. Shortly afterward, (771 g) and a mean length of 12.3 female measuring 10 inches FL (25.4 inches FL (31.2 cm). The smallest eggs were seen floating on the surface. cm). In a more recent collection of sex- This female repeated the spawning mature fish caught in this 2-year ually mature adult female pompano, sampling period were a male at 10.8 behavior six times, with each event lower estimates of fecundity were lasting 10 to 15 seconds and an interval inches FL (27.4 cm), weighing 1 reported, including three pompano pound (453.6 g), and a female at 10.6 of 4 to 10 minutes between each event. measuring 10.7 to 10.8 inches TL (27.2 The second female exhibited similar inches FL (26.9 cm), weighing 1.3 to 27.4 cm) with fecundity estimates pounds (589.7 g). behavior, completing two spawning ranging from 133,400 to 205,500 acts with two different males; each Pompano spawning is believed to oocytes per female (Muller et al., event lasted about 15 seconds and occur from early spring through 2002). there was an 8-minute interval October. Reproductive seasonality between them. varies among Atlantic and Gulf of Culture techniques Mexico populations. Those located in Induced spawning the tropical Gulf of Mexico and Broodstock procurement Caribbean Sea may spawn through- Scientists working independently of Pompano can generally be collected out the year. Seasonal spawning pat- one another have produced pompano throughout the year in Florida’s coastal terns of pompano have been verified with varying degrees of success and estuarine waters. Mature adults by the abundance of small juveniles throughout the years. Research has pri- can be acquired for captive broodstock (10.9 to 20.1 mm standard length, marily focused on developing tech- using trammel nets, hook-and-line, or SL) along exposed, sandy beaches niques for the commercial culture of gill nets, if special permitting is and in the surf zone from late spring Florida pompano, including the consis- obtained. (Since 1995, the use of through fall. Large numbers of juve- tent production of high-quality eggs. entangling-type nets has been prohibit- niles have been reported along the Captured pompano have been induced ed within 1 mile of shore on Florida’s Atlantic Coasts of Florida and to spawn year-round using hormone Atlantic Coast and within 3 miles of Georgia during April and May, North injections coupled with photoperiod shore on Florida’s Gulf Coast.) Gill and South Carolina in June and July, and temperature manipulation. nets are the most efficient way to col- and Delaware in July and August. In Additional techniques for out-of-season lect large numbers of adult pompano, the Gulf of Mexico, most juvenile gonadal maturation and successful but the species’ small, deciduous recruitment occurs in April and May, spawning of pompano include photo- scales and the extensive handling asso- with a smaller “wave” of individuals period and temperature manipulations, ciated with gill netting can cause seri- reported in August and September. followed by abrupt temperature shifts. ous injury and death. Individuals The actual spawning location for caught with a hook-and-line are usual- Successful hormone-induced spawning pompano is unknown, but it has ly handled less and suffer less physical of Florida pompano, using both volun- been suggested that spawning occurs damage. However, this method can be tary and strip spawning methods, was offshore, where the transport and more time consuming and a fish may first reported in the 1970s by Hoff et al. distribution of pelagic eggs and lar- be severely stressed unless it is landed (1972, 1978a, b). Spawning was induced vae are influenced by prevailing cur- quickly. Pompano collected offshore by injecting females (oocyte diameter rents. Evidence for offshore spawn- can be held for a short time in live 580 to 718 µm) with two separate doses ing is based in part on the collection wells on boats with the use of liquid of human chorionic gonadotropin of specimens in the 1950s and 1960s oxygen. Then they are transported to (HCG) (0.55 IU/g and 0.275 IU/g body off the Atlantic coast of north shore and transferred to tanks and/or weight) administered 24 to 48 hours Florida. Additional evidence was col- ponds to be used for spawning. apart. Spawning occurred approximate- lected in Florida waters when larvae Juveniles can be captured in the wild ly 30 to 40 hours after the primary measuring 3.1 and 4.6 mm SL were and reared in captivity until they reach injection at 73.9 °F (23.3 °C) and a identified in plankton tows up to sexual maturity. Viable broodstock also salinity of 33 ppt. Fertilization rates 14.9 miles (24 km) offshore over the can be obtained from hatchery-reared were relatively low (0.05 to 18.0 per- continental shelf in the eastern Gulf