INFORMATION TO USERS
This material was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original subm itted.
The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction.
1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity.
2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will find a good image of the page in the adjacent frame.
3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again - beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete.
4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and specific pages you wish reproduced.
5. PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have indistinct print. Filmed as received.
Xerox University Microfilms 73-26,828
HALL, Sydney.Owen, 1933- THE ROLE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN THE NATION-BUILDING PROCESS IN KENYA.
The Ohio S tate U n iv e rsity , P h .D ., 1973 Education, physical
University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED. THE ROLE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT
IN THE NATION-BUILDING PROCESS IN KENYA
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate - School of The Ohio State University
By
Sydney Owen Hall, B.S., M.S.
The Ohio S ta te U n iv ersity 1973
Approved by
A dviser School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation PREFACE
After World War II, it was a foregone conclusion that colonialism throughout the world was being uprooted. Most of the African continent as well as India and other countries were the major showpieces display ing the momentous impact of their awakening in the modern world. The exposure of the African continent to the Western concept of freedom during this period had considerable effect on the timing of the great surge of newly emerging nations. In the United States, the civil rights movement coincided with the timing of the African revolution, and scholars do not discuss one without associating it with the other.
This was a period of enlightenment for many Americans, and it was at this time that the first ripple—of what eventually became a wave of enthusiasm about Africa—was aroused in the investigator. In the past fifteen years, a continued interest has transformed a misinform ed Hollywood and biased outlook into concepts in keeping with facts.
Turnbull relates that:
Today, the Africa of our childhoods, with its mysterious dark forests, its imperious white men and its vast, game- filled plains, is disappearing. In its place there has emerged a new A fric a , made up of many young nations, and beginning to speak with a loud voice in the councils of the world. Much of what is taking place there seems strange to us yet it is imperative that we understand the pressures and, the problems of modem Africa.^
IColin M. Turnbull, The Lonely African (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1962), p. 6. African people and their leaders are very concerned about educational progress. They fully realize that that precious commodity of education is the secret to upward mobility in a modern world—not just any form of education but a well-balanced educational diet.
Technical assistance is essential to the growth of developing nations, but the too often neglected areas of the social sciences, physical education, and others are also of great importance. At a time when many nations are feeling the pains of growth and progress, unifying elements need to be introduced. In countries where youths are becoming more numerous and sophisticated and where leisure, forced or otherwise, is becoming more abundant, every effort should be made to channel this energy constructively. Thus, physical education and sports activity programs provide an arena for group dynamics, emphasize the values of cooperative team spirit, and at the same time capitalize on individual ta le n ts .
Common bonds should permeate a culture in order to prevent its breakdown and eventual disintegration. The concept of "educating through the physical" can make contributions toward solidarity. African educa tors should be striving to produce a generally educated citizenry in which people have the ability to judge and make decisions based on the interrelationships of many factors. Physical education has an impor tant role and high stakes in this venture. A general education is of the utmost importance to enable one to cope with the many complexities, stresses, and strains in a modern society. An individual who is not familiar with the body of knowledge of physical education has not received a general education and has been short changed. How can one
i i i be an active dynamic member of any society without adequate knowledge of sound health principles and an understanding of/and worthy use of leisure time? The basic aim of physical education is to stimulate, challenge, and re-direct if necessary the physical, social, mental, and moral development of individuals through physical activity, the ultimate goal being good citizenship.
Innumerable factors shape the life, structure, and policies of a nation; therefore, effort will be made in this study to bring out pertinent facts about Kenya's past, present, and prospects for the fu ture—including physical education and sports—in hopes of creating greater sensitivity toward its problems. As witnessed in national and international competition, athletic participation and supremacy remain dominant characteristics, hopes or aims of modern societies.
The subject of this study focuses in the area of African physical education. Kenya, an East African countiry, is the major focus of the study. The investigator has traveled to East Africa on two occasions, during which time his interest in educational development
in emerging nations was further stimulated. There is an obvious need
for more educational research, especially in the area of physical
education and sports activity. The primary concern of this study is
the role of physical education and sports activities and how they re
late to the development of an emerging nation.
The writer would like to acknowledge the assistance and guidance
rendered by so many people throughout the study. The writer is indebted
to the members of his committee and especially the Chairman, Bruce
L. Bennett, whose scholarly dedication and inspiration were instrumental
iv in bringing the study to fruition. His unfailing belief in the worth and dignity of people brings out the best in them.
A debt of gratitude is owed to the staffs of the various libra ries used for the collection of data. The librarian is a dedicated servant for the improvement of others.
The writer would like to express his gratitude to the staff at the Embassy of the Republic of Kenya for their assistance above and beyond the call of their normal duties. Special thanks and apprecia tion go to Ernst Longat, Education Attache and Arthur Chingawa, Press
Attache. The assistance and cooperation accorded the writer by J. T.
Arap-Leting, Senior Education Officer, Kenya Ministry of Education and
W. Ndonye, Inspector of Physical Education, also in the Ministry, are gratefully acknowledged.
The writer is indebted to those who gave so freely of their time for interviews. Many thanks go to the Kenyan students who re sponded to the questionnaire sent to them.
The writer would like to express his deepest appreciation to the late Dr. James H. Robinson, Founder and Director of Operation
Crossroads Africa, whose idea touched the hearts and lives of thou sands, including the writer and his family.
Finally, the writer dedicates the study to his family—Norah,
Peter, David, and Stephen—for their individual and collective assis
tance, encouragement, and patience. Words cannot thank them. September 18, 1933 Bom - Springfield, Massachusetts
1955 Bachelor of Science, Springfield College, Springfield, Massachusetts
Master of Science, Springfield College, Springfield, Massachusetts
1956-1958 United States Army
1958-1963 & 1966-1968 In s tr u c to r , Howard U n iv e rsity , W ashington, D.C.
Teaching Assistant, Department of Health and Physical Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
1964-1966 Instructor, Department of Health and Physical Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
1968-1972 Associate Professor, Chairman, Department of Physical Education, Health Education and Recreation Education, Federal City College, W ashington, D.C.
1969-1970 Chairman, Faculty Organization, Federal City College, Washington, D.C.
1972 - Associate Professor, Director, Physical Education, Federal City College, Washington, D.C.
Sydney 0. Hall and Albert M. Paolone, "Validation of the Hyman Cardio- Pulmonary Index," Unpublished, Springfield College, 1956. TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE...... i i
VITA...... v i
LIST OF TABLES...... x i
LIST OF FIGURES...... x i i i
CHAPTER
I . INTRODUCTION...... 1
Statement of the Problem Theoretical Framework H ypothesis Methods and Procedures Library Research Interviews Questionnaire Visits to Kenya, East Africa Visits to the Embassy of Kenya, Washington, D. C. Visit to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization O bserver, Olympic Games, Munich, West Germany, 1972 Visits to the American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation
Limitations of the Study
I I . BRIEF HISTORY OF KENYA AND ITS PEOPLE
General Background, Identification, and Topographical F eatures Brief Historical Background Uganda Railway The People of Kenya African Political.Development Jomo K enyatta Mau Mau III. EDUCATION IN KENYA=PRE-COLONIAL AND COLONIAL .
Pre-Colonial Education Traditional Kenya Tribal Education Missionary Education Colonial Education Missionary Education Government Involvem ent up to World War I I Independent African Education World War I I Post-W orld War I I The Effect of Mau Mau on Education
IV. EDUCATION IN KENYA=POST-COLONIAL EDUCATION . .
Kenya Institute of Education Kenyanization of Education Education and Manpower Needs Missionary Education Primary Education Secondary Education Technical Education Higher Education
V. NATION-BUILDING......
VI. PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN KENYA=PHE-INDEPENDENCE .
V II. PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN KENYA=POST-INDEPENDENCE.
Physical Education in Education Program Concepts in Kenyan Physical Education Objectives of Physical Education Physical Education in the Maintenance of Health Social Implications of Physical Education Recreational Implications of Physical Education Primary School Physical Education Secondary School Physical Education Organized Primary and Secondary Schools Sports Programs Facilities and Equipment Teacher Education Legal Responsibility for Teacher Education Qualifications for Entry into Teachers' College Professional Preparation for Physical Education Professional Organizations and Status Organized Sports Programs Teachers' Union V III. GOVEBNMENT-SPONSORED SPORTS PROGRAMS A&D U .S. IMPACT ON KENYA...... 201
Government Financial Support Self-Help Sport Projects Community Development T rain in g Programs Other Programs Sports Organizations in Kenya Outward Bound U.S.’Impact on Kenya
IX. INTERNATIONAL SPORTS COMPETITION ...... 222
Olympic Games P a r tic ip a tio n Olympic Games, Pre-Independence 1964 Olympic Games 1968 Olympic Games 1972 Olympic Games The B r itis h Commonwealth Games 1954 Commonwealth Games 1958 Commonwealth Games 1962 Commonwealth Games 1966 Commonwealth Games 1970 Commonwealth Games A ll-A fric a n Games 1965 A ll-A fric a n Games 1969 A ll-A fric a n Games 1973 A ll-A fric a n Games Pan-African-USA
X. ANALYSIS OF KENYAN.STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 270
XI. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 293
APPENDIX...... 308
A. BOOKS RECOMMENDED FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL PHYSICAL EDUCATION. . 309
B. BOOKS RECOMMENDED FOR NON-SPECIALIST TEACHERS IN SECONDARY PHYSICAL EDUCATION...... 310
C. PROVINCIAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS SPORTS COUNCILS ...... 312
D. INTER-PROVINCIAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS' ATHLETIC CHAMPIONSHIPS—G IRLS...... 314
E. INTER-PROVINCIAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS ATHLETIC CHAMPIONSHIPS—BOYS...... 316 F. PRIMARX' TEACHERS' COLLEGES...... 319
G. PREPARING FOR THE SCHOOL SPORTS D A Y ...... 320
H.. KENYAN STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE...... 325
I . YEARLY PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM...... 327
J . SECONDARY SCHOOL PHYSICAL EDUCATION UNIT PLANS ...... 328
K. COMMENTS BY AFRICAN STUDIES SPECIALISTS...... 334
L. LETTER FROM W. NDONYE...... 337
M. LETTER FROM J , T. ARAP-LETING...... 341
N. LETTER FROM J . T. ARAP-LETING...... 342
0. LETTER FROM AISH S . JENEBY...... 344
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 346 LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Department of Education Per P u p il Spending and th e Number of Pupils by Ethnic Groups in 1926 ...... 74
2. Ministry of Education, Functional Organization Structure . 89
3. Number of S tudents on Prim ary Level in 1963 and the Percentage of the School-age Population it Represents- . . 101
4. Number of S tudents in Prim ary Schools in 1963 compared with 1964-1971 ...... •...... 102
5. Primary School Subjects and Hours Alloted Per Week .... 104
6. Opportunities for Recipients of the Certificate of Primary Education ...... 106
7. Number of S tudents on Secondary Level in 1963 and the Percentage of the School-age Population it Represents. . . 110
8. Number of S tudents in Secondary Schools in 1963 Compared w ith 1964-1971 ...... I l l
9. Subjects Taught on Secondary School Level and the Number of C lass M eetings Per Week ...... 112
10. Type "One" Technical School Subjects and Time Allocation Per W eek...... 116
11. Type "Two" Technical School Subjects and Time Allocation Per W eek ...... 117
12. Enrollment by Sex in Primary and Secondary Schools and Teacher Training Colleges, 1971 ...... 119
13. Educational Flow Chart ...... 120
14. Self-Help Sports Projects Completed by Province in 1967. . 208
15. Kenya Medals—1968 Mexico Olympic Games ...... 240
16. Kenya Team R e su lts— 1968 Mexico Olympic Games ...... 241
17. Provincial Breakdown of Questionnaire Respondents ...... 272
18. Games or Sports in which There Was Participation on the Primary School Level in Order of Frequency ...... 274
xi 19. Games or Sports in Which There Was Participation on the Secondary School Level in Order of Frequency ...... 275
20. Leisure Activities Available to Respondents ...... 288
21. Leisure Activities Not Available to Respondents ...... 289 LIST OF FIGURES
F igure
1. Provincial Map of Kenya with Provincial Capitals
2. Tribal Map of Kenya ...... NORTHEASTERN
V . X"""
J R:FT VALLEY REPUBLIC
— ...... \ f ______f«m /s . n«"ru>iy '- J \ NYANZÂ
V
\COAST
KENYA
TANGANYIKA
PROVINCIAL MAP OF KENYA WITH PROVINCIAL CAPITALS (X)
x iv INTRODUCTION
Great problems and transition have challenged the African continent in the 1960's and 1970's, but the impact of these numerous and sundry problems of new nations is not limited to that continent alone. The dynamics of growth and development in Africa have been felt strongly throughout the world. A tremendous amount of change has taken place in Africa. The central theme of this study is the impact of that change on the aspirations and educational institutions of the African people, using Kenya as a case in point.
The investigator believes that American physical educators have
tremendous responsibilities in expanding their horizons internationally
to meet educational needs abroad. Such opportunities can be fruitful because the language of physical activity is universal. Through the medium of bodily movement, a great deal can be learned about the
c u ltu r a l make-up of n a tio n s . Maheu observed th a t ;
Sport . . . is education, the most concrete and the truest kind of education—that of character and self revelation that a sportsman can go from strenth to strength.
Sport is culture because the transient movements it traces in time and space—for nothing but the sheer pleasure of doing so, as Plato has it—illuminate with dramatic meaning the essential and therefore the deepest and widest values of different peoples and of the human race i t s e l f . .
A great deal in the way of cultural background is reflected in the play habits of a nation. Morton in his description of the role
of sports in Soviet society felt quite strongly that:
Sport 'as a modern mass phenomenon, compelling the enthusiasm of hundreds of millions throughout the world from active participants and zealous fans to casual readers of sport pages and sedentary channel switchers, has hardly received from students of social behavior the serious consideration it deserves. Analysis of a nation at play reveals the stuff of its social fabric and value system, and tells us much about other facets of political and economic l i f e . . . 2
An. endless number of factors shape the course of a nation; therefore, the more that is known about Kenya the easier it will be to
understand the trials and tribulations of development in that country.
Until quite recently, African studies were largely neglected in Western
countries. The 1960's found a widespread and increasing demand for
reliable information on Africa. In spite of the many volumes published
on Africa, there is a scarcity of authorative, dependable, and clearly
presented information on African physical education and sports
activityespecially in relation to its role in the nation-building
process in developing countries.
iRene Maheu, "Sports is Education," The Australian Journal of Physical Education (March, 1964), 16.
(New York: Collier Books, 1963), p. 13.
