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Objectives After this section, you will be able to: · Discuss the interplay between technologies and the development of journalism. · List the four roles of mass . · Discuss the development of a free press. · Discuss methods used to pay for the collection and dissemination of . · Identify ethical challenges that may develop because of sources of funding. · Identify strengths and weaknesses associated with media convergence.

Humans hunger for news. We want knowledge beyond what we can gather using our own senses. We want , facts, events, people, back stories and the ideas from beyond our doors. We want to understand, and we want to escape our isolation. The tries to satisfy this hunger. The work produce is part of mass media. Mass media’s job is to inform, persuade, entertain and transmit cultural values. Journalism openly and proudly does the first three—it persuades, informs and entertains—and often, despite its efforts to be objective, it reflects and transmits cultural values. Sometimes these roles of mass media conflict with each other. “The Odyssey,” one of the oldest works in Western , is full of the hunger for news. Twenty years after Odysseus sails for Troy, his wife and son long for news of him. But in Greece in 800 BCE, there are only two ways of getting news. You can stay at home and hope a traveler comes to you with accurate reports, or you can travel forth to interview primary sources for yourself. had not yet reached Greece. The story of Odysseus represents the four sometimes competition functions of mass : to inform, persuade, entertain and transmit culture. Penelope and Telemachus, Odysseus’s wife and son, wanted accurate about Odysseus’s whereabouts. Penelope guarded herself against gossip and those who would exploit her. She asks the old beggar who claims to have seen Odysseus (but is really her returning husband in disguise) to support his reports with relevant details. She demands the beggar tell her “how he looked, the quality of his clothing and some particular of his company.” Eyewitness reporting gains credibility from accurate detail, and Penelope wanted only the . But before returning home disguised as an old beggar, Odysseus had earlier been washed ashore alone in Phaicia, where King Alcinous and his people want entertainment more than facts, entertainment in harmony with their world view. Odysseus wants a ship to return home to Ithaca, so he gives them the entertainment they want. When the king introduces himself he says, “Cyclops ranked no nearer gods than we.” Odysseus reads his audience well and crafts his account to please them. He gives them a good story, complete with a Cyclops, seductive enchantresses, a journey to the afterlife, a six-headed monster, cannibals, lotus flowers, a whirlpool and vengeful gods. He portrays himself as the complete Greek hero, embodying Greek cultural values. He is resourceful, loyal, brave, boastful, curious and an associate of the gods. His great ability as an entertainer—and a persuader—earn him safe passage home to Ithaca.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible . Journalism: Across Media A 1 People’s desire for hard news, facts on which they can make decisions, has long intertwined with their desire for softer news, news designed to reinforce their beliefs, news of heroes, gossip and even fictions that suit their existing prejudices. As literacy spread, it helped bridge the gulf between the small world within the reach of our senses, and the greater world. Literacy and its technologies— with pens, reeds, cow hides, metal plates and stone or clay tablets—changed the way we got the news. A scribe could mark a thin sheet of cow hide, metal or papyrus. A messenger carried it by boat, horse or on foot, and many miles away, another person could read the same words. It must have seemed miraculous. If the words were read aloud, they could be received by mass audiences, groups of people gathered together. This may not yet have been true journalism—the messages were more often official pronouncements rather than unbiased and accurate reports—but journalism developed and changed with technology. This was as true thousands of years ago as it is .

Milestones in the Development of Journalism

When and Where What So What? 131 BCE to about 222 Acta Diurna (Daily Acts): Daily official Called the first daily , CE, Rome (353 years) notices of the Roman government the Acta were notices written by inscribed in Latin on stone or metal government employees. However, they plates and posted in public places such allowed the citizens of Rome to watch as the Forum. Scribes copied them to parts of their government. send to provincial governors. They replaced the early Annals, a In addition to legal proceedings yearly that summarized and public notices, they announced events of the previous year. prominent births, marriages and deaths, astrological omens, gladiatorial contests, (an early sports page), trials and executions. 59 BCE Acta Senatus: the records of the Governments may not relish close acts of the Roman senate, made scrutiny of their actions. public during a short period by order of Julius Caesar, then a Consul. His grand-nephew and successor as Emperor, Augustus, censored them.