pompano. cent) in these first successful spawns of Mexico (Finucane, 1969). There and eggs measured 0.87 to 1.0 mm at 1 are no documented accounts of hour post-fertilization. Incubation times varied with temperature. The eggs from 72 to 82 °F (22 to 28 °C). Eight developed abnormally, which was natural spawning events occurred attributed to poor egg quality. after an abrupt change in water tem- While researchers achieved the first perature. These yielded a total of successful captive spawns of Florida 289,225 eggs from one or more pompano in the lab, commercial cul- females, with fertilization rates of 0 to turists were not far behind. In the 91 percent. early 1970s commercial culturists at Spawning was also induced with hor- Oceanography Mariculture Industries, mone injections (HCG), based on Inc.’s (OMI) Dominican Republic body weight, coupled with photo- hatchery had success. Photo-thermal thermal manipulation, to produce manipulation was used to induce eggs in both wild-caught and hatch- gonadal maturation in captive brood- ery-reared (F1 generation) pompano. Figure 2. Placing pompano brood- stock. Spawning was induced in Fish were collected in a smaller tank stock in a smaller tank for anestheti- mature females with gonadotropin and anesthetized using tricaine zation prior to sampling. injections; however, the methodology methanesulfonate (MS-222) (Fig. 2). A from these commercial trials was not cannula tube (0.97 mm internal diam- reported. In 1974, 10.4 million fertil- eter) was used to check the state of ized eggs were produced at an estimat- gonadal maturation (Figs. 3 and 4). ed 114,000 eggs per female and OMI Both males and females were given a reported the development of reliable single intramuscular injection about hatchery methods capable of produc- halfway between the lateral line and ing an average of 37,539 fry per first dorsal fin spine (Fig. 5). Females month. (mean weight = 3.8 lbs, 1.7 kg; mean In a recent study, two wild-caught FL = 15.8 in., 40.1 cm) with mature, broodstock populations and two first- vitellogenic and/or post-vitellogenic stage oocytes (diameters ranging from generation (F1) hatchery-reared brood- stock populations were induced to 450 to 650 µm) were injected with a spawn to evaluate the effect of diet on single dose of HCG at 1000 IU/kg egg quality. Captive broodstock (25 to body weight. Males (mean weight = 30 individuals per tank) were 2.6 lbs, 1.2 kg; mean FL = 14.3 in., Figure 3. Adult pompano ready for spawned multiple times in 2005 and 36.3 cm) received a single dose of cannulation. 2006, while being maintained in large, HCG at 500 IU/kg body weight. indoor, fiberglass tanks (7,399 gallons; Spawning occurred 40 to 48 hours 28 m3) with recirculating filtration sys- after the first injection, followed by a tems. Pompano populations (sex ratio smaller, less viable spawn up to 96 of 1:1) were held in four separate hours post-injection. From the seven round, fiberglass tanks equipped with documented induced spawning events a heater/chiller unit large enough to for wild-caught and hatchery-reared manipulate and maintain water tem- pompano, a total of 5.3 million eggs peratures. These closed recirculating were collected. Fertilization ranged systems included filters for solids from 19.3 to 48.2 percent. removal, biofiltration, sterilization, and denitrification processes. Two of the Larval culture broodstock groups received a fresh Fertilized eggs are buoyant, transpar- frozen diet consisting of food-grade, ent, about 1 mm in diameter, and Figure 4. Cannulation of an adult female pompano. farm-raised shrimp, herring and squid. have a single oil droplet. Newly The other two populations were fed a hatched larvae measure approximate- commercial broodstock diet containing ly 2.0 mm standard length (SL), have a 45% crude protein level and 8% little or no pigmentation, lack a func- crude lipid. tional mouth, and have a large yolk Maturation and spawning of one wild sac with a single oil globule. At 7 days pompano population was induced by post-hatch (DPH) and a temperature manipulating photoperiod and water of 82 °F (28 °C), the oil droplet is temperature. In this study, spawning reduced, the yolk is completely activity was observed when tempera- absorbed, eyes are fully pigmented, tures ranging from 74 to 79 °F (24 to and the mouth is fully formed. 