^Throughout this study, physical education and sports are considered one and the same. Organized sports are considered by the w riter to be an outgrowth or advanced stage of physical education. 3
Statement of the Problem
The investigator was primarily concerned with the role that physical education and sports play in the nation-building process of
Kenya. Of general concern in the study were the ingredients that are so necessary and vitally essential to transposing such diverse groups of people—with recently achieved self-government—from a state of underdevelopment to one of socio-economic viability with the least amount of political instability. Bringing a country to fruition as a nation is no easy task, and every avenue and aspect of society should be explored and given an opportunity to make its contribution to the monumental task of building a nation.
One of the purposes of this study was to point out basic
concepts of Kenyan education, physical education, and sports activity
that educators should be concerned about as they move toward building
a nation. It is the expressed hope of the investigator that a better
understanding of the educational process of Kenya w ill produce an
increased awareness of education in developing countries and encourage
the exchange of ideas and personnel in this vital area. Mobilization
of human resources is a pre-condition for carrying out material objec
tives. Unsatisfactory utilization of talent constitutes one of the
major problem areas in developing countries. Priority should be given
to establishing educational systems adapted to economic and social
needs. Education is the key to socio-economic growth and political
stability, and education through the physical can reflect the true
image of a nation. In keeping with the above statements, the following
objectives served as guides in this study: 4
1. To determine the nature and scope of physical education, and sports activity in Kenya.
2. To provide a brief history of Kenya, Kenyan education, physical education, and sports activity.
3. To discuss the impact of British, American, and other physical education programs on Kenyan physical education and sports.
4. To define nation-building in the African context.
5. To determine the effect of physical education and sports activities on Kenyan nationalism, and vice-versa.
6. To determine the role of physical education and sports activities on Kenya’s international relations.
7. To arrive at a Kenyan philosophy of education, physical education and the relationship between the two.
8. To make recommendations for further development on physical education and sports programs in Kenya.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework from which the investigation was conducted utilized the following approach:
1. Brief history and background of Kenya and its people.
a. General background information about Kenya for the purpose of providing the reader with a better understanding of the
country. Such information included the geography, climate, topography,
and major cities and towns.
b. Historical data that provided significant interrelated
information on events of the past including early explorations and
colonial sett] ^ment in Kenya, the population and ethnic breakdown, the impact of the world wars on Kenya and the emergence of African p olitical sys terns.
2. A review of educational development in Kenya from the pre
colonial period up to and including independence.
a. Socio-economic implications for educational development.
b. Political implications for educational development.
3. A definitional model of nation-building and its application
to Kenya.
4. An overview of physical education and sports activities in
the pre-independence period in Kenya.
5. An overview of physical education and sports activities in
the post-independence period in Kenya.
6. An analysis of the data collected through the use of a
questionnaire that was sent out to Kenyans studying in the United States.
7. Based on a synthesis of the data, recommendations were made
for further development of physical and sports in Kenya.
Hypotheses
The hypotheses explored in this study were as follows :
1. Physical education and sports activity could play a vital
role in the nation-building process in Kenya by providing common
denominators for diverse ethnic groups.
2. Contemporary Kenyan education is firmly steeped in British
tradition. However, Kenyan educators w ill select functional aspects of
many foreign educational systems and develop a national education
program .
3. Indigenous African educational institutions are on their
way to e x tin c tio n . 6
4. Other than dance, there are few physical activities in existence today that predate colonialism.
5. The dance will continue to be a major driving force in the perpetuation of African culture.
6. Physical education is narrowly based and affects a rela
tively small segment of the population in Kenya.
7. The United States has had little effect on Kenyan physical
education and sports.
8. Physical education is a segment of an all encompassing
program of sports activity and health education.
9. Education and physical education for females has lagged
considerably behind that for males.
10. Political influences are brought to bear in the selection
of athletic teams for national and international competition.
11. A serious lack of physical education research exists in Kenya.
Methods and Procedures
The study was designed and planned, data were collected and
analyzed, and based on the findings, coupled with the investigator’s
experiences and observations, recommendations were foirmulated. The
following were used for the collection of data:
Library research. Library research was one of the primary
methods of collecting data. The library services were utilized at the
Ohio State University, the Library of Congress, Howard University, the
Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies and the United
States Information Agency, Washington, D.C. The various kinds of
library sources used in the study included books, periodicals, public 7
documents, articles, reports, microfilm, newspapers, and news releases.
The Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, the Africa
Report, and public documents of Great Britain and Kenya provided a great
deal of information and were especially useful. Current data were found
in the Washington Post, the Kenya Weekly News, Daily Nation, and East
African Standard newspapers. The African Section at the Library of
Congress and the Moorland Collection of Afro-American literature at
Howard U n iv ersity were e x c e lle n t so u rces.
The sets of Kenyan periodicals at the Library of Congress were
incomplete. However, they probably represent the largest collection of
such publications in the United States. There were two teacher-oriented
publications. The Kenya Teacher, which was first printed in 1966, was
the official organ of the Kenya National Union of Teachers (KNUT).
The Kenya Education Journal was an offshoot of the British based
Journal of Education. After independence, a new series was started.
The Kenya Education Journal was a communique for the Ministry of
Education. Only five issues of the Kenya Sports Review, a quarterly,
were cataloged in the Library of Congress. According to John Howell,
East African Specialist in the African Section, the Sports Review had
been discontinued. The five issues covered the period from 1964 to
1968. Knowing that the service organizations such as the police and
military put great emphasis on physical training and sports, the
investigator used The Kenya Police Review as one of the more valuable
sources of data.
Interviews. A series of nine interviews, some taped, were
conducted by the investigator with people who were directly or indirectly associated with education or physical education and sports in Kenya, and Kenya in general. The interviews were of tremendous value inasmuch as they provided a great deal of information and insight into the subject of the study. The instrument and the approach were basically the same for all of the interviews. A set of carefully structured questions was designed according to the individual's area of expertise, occupation, and interest. The interviews are presented in chronological order:
Joseph K. Koinange, Education Attache, Kenya Mission to the
United Nations, New York, March, 1966. This interview produced infor mation that was some of the first to be compiled by the independent
Kenyan Government. It helped to provide the in itial direction for the study. As the individual primarily responsible for all matters of
Kenyan education and a former outstanding athlete, he was able to talk intelligently about the subject of the study. Koinange also provided
the investigator with a list of Kenyans studying in the United States who were used for the questionnaire-survey.
Richard A. Lake, Institute of African Affairs, Duquesne
University; interview at The Ohio State University, May, 1966. Having been in Kenya before and after independence and being B ritish, Lake's
facts, observations, and opinions contributed greatly and his responses were later substantiated by other sources. Lake was able to give the investigator insight into physical education and sports, general back
ground information, and the transition of Kenya from colonial to independent status.
J. T. Arap-Leting, Senior Education Officer in Charge of
Planning and Development, Ministry of Education, Nairobi, Kenya, 9 interview, Washington, D. C., October, 1972. This source assisted greatly in updating information. He was in Washington representing the
Kenya Ministry of Education at seminars sponsored by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. One of the main thrusts of the seminars sponsored by these international bodies was how they could address themselves to the cost of pressing educational needs of devel oping countries. This interview provided the investigator with an excellent account of current trends, problems and priorities in
Kenyan education.
Ernst Longat, Education Attache, Embassy of Kenya, Washington,
D. C., October, 1972. In addition to being the investigator's primary contact at the Embassy, he was also helpful in providing a general overview of educational development in Kenya and prospects for the
Carolyn Gullatt, Director, Kenya Desk, Peace Corps, Washington,
D. C., November, 1972. As the lead official for Peace Corps projects in Kenya, she was capable of describing the role of this United States' agency in the country's development and the nature of the projects.
Glen Randall, Executive Director, Special Olympics, Joseph P.
Kennedy Foundation, Washington, D. C., December, 1972, former Director,
United States Sports Corps, Peace Corps. Having been intricately involved in the operation of the Peace Corps, he had a wealth of infor mation on sports programs in African countries, especially in regard to the official and unofficial mood and attitude toward such programs.
Joseph Howell, Director, Africa Region, Peace Corps, Washington,
D. C., December, 1972. He discussed how Peace Corps volunteers relate 10
to Kenyans in their spare time by teaching them recreation and sports
s k i l l s .
Malvin W hitfield, Cultural Attache (Africa) Students, Youth, and
Sports Affairs, United States Information Agency, Washington, D. C.,
December, 1972. The information provided by this respondent was extreme
ly appropriate to the subject of the study, physical education, sports
and nation building. He provided some interesting program concepts that
presently exist and also what he envisioned for the future. He described
his role in the development of physical education and sports programs
throughout Africa as he prepares to windup twenty years of duty with the
Foreign Service.
Arthur Chingawa, Press Attache, Embassy of Kenya, Washington,
D. C., January, 1972. He provided the investigator with Kenya ministry reports, current periodicals and general information on contemporary
issues in Kenya.
Questionnaire. With no possibility of interviewing all the
Kenyan students in the United States, the investigator sent out 374
questionnaires to them with the purpose of soliciting additional infor
mation. The students' names and addresses were obtained from the
Education Attache, Kenya Mission to the United Nations. The
questionnaire-survey method does not have some of the obvious advantages
found in the interview technique—which is more valid—but it reaches
far more people in a relatively short space of time. The instrument
consisted of twelve questions using different forms, yes-no, check, and
short statements. The content of the questionnaire included the scope
of physical education and sports programs in Kenya, teacher training. 11 the role of physical education in the total educational process, and recommendations for program improvements in physical education.
The students studying in the United States were, possibly, not truly representative of their age group. Most of them were from urban areas. Because of this fact they were probably educated at the best schools and with the cost factor injected, some were either from
families of means or a certain political persuasion. In somewhat the same connection—that is, who gets a higher education in Kenya—only
ten percent of the respondents were females.
Visits to Kenya, East Africa. On two occasions the investigator visited Kenya, a year before independence, 1962, and a year after
independence, 1964. Both trips were under the auspices of Operation
Crossroads Africa (OCA), a non-profit, non-government organization which
sends volunteers to Africa during the summer in a variety of programs.
OCA was founded by Dr. James H. Robinson in 1957. Most of the projects
are work camps consisting of groups of eight to ten university students
from North America and their African counterparts. The projects are
selected by the African governments in accordance with the developmental
needs of their respective countries. Nearly 3,000 volunteers have been
involved in building bridges of understanding in as many as twenty-eight
independent African countries since the first groups went out in 1958.
There are three main objectives embodied in the Crossroads experience:
to make some tangible contribution to Africa’s needs; to provide an
opportunity for North Americans and Africans to develop mutual under
standing and respect through living and working together; and to provide
a vital educational experience. 12
Although most of the investigator’s 1962 visit was spent teaching and coaching in Mogadishu, Somalia, he did have an opportunity to travel in Kenya and learn a great deal about the country. As Cross roads project director in Somalia, the investigator was responsible for the general health and welfare of the group and organized and admini stered coaching clinics for the national Police Force. This was the investigator’s first introduction to the physical education and sports potential in Africa. Much of what was observed and experienced was applicable to Kenya and Africa in general.
While in Somalia the investigator had the good fortune of m eeting Mr. Jomo K enyatta—who has sin c e become independent Kenya’s first president—on his visit to Somalia a year after his release from detention as a result of his alleged involvement in the Mau Mau uprising. During a similar trip a month later, the investigator met
Mr. Ronald Ngala who at that time was the leader of the opposition party in Kenya in what was later to become a coalition government prior to independence. Ronald Ngala died from injuries suffered in an automobile accident December 25, 1972. The investigator had an opportunity to w itn ess h is to r y being made and to meet some of th o se who were making i t .
The investigator’s second trip to Kenya for Crossroads Africa
took place in November, 1964, when he was the assistant project director
for a special ’’Friends of Crossroads" tour. During this trip, the
investigator again met President Kenyatta and many other leaders and
visited some of the educational facilities in Kenya.
V is its to th e Embassy of Kenya, W ashington, D. C. Many v i s i t s
were made to the Embassy of Kenya to accomplish a variety of tasks. 13
The staff was very helpful and accommodating. Some literature was given to the investigator and other materials had to be used at the Embassy.
Current statistical documents, newspapers, and educational data were made available. The education attache and press attache were especially h e lp fu l.
Visit to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization. This visit took place in April, 1972. There was very little information available at UNESCO on physical education and sports in developing countries. The only material available was found in two issues of UNESCO Features, a bulletin for press, radio, and television.
This fact alone indicates quite clearly the need for, not only new and improved programs, but equally important, the need for the dissemination of information on physical education and sports by UNESCO.
Observer, Olympic Games, Munich, West Germany, 1972. As an observer the investigator had an opportunity to witness some of the performances and progress of the African teams, particularly the contin gent from Kenya. Unfortunately, the investigator was unable to get any interviews. The Kenyan athletes were heavily chaperoned, and the incidents that marred the Games did not make it any easier to get opportunities to talk with them.
Visits to the American Association for Health, Physical
Education, and Recreation, Washington, D. C. The AAHPER provided the investigator with many of the international physical education periodicals and books. 14
Letters. Over sixty letters were sent out to individuals and agencies requesting information on this study. The letters were extremely helpful. In addition to the United States and Kenya, some were sent to England, Belgium, Canada, Tanzania, Nigeria, France,
Singapore, Uganda and Cameroon. Those who were unable to provide data usually gave the investigator other leads. Excerpts from some of the letters can be found in Appendix K.
Limitations of the Study
1. Generally, there has been a tremendous increase in the amount of African literature over the past twenty years. However, there was and still is a scarcity of authoritative information on the subject of Kenyan physical education and sports.
2. The study was further limited because establishing a positive relationship between physical education and sports activity and nation- building in developing countries has not yet become a popular notion and is not reflected in the professional literature.
3. The investigator feels that the study would have been enhanced if he had been able to take a more recent field trip to Kenya to collect data.
4. There were certain limitations involved in the survey
questionnaire inasmuch as some of the Kenyan respondents may have been
influenced by what they had been experiencing while studying in the
United States.
5. In a slightly different vein, the respondents who came from different parts of Kenya, possibly interpreted the questions differently. 15
6. While try in g to reach as many Kenyan stu d e n ts as p o ss ib le who •■ere studying in the United States, the investigator had no control over the number of respondents from the various provinces. Although all of the provinces were represented in the returns, some areas had a
greater concentration than others (See Table 17).
7. Because only ten percent of the questionnaire respondents
were female, the data collected were slanted toward male experiences in
physical education and sports. BRIEF HISTORY OF KENYA AND ITS PEOPLE
General Background, Identification, and Topographical Features
History recounts significant events and many lesser happenings leading to and impinging on those occurences. The land and what it yields has a great deal to do with who inhabits an area and the condi tions under which they do so. This section provides the reader with descriptive information and a brief historical synopsis of Kenya. This information was vitally essential to the study because the topography, climate, cities, and the people are unique to Kenya and were major factors influencing white settlement. European influence has made its impact and has completely changed the character of Kenya for quite sometime to come.