lynea/Shutterstock.com (Continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 2 When and Where What So What? 1282, Aragon (now Spain) First water-powered mill made Plentiful paper made written paper relatively inexpensive and widely communication possible for individuals, available. culture transferred the even those who were not powerful or knowledge of paper making to wealthy. from , where paper had been People “published” their writing, even made as early as 104 C. But it remained their poetry by writing letters. Copying rare and expensive as long as it was these letters (the Renaissance version made by hand. Peter III, a Christian of retweeting) flourished, allowing king of Aragon, Valencia and Sicily, such as Petrarch (1304–1374) sponsored the construction of the first to circulate his poems and social known water-powered paper mill. commentary (early ), news, Earlier, writing was done on and satire. He made • parchment, that is, prepared hides a name for himself in both Latin and from cows, sheep or goats; Italian, relying on his readers—his • papyrus rolls, beaten from reeds; followers—to hire scribes to copy what Georgios Kollidas/Shutterstock.com they liked. • thin metal plates; and • clay or stone tablets. Preparing these surfaces was time-consuming and expensive, as was handcrafted paper. (Students learned to write using sticks, chalk or charcoal on wood, wax-coated wood, slate or in the dust.) Mainz, Holy Roman ’s Woodcut prints were used first to print Empire (now ), press refined and combined several cloth, but by 1400 they were being used around 1440 earlier innovations to make the first to print multiple copies of texts. Wooden mass media possible. blocks were carved by hand and could Innovation one: Gutenberg, a goldsmith not be altered or reused. Their edges by training, created moulds to cast were worn down easily, producing individual letters and characters out of blurrier images with each impression. an easily-melted alloy of lead, tin and Gutenberg improved this process by antimony. These letters kept sharp, creating metal letters that printed crisp, clear edges even when printing many clear letters and could be melted down thousands of copies and could be melted and reused after a printing. Everett Historical/Shutterstock.com down to be reused after the page was The gave birth to mass printed. They were arranged (in a mirror media and changed the world. image of the printed page) by letter, A printing press could produce 3,600 word by word in a chase, a four-sided copies of a page in a single workday. frame and then locked down. (Without a press 400 pages was a Innovation two: Gutenberg adapted a good day’s work.) screw press, used in wine and olive In the first sixty years, printing presses production, to press the paper firmly across Europe produced more than and efficiently onto the chase. twenty million volumes and over Innovation three: He developed an 20,000 different . oil-based ink that did not fade as did The printing press fostered literacy and earlier, water-based ink. the spread of ideas, often revolutionary ideas, and put information into the hands of a growing audience. These readers in turn challenged traditional ideas and organizations, including governments and churches. The printing press also made it easier to earn a living as an author, though copyright laws did not exist yet. (Continued) Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 3 When and Where What So What? 1530, Mexico The first printing press in the The printing press is not yet 100 years Western Hemisphere is set up in old, but it has become an essential Mexico City. A news (not a element of civilization. It would be newspaper) is published there in 1541. another 109 years until the first English- language press is established by Mrs. Glover at Harvard College, Boston in 1639. (Her first name is unknown.) 1594 in Cologne (now Mercurius Gallobelgicus, written in Twice-yearly summaries may have Germany) Latin, was a semiannual summary of been too stale to count as journalism, news events. but they were chosen and edited A gathered and edited the news by a citizen, not provided by the accounts he felt would interest his readers. government. 1605, Strassbourg (now Johann Carolus’s German-language Carolus printed this paper weekly, ) weekly, Relation aller Fürnemmen so news was considerably less stale. und gedenckwürdigen Historien He gathered news from handwritten (Account of all distinguished and sources and from first-hand sources. commemorable news), is generally His paper was a commercial venture. recognized as first newspaper. Around 1620 The Courante, the first English Those in power in may have newspaper, was published in Holland, feared that uncontrolled printing would probably to avoid the strict control the destabilize their society. They were English government held over . right. It was a weekly , 22 inches long and patterned after several earlier European . 1665, Oxford, England The Oxford Gazette, later the The London Gazette is an official journal Gazette, is said to be the oldest of record for the British government, so surviving English newspaper. It is still it may be closer to The Congressional published. It was begun to transmit Record (started in 1873 in the U.S.) or news of the court to London when the to the “Legal Notices” section of local English government had fled to Oxford papers, than to a true newspaper. to avoid the Great Plague. It continued Under its title is the statement when the government returned to “Published by Authority,” meaning the London. publishers have sought and gained official permission to publish. September 25, 1690, Publick Occurences, Both Foreign Having opinions may be dangerous Boston (one issue only) and Domestick was the first American in totalitarian situations. Why did the newspaper. It was a three-page paper British colonial government object to printed on 6 by 9.5 inch paper. The the paper? They wrote that they found last page was left blank, perhaps so “Reflections of a very high : As readers could comment on the news also sundry doubtful and uncertain or add their own and send it on to Reports.” someone else. Single-page broadsides, The most probable cause was Harris’s more like posters, had been published statement that the English military earlier. Publick Occurences was printed had allied themselves with Native only once by London newspaper Americans, or as he put it, “miserable” publisher Benjamin Harris who had savages. migrated to the Massachusetts Colony. The British government once told the The British colonial officials ordered governors of Massachusetts, “Great that the paper be “Suppressed and inconvenience may arise by the liberty called in.” and did “strickly forbid...any of printing.” person or persons for the future to Set forth any thing in Print without License.” (Continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 4 When and Where What So What? April 24, 1704 to Boston-News Letter, the colony’s Being a “power-friendly” newspaper February 29, 1776, second newspaper, was heavily has both advantages and Boston subsidized by the British government disadvantages. The editor of the and had a limited circulation. Boston-News Letter, John Campbell, (People did not generally buy papers was a British-appointed postmaster off the streets until the early 1800s. and the words “Published by Authority” They subscribed to the paper, were prominently printed just below usually by