26 °C) were shifted quickly to 86 to Transformation from larval stage to 88 °F (30 to 31 °C). In the condition- juvenile begins approximately 24 DPH, at which time scales develop Figure 5. Intramuscular injection of ing cycle, photoperiod ranged from 11 the hormone HCG into a wild-caught, (winter) to 13 (summer) hours of day- and pigmentation appears over the sexually mature, adult female pom- light and water temperatures ranged lateral surfaces of the body. pano. In 2005, larval rearing trials with Florida pompano were conducted in Artificial food recirculating aquaculture systems at Artemia Mote Marine Laboratory in Sarasota, (Artemia salina) Florida. The larval system consisted of Rotifers three indoor round, high-density poly- (Brachionus plicafilis) ethylene tanks (872 gallons; 3.3 m3) equipped with a bubble bead filter for solids filtration, a fluidized bed for bio- 0 2 10 12 21 35 logical filtration, a UV sterilizer, and a Days post hatch protein skimmer. A combination of Hatch First feeding aeration and liquid oxygen kept dis- solved oxygen levels at 5 to 10 mg/L, Figure 7. Summary of larval pompano feeding regime used at Mote Marine while assisting in the dispersion of Laboratory throughout the 2005 spawning season. eggs and larvae throughout the water column. Temperatures in the system ranged from 72 to 79 °F (22 to 26 °C) additional live prey item. Rotifers, dis- is 1.0 to 1.5 pounds (453.6 to 680.4 g), and salinity was maintained at 35 to tributed in decreasing concentrations, with harvested fish measuring 9.8 to 14.2 36 ppt using artificial sea salt. were co-fed with Artemia until larvae inches TL (24.9 to 30.1 cm). Early stud- Fertilized eggs resulted from hormone- were completely weaned onto a diet of ies, which estimated growth from length induced (HCG) natural spawns of Artemia. One-day-old Great Salt Lake frequency data, showed that growth rates wild-caught and F1 pompano. On the strain Artemia were enriched for 22 to ranged from 0.8 to 1.2 inches per month day of spawning, fertilized eggs were 24 hours and then added to larval (2.0 to 3.1 cm). More studies are needed stocked in three separate rearing tanks tanks at a density of two Artemia/mL to determine the growth rates of Florida at densities of 50 to 75 eggs/L and from day 10 to day 12. Artemia con- pompano from juvenile to market size in incubated at 79 °F (26 °C). Hatching centrations in larval tanks were moni- tank, pond and cage systems. began 24 hours post-fertilization and tored twice daily (0900 and 1600) and hatch rates were estimated at 75.5 per- additional organisms were added to Diseases cent. Mean larval length at hatch was the tanks volumetrically to maintain Broodstock and juveniles collected from 2.3 mm SL. A 3 DPH pompano larva the desired number of individuals. the wild can carry parasites and should is shown in Figure 6. The feeding From 10 to 17 DPH, enriched Artemia be quarantined and treated for several regime used during the trial is summa- were provided to larval pompano at weeks before they are introduced to any rized in Figure 7. L-type rotifers densities ranging from two to four culture system. Amyloodinium is a partic- (Brachionus plicatilis) were provided to Artemia/mL. At the same time, an arti- ular problem for both juveniles and larval pompano from 2 DPH through ficial micro-diet was introduced (55% adults reared in recirculating systems. 12 DPH at a density of ten protein, 14% lipid; particle size 80 to This parasite has a high reproductive rotifers/mL. Rotifers were reared in 200 µm). The micro-diet is very simi- rate and many life stages, and tends to high-density recirculating systems at lar in color to Artemia, which helped be quite resilient to treatment. 30 ppt salinity and fed a diet of con- with the transition from live prey to a Amyloodinium is typically found on the centrated algae paste (Nanochloropsis). commercial diet. From 18 to 21 DPH gills and can cause high mortality rates if Rotifers were enriched with a com- the ration of Artemia was steadily left untreated. Individuals infected with mercial enrichment product 24 hours decreased and the micro-diet was con- this parasite often exhibit coughing or before they were added to the larval tinued until the larvae could be com- flashing behavior. rearing tanks. Rotifer concentrations in pletely weaned off of live food at 22 larval tanks were monitored twice DPH. Marketing and economics daily (0900 and 1600) and additional rotifers were added to the tanks volu- Juvenile growout to market size Florida pompano commands a relatively metrically to maintain the desired high price in local and regional seafood Florida pompano have been grown to number of individuals. markets. The commercial dockside price market size in tanks, floating cages and for pompano in Florida is usually higher By 10 DPH, Artemia were introduced ponds. With little information on the to the pompano larval tanks as an than for other marine food fish species environmental (temperature, oxygen, (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation etc.) and biological (stocking density, Commission, 2006). The nominal (not growth rate, food conversion ratio, sur- adjusted for inflation) dockside