The East African country of Kenya is one of great variety, contrast and natural beauty. Kenya, named for Mt. Kenya, (17,040 feet), includes snowcapped mountain ranges on the equator, vast expanses of agriculturally productive land, even larger areas of arid desert waste land, hot and humid coastal areas, bustling commercial centers, and wild game reserves within a 10-15 minute car ride of those centers.
The combination of the animal reserves and the clicking cameras go to make up a tremendous amount of revenue from tourism.l
^The Washington Post, January 7, 1973, Sec. B, p. 1.
16 17
Kenya is situated on the east coast of Africa, bounded by
Ethiopia and the Sudan to the north, Somalia and the Indian Ocean on the east, Tanzania to the south and Uganda and Lake Victoria on the west.
Kenya consists of seven provinces, Coast, Central, Rift Valley, Nyanza,
Western, Eastern, Northeastern, and the Capital D istrict, Nairobi. The equator almost equally divides the 225,000 square mile area which is almost the size of Texas. There are other topographical and climatic features that have created other divisions. Almost three-fifths of
Kenya is arid or semi-arid, resulting in large areas which are difficult to cultivate. These conditions exist primarily in the north and north eastern sectors.2 The hot and humid coastal area gives way to the inland grassy plateaus and then up to the lush highlands that in some areas receive as much as 80 inches of rain annually. Most of the country experiences two rainy seasons, the long rains (March to May) and the short rains (November to December). They have little or no effect on the arid areas. Fortunately, however, for the trade winds which blow in from the sea almost year round, the maximum coastal temperature seldom goes above 90°F. Kenya being on the equator has no marked seasonal changes and the altitude controls the climate.^
It should be noted at this time that the term "highlands," better known during the colonial period as the "White Highlands," refers to some of the most fertile, arable areas of Kenya. White
^United States, Department of State, Background Notes: Kenya, Publication No. 8024 (Washington: Office of Media Services, Bureau of Public Affairs, 1966), p. 1.
^Government of Kenya, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Kenya: A Land of Contrast (Nairobi: Government Printer, 1971), p. 5. 18
settlers selected this area for their home when they began to arrive in
large numbers at the turn of the century. Subsequent colonial legis
lation barred Africans from this area. The highlands, partially
located in the Central, Rift, and Eastern provinces, rise about 5,000
feet and include over 10,000 square miles. Their great relief, well- watered valleys, deep soil and rich vegetation form a sharp contrast with the majority of the land that was reserved for the Africans
One of the topographical wonders of East Africa is the Rift
Valley, part of which carves its way through western Kenya and popularly
referred to as the "Great Rift." It is a series of fractures in the
earth's crust which took place thousands of years ago. In a sense the
bottom of this area fell out and the floor of the valley is now 2 ,000-
3,000 feet below the surrounding terrain. It formerly stood level with
the highlands on each side. The Rift Valley extends over two continents,
from Syria cradling the Red Sea down through East Africa to Mozambique.
It extends to the Gulf of Aden and westward beyond Tanzania to the
Zaire, formerly the Congo. The distance covered by the fracture from
north to south is over three thousand miles. The Rift has many small
lakes and inactive volcanoes. However, there are many hot springs
with noticeable steam venting from them. The lakes and floor of the
Rift lie in steep parallel-walled valleys which indicate that they
were formed by earth movements and not worn away by rivers as once
^Richard Cox, Kenyatta's Country (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1966), p. 18 thought. During the formation of the Rift, great eruptions of lava from Mount Kenya and Mount Elgon c re a ted the f e r t i l e h ig h lan d s.^
Kenya is not blessed with an abundance of lakes and some that they have are relatively shallow and alkaline. One interesting aspect about the alkaline lakes is that they support large populations of flamingos and other birds which are tremendous tourist attractions.
Lake Rudolf, a Rift Valley lake, is the largest lake wholly within
Kenya. It is in the northwest, stretches for 180 miles up to the
Ethiopian border, and is 2,473 square miles. Lake Victoria, second largest in the world, is partially in Kenya. It is 24,300 square miles and the only lake in Kenya supporting commercial shipping.
Although there are many small rivers the longest, the Tana, stretches 500 miles from central Kenya to the Indian Ocean. Flooding is a definite likelihood, and for several weeks each year people who live along the lower reaches are marooned.^
Of the m ajor c i t i e s in Kenya, N a iro b i, the c a p it a l, and Mombasa are the largest. Located in the densely populated southwest sector, the city of Nairobi has a population of 509,286 and an altitude of 5,452 feet. The city has grown considerably since the days when it was a small railway center between Mombasa on the coast and the interior.
Skyscraping office buildings and hotels dot the Nairobi skyline erasing
5j. W. Gregory, The Rift Valley and Geology of East Africa (London; Seely Service and Company Limited, 1921), pp. 17-25.
^Government of Kenya, Kenya. p. 3. 20 much of the colonial image. Much, of this development is due to a large influx of foreign capital.^
Nairobi is not only the chief city but also the commercial hub and railway and roads center. Another interesting feature is that nearly half of the Asian population and an equal percentage of the
European population are concentrated in Nairobi.
The second largest city, Mombasa, the vacationer’s paradise on the sea, has a population of 247,073. In ten years there has been almost a forty percent increase in the population of this coastal city which is the chief port for East Africa. The port facility is one of the most modern in Africa. Of the 27,886 Arabs in Kenya, 15,863 reside in Mombasa.®
Brief Historical Background
Gunther, utilizing a quotation by Winston Churchill, explained the inevitable occurrences that have so often resulted from colonial rule.
When Winston Churchill visited East Africa in 1907, the prospect that the Highlands might become a white community enthralled him; he even dared to predict that some day there might be as many as 30,000 Britons living there. But Mr. Churchill, a prudent as well as farseeing observer, added a note of extraordinarily prescient warning, that it was "scarcely worth while even to imagine the Highlands of East Africa denuded of their native inhabitants and occupied solely by Europeans. . . . It is a grave defect for a community to found itself on the manual labor of an inferior race, and many are the complications and perils that spring therefrom." Mr. C h u rch ill could n o t have been more r ig h t . From th a t day
^Washington Post, January 7, 1973, Sec. B, p. 1.
®East African Statistical Department, Economic and Statistical Review, December, 1971, p. 5. to this, appalling complications have arisen from the juxtaposition of white and black on the same Kenya land.^
Kenya's history began on the coast many centures ago when the country was established as a trading center. Although Arabs and
Portuguese provided the main thrust in trading between the eighth and the fifteenth centuries, the first settlers were supposedly Jews sent out by King Solomon about 1,000 B.C. Asians who today s till play an important role on the Kenya scene are said to have arrived as early as the seventh century B.C.^^ Kenya's close proximity to Arabia was the primary reason for the early Arab colonists of the coastal area who searched for gold and other merchandise in the eighth century. The
Arabs founded many small towns—Kilwa, Mombasa, and Zanzibar Island— along the coast and even today a sizeable Arab community exists in some of these areas. The Arab Zenj Empire was founded in the tenth century but was later dislocated and dispersed in 1498 by Portugal's
Vasco de Gama, the f i r s t e x p lo r e r- tra d e r from th e W estern w orld. The
Portuguese enjoyed relative calm and control well into the sixteenth
century before numerous encounters with rival Arab factions began to weaken their hold.^^ By the mid-eighteenth century, the only reminder
of Portuguese occupation in East Africa was a fort which was subse
quently used as a British jail.^^
^John Gunther, Inside Africa (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1955), p. 320.
(New York: The MacMillan Company, 1928), p. 259.
^^Buell, p. 259; see also U. S. Department of State, p. 1.
^^Buell, p. 260. 22
From that point in history throughout most of the nineteenth century the Arabs, ruling the Island of Zanzibar just off the coast, controlled that Island as well as a sizeable portion of the mainland.
This area was the center of the slave trade. Although England and
France declared the slave trade illegal in 1807 and 1848, respectively, and a compromise treaty reached between the Arab Sultan and British pro hibited slavery, it continued into the twentieth century. When the supply of able-bodied slaves was depleted in the coastal areas, the interior was invaded. As the slavers penetrated inland, the opponents of slavery likewise exerted more control over the area in an effort to combat them. In 1883, the British appointed vice-consuls to three coastal towns, and Europeans pushed further into the interior. L ittle was known about the h in te rla n d u n t il tr a d e r s , s la v e r s , ex p lo rers and missionaries began to penetrate towards Lake Victoria in the nineteenth
century. This was the beginning of the European scramble for East
Africa. This paved the way for trading caravans and the eventual route
for the Uganda Railway.
After considerable protest from the Arab Sultan regarding the
European incursions, it was decided in 1886 by Germany and Great Britain
that the Sultan would be given legal jurisdiction over the Islands of
Zanzibar and Pemba and the entire Kenya Coast, ten miles inland. The
decision was also made to divide the interior of East Africa between
Germany in the South, in what was later Tanganyika and now Tanzania,
and Great Britain in the north, in what is now Kenya and Uganda. Both
l^Buell, pp. 261-267; see also Government of Kenya, Kenya, p. 1. 23
European countries immediately established companies to protect their new i n te r e s t s . In 1895 th e B r itis h East A frica Company experienced financial difficulty and the British Government assumed the responsi bility for running the country by establishing the Protectorate of
British East Africa. Twenty-five years later, 1920, with the settlers
firm ly entrenched, Kenya receiv ed Crown Colony s ta t u s . The name was
changed to the Kenya Colony and Protectorate. The Sultan's ten mile
strip became the. p ro tecto rate.A fter British East Africa was divided
into Kenya and Uganda in 1904, the geographical and political boundaries
remained the same through independence, December 12, 1963, and one year
a f t e r when the Republic of Kenya was c o n s titu te d . Kenya i s a member of
th e Commonwealth.^^
Uganda Railway. One of the most significant events in the
history of Kenya and one that had great impact on its development was
the building of the Uganda Railway, completed in 1901. The name is
somewhat of a misnomer because most of the tracks are stretched across
Kenya from Mombasa w est to Lake V ic to ria .
Nonetheless, the railway was built to exploit Uganda,
especially since the source of the Nile River was discovered in 1863,
^% arjorie R. Dilley, British Policy in Kenya Colony (New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1937), pp. 14-15; see also G. Askwith, The Story of Kenya's Progress (Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau, 1958), pp. 6- 1 2 .
l^United States Department of State, p. 1.
^^Government of Kenya, Kenya, p. 1. 24 which controlled the water supply to E g y p t.In itially there was little though.t about European settlement in Kenya. It was not until the railroad was being built through the highlands and the authorities began to testify to the lush, rich soil and cool, temperate climate that they started to encourage settlement. This was a new era daivning in Kenya's history and within a few years of the railway's completion white settlement began.
Today's Asian problem in Kenya is rooted in the earliest days of the construction of the railway. Indentured laborers and technicians were brought in from India to work on building the railway, as then it was difficult to recruit African laborers. According to Gunther,
"African labor was not skilled enough to be of much use .... Many of the 32,000 Indians who were brought in chose to stay after the completion of the project and were joined by many more. Generations later they now constitute the largest ethnic minority in Kenya.
The first wave of European immigrants appeared just at the turn
of the century and settled in the highlands that were previously
claimed by the indigenous people of the area, the Kikuyu Tribe. The
Kikuyu had suffered from a series of tragedies, sickness, drought and
famine, which forced them temporarily to leave their homestead. The
highlands, although by appearance unoccupied, were by tribal custom
occupied. Subsequently, the Kikuyu returned to find their homeland
inhabited and they began to witness the hard, cold facts of European
l^Dilley, pp. 8- 1 0 .
^®Gunther, pp. 367. 25 settlement and eventual colonization. xhe ensuing conflicts between blacks and whites stemming from the land issue widened through the years and eventually led to the Mau Mau Rebellion, to be discussed later. The rapid increase in the settler population was fantastic. There were thirteen Europeans in Kenya in 1901, three thousand in 1911 and nine thousand in 1921. IJhile laws were being passed by the British prohibiting the sale of choice farm land to non-Europeans, land was being given away to Europeans to develop in order to get the dollar value from the railroad.^20
The People of Kenya. The first provisional results of the population census held in August, 1969, showed that Kenya has a popu lation of approximately eleven m illion.K enya also has one of the world’s highest population growth rates, sometimes reaching 3.7 percent?^
The southern two-fifths of Kenya have the greatest population density with eighty-five percent of the population and most of the socio economic and industrial development.^^ The location of the population is further explained when it is found that some areas have about four persons per square mile and others such as the Kikuyu Highlands exceed four hundred persons per square mile. Most of the population of Kenya
l^L.S.B. Leakey, Mau Mau and the Kikuyu (New York: The John Day Company, 1952), pp. 8-10.
^^Gunther, pp. 318-319. ^^Government of Kenya, Kenya, p. 5.
^^Washington Post, January 7, 1973, Sec. B, p. 1.
23united States Department of State, p. 1. 26 is concentrated in three relatively small sections of the country, the southwest, the highlands, and the narrow coastal strip .^4
The population consists primarily of Africans, Asians, Europeans and Arabs. Since independence, December 12, 1963, the non-African populations have varied, some more than others. Rigid citizenship and socio-economic stipulations have brought about decreases especially in the European and Asian populations. The major thrust and concern of the
Kenyan Government in regards to citizenship have been very clear. If one chooses to stay, one must become a citizen and work towards the devel opment of the country and all of its people. According to Jim Hoagland, a Washington Post foreign correspondent, there has not been complete enforcement of the citizenship regulation, for there are three hundred
British farmers who own one half million acres of land in the high lands.^^ One of the biggest problems that Kenya and other developing nations have had is stemming the flow of money being sent out of their countries by non-citizens. A staggering amount of revenue has been siphoned out of the economy and deposited in foreign banks. The situation has created serious problems and hardship on the Kenyan economy.
As independence approached, many non-A fricans were led to believe that under an African government they would not get a fair shake in Kenya's development and that political and economic sanctions and persecution would result. At this point, some Europeans and Asians took their leave of the country. After independence others were given
^^Great Britain, Kenya : Progress and Problems (London: British Information Service, January, 1960), pp. 2-6.
2^Washington Post, January 7, 1973, Sec. B., p. 2. 27
o p tio n s; 1 ) become a c itiz e n ; 2) lose certain privileges if one did
not; or 3) leave the country. Once again there were those who took this
as an unwelcome sign and left.
