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LIBRARY All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if materia! had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Published by ProQuest LLC (2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 fA NEW DAWN RISING':1 AN EMPIRICAL AND SOCIAL STUDY CONCERNING THE EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH WOMEN'S ATHLETICS UNTIL 1980 Gregory Paul Moon Submitted in part fulfilment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Roehampton Institute London for the University of Surrey August 1997 1Sutton and Cheam Advertiser 1979. Dawn Lucy (later Gaskin) was the first athlete I ever coached. Previously, she had made little progress for several years. In our first season together her improvement was such that the local newspaper was prompted to address her performances with this headline. ABSTRACT This study explores the history of English women's athletics, from the earliest references up to 1980. There is detailed discussion of smock racing and pedestrianism during the eighteenth- and nineteenth-centuries, but attention is focused on the period from 1921, when international and then domestic governing bodies were formed and athletics .became established as a legitimate sporting activity for women. The methodologies employed are varied, incorporating the use of original documentary sources (for example, newspapers, minute books, and other archival material) and interviews, which were conducted with a range of athletes and administrators. The history of English women's athletics is presented chronologically in Chapters Three to Six which cover key events, such as the formation of the governing bodies, the successes and failures of some of the key athletes and administrators, and the dominant ideologies which have affected women's entry, degree of involvement and continuance in the sport. The varied factors which have encouraged or constrained women from expressions of physicality, and which have changed over time, are considered. Equally complex have been the relationships with the men who have been associated with athletics, both in England and in the global context; concepts of male hegemony are explored, as are the relationships between different groups of women. Attention is given to the complexities surrounding women's athletics, which have resulted in uneven growth around the country and on the world stage. Throughout the thesis the development of women's athletics has been related to wider issues which have impinged on its structure and development. For example, specific cultural, political, economic and ideological patterns which have influenced the history of women's athletics are discussed. Chapters Seven and Eight are thematic, covering the whole period under examination. Chapter Seven focuses on changing medical and social attitudes to the female body over time, and examines images of athletic femininity, changing dress codes, and the particular problem of gender verification testing. Chapter Eight examines the issues of power and control, inequalities and discrimination, and, more specifically, the concept of male hegemony and gender relations of power. This last element incorporates an analysis of the changing relations between men and women, and between different groups of women, including an examination of the roles of administrators, familial relationships and coaches, together with discussions centred on the myth of equal opportunities for women in relation to finance, facilities and press and media coverage. Chapter Nine concludes the study by looking at the spread and democratization of women's athletics, discussing schoolgirl athletics, class distinctions and ethnic expansion. This thesis ends in 1980 when the commercialization and commodification of sport entered a new phase and changed the nature of women's athletics fundamentally. © Copyright Greg Moon 1997 CONTENTS ABSTRACT ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii ABBREVIATIONS x CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND OUTLINE OF THE THESIS A) INTRODUCTION 1 B) OUTLINE OF THE THESIS 12 CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY Introduction 16 Original Documentary Sources 16 Oral Histories 24 Problems of Sampling 27 Questioning Technique 28 Reliability of Data 31 Interpretation of Data 32 Conclusion 37 CHAPTER THREE: THE ORIGINS OF WOMEN'S ATHLETICS IN ENGLAND: IN THE SHADOW OF MEN Introduction: The Establishment of Athletics as a Male Activity 38 Breaking the Pattern - Earliest Races for Women 41 Smock Racing - A Highly Organized Activity 42 Racing for Wagers 46 Racing Abroad 47 Pedestrianism 48 Mid-Victorian