price for vival) parameters for these different pompano averaged $3.30 per pound growout systems, it is difficult to eval- ($7.26 per kg) (whole weight, fresh) from uate the production efficiency and cost 1994 to 2006. When commercial catches effectiveness. The initial weight at were large in 1994 and 1995, the dock- stocking and the length of time it took side price declined (from $3.38 to $2.64 for individuals to reach market size Figure 6. Three days post-hatch pom- per pound, $7.44 to $5.81 per kg, in varied greatly among the different cul- 1994 and from $3.38 to $2.66 per pound, pano larva. (Photography by ture systems. The typical market size Matthew L. Wittenrich) $7.44 to $5.85 per kg, in 1995) (Fig. 8). Dockside price then increased to scarce. However, there are some proxy (0.75 to 1.25 lbs; 0.340 to 0.567 kg) and $3.87 per pound ($8.51 per kg) in data that are useful. The Fulton Fish “small” (< 0.75 lbs; 0.340 kg) fish are 2004. The preliminary 2006 average Market primary wholesale price for also reported, though less often. Prices dockside price for Florida pompano Florida pompano are periodically reported for 2005 are shown in Figure was $3.65 per pound ($8.03 per kg). reported via the National Marine 9. The per pound prices for large, medi- Regional prices for Florida pompano Fisheries Service’s Market News um and small fish averaged $4.95, $4.23 averaged $3.14 per pound ($6.91 per Reports (U.S. Department of and $3.75 ($10.89, $9.31 and $8.25 per kg) from 1994 to 2004 (U.S. Commerce, 2005). These data describe kg), respectively, during 2005. The Department of Commerce, 2006). The a “spot price” for Florida pompano as prices for large fish do show some sea- regional dockside prices were slightly they are sold into the wholesale mar- sonal patterns, with higher prices being lower than the Florida dockside ket in the New York region. The recorded during the August-September prices, but followed the same market reported prices typically apply to period. trends (Fig. 8). “large” fish (1.25 to 2.5 pounds; 0.567 Retail market prices are not readily Data on wholesale and retail prices to 1.1 kg) that are sold in whole, fresh available, although anecdotal observa- beyond the dockside market are form. However, data for “medium” tions indicate that major grocery stores sell whole, fresh pompano for about $8.00 per pound ($17.60 per kg). 4.5 4 At this time, there are not enough data 3.5 to evaluate the production economics 3 for pompano. This is an important area 2.5 for future research. 2 Conclusions 1.5 1 Florida pompano is a promising new 0.5 marine finfish species for aquaculture in 0 the U.S.; however, the culture technolo- gy is still under development. 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 U.S. dollars/lb whole weight (nominal) Maturation and spawning techniques have been developed for year-round FL dockside price Regional dockside prices production of high-quality eggs. Larvae Figure 8. Gulf and South Atlantic Pompano Dockside Prices from 1994 to 1996. are hearty and easily transition from

5.5

5

4.5

4

3.5 U.S. dollars/lb whole weight (nominal)

3

Jan Mar Apr MayJun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Note: No data for February Year - 2005 and December. Large Medium Small Figure 9. Fulton Fish Market Primary Wholesale Selling Price for Florida Pompano. rotifers to Artemia to an artificial de Sylva, D.P., F.A. Kalber and F.A. Shuster. Kloth, T.C. 1980. Observations on the spawning micro-diet. Additional data is needed 1962. Fishes and ecological conditions in the behavior of captive Florida pompano, on the environmental and biological shore zone of the Delaware River estuary, with Trachinotus carolinus. Copeia 1980(4):884-886. requirements for the growout of fin- notes on other species collected in deeper water. McMaster, M.F. 1988. Pompano aquaculture: gerlings to market size in tank, pond University of Delaware Marine Lab. Fast and successful present opportunities. Information Ser., Publ. #5. 164 pp. and cage systems. With this data it Aquaculture Magazine 14(3):28, 30-34. will be possible to evaluate the pro- Fields, H.M. 1962. Pompanos (Trachinotus spp.) Moe Jr., M.A., R.H. Lewis and R.M. Ingle. 1968. duction economics of pompano aqua- of the south Atlantic east coast of the United Pompano mariculture: preliminary data and culture. States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Fishery basic considerations. Florida Board Bulletin 207 62:189-222. Conservation, Technical Series. pp. 55, 65. Acknowledgements Finucane, J.H. 1969. Ecology of the pompano Muller, R.G., K. Tisdel and M.D. Murphy. 2002. (Trachinotus carolinus) and the permit (T. falcatus) The 2002 update of the stock assessment of The authors would like to thank in Florida. Transactions of the American Fishery Florida pompano (Trachinotus carolinus). Florida Joseph Drumm (Mote Marine Society 98(3):478-486. Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Laboratory), Kathy Guindon (Florida Finucane, J.H. 1970. Progress in pompano mari- Florida Marine Research Institute, St. Fish and Wildlife Conservation culture in the United States. Proceedings of the Petersburg, FL. pp.1-45. Commission), and Dr. Charles Adams World Aquaculture Society, 1st Annual Peters, D.J. and W.G. Nelson. 1987. The season- (University of Florida) for their contri- Workshop. pp. 69-72. ality and spatial patterns of juvenile surf zone butions to this review. The work Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation fishes of the Florida east coast. Florida Science reported in this publication was sup- Commission. 2006. Unpublished commercial 50: 85-99. ported in part by the Southern Trip Ticket landings data. Florida Wildlife Swingle, W. E. 1972. Alabama’s marine cage cul- Regional Aquaculture Center through Research Institute: [Online] Available: ture studies. Proceeding of the World Grant No. 2005-38500-15815 from the http://floridamarine.org/features/view_article. Mariculture Society. pp. 75-81. United States Department of asp?id=19224 Tagatz, M.E. and D.L. Dudley. 1961. Seasonal Agriculture, Cooperative State Gilbert, C. and J. Parsons. 1986. Species Profile: occurrence of marine fishes in four shore habi- Research, Education, and Extension Life histories and environmental requirements tats near Beaufort, N.C., 1957-60. U.S. Dept. Service; the Florida Department of of coastal fishes and invertebrates (South Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service Special Agriculture and Consumer Services, Florida). Florida Pompano. Biological report 82 Scientific Report-Fisheries No. 390, 19 pp. (11.42). TR EL-82-4: 1-14. Charles H. Bronson, Commissioner, U.S. Department of Commerce. 2005. FDACS contracts #007187, #009133, Hicks, B.J. 1998. Experiments to maximize Unpublished Fulton Fish Market price data. #009781; and by the Mote Scientific growth in captive Florida pompano (Trachinotus Data no longer being reported. National Marine Foundation. carolinus). Ph.D. dissertation, Nova Southeastern Fisheries Service (NMFS). [Online] Available: University. Fort Lauderdale, Florida. 259 pp. http://www.st.nmfs.gov/st1/market_news/index.html References and Hoff, F., C. Rowell and T. Pulver. 1972. U.S. Department of Commerce. 2006. additional reading Artificially induced spawning of the Florida Unpublished regional commercial landings, pompano under controlled conditions. Anderson, W.D., J.K. Dias, R.K. Dias, D.M. dockside value, and dockside price data. Proceedings of the World Mariculture Society National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). Cupka and N.A. Chamberlain. 1977. The 3:53-64. macrofauna of the surf zone off Folly Beach, [Online] Available: http://www.st.nmfs.gov/ South Carolina. NOAA Tech. Rept. NMFS SSFR- Hoff, F.H., T. Pulver and J. Mountain. 1978a. st1/commercial/landings/annual_landings.html 704:i-iv + 1-23. Conditioning of Florida pompano (Trachinotus Watanabe, W. O. 1995. Aquaculture of the carolinus) for continuous spawning. Proceedings Florida pompano and other jacks (Family Berry, F.H. and E.S. Iverson. 1967. Pompano: of the World Mariculture Society 9:299-309. biology, fisheries, and farming potential. Carangidae) in the western Atlantic, Gulf of Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Hoff, F.H., J. Mountain, T. Frakes and K. Mexico and Caribbean Basin: status and poten- Institute 19:116-128. Halcott. 1978b. Spawning, oocyte development tial. in Main, K.L. and C. Rosenfield (eds.), and larvae rearing of the Florida pompano Culture of High Value Marine Fishes. Cupka, D.M. 1972. A survey of the ichthyofau- (Trachinotus carolinus). Proceeding of the World Proceedings 1994. The Oceanic Institute, na of the surf zone in South Carolina. South Mariculture Society 9:279-297. Honolulu, Hawaii. pp. 185-205. Carolina Wildlife Marine Research Department. Technical Report No. 4. 19 pp. Iversen, E.S. and F.H. Berry. 1969. Fish maricul- Weirich, C., R. Reigh, E. Chesney and R. ture: progress and potential. Proceedings of the Malone. In Press. Effect of Feeding Strategies on Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 21:163- the production characteristics and body compo- 176. sition of Florida Pompano reared in marine recirculating systems. North American Journal of Aquaculture.

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The work reported in this publication was supported in part by the Southern Regional Aquaculture Center through Grant No. 2005 -38500-15815 from the United States Department of Agriculture, Cooperative State Research, Education, and