In February, 1968, Great Britain lowered their non-white immi
gration quotas. Many Asians in Kenya s till held British passports and in an effort to make the immigration quota and deadline, an exodus of
12,000 Asians from Kenya resulted. In July, 1968, an economic squeeze
was imposed on non-citizens. According to Anthony Astrachan, The
Washington Post’s man in Nairobi:
The M in iste r of Commerce and In d u stry withdrew perm ission for non-citizens to trade in specific commodities, effective January 1, 1969. Among the commodities are corn, sugar, charcoal, rice, fresh vegetables, various kinds of cloth and clothing, soap, matches, corrugated iron sheets (the universal roofing here), cigarettes and kerosene.
. . . non-citizens dealing in the commodities are chiefly Asians, who are the anchormen of rural commerce. If they cannot trade in these goods they will have to go out of b u sin e ss.
In the past, many Asians have immigrated to Great Britain.
However, with the British immigration laws tightened, Asian emigrants
must now find other outlets, possibly Australia or Canada. Both of
these countries have population shortages, but they are also highly
selective. Australia's non-white immigrant quota is very low while
Canada seeks out the professionally trained.
At the time of independence there were 182,00027 Asians in
Kenya, most of whom originally came from India. In June, 1966, the
26Washington Post. July 13, 1968, Sec. A, p. 15.
27Alastair Matheson, Kenya: A New Era (Nairobi: The English Press, Ltd., 1963), p. 7. 28
United States Department of State reported 1 6 0,000^8 Asians in Kenya but with 12,000 having left by February, 1968, and others since then, the latest figures compiled by the East African Statistical Department show 139,037.2^ Asians are primarily engaged in the retail trade and skilled and semi-skilled jobs in industry, commerce, transportation and public service. Before independence, although things are changing rapidly, Indians had for some time occupied the middle position in
Kenya’s three tiered economy with the settlers on top and the Africans at the bottom.
The tight controls that the Asians have exercised in the business sector have systematically stifled the African’s opportunities of making any significant gains for more than half a century. As a direct result of developing and sustaining for decades a racially dis
tinct economic and social structure the Asians, as well as the Europeans,
created a crisis that has still not been resolved. The African would-be businessman was denied vital trading information in addition to being
crippled by wholesale prices given by Asians that were very close to the
retail sale price. Asians were almost guaranteed no competition from
educated Africans because such education, automatically, made them
eligible only for poorly paid government jobs. As time went on, price-
fixing and unfair competition and hiring practices became
28united States Department of State, p . 1.
^^East African Statistical Department, Economic and Statistical Review. 1971, p. 5. 29 institutionalized and prevented an African commercial and industrial breakthrough until after independence,^*^ Gatabaki in his reflections on Asian business practices stated:
Managerial skills and entrepreneurial abilities are universal qualities and not restricted to one race. Success can be anybody's irrespective of race, so long as everybody has equal access to relevant assets, and all the relevant assets are within a single system of exchange. The new trend now taking root inspite of enormous commerical wealth s till in Asian hands, is enough proof that the African businessman can do equally well, if given the opportunity.^^
there are also settlers from Scandanavia, Italy, Germany, Greece and
South Africa. They are firmly entrenched in large-scale farming, business and public service and presently find themselves at the top of
Kenya's economy. The Arabs have inhabited the coastal area for centuries, however, they are s till considered an immigrant race. They number approximately 27,886.
The African tribes of Kenya number over forty, and the majority of the over ten and one half million people rely heavily on subsistence farm ing on t r i b a l lan d s. The tr ib e s come from fo u r main groups— Bantu, which is a language group, and N ilotic, Hamitic and Nilo-Hamitic which are ethnic groups. The Bantu is the largest.The four largest tribes
^*^N. Gatabaki, "The Truth About Asian Businessmen," Inside Kenya Today. June, 1972, pp. 46-47.
•^■‘■Gatabaki, p. 47.
^^East African Statistical Department, p. 5.
^%ast African Statistical Department, p. 5.
and World, Inc., 1967), p. 379. 30 are the Kikuyu, the Luo, the Luhya and the Kamba respectively. With the exception of the Nilotic Luo all are Bantu. Together these four tribes constitute nearly sixty percent of the Africans in Kenya.
The largest Bantu tribe in Kenya is the Kikuyu who are mainly agriculturalist and, as discussed earlier, are located in the highlands and on the slopes of Mt. Kenya and the eastern Aberdares. The Kikuyu make up nearly twenty percent of the African population. The Kikuyu have always been more aggressive towards material and educational gains.
This desire and motivation was a source of conflict because they occupied land in juxtaposition with that of the European settlers which
the Kikuyu felt belonged to their tribe. Tribal legends and rituals play a large role in the lives of the Kikuyu as displayed by circum cision and the secret society and oath taking during the Mau Mau
R ebellion.
The next largest tribe, the Nilotic Luo, arrived via the Nile
Valley and can be traced culturally to the Sudan. Their migratory pattern situated them in the Nyanza region on the shores of Lake
Victoria from Uganda to Tanzania. The Luo are not wanderers in the
sense of herdsmen but they do move from place to place seeking employ ment in rural as well as urban areas of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania.
Eventually, they manage to return to their farms. Farming and fishing
E. Lambert, Kikuyu Social and Political Institutions (London; Oxford University Press, 1956), pp. 11-20. 31 are their major contributions to the economy. History indicates that the Luo tribesmen were skilled in warfare.
The Luhya, a Bantu tribe, has the next largest tribal population.
They inhabit the high ground around the Kavirondo Gulf of Lake Victoria, extending up the foothills of Mount Elgon. The production of two crops a year is accomplished with relative ease. The potential agricultural wealth of this area is fantastic, but the population is relatively sparse so production is low. Western educational institutions have been in great demand and this area supports large numbers of schools. As a r e s u l t many t r i b a l customs and cerem onies a re on the wane and many
ancient crafts have been lost. Although there are efforts to revive some of the culture of the past, the big question is, "Can it be
accomplished in the shadow of twentieth century westernization?"
The Kamba make up the third largest Bantu tribe and is approxi mately the same size as the Luhya. The Kamba are located southeast of
Nairobi and have played a major role in law enforcement. Even today
there are more applicants for service in the army, the prisons and the
p o lic e fo rc e from among th e Kamba than o th er t r i b e s . In 1953, s ix ty
p ercen t of th e men in th e Kenya armed fo rces were Kamba. Hoagland, in
his most recent article in the Washington Post, stated that there has
been a tremendous buildup of the Kikuyu tribe in the army by the Kikuyu
dominated government. Uncontested control of the armed forces is
crucial to stability. Although the Kamba have had a reputation of being
of Information, 1958), pp. 3-21. 32 warriors, they have since been pursuing other vocations and are becoming
involved in the life line of Kenya agriculture. Anyone who has visited
Kenya has seen evidence of the Kamba's fine ability in the woodcarving
in d u stry .
Another tribe that deserves mention because of the tourist
Attraction is the Nilo-Hamitic Masai. They have situated themselves in
Western Kenya in the central plains from north to south. They are
traditionally pas toralis ts with variety in their herds, however, cattle
has the greatest status and economic importance to them. Until recently,
the quality of their cattle was of little or no significance; only
numbers were important. Lacking in knowledge and sophistication in
animal husbandry, the Masai was concerned with whether or not he had more or less than the next person. Historically they were the warrior
class and they roamed and raided. But according to D'Anna, the Masai
are dying. Every year their number of births decreases by sixteen
percent. Heavy restrictions have been placed on their roaming and the
raiding is almost non-existent. Toward the end of the nineteenth
century, a series of events began to curtail the activities of the Masai:
1) they began to get some resistance from the Kikuyu; 2) there was an
outbreak of disease; 3) their spiritual leader died; and 4) the introduc
tion of European farming decreased their grazing and raiding. The Masai
are finally beginning to accept and practice the principles of animal
husbandry such as controlled grazing and selective breeding. Progress
J. Middleton, The Kikuyu and Kamba of Kenya, Ethnographic Survey of Africa, East Central Africa, Part V (London: International African Institute, 1953), pp. 72-78. see also Adamson, p. 342. 33 in general, which has given them a period of socio-economic welfare un precedented in their history—'peace, money, quality heroes, a voice in government—is killing them. Their social organization was based on war. Their population decline began when they were prevented from attacking neighboring tribes. Forced leisure has softened them and sometimes alcohol undermined them.^^
Kenya's population regardless of how it developed is one of variation and great fascination. The land and what it yields has a great deal to do with the welfare of a given group that inhabits it and as a result some are better off than others. The Government has the unwieldy responsibility to unify all the people into a cohesive nation.
Although certain political pressures have been exerted in Kenya, it appears that they have been in the best interest of all concerned.
Kenya i s a m u lti- r a c ia l s o c ie ty but not in th e same way i t was y e s te r year. It is a country where there is a strong determination to build a viable nation utilizing all of the human resources at its disposal. It is a country where the best of many worlds must be brought together in harmony, especially in education and culture. But the diverse entities should not collide; they should share, learn, search for common denomi nators , and seek common goals.
Even before World War I with more sophisticated Africans
threatening the security of the Europeans, efforts were made by the
settlers to combat possible African land acquisition by increasing the
European and white settler population. To give an indication of the
Andrea D'Anna, "The Masai are Dying Out," Nigrizia (July-August, 1965), pp. 21-24. 34 settlers* frustration and determination to protect and insulate their
interest, the British Government, in 1903, offered the Highlands—the
most arable land in all of Kenya—to the Zionists in the hope that Jews
would make Kenya their national home. History shows that it was
rejected. One cannot help but speculate what might have been the his
torical significance of such a venture. Today's problems in the Middle
East might have been Kenya*s.The indigenous Africans of Kenya had
the same fears that the American Indians and the South African natives
had when people from more advanced countries came to settle—fear that
their land would be confiscated. Unfortunately, the "law of might makes
right" prevailed.
The First World War served as an enlightenment period for many
Africans. Because of the close proximity of German East Africa, the
impact of the war was felt in Kenya. Most Africans were in the carrier
corps, but thousands fought. It is estimated that 200,000 Africans
fought in World War I and 500,000 in World War 11.^^ It is difficult to
determine the full impact of the wars on the African people, but they
definitely served to broaden their perspective on what was rightfully
due them. It was also apparent that relations between blacks and whites
were getting progressively worse. In speaking about the effects of
World War I Hobley explained:
The black troops soon came to realize the physical disabilities of the Europeans and their vulnerability. They saw the European sh o t down and even bayonetted by enemy black soldiers. They realized that very few Europeans were crack
40cunther, pp. 318-^319.
4lGunther, p. 13. shots. They noted the inferior marching capacity of the white man, his inability to find his way about in the bush . . . and in some cases they even saw th a t the courage of the white was not greater than that of the black . . . it was not surprising that the attitude of many of the blacks to th e w hite man has a lte re d .
Germany lost the war and lost a territory. In 1920, Britain was given a mandate by the League of Nations to administer German East
A fric a . This gave the B r itis h c o n tro l over what i s commonly r e fe rre d
to today as East Africa—Kenya, a colony; Tanzania, a mandate; and
Uganda, a protectorate.^^ For many years after independence there were
numerous efforts to create a strong viable federation between these
countries. They failed. The differing political philosophies and the
fears and suspicions of various communities within each make political
federation difficult if not impossible. As a result of the Treaty for
East African Co-operation which was signed by the three presidents on
June 6, 1967, there are some aspects of government, commerce, and
general services that are shared under the auspices of a loose East
Africa Community. Some are as follows : currency, postage, railways,
harbor control, customs, weather bureau, education, income tax, excise
tax, civil aviation and others.
W. Hobley, Bantu Beliefs and Magic (London: Witherby, 1922), p. 287.
^^The following definitions are helpful: a) colony—a group of people living in and exercising control over a territory while s till re taining ties with their mother country; b) mandate—an order granted by the League of Nations to a member nation to establish governmental con trol over conquered territory; c) protectorate—the assumption of responsibility of a superior power to protect a dependent territory.
^^Prepared by the Kenya Embassy, "Fifty Facts About the East Africa Community," Washington, B.C. 36
The economic development of the country beyond the expansion of European agriculture was handicapped by the depression, the insecurity of the international situation preceding World War II and the war itself. The war was brought to Africans, and Africans went to other war zones. As was mentioned above thousands of Africans returned home with great expectations for change. They had witnessed a lot and had become more worldly. They had seen other developing nations—Burma,
India, Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon), and Pakistan—gain their independence during the post-war years, and Africans were rejecting the myth of white superiority based on skin color. Unfortunately, the extent of these
expectations or their fulfillment were not immediately realized in the
official colonial power structure. Conditions for Africans had not
changed significantly.
The focus of their disillusionment and disappointment after the war, among other factors, was the long standing land issue in Kenya.
The most productive land s till remained closed to Africans for large
scale cash crop cultivation. Land on which they saw cash crops devel
oping and on which they, especially the Kikuyu, were forced to work was
not "given back" to them in order to raise the economic levels of
blacks. With very few exceptions Africans were forced to remain at a
subsistence level of farming for survival. British was veterans were
offered large parcels of land while the long standing color bar, which
was cause for further disenchantment with the government, deprived
African veterans of the same opportunities. The paramount issue of
land and the obvious color bar transcended every aspect of Kenya's
political and socio-economic life. These deep seated problems, along 37 with an inadequate education that did not prepare Africans for socio
economic mobility, created increased tension and conflict between
racial groups. The ensuing conflict worsened and eventually took the
form of the Mau Mau Rebellion.
The beginning of the post-war era found a cohesiveness devel
oping between the heretofore segmented African political efforts in
Kenya. Through years of exposure, they were quickly adopting Western-
styled political systems. In order to understand more completely the
post-war era leading to independence, it is necessary to digress for a
moment to bring into clearer focus significant events in the development
of the African political thrust and some of the architects of "Uhuru"
(a Swahili word for freedom).