the year.) It was published the flag, that is, the name of the weekly, a single page, two columns newspaper. wide, printed on both sides. At first it Though the paper avoided controversy contained primarily repackaged news that would upset its British sponsors, from England and Europe, but in 1718 it also collected news from throughout it reported the death of Blackbeard the colonies and was widely circulated, the Pirate in hand-to-hand combat off helping to create an American identity Ocracoke Island in North Carolina. By that later proved important to the 1732, the paper was four pages long Revolution. and had news from throughout the colonies. December 19, 1719 to The Boston Gazette, some say A crusading press can move a nation, 1798, Boston the most influential paper in the but it can endanger its own survival if history of America, was begun as its favorite causes prove unpopular. competition to the Boston-News Letter. Its first printer was , Benjamin’s older brother. Paul Revere and Samuel Adams contributed to it, as did Phyllis Wheatley, the first African-American poet and the first African-American woman to publish a book. The paper’s masthead, etched by coppersmith Paul Revere, shows Britannia (a symbol of England) freeing a bird from a cage. The Boston Gazette has been called the mouthpiece of the revolution. It reported the Boston Tea Party and the Boston Massacre to the other colonies and propelled the colonists toward rebellion against Britain. After the , it bitterly opposed George Washington and the new Constitution and so lost support. (Continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 5 When and Where What So What? August 7, 1721 to 1726, The New-England Courant provided Officials sought to stop ideas by Boston an open and lively forum for Boston silencing their expression. In this case, wits to comment on government, the ideas found other outlets in other morals and laws in its letter-to-the- places and other media. editor section. The paper was without The British suppression of the press official ties to Massachusetts colonial may have hardened opposition to government and frequently ran afoul of British rule, though it was 50 years until authority. Its contributors were known the Declaration of Independence. as the “Hell-Fire” club. In more recent times, citizens across It published literary works and the world have sought freedom of humorous essays as well as colonial expression, but the urgency of their and overseas news. It was started demands has increased, perhaps by James Franklin, with his brother, fueled by faster technologies and the 15-year-old Benjamin, as his example of America’s struggles nearly apprentice. Ben contributed to the Everett Historical/Shutterstock.com 300 years ago. paper anonymously as Silence Dogood and took over the paper when James was put in prison for writing an criticizing the government’s failure to capture local pirates. When James was later forbidden to publish, he simply continued to use Benjamin’s name on the masthead, though Ben had by that time moved away. James Franklin frequently ran afoul of the British authorities, spending a month in jail for refusing to reveal the identity of a contributor—Silence Dogood. The paper was suppressed by the British colonial government in 1726, but it set the tone for American . James Franklin started another paper, the Rhode-Island Gazette, in 1732. Ben moved to and purchased the Philadelphia Gazette and also published the first foreign-language paper, the short-lived Philadephia Zeitung. In 1741 he published one of the first two in the colonies. (Continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 6 When and Where What So What? 1735, New York The Zenger Trial—Citizens as The Zenger case laid the foundation lawmakers: A New York jury acquitted for American and John Peter Zenger of libel against established that truth was a defense the British governor because what against libel. It also established the he published was accepted as people’s right to criticize and oversee true though it was critical of the the government. government. Zenger, a printer and This right was not established by recent German immigrant to New York, judges or legislators, but by citizen printed The New York Weekly Journal, jurors. giving voice to colonists opposed to Emboldened by the Zenger case, more the heavy-handed tactics of British colonial papers sided with the colonists governor, William Cosby. Cosby twice against British governors, including attempted to shut down the paper on Mary Katharine Goddard, the publisher charges of “seditious libel,” that is, of the Maryland Journal who published speaking ill of the government, a crime the first copies of the Declaration of under British law. Cosby had Zenger Independence, including the names of thrown in jail, where he remained the signers. for almost nine months until his trial. Zenger’s wife continued publishing, Isaiah Thomas’s Massachusetts missing only one , but gathering Spy, with a circulation of 3,500 had great public sympathy while reporting to relocate from Boston to Worcester, what Zenger whispered through the Massachusetts in 1775 because of its hole of the door to his cell. outspoken support for the Patriots. The British wished to hang him as a traitor Zenger’s defense attorney, Andrew and Loyalist burned him in effigy. Hamilton, surprised the prosecutor when he admitted immediately that Zenger had published what the prosecutor called libel. He tried to show that what Zenger published was true, but the judge would not allow him to do so. The truth of the matter was not an excuse for speaking ill of the governor, the judge held. The prosecutor claimed that if what Zenger published was true, it was all the more libelous. The “Jury must find a verdict for the king. For supposing they were true, the law says that they are not the less libelous for that. Nay, indeed the law says their being true is an aggravation of the crime.” Hamilton argued directly to the jury that the English libel law that protected the king did not apply to the governor of a colony and that “what is good law at one time and in one place is not so at another time and in another place.” He said, “law ought not to be interpreted to prohibit the just complaints of a number of men who suffer under a bad administration.” The jurors voted to free Zenger. (Continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 7 When and Where What So What? May 9, 1754 “Join or Die,” America’s first political The woodcut cartoon was printed with cartoon is published by Ben Franklin in an editorial by Franklin, but the written his Pennsylvania Gazette. work is now almost forgotten. The image still conveys multiple ideas and stays in the mind of those who see it