Social Changes and Sabbatarianism 52 The Rise of Male Hegemony in the 'New' Athletics 55 Contemporary Literature 59 CHAPTER FOUR: 1914 TO 1939: FORMAL BEGINNINGS Introduction 64 Post-War Social Changes 65 Pre-Administrative Competition in England 68 Early Growth Abroad 73 England Enters the International Arena 74 Alice Milliat and the Founding of an International Administration 82 Formation of the Women's Amateur Athletic Association 85 i v Continued Growth in Europe is Matched in England 92 Social and Economic Dimensions 97 English National Championships and Problems of Regionalization 100 English Competitive Weaknesses 103 International Athletics Comes to England 104 International Growth Meets Opposition 107 Cross-Country 112 Increasing World-Wide Competitive Opportunities and Standards of Performance 115 The Fight for Inclusion in the Olympiades 120 International Athletics Continues to Grow Outside the Olympic Arena 129 British Women Enter the Olympic Arena 130 Post FSFI International Competition 133 CHAPTER FIVE: 1939 TO 1964: WAR AND RECOVERY Introduction 137 War-Time Athletics 138 The Position at the End of the War 143 Post-War Social Changes 145 Domestic Post-War Reconstruction 146 The Return of International Competition 151 Domestic Shortcomings and Possibilities 154 1948: London's Austerity Olympics 157 Soviet Domination of Women's Athletics in Other Spheres 161 The 1950s: Social Changes 163 1950: Two Major Championships 163 Domestic Developments 165 1952: The Helsinki Olympics 166 1954: Two Major Championships 171 World-Class Athletics in England 174 1956: The Melbourne Olympics 176 1958: Britain Hosts a Major Championship 177 1960: The Rome Olympics 178 1962: Two More Championships 183 CHAPTER SIX: THE BEST OF TIMES, THE WORST OF TIMES Introduction 186 Social Changes 186 1964: The Tokyo Olympics 188 1966: The Downward Spiral Begins 196 The Drawbacks of an Expanding International Competitive Calendar 198 1968: The Mexico Olympics 202 1969: Athens, and Lillian Board 205 1970: A Major Championship in Britain 209 1971: European Championships 210 1972: The Munich Olympics 211 1974: Two Major Championships 215 1976: The Montreal Olympics 219 1978: Two Close Championships 222 1980: The Moscow Olympics 224 Changes in Aspirations of English Women Athletes 227 Conclusion 229 CHAPTER SEVEN: ATTITUDES TO THE FEMALE BODY - MEDICAL AND SOCIAL Introduction 233 Nineteenth-Century Medical and Social Arguments 235 Early Support for Exercise 237 Medical Arguments Surrounding Athletics 243 Women's Bodies and Training 251 The Expansion of the Programme of Events 261 Images of Femininity 276 Athletic Dress 285 Gender Verification Testing 292 Conclusion 297 CHAPTER EIGHT: POWER AND CONTROL: PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FEMALE ATHLETES Introduction 299 The Battle for Women's Continued Place in the Olympiades 302 Key Administrators 308 Family Peers 314 Coaches 321 The Myth of Equal Opportunities and Financial Equality 332 Facilities 341 Press and Media Coverage 350 Conclusion 361 CHAPTER NINE: CONCLUSION: THE SPREAD AND DEMOCRATIZATION OF WOMEN'S ATHLETICS Introduction 363 Schoolgirl Athletics 363 The Attraction of Athletics 375 Class Distinctions 380 Ethnic Expansion 384 Conclusion 386 BIBLIOGRAPHY 391 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work would not have been possible without funding for three full years from the Sport Studies Department, Roehampton Institute London, and a further six months' funding from Roehampton's Research Office. Financially, I am also indebted to the Office for National Statistics, Medscreen, International Doping Tests and Management, and John Whetton for offering additional sources of income to fit around my requirements during this lengthy period of study. Individually I must thank all those who generously gave of their time to assist my studies, particularly: Joan Allison, David Barrington, Ruth Berlandina, Christine Benning, Christina Boxer, Jim Braben, John Bromhead, David Cocksedge, Eric Cowe, Sarah Cranmer, Sylvia Disley, Sandy Duncan, Carol Dyhouse, Marjorie Ferris, Dawn Gaskin, Steve Hewitt, Frank Horwill, Liz Joyce, Lily Kager, Kev Kelly, Dame Marea Hartman, Brian Hewson, Jill Lindsay, Peter Lovesey, David McCobb, Tim Lynch-Staunton, William Moon, Tom McNab, Eric Nash, Judy Oakes, Wilf Paish, Jenny Pawsey, Phyllis Perkins, Professor Peter Radford, Jonathan Rosenthall, Vera Searle, Judy Vernon, Denis Watts, John Whetton, Mabel Winter and Mary Wixey - and Walty and Jenny. I am particularly grateful to David Terry, who allowed me access to his personal library, and to Sue Stevens, who made numerous suggestions to improve the final text. I also acknowledge