African Political Development
The first African political movements in Kenya were manifested
in a burning desire to regain the land that was taken away through
European settlement.Because the vast majority of the white settlers
were located in the Kikuyu areas it was only natural that antagonisms
between the races would be most severe in that area. Although the
Europeans began to organize shortly after they settled in Kenya to
protect their new found interests, African political organizations were
not in evidence prior to 1921. However, from the inception they were
in o p p o sitio n to th e c o n fisc a tio n of A frican lan d . The Young Kikuyu
provided an interesting anecdote to European settlement in Kenya. He stated that the indigenous people thought that they were only leasing their land to the settlers not giving up ownership. Mr. Arap-Leting is the Senior Education Officer in charge of Planning and Development, M inistry of Education, Nairobi, Kenya. Interview, Washington, D. C. 38
Association was the first African political group to be organized in
Kenya. Harry Thuku, a government-employed telephone operator, was the founder in 1921. Johnstone (Jomo) Kenyatta joined the Association in
1922 and together they spear-4ieaded an attack on the forced use of identity cards by Kikuyu laborers, the low wages (approximately $2.50
■per month), and a hut tax that amounted to $3.00 annually.The settlers in desperation to get cheap labor that could not be obtained from England, chose to use indigenous workers. Because of open resent ment on the part of the Africans subjected to these conditions, they were made to carry identity cards to insure the settler farmers of a labor force. If caught without the card, jail, fines or other harass ment would result. The forced labor at such low wages was closely associated with the hut tax. The cultural implications of the hut tax
ran even deeper. For if a man had a polygamous marital life, he had to pay taxes on each dwelling that he provided for his wives. In 1922, for
his part in the protest, Thuku was jailed and exiled; the YKA organi
zation was banned; and over twenty Kikuyu nationalists were slain by the
British when they tried to forcibly free Thuku. This was, indeed, the beginning of the struggle for independence.^^
^^Alan Rake, "Jomo Kenyatta: The Man and the Ifyth," Africa R eport, VI (May, 1961), 5-6 ; see a lso Cox, p. 19.
^^Fred G. Burke, "Political Evolution in Kenya," Occasional Paper, No. 2, presented to the Seminar in Political Anthropology Spring, 1964; The Program of East African Studies, Syracuse University. 39
Jomo Kenyatta. Jomo Kenyatta, the first president of Kenya, is
a member of the Kikuyu t r i b e . He was born around 1893.^^ The exact date is difficult to determine. Cox working backwards from Kenyatta's date of circumcision, 1913, arrives at a different date of birth for
Kenyatta, puberty usually being the period for circumcision. His name
at birth was Kamau which was later changed to Johnstone by the mission
aries at the Church of Scotland school where he attended when he was
ten. Still l a t e r , he adopted the name of Jomo K enyatta. Both names are Kikuyu, Jomo meaning "burning spear" and Kenyatta the word for a
colorful beaded belt he wore so often .A t a very early stage in his
life, Kenyatta displayed leadership ability and was given a job in the
M in istry o f Works as a m eter reader.This line of work was not
interesting or exciting enough for him so he left the job. In 1920, he served as an interpreter for a Kikuyu chief in a Supreme Court land
case. This visibility lent considerably to his image and the beginning
of his political career.This was about the same time that he joined
up with Thuku, launching the first embryonic African political organi
zation in Kenya. While Thuku was in restrictive detention, Kenyatta's
credibility as a politician increased.
Three years after the Young Kikuyu Association was proscribed,
it was rejuvenated under the name of the Kikuyu Central Association.
Once again the issues were generally the same; "land, an end to the
e, pp. 5-6.
50cox, pp. 19, 21. SlRake, p. 5.
52cox, p. 17. 40
color bar, representation in the legislative assembly, the establishment
of the office of Kikuyu Paramount Chief, and allow Harry Thuku to end h is e x i l e . B y 1928, Kenyatta had become the secretary of the KCA and
editor of its newspaper, the Mfigwithania. He had now committed himself
to a life of politics. In 1929, when the. KCA realized that the Colonial
government was not going to make any major concessions to the Kikuyu
people, Kenyatta took his case to L o n d o n . 54 T here, he tr i e d unsuccess
fully to petition the Secretary of State, but he did receive support
from many British liberals sympathetic to the Africans* plight.
According to Arap-Leting, African nationalists were always able to gain
support for their causes from many factions in London. Many British
took a dim view of the conduct of the colonial governments. This was
somewhat a paradox because London would often support Africans over the
objections of the s e t t l e r s . ^5
While in London, one of K enyatta*s encounters w ith communism
took place during the same year, 1929, when he travelled to the Soviet
Union and received support from the London Communist League Against
Imperialism. As history has shown, he has not been greatly influenced
by communism. A fter a b r ie f t r i p back to Kenya, K enyatta retu rn ed to
London in 1931. He continued to petition the British government by
keeping the grievances before the British public and the Colonial
Office. Although not originally planned, he remained in London for the
next sixteen years. In addition to pleading African causes, Kenyatta
5%urke, p. 25. ^‘^Burke, p. 25.
55interview, J. T. Arap-Leting, October 6, 1972. 41 studied, lectured, wrote a book. Facing Mount Kenya, worked as a farm la b o r e r , and m arried an E nglish woman. In 1945, he a lso played a
significant role in organizing the famous first generation Pan-African
Congress with Kwame Nkrumah, W. E. B. DuBois, and George Padmore in
Manchester, England. The efforts of this group were directed toward
the socio-economic plight of black people throughout the world.
During Kenyatta's unexpected absence, African political devel
opment in Kenya was slow. A significant factor, however, was the emerg
ence of other tribal political organizations. For example, the Luo
tribe in the Nyanza region showed signs of organized disenchantment with
colonial rule as early as the 1920's with the establishment of the
Kavirondo Taxpayers Association and the Young Kavirondo Association.
Efforts to unite the Kikuyu and Luo political groups failed because of
inter- and intra-tribal differences.^^ These two tribal entities, the
largest in Kenya, eventually joined forces and led the way to indepen
dence. In 1938, the Kamba, another of the large tribes, in response to
government policies on de-stocking and confiscation of cattle, marched
on N airobi 1,500 stro n g and subsequently e s ta b lis h e d the Kamba Members
Association. The same policies provoked a similar response in the Taita
Hills area southeast of Nairobi, out of which came the Taita Hills Assoc
iation. Both of these organizations quickly joined forces with the KCA.
In 1940, as with its predecessor, the KCA was proscribed.
Members in clu d in g some from the Kamba and T a ita a s so c ia tio n s were among
those arrested. Having been forced underground the organization
surfaced as the Kenya Farmers and Traders Association. In 1944, the KCA
Rake, p. 6 pp. 25, 29. 42 based Kenya African Study Union was founded and two years later it became the Kenya African Union with James Gichuru its first President.
Up to this time, KAU was the most successful African national political
party in Kenya. In 1944, the government having sensed the rising tide
of African nationalism decided to "appoint" the first African to the
Legislative Council.
In a sense, the war prevented Kenyatta from returning home
earlier. Nonetheless, in September, 1946, after sixteen years away
from the Kenya scen e, Jomo K enyatta retu rn ed from London.The
installation of Kenyatta as president of KAU in 1947 was seen by Delf as the last link in a long chain of events that would lead to indepen
dence. He stated that "by the end of 1947, African nationalism was
set on a course which must lead inexorably either to the end of white
rule or to an explosion.Kenyatta continued to make the same
demands of the government that he and others had made earlier; and
although some gains in education and agriculture were made, the para
mount issues of land, the color bar, and elected representation in the
legislature were not settled. Kenyatta made a concerted effort to
broaden the political base of KAU by getting the second largest tribe,
the Luo, to join. Oginga Odinga was the leader of the Luo Cooperative
and Thrift Corporation, and he later became Vice-President in Kenya's
first independent government. The impact created by KAU was seen very
clearly in its constituent breakdown; all major tribal factions were
represented and in attendance when Kenyatta was elected its President.
^^Burke, pp. 26-27. ^^Rake, pp. 5-6.
°Qu pp. 27, 28. 43
Anti-government acts, racially inspired, became rather characteristic of the period following the war. Some of the activities were violent in nature, sometime escalating to sabotage. Kenyatta and
KAU were usually blamed. Burke and Rake concur in their explanation of who was possibly responsible. Traditionally the Kikuyu, like many
African societies have a system of age-sets. The age-sets are similar to many Western groups with rituals or happenings, such as baptisms, confirmations, bar mitzvah, fraternities, sororities, and others. The ritual takes place and the person is transformed or moved to another level of maturity and responsibility. For the Kikuyu men one of the major launchings in life was centered around the circumcision and like a fraternity they socialized and did many things together. One such age-set was called the "forty”. These men had served in the armed forces during the war and were extremely disenchanted with the govern ment. The "forty" were unwilling to follow Kenyatta's slower approach via constitutional reform; consequently, they took matters into their own hands attempting the violent explosion of whites from Kenya.
Such extremist elements soon became the Mau Mau, and conditions began
to degenerate.B y 1952 the Mau Mau Rebellion was in full swing.
Mau Mau. The o rig in and meaning of the term , Mau Mau, i s hard
to come by, however, what is known is that it met with in itial "success".
Gunther offers some suggestions as to the meaning of Mau Mau:
Its origin is obscure, although "Mau" occurs as a place name in Kenya geography there is a Mau forest near the Delamere properties, and a declivity in the Rift V alley known as th e Mau Escarpm ent. One theory i s th e Mau Mau is a distortion of uma, the Kikuyu word for "Quit" or "Get O ut!" or the Sw ahili fo r "oath" (muma); another is th a t i t comes from th e miaow of a c a t, because th e t e r r o r i s ts sometimes disemboweled cats in their initiation ceremonies. S till another explanation is that it means "Union of Africa Movement," with the initials reversed. One more is that it derives from an early Kikuyu princess, the daughter of a man named Muumbi who was the legendary f a th e r of the t r i b e . ^2
The f a c t th a t i t was a s e c re t so c ie ty made i t d i f f i c u l t to
trace and eliminate. Attacking Mau Mau was made even more complex by
"oath taking" that was a part of the ritual. By taking the oath one was sworn to secrecy even if it meant death, often it did.63
Once again Kenyatta and KAU could not escape the wrath of the
government. KAU was regarded as a front for the Mau Mau and Kenyatta
its leader. Despite this harassment by the government, the demands for
equality continued to be made, except that now the stakes were higher.
KAU was demanding twelve elected seats instead of the four nominated
seats then held by Africans. Another demand was the freedom to
organize labor unions.64 How the Mau Mau situation evolved, could
possibly be considered a classic example of brinkmanship, then
ex p lo sio n .
When the state of emergency was declared in October, 1952,
troops were rushed in from the Suez Canal Zone. Massive arrests were
made including Kenyatta and many other nationalist leaders. Kenyatta
was charged with directing the Mau Mau activities and in late November
his five month trial began in the extremely remote western border town
62Gunther, p. 371. ^^Burke, p. 28.
64]^Burke, p. 30. 45 of Kapenguria, 300 miles from Nairobi. Although no evidence was produced to indicate the slightest connection with the terrorist organization, Kenyatta was found guilty, as expected, and sentenced to seven years of hard labor to be followed by an indefinite period of
confinement. All national political activities were banned. In the
Kikuyu area, Africans could not meet in groups larger than three.
D istrict level political activity was permitted in some of the non-
Kikuyu areas. Such repressive efforts by the government reversed
political development from a once growing national thrust back toward
individual tribal expressions—divide, create disunity, and conquer.
In 1953, a United Nations survey in Kenya produced for the world to see some of the seeds of discontent. The average annual income for
Africans was 27 pounds ($75.00); Asians 280 pounds ($784.00); and
Europeans 660 pounds ($1,848.00). Approximately 50 pounds ($140.00) per
year per child was spent on Europeans for education while three
shillings (52ç) was spent for each African child.The Kenya economy
was seriously affected by the Mau Mau outbreak. Cox stated that in
1955-56 more than forty percent of the budget was being spent on prisons,
police, and security.The death toll accounted for thirty-two
European civilians, sixty-three of the security force, eleven thousand,
five hundred Africans by the m ilitary and two thousand Africans killed
by Mau Mau.®^ Mau Mau destroyed what little racial trust that had ex
isted. Thousands of people were uprooted and moved to special reserves.
65Burke, pp. 29-32. ^^Cox, p. 23.
67.Burke, p. 31. 46 Seventy-eight thousand Africans were placed in detention and one thousand were executed.
Weeks, in a comparison, pointed out how far behind Uganda, Kenya educational development was at the time of independence. He noted the small amount of literature by Kenya African w riters; R. Muro Gatherm,
Child of Two Worlds ; James Ngugu, The River Between and Weep Not, Child;
Jo siah Mwangi K ariu k i, Mau Mau D e ta in e e s; Mbiyu K oinage, The People of
Kenya Speak for Themselves ; Muga Gigaru, Land of Sunshine; and Tom
Mboya, Freedom and After. Weeks felt that if the education programs had been improved earlier, especially on the secondary level, sufficient leadership may have emerged to have provided a more orderly transition
to independence without the necessity for Mau Mau.^^
With so many leaders in detention, the emergence of new leader ship was just a matter of time. Because labor unions were in their
infancy, and had not yet become a threat to the government, they were permitted to function and provide a forum to express discontent.
District based political groups continued to appear, especially after
1955 in N airobi and Mombasa. One of the p e r s o n a litie s who appeared in
the lea d e rsh ip vacuum was Tom Mboya. In 1953, Mboya, a Luo, was named
General Secretary of the Kenya Federation of Labor and was instrumental
in s e t t l i n g the 1955 Mombasa Dock S tr ik e . With so l i t t l e o p p o sitio n h is
political credibility grew rapidly. In 1956 he established the Nairobi
^^Andrew F. Westwood, "Political Sketches of Sub-Saharan African Countries," Foreign Affairs Division, The Library of Congress, April 1, 1960, pp. 63-67.
^^Sheldon G. Weeks, Divergence in Educational Development: The Case of Kenya and Uganda (New York: Columbia Teachers College Press, 1967), p. 5. 47
Peoples Convention Party and successfully ran in the first Legislative
Council elections held in Kenya history. Africans opposed Africans
and Europeans opposed Europeans in the various provinces for seats on
the Legislative Council. By now the political arena consisted of a
multi-party system. This fact coupled with Mau Mau that was winding
down made it more than evident to the colonial government and the
Colonial Office that a new day had arrived. Africans were no longer
concerned about self-rule in a partnership with the Europeans. Self-
rule at this point would mean giving power to the European settlers.
They wanted control. The European part of the historic 1956 elections
found a liberal New Kenya Party which advocated an interracial policy
pitted against the United Party which favored an apartheid system, one
for blacks, the other for whites. The liberal party lost and with that
defeat went an opportunity to gain cooperation among the races.
After the elections, Mboya led a boycott of the legislative
assembly which included the other seven African winners. They demanded
seven additional seats which would give them fifteen, one more than the
Europeans. When only six additional seats were granted in 1957, they
too were rejected. At this point some of the boycotters gave in and
took their seats. The important points to remember were that first,
the audacity to boycott in itself was a show of strength; and secondly,
the practice of Europeans having representation at least equal to all
other racial groups combined was ended.