Everett Historical/Shutterstock.com 1775 to 1784, Pennsylvania Evening Post becomes It is bad business to lose the trust of Pennsylvania the first daily paper in America in 1783. your audience. The paper may have Originally a tri-weekly Patriot paper, it died because it seemed self-serving switched to the British side when the and disloyal—a turncoat paper. city was occupied, then welcomed back the Patriots when the British were expelled. During the British invasion, the other papers were forced out of business, and the Evening Post emerged as the town’s only paper. The paper was published as a daily for just 17 months before it went out of business. December 15, 1791 The First Amendment becomes Some say the First Amendment is part of the Constitution in the Bill too radical to be passed today, but it of Rights. The First Amendment enshrined in law the citizen’s (and by prohibited the federal government inference, the press’s) right to criticize from doing what the British colonial the government. This right provided the governments had done—suppressing new nation with the flexibility to grow freedom, including freedom of the and change for almost two and half press and . The centuries without the need for further Founding Fathers, having lived through revolution. British tyranny, knew the importance Thomas Jefferson wrote, “Were it of free speech and a free press to were left to me to decide whether we creating and preserving democracy. should have a government without newspapers or newspapers without a government, should not hesitate to prefer the latter.” Of course the printed newspaper was the only journalism in 1800, so newspapers stood for journalism in its many modern forms. By 1800, just nine years after the First Amendment became law, there were approximately 200 newspapers in the new nation. In 1775, there had been about 35. (Continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 8 When and Where What So What? 1833, New York The Rise of the : The Cheap newspapers allow all economic New York Morning Post and the New classes to read a newspaper. York Sun begin selling single copies Competition on the streets lead on the streets of New York for a to strong , more human penny. Earlier papers had been sold interest stories, sensational news and by subscription, often year by year. an emphasis on new and unfolding The first paper boy is rumored to be a stories, many of which were not 10-year-old Barney Flaherty who was especially accurate. Competition to hired by in 1833. sell the papers often competed with journalistic ethics and vision. Horace Greeley’s New York Tribune (begun in 1841) combated the trend toward inaccuracy in both headlines and in reporting. It became known for its ethical reporting and was nicknamed “The Great Moral Organ.” May 1, 1844 Baltimore to The first news is transmitted by The time between an event and when it Washington DC telegraph. For the first time in history, is published is shortened, and in effect, news travels further than the eye can the world is made a little smaller. see and faster than a man, a horse Equally important, or a ship could move. The name of changed the shape of journalism. the Whig Party nominee for president Earlier papers published long was telegraphed from Baltimore to descriptions and detailed accounts that Washington. often did not give the real news—how Telegraphs soon connected New York, the battle ended, for instance—until the Philadelphia and Washington and very last of the . reached California in 1861. Journalists learned to write stories By 1866, America and Europe were to accommodate the expense and connected by trans-Atlantic cable. unreliability of the telegraph. Because (Earlier, unreliable cables were laid in they paid telegraph operators by 1858.) the word, journalists told the most Information was now transmitted important part first in the most efficient accurately and swiftly over long language possible. Because they never distances in a binary code of dots could tell when a line would go down, and dashes, short and long electrical they saved the lesser details for later in pulses. the transmission. The inverted pyramid was born. 1846 The is formed. The Associated Press advances the New York’s five major newspapers ideal of . Its pooled their resources to save money reports needed to be both accurate as they gathered distant news. Their and objective. The newspapers that first effort was to fund a pony express subscribed to the AP may have held route through Alabama to bring news conflicting political opinions, but they all of the Mexican War north more quickly needed sound, factual reporting. One than the U.S. Post Office could deliver paper’s “Victory!” might be another it. Over the years the AP has delivered paper’s, “Fought Bravely to the End,” news by pigeon, pony express, but they both needed to know who won railroad, steamship, telegraph, short the conflict and when and where. wave radio and teletype as well as telephone and the . They were first with news of Abraham Lincoln’s death, the fall of the Shah of and the bombing of Pearl Harbor. (Continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 9 When and Where What So What? 1847–1863, Rochester, The North Star, later the Liberty Party Almost all papers were strongly New York Paper, later Frederick Douglass’s associated with political parties and Paper was the most important causes. The New York Evening Post for black writers and the anti-slave advocated the Democratic party, the movement. Named for the star that New York Tribune, the Whig party. The guided Douglass north as he escaped North Star advocated for emancipation. slavery, it was published to advocate The Lily, published by Amelia Bloomer for emancipation of American slaves advocated for women’s suffrage and and written to a specific, sympathetic temperance. audience. It ceased publication the People read the paper that interested year of the Emancipation Proclamation. them and generally agreed with their views. By 1860, there were nearly 3,000 papers being published in America. About 1850 Newspapers begin to publish Images made the audience witnesses engraving made from photographs. to distant events. In 1861 Mathew Brady, the father Though artists had earlier sketched of , publishes battles for newspapers, the reality photographs of the Civil War, as of war portrayed in engravings from engravings. Brady was a successful photographs both shocked and photographer who petitioned President intrigued the public. Then as now, Abraham Lincoln for permission to images engage the audience. document the Civil War. He brought his large camera, glass plates, studio Everett Historical/Shutterstock.com and darkroom so close to the battles that he was nearly captured at the first Battle of Bull Run. Engravings of his photographs were published in Harper’s . In 1862 he exhibited his photographs of the war in his New York gallery, including photos of corpses. His photographs are still valuable documentary sources for historians. June 1850 Harper’s Magazine, the country’s As a magazine Harper’s could publish oldest -interest magazine long- journalism. Newspapers at printed 7,500 copies of its first run. the time were four, or at most eight, By the end of the year, its circulation pages long. was 50,000. Originally it reprinted It was able to explore issues of the articles from England but soon day in-depth, such as women’s rights published American works. John Muir, and the bombing of Hiroshima. It Jack London, Mark Twain and Henry also publishes literary works. Since James published in Harper’s. It was 1980 Harper’s has been published by heavily illustrated. foundation “as an independent voice in American culture.” April 21, 1861 Major New York Newspapers begin Publishing the news is now a editions in response to thirst seven-day-a-week enterprise. for news from the Civil War. (Continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 10 When and Where What So What? November 21, 1861 The Associated Press becomes Government’s power to reward or the official receiver of all war news punish news outlets diminishes. from the government. Earlier, the government had dispensed news to a few favored papers. July 13–16, 1863 Mobs rioting in New York to protest Strong editorial positions have their the Civil War draft target The New York dangers. Times for its pro-union and anti-slavery stance. Its publisher defended its building with rifles and Gatling guns; mobs attack the Tribune building instead. Over 100 are killed in the riot. 1870 The birth of the American info Walker wanted complex statistical data to graphic. Francis A. Walker, the be accessible to non-statisticians. While Superintendent of the 9th U.S. Census maps and timelines helped with this, extrapolated census data into his charts—some colored—introduced that look surprisingly modern. a new way of seeing information. When journalism moved from Linotype printing to digital production over a century later, graphics became more powerful and more common. 