When the government ban on political organization was lifted
throughout Kenya in 1959 two major parties were established, the moderate
^^Burke, pp. 32-36. ^^Burke, p. 36. 48
Kenya National Party (KNP) which was on a slow course to independence and th e Kenya Independence Movement (KIM) which was ra d ic a l and demanded freedom, a government based on one man, one vote, and an end to the reservation of the white highlands for Europeans. The Mau Mau Rebellion was officially declared over on November 11, 1959, and thousands of
'Africans were released from prison. Many of them took their places in the vanguard in the fast moving drive toward independence.^^
By year’s end a racial-political crisis developed that threatened the already shaky post-Mau Mau period. In addition to posing a threat to the Asian legislators for the first time, the demands of the
African-elected members became less palatable. The list now included an
African Prime Minister and a division of the country into eighty single member c o n s titu e n c ie s . The l a t t e r would of course give complete c o n tro l of the assembly to Africans. The famous Lancaster House Conference in e a rly 1960 tem porarily s e tt le d the impasse and moved Kenya c lo s e r to
African self-rule than ever before. The African position was fully supported as demanded above. The settlers received assurances of pro
tection of property and other basic civil rights. But for the first
time Africans would have a majority in the Legislative C o u n c i l . ^3
In April, 1959, Kenyatta was removed from prison and placed in
restrictive detention. A year later the issue of his release became
another of the demands, and once again Africans played power politics
by refusing to take their seats in the assembly. This not only
created another crisis, but it also caused competition against
^Burke, p. 37. ^^gurke, p. 37. 49
Africans, namely, Mboya and Oginga Odinga, for Kenyatta's favor. The battles—between and within parties, races and tribes—were underway.
Out of this emerged the two parties that would eventually vie for the leadership of independent Kenya. The Kenya African National Union
(KA jNU) favored de-tribalization with a strong centralized government and drew its support from mainly the large tribes. The Kenya African
Democratic Union (KADU) favored a de-centralized government with more tribal autonomy. The smaller tribes supported KADU along with
Europeans.
In a warning to the government that violence would result if
Kenyatta were not released immediately, Mboya nearly brought the government to its knees. KANU took it one step further by electing
Kenyatta its President in absentia. The Lancaster Conference called for a general election in February, 1961. KANU with sixteen seats emerged as the dominant party but refused to take part in the government until
K en y atta's r e le a se . A fter much n e g o tia tio n , Jomo K enyatta was rele a se d from detention on August 17, 1961. Gatandu in Kikuyuland was a place of celebration for many days and nights. In less than three months
Kenyatta was back in London to negotiate a constitution for the future independent Kenya. He officially became the leader of KANU in January,
1962, when James Gichuru once again stepped down, as he did in 1946, to permit Kenyatta to be elected to the legislative assembly. The second
Lancaster House Conference, February, 1962, produced a bicameral government similar to that utilized in the United States. A coalition
^^Burke, pp. 36-43. 50 government was temporarily established until such time that the elections would take place in May, 1963. Kenyatta's KANU won easily and in two years the new Prime Minister had gone from detention to the highest position in the land. Independence within the Commonwealth was won on December 12, 1963, and a year later, December 12, 1964, the
Republic of Kenya came into being with Kenyatta its first President.
With KADU receiving a major setback in the election many of the smaller political factions began to throw their support to KANU. It should not be depicted as an event that happened without tremendous political infighting. There was even talk of secession by some tribes, but this dissipated after independence. The most significant event
that brought about a one party state in Kenya took place on November 10,
1964, when Ronald Ngala, KADU party leader, officially dissolved his party and joined KANU. As Arthur Chingawa, Press Attache, Embassy of
Kenya, stated, "Developing countries, including Kenya, cannot afford the
luxury of a multi-party political system. All parties should want the
same things for their people, progress and the bare necessities." 76
Since independence Kenya has weathered many political storms
ani has definitely replaced countries like Nigeria and Ghana as the
bright star on the African continent. There were the vicious intra
party rivalries, those between Mboya and Oginga Odinga being the high
lights. These political figures started clashing long before
independence. Odinga who became Vice-President in the new government
^^Burke, pp. 36-43.
^®Statement by Arthur E. Chingawa, personal interview, January 10, 1973. 51
accused Mboya of being a lackey and stooge for the United States and
its labor unions. Odinga was later attacked for having received finan
cial aid and comfort from the communists. Odinga was subsequently
removed as Vice-President and placed under house arrest. Mboya who was highly regarded in Africa and many parts of the world was shot to death,
supposedly, by a lunatic in August, 1969.^^
Jim Hoagland, Washington Post Foreign Service Correspondent,
cited five major problems that stand in the way of unification of the
many diverse groups and tribes in Kenya: 1) the age old issue of land
with a slightly new twist. From the inception of colonialism the land
question was a thorn in the side of the settlers until it exploded into
the Mau Mau. Hoagland felt that the farms have not been parceled out
to those who fought for Mau Mau and that 3.5 million acres of farm and
ranch land—of the original 7.5 million acres of high potential land
leased for 999 years to the settlers at the turn of the century by the
British—was still owned or managed by whites. He further stated that
some African politicians and civil servants have grabbed up the best
farms for themselves; 2) tribalism. Having borne the brunt of Mau Mau
by doing most of the fighting, the Kikuyu felt justified in claiming
most of the spoils, civil service jobs, land, army and others.
Accordingly, the other tribes seem powerless to prevent i t.78
Hoagland goes on to say that the mantle of power was passed "to a
group of educated Kikuyu politicians led by Kenyatta, who spent
77xhe Washington Post, August 11, 1969, Sec. A, p. 1.
7^The Washington Post, January 7, 1973, Sec. B, p. 1. 52 seventeen years in Britain, and not to the radical forces of the Nyeri g r o u p . 3) African resentment over continued white and Asian economic power; 4) inability of African farmers to be as productive as the white farmer. Heavy debts and little or no profit are creating serious problems; 5) the big question in Kenya and among the Kenya watchers is, what w ill happen after Kenyatta? A number of ambitious political figures are waiting in the wings.80 In fact, there is speculation by some sources that the Mayor of Nairobi, Margaret Kenyatta, the
President’s daughter, might be heiress apparent to the leadership of the
Kenya African National Union (KANU) and the presidency. Comparisons have been made with what happened to Nehru and his daughter, Indira
Gandhi. Margaret Kenyatta, who has been her father's confidante and counselor, is a dynamic personality. She was his emissary during the dark period when the British purged him.
The investigator's interview with Arthur Chingawa, Press
Attache, Embassy of Kenya, followed by one day on the heels of the three part series of articles by Hoagland in the Washington Post. He expressed a great deal of disappointment and displayed an equal amount of irritability with the articles. Not only did he say that they were inaccurate but also that Hoagland was meddling. Chingawa did, however,
stop short of stating what action might be taken against him, if any.
^^The Washington Post, January 7, 1973, Sec. B, p. 1.
80The Washington Post, January 9, 1973, Sec. A, p. 12, Col. 1-8.
81,Sam Uba, "Women and P olitics," Africa ; An International Business, Economic and Political Monthly (December, 1972), pp. 18-23. 53
He felt that those who fought and worked for independence and have the capability should be running the country.
Unlike the post-world war years when Africans were not permitted
to venture into the mainstream of Kenya's economic life the aftermath of
Mau Mau and the "battle" for independence brought a distinctively new
and different involvement. To a certain degree Africans have more
control over their destiny. It is no longer pre-determined by a force
that is not genuinely interested in their well-being.- It is no longer
a question of just surviving, but now, one can possibly decide the way
in which they plan to survive. Economic development is still in the
early stages in Kenya. According to Hoagland, Kenyatta's theory—and
it appears to be working—is to permit the white and Asian dominated
sectors of the economy to expand, therefore, providing more jobs,
investments and business for Africans.This concept might be labeled
long-term Africanization. As one white Kenyan said in his description
of what has happened in the Kenya economy and how he f e l t one should
deal with the situation in order to come to terms with Africans,
"Give 'em Parliament and keep the banks.How long whites w ill keep
the banks is the big question. Whatever the label or the motivation,
the belief of the settlers and many others throughout the world, that
blacks could not rule and maintain stability has been so far disproved.
Agriculture, the mainstay of the economy, has not been as productive as
the Government had hoped, and the ambition to be a major supplier of
S^interview, Arthur Chingawa, January 10, 1973.
^^The Washington Post, January 7, 1973, Sec. B, p. 1.
S^The Washington Post, January 8, 1973, Sec. A, pp. 1, 4. 54 foodstuffs for Africa and Europe will take more time, education and planning. Meanwhile, under Kenyatta's plan the 40,000 whites, 4,000 of them citizens, continue to prosper, and the once alleged and feared
"evil leader" of Mau Mau is now heavily relied upon by the whites for portection and encouragement to stay in Kenya. Kenyatta's stated goal is a multiracial society with equal rights and protection for all.
The whites fear the end of the Kenyatta era and the next government more. The destiny of Kenya's white population is also important to the southern portion of Africa where black majorities do not have power and c o n tro l.
A fric a n iz a tio n of th e economy is in cre a sin g r ig h t up to the
Executive level under pressure from the government, especially for the well-educated Kenyan who has studied in the United States. Foreign owned firm s are encouraged by the government to place th e ir sto ck s on the public market. This approach, coupled with more jobs for Africans, is making economic gains.86
There is widespread concern that the dominant Kikuyu tribe has disproportionate membership in key positions in Kenya's centralized government. This power and control appears to be the focal point of most of th e d iscord in Kenya's everyday e x iste n ce . The army th a t was traditionally dominated by the Kamba tribe has now been inundated by
Kikuyu.According to Hoagland, the Luo t r i b e , known fo r t h e i r
^^The Washington P o s t, January 8 , 1973, Sec. A, p. 1.
^^The Washington Post, January 8, 1973, Sec. A, p. 4.
^^Statement by Richard A. Lake, personal interview. May 21, 1966; see also the Washington Post, January 9, 1973, Sec. A, p. 12. 55 intellectual ability and contributions to the growth of higher education, are being replaced by Kikuyus at the University College.
Failure of the Kikuyu student political wing to get control of the student government brought about the abolishment of all such activities on the campus. The national elections have been cancelled on two occasions largely because of disinterest and the decay of KANU, the national party.
As stated earlier one might be inclined to interpret or attribute the inordinate number of Kikuyu in positions of power and control to aggressiveness and adaptability. Of course it could also be a concerted effort to increase Kikuyu dominance. Whatever the case, one must consider the implications of the situation for still other institutions, namely sports. This point w ill be further discussed in
Chapter IX.
This chapter attempted to bring into focus aspects about Kenya
that were necessary to provide a background for a better understanding of subsequent material in the study. The development of education in
Kenya will be treated in the next chapter.
^^The Washington Post. January 9, 1973, Sec. A, p. 12. SUD
M ê a /le i V'“^' 6ÜRR&H AJURAhJ ) B O R A N f } elmolo r MAdE ruRY^AtiA\^^>^OiLLÈ \ NORTHEASTERN UGANDA ^ \ D\GOùtA ^ KADAM V AJURAN _ SUMALl SUK ^ ^ ^ \ AULVât^AN SAMB ü Ru \ \ RI FI VALLEY ) B orah/ REI’URLIC Ü C v /L-T/AMV5 i . MERU \ BOAcBO KOROKO MAMA KJPSIK/S ^ \ RUZ/l\ ZUÛÜIR .^jCEMTRAl. \ /W^Ê«e \ QALLA '^f;î'/V£A'STERlSi \ I ' \ WA5AI hAiROBI BONI ^ >C>tAlô/J G/LLA\ MA5AI SANWE . V COAST ^ .^AAiAfi GIRVAMA AV5TA.V0 raiTA KAUfAA KENYA IMMIWtlORtl TANGANYIKA
TRIBAL MAP OF KENYA CHAPTER I I I
EDUCATION IN KENYA
PEE-COLONIAL AND COLONIAL EDUCATION
An awakening has taken place on the African continent, and the stimulus for this process has been the education revolution. Africa is
immense; therefore- when a continent-wide institutionalized movement
like education occurs, the impact throughout the world is tremendous.
The African land mass makes up a fifth of the entire surface of the
earth. From north to south it is 5,000 miles and east to west, 4,500
miles.^ While tremendous progress has been made, many lay people in the western world still regard Africa as the "Dark Continent"—a static
culture, isolated from the rest of the world with little social or
cultural development of its own. Actually, however, Africa has been a
dynamic changing continent dating back to prehistory due to both
internal and external forces. James H. Robinson, former Director,
Operation Crossroads Africa, was one of the first people in the United
States to analyze and re-evaluate the old concept of dark Africa. He
stated that "the darkest thing about Africa was the American ignorance
of that continent."2 When modern man begins to search for knowledge of
^James Cameron, The. A frican R evolution (London; Thames and Hudson, 1961), p. 11.
^Ruth T. Plimpton, Operation Crossroads Africa (New York: The Viking Press, 1962), p. 17. 58 some of the earliest stages of his biological and cultural existence, he often turns to the African continent as a major source. Recent explorations have uncovered finds of a prehistoric nature which strengthen the point of view that man may have originated in Africa.
The following discussion w ill be focused on educational devel opment in Kenya including the pre-colonial and colonial periods. The pre-colonial phase emphasized traditional education that was a part of and flowed from African culture. Colonial education in Kenya, was a direct result of efforts by the church missionaries from Europe and the
United States and subsequently supported by the colonial government.
For the purpose of this study and for the sake of clarity, the pre colonial period in Kenya w ill include events immediately preceding the establishment of the Protectorate of British East Africa in 1895.
Technically, colonial status was not granted until 1920. The colonial period includes events from 1895 to independence in 1963.
Pre-Colonial Education
Traditional Kenya Tribal Education. The introduction of western education changed the traditional patterns of education in
Kenya. Education before the advent of the church missions consisted of both formal and informal experiences. Kenya has approximately forty
tribes and each of them had its own methods of preparing its members
for his role in society. Sheffield described three general methods of
Kenyan tribal teaching—1) parents and elders, 2) craftsmen under an
apprenticeship system, and 3) elders in initiation rites (frequently 59 those of formally organized groups).^ Utilizing these methods
Sheffield further stated that members of the tribe "acquired specific skills and learned how to relate themselves properly to their immediate and extended families, their ancestors, their peers, and their gods.'^
The informal education often consisted of hunting, herding, farming, iauilding houses, cooking, and making utensils. These skills were learned by imitating the physical skills and examples of the elders.
Verbal transmission played a very small role in informal education, and since reading and writing were not used as major tools, learning was not accomplished through the use of books.
Although not confined to the four walls of a building, a more
formal kind of education was used to transmit the tribal culture.
Formal education consisted of oral history, music, dance, games and art.
All were not evident in all tribes, but each played a significant role
in instilling pride in self and tribe and fitness for survival which was
of vital importance. Traditional education in Kenya was successful •
because it provided a behavior code in the static tribal society.
Westernization destroyed the fabric of tribal societies and "a new type
of education became necessary to enable the society’s members to reweave
the fabric and make it serve them in their rapidly changing world. ..5
% elville Herskovits, The Human Factor in Changing Africa (New York: Alfred A. Knopf Division, Random House, 1962), p. 222, cited by James R. Sheffield, Education in the Republic of Kenya, Office of Education, U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1971), p. 6.
^Sheffield, p. 6.
^Sheffield, p. 6. 60
Missionary Education. Attempts to abolish the slave trade and efforts to curtail or prohibit certain traditional "barbaric" African cultural habits led to the eventual influx of missionaries into Kenya.
Many of the traditional customs and mores of African life were elimi nated from the more formal learning experience. The primary goal of missionary education was to make converts to whichever religious order happened to be in that area.
At first efforts to halt the slave trade met with little success, but ineffective as they were they generated more and more
interest and awareness of Africa and sympathy for African people. The missionaries felt it their Christian duty to salvage the souls of
Africans and heal the wounds to body and mind brought about by slavery.
They wished forgiveness from the inhumane slave trade.^
The Portuguese missionaries were the first to introduce Western
education to Africa in the sixteenth century, but the contemporary
systems of education had their roots in the efforts made by the nine
teenth century missionaries.^ In 1792, the Baptist London Missionary
Society sent out their first missionaries and in a few years other
European countries followed. The nineteenth century found the
greatest influx of missionaries arriving in Africa. The spread of
Christianity seriously impaired the traditional role of the tribal
chiefs and diluted their credibility to the point where open hostility
^Seth Singleton and John Shingler, Africa in Perspective (New York; Hayden Book Company, I n c ., 1970), p. 57.
^L. Gray Cowan, James O'Connell and David G. Scanlon (Eds.), Education and Nation-Building in Africa (New York : Frederick A. Praeger, 1965), p. 4. 61 and resentment threatened the lives and safety of missionaries and
Africans alike.®
The first missionary to be established in Kenya was the Church
Missionary Society of England in 1844, but their evangelizing and teaching did not really take hold until the end of that century.^
Other missions that followed included the United Methodist Mission that got started in 1862 in a wide stretch of land from the Tanzanian border east to the Tana River. It was supported by the British. The Mission of the Holy Ghost, a French Order, began its work in Zanzibar and expanded its operations to Kenya in 1892. These missions were primarily along the coast but did penetrate inland to the Nairobi area. Hospital and dispensary works were the primary functions, but the missionaries of this order were supposedly the original coffee cultivators in the country. The Church of Scotland Mission first settled in the coastal area, but due to adverse environmental and health conditions, it was transferred to the Nairobi area in 1898. All stations were situated in the Kikuyu Country. The American and European based African Inland
Mission was interdenominational and arrived at about the same time as the Scotland Mission. It was located in the Kamba and Kikuyu areas northwest from Nairobi. Others established after the turn of the century included the American Friend's Africa Mission in 1902. It settled in the Kavirondo River area and stressed industrial and
“Singleton, pp. 57-58.
^African Education Commission, Education in East Africa, 1923-24 (London: Phelps-Stokes Fund, Edinburgh House Press, 1925), p. 120; see also: Kenya Colony and Protectorate, African Education in Kenya (Nairobi: Government Printer, 1949), p. 1- 62 agricultural education. Also in 1902 the Italian Catholic Mission began work in the Kikuyu area. Large coffee plantations with processing mach inery were a part of their operation. They also had their own printing press, and books were printed in the vernacular. The Mill Hill Mission
Society with its Headquarters in Uganda was established in Kenya in
1903. In 1905 the American Seventh Day Adventists were located in the southwestern part of Kenya. Even the arid northeastern section did not go without a mission. The Lutheran Swedish Mission located itself in that area. The exact date could not be found. From time to time, there were many other missions in Kenya. However, it is interesting to note that most of the missions were located in the controversial High lands of Kikuyuland.^®
Writing in The Washington Post, Stanley Meisler stated that often the missionaries were the spearheads for explorers and traders, and that the missionaries needs and demands were influential in persuading European powers to occupy African territory in the land scramble at the turn of the century.
Missionary education for the most part, was not focused on
Africans or their traditional education. It was foreign education
taught to Africans. The underlying rationale for, say, European
education was explained by Meisler when he stated that;
M issionaries, like most white men, believed that African culture was worthless and barbaric. Nothing in it seemed compatible with Christianity. In the late 1920’s, for
^^African Education Commission, pp. 120-133.
^^The Washington Post, June 3, 1967, Sec. D, p. 9. example, missionaries in Kenya launched an all-out war against the Kikuyu tribe's practice of circumcising girls. The missionaries refused to understand that in Kikuyu culture a g irl never becomes a woman unless she is circumcised; in the eyes of friends, an uncircumcised woman remains a little girl forever, a shameful person.
To the missionaries, the practice seemed barbaric. Kikuyu Christians protested that the Bible was silent on the issue. But the missionaries insisted that the Kikuyus choose between Christianity and circumcision.
In many other ways, missionaries destroyed all they could of traditional African beliefs. The African was left without the old myths that made his world meaningful. Missionaries tried to replace these shattered myths with a new myth—the superiority of white men and women and Western Christianity. Left with nothing else, the African embraced the new myth and rushed to the mission chapel to sing old English and Latin hymns he did not understand.
Wallerstein stated that from this feeling of superiority Europeans felt
they had, what the French called, a civilizing mission which quite often meant a Christianizing mission.
Cultural denigration of African society, although not complete, was too successful. Many Africans, especially the educated "elite,"
renounced their cultural heritage on the grounds that everything Western was good and everything of African origin was self-defeating. Religion, language, music, dance, and other connections with the past were among
those things rejected.The curriculum was not sufficiently altered
to meet the needs of the African society. The situation resulted in
Africans learning about events thousands of miles away while remaining
J-^The Washington Post, June 3, 1967, Sec. D, p. 9.
^^injnianuel Wallers tein, Africa; The Politics of Independence (New York: Vintage Books, 1961), p. 121.
l^W allerstein, p. 135. 64 ignorant of their own background. Experience is the best teacher, but
Africans had to learn from the printed page. Students could not truly relate to things about which they were learning. With the exception of some adjustments to cope with indigenous environmental conditions, foreign concepts and precepts of education were foisted upon the Kenyan population. It might be said that a foreign education was better than none at all, but there were certain aspects of it that worked as detri ments to Kenya's.development and eventual confrontation with the modern
Colonial Education
E ducational p ro g ress in Kenya follow ed p r e tty much th e same pattern as in Great Britain. An understanding of education in the dependencies can only be appreciated in light of progress that was made in the mother country. As late as the end of the nineteenth century education in England was exclusively for the privileged upperclass.
These opportunities were the responsibility of voluntary and private enterprise.
Missionary Education. A similar situation prevailed in Kenya with the m issions.Evangelizing missions originated from artisan backgrounds in England and the United States included manual skills— like carpentry and gardening—in addition to the literacy classes.
Missionaries steeped in the liberal arts would emphasize academic
^^Great Britain, Education in Britain (London: Central Office of Information, 1952), p. 5; see also, Great Britain, Education in the United Kingdom Dependencies (London: Central Office of Information, 1954), p. 3. 65 s k i l l s . At this point, programs were not well structured and policies for African education at the end of the century were very loose and almost nonexistent. Each mission ultimately established its own house rules, often intentionally to out maneuver each other.
In addition to evangelizing and combating illiteracy, another concern for most missions was the eradication of juvenile delinquency.
With these goals in mind, primary education was regarded as an end in itself with little relationship to higher levels of academic or meaningful vocational pursuits.
The trend was to leave the education of Africans in the hands of the voluntary agencies and at the same time encourage the mission aries to spread mass primary education in the belief that it would automatically convert the Africans to Christianity. Often such conversion met with stiff resistance from tribal leaders.The teaching and preaching of the evangelists were to bring to the Africans
the message of the Gospel, and the school was the vehicle for the dissemination of that information. The operating premise was that in order to read the Bible and the Catechism, Africans had to learn the basic mechanics of reading.
Prior to the establishment of an Education Department in 1911 in Kenya, few if any, records were kept. The primary concern of the
Scanlon, p. 4.
l^Great Britain, Education in United Kingdom Dependencies, 1954, p. 3.
S. Scott, Some Aspects of Native Education in Kenya (London: Oxford University Press, 1936), pp. 23-41. 66
Government at that time was the administrative task of establishing law and order. Providing school facilities for European settler children had first priority. Educating European children was in keeping with the Colonial Government's plans to develop the economy by improving the agricultural yields.The extent of government aid to African education consisted of a few grants of land^^ to the missions which eventually turned out to be the backbone and foundation of education in
Kenya. At first mission education tended to develop into boarding schools because many s tu d e n ts had to come from g re a t d ista n c e s . Most schools provided accommodations and a small stipend for the boarders in return for work which they did in addition to their studies. Later, when the missions expanded their services, the schools became more
localized.M issionaries were seldom without problems. They ranged
from inadequate budgets and personnel to unhealthy working conditions.
Other difficulties resulted from contact with the very strong Islam
religion. Islam did not only involve tribes but rather entire
countries, especially in north Africa. Conflicts of this nature could
have possibly provoked a religious war. Mission schools were soon
satisfying some of the manpower needs in the expanding economy.
Indigenous clerks for administration and commerce were far less costly
than expatriates.
19sheffield, p. 7.
^^The grants of land were sim ilar to the concept of land grant institutions in the United States.
^^Kenya Colony and Protectorate, African Education in Kenya, 1949, p. 1. 67
The missionary or church related educational institutions are greatly responsible for western education as it is known today through out Africa. Even today they are sharing the burden of educating the masses of people. Aside from the fact that so often the flag and the
sword followed the cross, history, without any doubt, gives credit to
the diligent missionary work and its influence in education. When
great adversity presented itse lf, the churches would stick it out
longer than any others. The Phelps-Stokes Report, a landmark in the
history of African education, stated that:
While the schools of many of the missions have too frequently transferred European methods to the exclusion of those required in Africa, their manner of life and the incidental activities of their mission stations have laid the foundations of health, agriculture and character necessary to a primitive people . . . With full recognition of the unfortunate and unfair elements of these relationships, it seems certain that the advantages to the Natives have been far greater than the disadvantages.^^
Lack of financial resources and tribal resistance to massive educational
reforms prevented the rapid expansion of missionary education.
Government Involvement Up to World War I . The establishment of
the Kenya Education Department in 1911 increased the government's sub
sidization to approved mission schools and brought about the gradual
opening of government s c h o o l s . The first government supported African
School was established in 1914 at Machakos. It was an industrial arts
^^African Education Commission, Education in East Africa, 1923-24, p . 135.
^^Kenya Colony and Protectorate, Education Department, Triennial Survey, 1958-60 (Nairobi: Government Printing Office, 1960) pp. 6-10. 68 s c h o o lAlthough . the government, through the Department of Education, assumed responsibility for formulating policies, the missions s till did the vast majority of the actual work. The growth patterns worked to the detriment of the mission schools because the meager funds provided through government grants could no longer adequately support the operations. World War I further curtailed mission efforts as funds were re-directed to the war.
After World War I, there was a renewed interest in education in the African dependencies. The colonial government began to play a much more active role in education. In addition to pressures being put on the government to do more for African education, there were two
factors that helped create that thrust: 1) more revenue was accumu
lating from the high earnings of Kenya's agricultural products on the world market and 2) pressure from the League of Nations on European
powers to review their colonial education policies.
Many significant events began to happen—one of the more
meaningful being the government's in itial aid to teacher training in
1 9 1 8 . Meager as it was it represented a milestone in African
education, the training of indigenous teachers. In 1920, Kenya
officially became a colony.
2Asheffield, p . 7.
25cowan, O'Connell, Scanlon, p. 4.
26cowan, O'Connell, Scanlon, p. 5.
27]Kenya Colony and Protectorate, African Education in Kenya, 1949, p. 3. 69
Soon after the war a private American based group, the Phelps-
Stokes Foundation,established a commission to study African
Education. The purpose of the report was an effort to present the conditions of native education in East Africa with suggestions for their improvement. This was the second of two such reports conducted by the group, the first on West Africa in 1920, and the second on East
Africa in 1923-24. Both of the reports have been hailed as having considerable impact on African education. The commission was inter national, interracial and interdenominational and consisted of distinguished scholars from America, England and Africa. The Report on East Africa set the tone for educational progress in Kenya by re iterating the troublesome state of education.
The historical significance of the Phelps-Stokes Report in
African Education is typified by the following statements :
The Trustees of the Phelps-Stokes Fund firmly believe that the peace and welfare of the world can never be assured until conditions in every country, no matter how small or how remote from world centers of civilisation are reasonably satisfactory . . . just as a chain is as strong as its weakest link, so not even the dominant civilization in Europe and America can be counted upon to endure so long as people any where are weak as the result of ignorance or any other cause. 30
It was felt by the Commission that the old concept of education of transmitting knowledge of the past needed to be investigated and supplemented. The Commission was vitally concerned with aspects of the
^^Caroline Phelps-Stokes established the Foundation for the purpose of increasing educational opportunities for blacks in both Africa and the United States and improving education and race relationships. ^^African Education Commission, p. x iii.
30African Education Commission, p. x iii. 70 educational experience that, heretofore, had not been considered.
This was the first time that such an astute group of scholars had gone on record supporting such a varied curriculum for Africans; and also the first time during colonialism that such emphasis had been placed on health, physical education and recreation. African activities such as dance, ritual and games were thought to be degenerating and debasing by the missionaries and settlers alike and were not included as a part of the educative process. The President of the Phelps-Stokes Foundation stated that :
We now see that education involves not only or mainly formal instruction, but the development of all the physical, mental, moral and spiritual powers of youth in the interest of service. Herbert Spencer puts this well when he says that the object of education is "to prepare us for complete living." Montaigne had the same ideal. He said: "Tis not a soul; ’Tis not a body, that we are training up, but a man, and we ought not to d iv id e him. "^2
The Commission further stated that :
The study of community needs is revealing the emphatic importance of recreation as an element in education. The play instinct of children and adults, the universal desire for amusements, and the immense amount of money, energy and thought devoted to various forms of recreation are not recognized by civilized society as expressing an instinct e s s e n tia l to human w e lfa re . What was form erly thought by some to be the foolishness of youth, or a persistent form of "original sin" is now regarded as in large measure natural and desirable.33
The Phelps-Stokes Report thus triggered tremendous initiative
from England to improve the condition of education in Africa. There
33-African Education Commission, pp. 13-14.
^^African Education Commission, p. xvi.
^^African Education Commission, pp. 31-32. 71 were very serious inequities amongst the various ethnic groups.