1871 Thomas Nast, the “Father of the Though published political cartoons Political Cartoon,” begins publishing have deep roots—they go back at least editorial cartoons against fraud in as far as the Protestant Reformation politics, portraying in Germany—Nast’s use of them “Boss Tweed” and the Tammany established their role in American politician. newspapers and their power in political He also creates the modern image life. Abraham Lincoln called Nast “Our of Santa Claus and the elephant as best recruiting sergeant.” the political symbol of the Republican He is credited with influencing the Party. He popularized the donkey for elections of presidents Grant, Hayes the Democratic Party and the images and Cleveland. of Uncle Sam for America and Lady His method of expressing his Columbia for American values. indignations—caricatures of public Everett Historical/Shutterstock.com figures placed in famous literary situations such as Romeo and Juliet’s balcony scene—is still followed today. 1873 Remington starts producing The typewriter’s swift, more easily typewriters in the U.S. Twenty-seven read copy only gradually replaced years later in 1900, reporters, not the handwritten news stories. paper, own their own typewriters, but most still write their copy by hand. 1876 The telephone is invented by The time between an event and when Alexander Graham Bell. Ten years it is published is further shortened. later, gets its first Reporters on the scene could phone telephone. The number is John 470. By in reports to their distant paper, again 1900 they have two phones. increasing the speed of reporting. The world became a little smaller. (Continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 11 When and Where What So What? 1880, New York Graphic: An Illustrated Modern photojournalism is born. Evening Newspaper publishes photographs in the newspaper for the first time by converting the actual photo (not an artist’s engraving of the photo) into a series of dots. Before this, the Daily Graphic has used engraved plates to produce cartoons, reproductions of paintings and artists’ of news events. September 4, 1882 Electricity comes to the NY Times, Night is no longer an impediment to with 52 Edison lightbulbs. journalism. The work can now more easily proceed 24 hours a day. 1883, New York buys the World. Competition for the readers’ eyes The World becomes famous for its and pennies was fierce. Pulitzer sensational and crusading journalism, expanded his market by emphasizing often against and for the entertainment. The paper’s critics said common man. Pulitzer had previously that the entertainment overshadowed (1878) combined two St. Louis papers the traditional journalistic values of to form the Post-Dispatch, also a informing and persuading. crusading newspaper. Pulitzer’s two-cent paper was eight or 12 pages long—twice the size of any other two-cent paper in the market. Pictures, games, contests and crime stories filled the pages. Pulitzer recruits the famous investigative Nellie Bly. Circulation grew from 15,000 to 600,000, the largest in the country. September 23, 1883 The New York Times drops its daily The NY Times found what many price to 2 cents on weekdays to have learned: A large compete with and Pulitzer’s circulation means more , but the World. to get a large circulation, the cost to In December, 1891, to offset expenses, readers needs to be small. the paper’s weekday price is raised to 3 cents, causing circulation to drop. October 10, 1898 The New York Times lowers its price to one cent. Circulation triples within a year to 76,000 from 26,000, and advertising revenues soar. (Continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 12 When and Where What So What? 1886 The Linotype machine, invented The Linotype revolutionized . by German immigrant Otto A good Linotype operator could do in Mergenthaler, is installed at the a day what a hand compositor could New York Tribune. The Linotype do in a week. They could also recreate (line-o’-type) allowed an operator and print new front pages for several to type stories onto a 90 character editions in a single day. Before the keyboard instead of setting each letter Linotype, no newspaper in the world and character individually by hand. had more than eight pages. The typesetting machine assembles The New York Times used hot metal matrices, molds for the letters in a line type and Linotype machines until of text, including spaces. Hot metal May of 1978, when they changed to is poured into the matrix to make a computer produced “cold type.” slug, a single line of text. The matrices can be reused quickly after the metal hardens. The slugs also can be melted and reused. 1893–1896, New York The New York Recorder installs The New York Times remains black and color printing presses. , white for the next century, earning the the World and The Journal follow. nickname “The Gray Lady.” 1895, New York The Yellow Kid: The first color The competition between Pulitzer’s newspaper comic, Hogan’s Alley, the World and Hearst’s The Journal featuring a shaved-headed, big-eared was symbolized by the two competing little kid in a yellow nightshirt, appears Yellow Kid cartoons. This may be the in Pulitzer’s the World. The dialogue of the term “,” was printed on the front of his yellow which implies poorly-sourced material, shirt, presumably an over-sized hand- misleading headlines, florid prose, me-down. The Richard faked interviews, scare tactics and F. Outcault, was soon recruited by questionable science. Hearst’s New York Morning Journal, Though the full-page, color cartoons but Pulitzer retained the copyright and featured children, they were sharply hired George Luks to continue drawing satirical and meant for adults. They the cartoon. Outcault’s cartoon for were more akin to editorial cartoons the Journal was more violent than the than to later cartoons such as Peanuts, cartoon for the World. It became more Dagwood the Family Circus and Zits, popular. which were meant more to amuse. Some modern newspaper comics, such as Doonesbury, continue the Yellow Kid’s tradition of lampooning and satirizing current affairs and trends. 1895 buys the Both the Morning Journal and Pulitzer’s New York Morning Journal, a penny the World favored the Democratic paper. A successful newspaperman— Party and supported populist causes, Hearst had earlier turned the San crusading against big business and Francisco Examiner into a crusading corruption. paper that exposed financial and Because they competed for the same political corruption—he enjoyed the audience, they each felt the need to backing of family fortune. He began out-do the other to attract readers. This a circulation war with Pulitzer’s World competition gave rise to about five and hired away much of Pulitzer’s staff. years of what became known as yellow Hearst eventually owned 28 American journalism. newspapers. (Continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 13 When and Where What So What? About 1900 The wireless telegraph transmits Journalists no longer need to wait for Morse Code via electromagnetic ships to transverse an ocean and pull waves, allowing ship-to-ship and ship- into port before they can collect news. to-shore communication, as well as The world again shrinks. communication between distant places on land. 1907 United Press Association (UP) UPI, AP and other news is formed from three smaller news became known as “wire services” syndicates to provide news to or news agencies. They sent timely newspapers, most of whom could reports to multiple news outlets, first not afford to send reporters to distant newspapers only, later broadcast places. The Associated Press had outlets. These wire services strove refused to sell news to publications to be objective, in part because they that might be rivals of its existing served newspapers with varying subscribers. editorial positions. They strove to be Fierce rivalry broke out between the AP timely and accurate—to send the news and UP. Walter Cronkite, famed WW II first, but to get it exactly right. reporter and pioneering broadcast newsman, worked for the UP—they called themselves Unipressers. He wrote, “I felt every Unipresser got up in the morning saying, ‘This is the day Everett Historical/Shutterstock.com I’m going to beat the hell out of AP.’ That was part of the spirit. We knew we were undermanned. But we knew we could do a darn good job despite that, and so many times, we did.” Later in his career, Cronkite was later called “the most trusted man in America.” 1908, Columbia, Missouri University of Missouri Journalism Earlier journalists “came up through the School becomes the first journalism ranks” from copyboy or girl to reporter school in America (possibly in the through a rough apprenticeship. world). 1912, San Jose, First regularly scheduled radio Radio has moved from person-to-person California show. Charles Herrold added audio communication to mass media. to the Morse Code he had used since 1909 in his Wednesday night broadcasts that began at 9 p.m. each week. He broadcast music and entertainment but no journalism is yet included. His station became KCBS. April 14, 1912 New York Times reporter, Carr Van The New York Times is first with the Anda concludes that the Titanic is news, and its subsequent coverage is sinking. Van Anda had been combing far ahead of the competition. through vaguely worded telegraph (wireless) reports. February 9, 1920 The NY Times installs its own Almost instantaneous news gathering telegraph wireless receiving station from around the world develops. in its offices. Within a few years it will have the world’s most extensive wireless news-gathering operation. (Continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 14 When and Where What So What? 1920, Pittsburgh, The first U.S. radio news broadcast Radio news could offer greater Pennsylvania came from Pittsburgh’s KDKA, one timeliness than newspapers, especially of only 18 stations in existence. It to people living outside of large . reported the 1920 Presidential election. 1922, Nebraska WJAC begins a daily news Radio stations rarely had their own broadcast in 1922. In the 1920s news gathering organization but relied 15-minute news broadcasts were often on newspapers. read from the daily papers. October 18, 1922 The British The BBC, still broadcasting on radio, becomes the first and online is the largest national broadcast organization. It news gathering organization in the is chartered to provide public service world. broadcasting. In 1923 it rejected For four years, newspapers advertising, fearing that the ads would successfully limited the BBC’s ability lower its standards. to broadcast news before 7 p.m. to avoid competition with print media and restricted them to wire service reports, forbidding it to gather news. 1925 The 35-millimeter camera, by Leica These durable cameras were designed is introduced, adapting movie for mountaineers but quickly replaced for high quality pictures. Over the bulkier and more fragile cameras for next generation, its quality, small journalists who needed quality images. size and mobility would revolutionize photo-journalism. May 1, 1926 The first radio photo is transmitted Images, too, can now be transferred from London to the NY Times, faster than a human could travel. The showing a dinner honoring the retiring world becomes yet smaller. viceroy of . It runs at the top of Page 1, under a heralding the technological advance. 1927, 1928, New York Two national broadcasting Radio could broadcast timely news organizations, the Columbia to remote locations, but it needed Broadcasting System (CBS) to develop a news gathering and followed by news-distribution system different Broadcasting Corporation (NBC) from the newspapers with which they come on the airwaves, covering competed in some markets. the 1928 Presidential nominating conventions with news and commentary. By 1935, most stations had a 15-minute news broadcast. Newspapers objected to radio taking away their readers and giving away for free the information gathered by the newspapers-sponsored wire services. The compromise was to create the Press-Radio Bureau that provided free news stories to stations while the stations agreed not to take away newspaper advertisers. (Continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 15 When and Where What So What? 1930 Magnetic recording devices make it Sound recordings become to radio possible to record and save sound what photographs are to print for later broadcast. publications. They allowed the audience to “witness” distant events. Radio news no longer sounds like a person reading a newspaper aloud. 1932, Milton, Curry College creates the first Radio journalists now can enter Massachusetts broadcast major. the profession through practical experience, newspaper journalism or through a college major. 1934, Washington, DC The Federal Communication Some long-running news and Commission is created by Congress educational shows such as Meet to regulate the airwaves and wires the Press (see 1947) may owe their (telephone), much as the government existence to the FCC’s requirement regulates highways. Its goal is for that media provide public affairs all U.S. citizens to have electronic broadcasting. “at reasonable charges, for the purpose of the national defense.” Those licensed by the FCC were expected to provide significant time for educational and public service programming. The Internet now falls under the FCC’s jurisdiction. 1935 Associated Press sends the first Telegraph wires are now a major tool to photo via wire. Western Union had transmit images swiftly. sent its first halftone photo in 1921. 1936 The Beginning of the Visual Age? This current century is probably the The Bettmann Archives, founded in most visually oriented in the history of New York in 1936 by Otto Bettmann, a mankind. For many moderns, the visual refugee from Nazi Germany, originally record, such as a photo or video, is the contained 15,000 images which essential record of an event. Earlier Bettmann brought in a suitcase from humans would have considered the Europe. Bettmann later characterized first person oral report or the written this period of time as “the beginning of account to be the most important the visual age.” record. In 1995 the archives, which by We are arguably the most visually then contain 19 million images and oriented people in the history of the photographs, including the United planet. Press’s collection, were sold to Corbis, a company owned by Bill Gates, founder of Microsoft. The images are stored at Iron Mountain, Pennsylvania at -4 degrees F. (-20 C) to preserve them. They are being digitized as they are ordered by clients. (Continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 16 When and Where What So What? 1939, ’s Network television begins. NBC Though television was invented Fair TV studio is unveiled in Rockefeller 12 years earlier by Philo Farnsworth Plaza during the World’s Fair. A few (with encouragement from his high months later, CBS begins broadcasting school teacher), these two radio from its TV studios in Grand Central networks pioneered television as a Station. Very few people had TV sets, mass media. and journalism was not yet part of the line-up. 1940–1944 Radio news becomes an essential Radio journalists, including Eric news medium before and during Sevareid, Edward R. Murrow, World War II. In 1940, radio news William L. Shirer and Walter Cronkite, increased to 11 hours a week, fueled in broadcast by wireless (radio) from part by anxiety about approaching war Europe as it fell to Nazi Germany, in Europe. at a time when all other forms of Radio became a potent source of news communication were in disarray. as America’s attention was focused on As fell on June 21, 1940, the war in the Pacific and in Europe. Sevareid was the first to report it. The new breed of journalists, radio In a 51-word broadcast text that of Congress Prints and newsmen, earned the respect and trust had made it past censors and was Photographs Division, LC-USF34-064823-D of the public as they chronicled the cut short as transmission failed, he advance of fascism—Hitler’s Germany reported, “This is Paris at midnight. It’s and Mussolini’s Italy—across Europe been a great day for the moving and and eventually reported the Allied packing industry in Paris. At the time victories over the Axis powers. of the battle of the Marne in 1914, the Germans were equally close to the city. I don’t know how many more radio broadcasts can be made from the Paris...” 1941 Theodore Seuss Geisel (Dr. Seuss) Long before “The Grinch Stole begins drawing wartime political ,” Geisel drew cartoons cartoons for the New York Paper PM. against US isolationism in the face of He will draw more than 400. advancing fascism in Europe.

Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-124309 February 1, 1944 The New York Times buys radio station WQXR. It plays mainly classical music and, in keeping with Ochs’s distaste for vulgar advertising, accepts no singing commercials. A Times newscast, always introduced with the words “Every hour on ,” begins on WQXR in 1946. (Continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 17 When and Where What So What? 1947, Washington, DC The first network television news Meet the Press is the longest running show, “Meet the Press,” adapted from television show in existence. The a two-year-old radio program, begins show showcases quality, objective with journalist Martha Roundtree as and intelligent journalism as well as moderator. The show, first 30 minutes network television’s responsibility to long, then an hour long, features inform the public. interviews by journalists with leaders in politics, economics and world affairs, and discussion by journalists of the issues. 1949, San Marino, KTLA television broadcasts 27 hours The power of television news was California of news as rescuers attempt to rescue revealed. With its moving images, three-year-old Kathy Fiscus who fell sound and the work of skilled down a 14 inch abandoned well pipe at journalists, television could unite a what is now San Marino High School. nation into a community. Fifty floodlights from Hollywood studios brought in for rescue work allowed anchor Stan Chambers to unite a nation as rescuers dug down 100 feet. When a doctor reached the child, nearly 10,000 people were at the site and thousands more across the nation heard the wrenching news that the child had died shortly after her fall from lack of oxygen. 1963 Computers drive Linotype machines Because the computers can set the hot type faster, breaking news can be updated more swiftly. 1963 The assassination of President Television news comes of age, and Kennedy shows television strength as a is now considered a serious platform news medium. Earlier, entertainment had for reporting. Radio could not show seemed to be its strength. The Kennedy the shooting and newspapers could assassination unfolded on television with not capture the moment-by-moment footage of the assassination and two drama. Film of the shootings were Library of Congress Prints and days later the killing of Kennedy assassin shown on TV repeatedly. Photographs Division, Lee Harvey Oswald. LC-USZ62-134844 1973 Computer age comes to journalism This is an advance in the production with the first terminals that of newspapers—stories can flow communicate with typesetting rooms. New efficiently from the writers and editors York Times reporters and editors adopt to those who compose the pages, but it the system the next year, describing the is not yet the . machines as “television screen attached to an electric typewriter keyboard.” 1973, Minneapolis Minneapolis Star adopts a “page Graphic design is beginning to making” layout system to use move from the paste-up board to the instead of pasting up pages. The computer screen. system includes a communication Electronic person-to-person system that is the precursor to email communication is in its infancy. and . (Continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 18 When and Where What So What? August, 1974, Investigations by the Washington took its obligation Washington DC Post cause President Nixon to as the people’s watchdog over the resign a little more than two years government seriously and invested after the Watergate break-in. Over significant resources to uncovering 40 people associated with the Nixon corruption. administration are convicted to crimes related to the investigation. Journalists Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein pursued tips from an anonymous inside source, nicknamed Deep Throat, that led to the exposure of illegal activities and practices in the Nixon White House. They spent over two years working sources, with the support of the newspaper’s editors and owner. June 1, 1980, Atlanta Cable News Network (CNN) is CNN is the first all-news television launched in Atlanta, Georgia. The channel and the first to provide 24-hour husband and wife team of David news coverage. Walker and Lois Hart anchor its first newscast. 1987 The Federal Communication Like early newspapers, some Commission, which licenses broadcast stations have strong stations that use the airways, political positions. And like crusading abandons its 1949 Fairness newspapers, they appeal to a specific Doctrine, which required broadcasters section of their potential audience. who allowed discussions of These stations may weaken the controversial issues on their airwaves audience’s trust in journalism’s to present opposing viewpoints. accuracy, ethics and objectivity. Some broadcast stations actively adopt In addition to advancing a political political agendas and advance their position, some media interests have causes in their programming. been accused of publishing whatever The audience and the marketplace they think will sell with limited regard for control the content shown on some truth or accuracy—yellow journalism media, including some that appear to almost a hundred years later. be news shows. 1990–1991 1991: The Persian Gulf War is Viewers in America could watch the broadcast on live TV. progress of the war live as the conflict CNN, with a decade of experience unfolded. providing 24-hour news coverage is allowed by the Iraqi government to remain in Baghdad when many other reporters are expelled. The network has the equipment, including satellite link-ups, and the personnel to broadcast live television from the war zone. (Continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 19 When and Where What So What? January 19, 1996 The New York Times goes on the Like many other print publications, the web at www.nytimes.com, joining NY Times hoped to make money by other print publications that give free attracting viewers and advertisers, but online access to the newspaper’s income from Internet advertising did articles and pictures on the night of not offset the loss of print advertising publication. as circulation dropped and readers Fifteen years later in 2011, the NYT migrated to the web. institutes a pay wall—readers must Some journalists questioned the value subscribe to read the full stories, of “giving away our product,” the news. though a certain number are free each In 2012 the NY Times made more month. money from subscriptions than from advertising for the first time. Strong reporting and writing may have made viewers willing to subscribe so they could continue to click to view the complete story. January 5, 2000 and New York Times Print media, which previously had Digital inaugurate a continuous deadlines and “put the paper to bed” news operation, providing updated at midnight, is now also part of the news and analysis around the clock. 24-hour news cycle. 2005 User-generated journalism is User-generated journalism can provide adopted by . videos, photos and eye-witness When terrorists bombed subways accounts from newsworthy events, but and a bus on 7/7, the BBC, which had it can also swamp a with established a user-generated content pictures of dogs in cute costumes. team earlier that year, received 50 still User-generated journalism can and video photos within the first hour provide accurate accounts when from places no journalist had reached. official sources—and the media—are They were deemed more newsworthy broadcasting errors, but it can also than professionals’ photographs and perpetrate hoaxes. shown on the six o’clock news. User-generated journalism can help That December the BBC received foment a revolution, but it also can 10,000 photographs the day the invade other’s privacy and entice Buncefield Oil Depot exploded. The those photographing into dangerous first came within 13 minutes of the situations. explosion. Jan. 1, 2007, , The oldest continuously published and ink that once gave its Sweden newspaper in the world switches name—the press—to the profession to web publication exclusively. of journalism, is now just one of many The Post- och Inrikes Tidningar ways of publishing. (Post and Domestic Newspaper) of Stockholm, the government newspaper and gazette of Sweden, which was published on paper without interruption since 1645, becomes exclusively a web publication. The Seattle Post Intelligencer does the same thing in 2009. (Continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 20 When and Where What So What? 2007 Blacksburg, Virginia takes the lead Some question the need for traditional in breaking news. The Virginia media when citizen journalists Tech shooting massacre, which successfully report such events. The left 32 people dead, was reported raw news seems more trustworthy by tech-savvy students using to some than the polished work of text messages and cell phone professional news organizations. video, relaying information from Others point out the importance of places professional reporters and providing context, verifying of sources videographers could not go. This and following-up on serious issues coverage was a milestone in citizen after events, all functions of traditional journalism. journalism. September, 2009 First college journalism course Chicago focused on is taught at DePaul University. Its purpose, to learn “how to make sense of the clutter of the Web, particularly in situations of breaking news or major developing stories, and how to evaluate and verify the authenticity of reports by citizen journalists.” 2010 The first Pulitzer Prizes for The Pulitzers recognize journalism Internet-based journalism are excellence from different publishing awarded to of New York- models and different platforms. based ProPublica.org for investigative (ProPublica.org is a nonprofit reporting in The Deadly Choices at organization for investigative Memorial. The story was published journalism.) on the ProPublica website on August 27, 2009 and copublished in the New York Times Magazine on August 30, 2009. Political cartoonist Mark Fiore, whose work appears on San Francisco-based SFGate.com, won the for Editorial Cartooning. Fiore produced animated editorial cartoons for publication on the Internet. 2012, New York First Pulitzer Prize given for Web-only publishing is recognized as a Internet-only journalism goes to viable platform for quality journalism. Huffington Post reporter David Wood “for his riveting exploration of the physical and emotional challenges facing American soldiers severely wounded in Iraq and Afghanistan during a decade of war.”

Review and Assessment 1. Below are important figures in the development of journalism. Choose one and research his or her involvement in journalism and its significance. Present what you learn in a presentation such as a radio story with sound bites, a website with text and photos and links to documents, a broadcast story with interviews and “live footage,” a series of tweets and photos from the events or another project as approved by your teacher.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 21 The dates in parentheses refer to the date where they are mentioned in the timeline. · Johannes Gutenberg (1440) · Amelia Bloomer (1847) · Mrs. Glover (1639) · Mathew Brady (1861) · Johann Carolus (1605) · Francis A. Walker (1870) · Benjamin Harris (1690) · Thomas Nast (1871) · James Franklin (1719) · Joseph Pulitzer (1883) · (1721) · Nellie Bly (1883) · John Peter Zenger (1735) · Otto Mergenthaler (1886) · Mary Katharine Goddard (1735) · William Randolph Hearst (1895) · Isaiah Thomas (1735) · Richard F. Outcault (1895) · Thomas Jefferson (1791) · George Luks (1895) · Frederick Douglass (1847) 2. Trace the development of the 24-hour news cycle from weekly papers to the modern age. 3. Trace the development of photojournalism. 4. Trace the development of the editorial cartoon. 5. Trace the origin of the entertainment, nonnews sections such as puzzles, nonpolitical cartoons, advice columns and horoscopes. 6. Trace the role of female journalists in the U.S. 7. Trace the development of the in journalism.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Journalism: Publishing Across Media A History of Journalism 22