According to the Phelps-Stokes Report approximately $210,000 was spent
on education in 1924. The per capita expenditure for each European
pupil was $34.00, for the Asian pupil $6.00, and for the African pupil
practically negligible. It was obvious that a great deal more had to
he done for the indigenous schools if education was going to be related
to the development of agriculture, health, industrial skill, character
development, and. other useful sk ills.A s a direct result of the
Phelps-Stokes Report the Colonial Office established, in 1923, the
Advisory Committee on Native Education in the British Tropical African
Dependencies. In 1925, the Committee reported a policy statement which
included many of the recommendations made by the Phelps-Stokes Report.
In essence, it stated that too much in the way of revenue and resources
was being extracted from the colonies and not enough in the way of
development of the country and its people was being put back. The
Colonial Government was not living up to its trusteeship commitments.
The name of the committee was changed to the Advisory Committee on
Education in the Colonies and subsequent reports were prepared in 1935
and 1944.3^
Secondary education for the African segment of the population
developed very slowly. European and Asian school officials, with few
exceptions disallowed African attendance in their schools. Except for
^^African Education Commission, p. 118.
^%reat Britain, Colonial Office, African Education; A Study of Educational Policy and Practice in British Tropical Africa (London; Oxford University Press, 1953), pp. 2-3. 72 a favor occasionally extended to a few promising African students, secondary education did not exist before World War I. With the assis tance of Government grants-in-aid the first African secondary school,
the Alliance High School, was opened by Protestant missions in 1926.
The Alliance School is s till located in the Kikuyu area and has developed
into an outstanding school by any standards. An indication of its status and capability is witnessed by a significant number of the present
Kenya leaders who attended, including President Jorao Kenyatta. The first
Roman Catholic Holy Ghost College (Secondary School) was established in the Machakos area soon afterwards. It was not until after World War II
that the big surge in secondary education took place for Africans, and
even then a serious bottleneck remained because the number of primary
g rad u ates was so la rg e .
With official colonial status the Kenya government had autonomy to pass local ordinances. In 1924, one such ordinance gave more author
ity over education to the African leaders through the Local Native
Council. Although taxation by the council was not officially authorized
by the ordinance, some councils took it upon themselves to collect fees
from which a portion or all was spent on education. This marked the
actual beginning of local taxation for educational expenditures.
Another 1924 ordinance established a central education committee,
defined school areas, implemented a system of certificates and licenses
^^Sheldon G. Weeks, Divergence in Educational Development ; The Case of Kenya and Uganda (New York: Columbia Teachers College Press, 1967), pp. 4, 14. 73 for teaching, made provisions for school inspection and levied local educational rates.
Because there was no machinery for an efficient system of checks and balances in the education setup, a financial crisis occurred in 1925. The Government, realizing the severity of the situation and possible bankruptcy of the school system, increased its commitments in the areas of European salaries, maintenance, tuition, board and other areas. In 1926, per pupil spending showed great disparities among the e th n ic groups. Table 1 shows how much money was expended per p u p il in the separate school system s.O ther ordinances were passed in 1931 and
1934 but did not bring about much change in the policies or organization of African education. A big need in education at this time was follow- up staff to evaluate, supervise and inspect. In spite of the progress being made, uncontrolled expansion, although inevitable, was of major
concern. When the European teachers were spread too thin, more
responsibility was shifted to the African staff which was inadequate in
size and sometimes in quality. By that time the whole educational
endeavor was threatened by the government's financial restrictions
brought about by the Depression.
In 1935 the second report by the Advisory Committee on Education
in the Colonies was issued. It stressed not only formal education of
children but also a community wide experience for both youngsters and
^^Kenya Colony and Protectorate, African Education in Kenya, 1949, pp. 4-6.
38gheffield, p. 10.
^^Kenya Colony and Protectorate, African Education, 1949, p. 7. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION PER PUPIL SPENDING AND THE NUMBER OF PUPILS BY ETHNIC GROUPS IN 1925.
Expenditures
. Ethnic Groups T otal Per P upil Number of P u p ils
$232,293 $ 33.40 6,948
70,329 3 7! 00 1,900
European 240,041 180.50 776
Total $442,663 9,624 75 adults, a total experience approach.T his concept was derived from the Jeanes method of teacher education that originated in southern sections of the United States in 1908. It was a form of environmental education wherein the curriculum content was closely associated with and based on the educational needs of the home and farm. The first Jeanes school was started in Kabete, Kenya in 1925.^^ The principle involved in Jeanes method emphasized the importance of the teacher's total life experiences and the effects of those experiences on the community he serves. Lewis explained it this way:
The training provided aims . . . not only at making the teacher efficient professionally but at equipping him and his wife for running and organizing their home in a manner helpful to the community. And their teaching consequently has that practical element without which the best of precepts are of little avail.
The shortage of available resources hindered the successful
implementation of the principles of the 1925 and 1935 Advisory Committee memoranda. The majority of African children and adults did not have
opportunities to get an education. In general, most of the education
received was suspect. Education disrupted tribal existence but did not
establish a state of equilibrium in the changing order. The 1930's
found the image and prestige of the "white collar" position becoming a
problem which s t i l l plagues many A frican c o u n trie s . Many fa u lte d the
education as being too bookish and superficial and gave students a
^^Great Britain, Colonial Office, 1953, pp. 2-3.
1954, p. 28.
J. Lewis, Equipping Africa: Educational Development in British Colonial Africa (London: Edinburgh House Press, 1948), p. 17. 76 dislike for manual labor and rural life. The problem was due to life in general not just education.
Independent African Education. The vacuum created by the
instability of educational development and the Depression with its
resulting financial squeeze, was partially filled with the establishment
of private African schools of tribal origin. The Kikuyu Independent
Schools Association (KISA) and the Kikuyu Karinga Education Association
(KKEA) were founded in 1929. Both were the outgrowth of an African
church organization.T hese schools began out of frustration over the
nature and amount of education that the Africans were receiving. The main issue that brought about the independent schools was the mission aries' objections to Kikuyu tribal customs in general and particularly
female circumcision.^^
Most African nationalist leaders did not endorse this concept of
assimilation as a means to political independence. Instead, they chose
to follow a course towards cultural revival. At this juncture, the
nationalist movement found itself in constant conflict with colonial
rule. Most of the independent schools were inferior, understaffed and
usually operated with very limited budgets. They were staffed only by
A fric a n s. A man by the name o f Jomo K enyatta was th e f i r s t p r in c ip a l.
In these schools and in the continued expansion of the concept of self-
help, the seeds of self-rule and independence were planted. These
43Weeks, p. 7.
44 ^John Gunther, Inside Africa (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1955), p. 366. 77 schools became so controversial that the colonial government tried desperately to close them down. It was not, however, until the height of the Man Man Rebellion, in 1952, that they were actually closed, fourteen KISA, twenty-one KKEA, fourteen other independent schools.^ 45
World War II. Following closely on the heels of the Depression came World War I I . Once again reso u rces were d iv e rte d from the co lo n ies to the war efforts. Recruitment of foreign teachers was difficult. It had been decided previously that secondary education and teacher training would be the responsibility of Europeans and that most primary education would be conducted by Africans. The war seriously curtailed what little progress had been made in education and teacher training, and many mission schools, now without government funds, were forced to reduce their operations or close. Army salaries and conditions were more attractive to Europeans and Africans than those in the schools.
Things got so critical that in 1943, a recruitment and training program
for women teachers was established in England.
In 1941, a sub-committee of the Advisory Committee on Education
in the colonies was convened in an effort to consolidate ideas, make
plans and implement those plans to improve educational services in the
African colonies. It incorporated many ideas from the previous Advisory
Committee Reports, 1925, 1935. The third Report was published in 1944
^^Weeks, p. 7.
4%enya Colony and Protectorate, African Education in Kenya, 1949, p. 9.
^^Great Britain, Education in United Kingdom Dependencies, 1954, p. 11. 78 and a new term was introduced. "Mass" education was the latest attempt to solve the problems of education in Kenya. The committee’s intent was to structure a program of mass education to include all segments of the African population—juveniles, adolescents and adults. Although many of these worthy aims had been pursued for years, the concept of mass education was the essential ingredient necessary for the accomp lishment of such a task. As a result of this massive infusion Africans would eventually have the major responsibility for the improvement of
African life.^^
The efforts toward the implementation of a mass education program was a move to reduce the is o la tio n of the educated A frican e l i t e in keeping with the recommendations by the Phelps-Stokes Commission.
The whole community would be advanced rather than select individuals.
The sub-committee felt that mass education would give the people, as a community, a better understanding and appreciation for the political and socio-economic forces which had changed and continued to change their lives so radically. The target date for the elimination of illiteracy was set for two to three decades hence. This approach to education had been used in many countries and the British patterned the project after programs in Russia, China and Turkey. This approach developed a nationalistic spirit and lent considerably to nation-building.^^
48Great Britain, Colonial Office, Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies, Mass Education in African Society (London : His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1944), p. 4.
^^Great Britain, Colonial Office, Mass Education, pp. 4-10. 79
Post-World War II. The war and its end brought about a renewed interest in African education by many British educators. The political atmosphere had taken on different dimensions. Africans had travelled to other countries and learned how others lived. By serving in the armed fo rc e s they had become a p a rt of th e cash economy in a way very seldom experienced by Africans before. The increased cash in the
African community coupled with the already intense desire for more education created rising expectations for change. Education was playing an ever increasing role in politics and politics in education. The rapidity with which educational expansion took place was unprecedented in the history of education.
In 1948, a ten-year plan for the further development of education was proposed by the Colonial Office. However, a year later it was realized that the plan could not be carried out until the whole system was thoroughly examined.
In 1949, a more su c ce ssfu l attem pt was made to spearhead some progress and provide educational reform. An Anglican Bishop, Leonard
Beecher was commissioned to head a committee on African education to
report on the scope, content, and methods of the African education
system. The first report indicated a need for more qualified teachers,
and the following year twenty-two teachers were recruited from Great
Britain. The Beecher Report, as it is known, was extremely comprehen
sive to the point where the investigation involved conducting polls in
an effort to shed light on some of the problems. The report had far
50Colony and Protectorate of Kenya, Education Department, Triennial Survey 1958-60, pp. 8-9. 80 reaching effect and provided the framework for policy and planning for the next ten years. No less than 148 recommendations were made. Some of the inherent problems and misconceptions that were developing from the education system were pointed out. One of these problems had to do with the employment of primary level school leav ers.T h o se who were actually involved in employing Africans were not pleased with the majority of primary school graduates. Too many were only interested in
"white collar" jobs. In one year, 1948, less than two percent of the school leavers found jobs in clerical positions. This created consider able friction between employers and the community. Frustration and
discontent ran high because everyone thought that by going through the
"education process" they were automatically qualified and that the pot
of gold would be waiting. The Beecher Report was trying to tell them
that there was a tremendous need for other avenues of preparation and
employment, especially in the rural areas. A very small percentage of
primary school products found jobs. Many became members of the idle
population (perpetually out of w o rk )A n o th er recommendation from
the Beecher Report laid out the school plan 4-4-4. It consisted of
four years of primary school followed by a Common Entrance Examination;
four years of intermediate school followed by the Kenya Preliminary
Examination; and four years of secondary school followed by the
51a school leaver is a student who is unable to pursue his edu cation beyond graduation from a particular level such as not continuing beyond primary school. In order to be admitted to secondary school, com petitive exams have to be successfully passed and space available. Usually the latter condition was the major obstacle for Africans, espec ially since schools were segregated.
^^Kenya Colony and Protectorate, African Education in Kenya, 1949, pp. 34-39. 81
Cambridge School Certificate Examination. After the system was under way about one in five taking the C.E.E. obtained a place in intermediate school and one in ten taking the K.P.E. was placed in a
ry sch o o l.
The Effect of Mau Mau on Education. In 1952, the Mau Kau
Rebellion placed the country in a state of emergency. The emergency slowed the evolution of African political activity and at the same time considerably curtailed efforts in educational development. Funds were diverted towards putting down the insurrection but more important the
Kikuyu Independent Schools were accused of being the training grounds for the Mau Mau. Although for years treated as separate entities, the government established a clandestine relationship between educational
institutions in general, the Kikuyu Independent Schools in particular and the independent Githunguri Teacher Training College in the Kikuyu area. Most of the independent schools, numbering over three hundred,
and the College were closed by the government. In essence, educational
development created social revolution in Kenya. Without initially
realizing it, those who had the responsibility and control of education
from the beginning of the colonial period had indirectly brought about
the revolution. European settlers had felt that they could continue to
control the political destiny of Kenya for at least another half
century; the thought of African control was something for the distant
^% eter King, "The Development of Teacher Training in Kenya," Paper presented for the Kenya Institute of Education, Nairobi, Kenya, July 23, 1964. 82
Enrollments in primary schools dropped off considerably during the emergency but when it was over, in 1959, the recovery was rapid.
The government stressed rapid increases in education as a condition for economic growth. Instead of the number of African schools projected for
1961 by the Beecher Report—2,000 primary, 340 intermediate and 12 secondary—1960 found 4,096 primary schools, 928 intermediate and 41 secondary in operation. In spite of this vast amount of progress, one had to be mindful, of the fact that during the same period over 80 percent of the school age children in Africa were not enrolled in school.
The early 1950’s were the dawning years of independence. A continued sense of inadequacy in African education further encouraged
the militancy of African politicians. Often militancy took the form of
determination. One of the most striking examples is reflected in the high retention rate of pupils in primary schools. In 1960, Nigeria
only expected 21 percent to complete a full primary course, leaving a wastage^^ of 79 percent. Although fees were assessed, Kenya’s figures were the reciprocal, 79 percent finished the primary requirements with
a wastage of only 21 percent.P ossibly the higher retention rate
could have been attributed to the far greater amount of European and
Asian settlement in Kenya and how the African aspired to those higher
sta n d a rd s.
^^Bavid Scanlon, ’’Education," The African World : A Survey of Social Research, ed. Robert A. Lystad (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1965), p. 212. ^^Unlike the term school leaver, "wastage" represents the thou sands of students who are, for various reasons, unable to pursue their education beyond a particular level. 56,’Nfeeks, pp. 10-11. 83
The year 1961 witnessed one of the most significant occasions in the history of African education. For the first time the destiny of education was being planned by African educators. This unprecedented occasion was the "Conference of African States on the Development of
Education" held at Addis Ababa, Ethiopa. Although great strides in educational development had previously been made, the conference created the necessary impetus for progress across a broad front. The govern ments set a fantastic pace toward Africanization of their educational systems. This collective effort was not necessarily a radical deviation from Western influence but rather a blending of a worldly ideology in an attempt to arrive at something practical. Plans were directed towards building more education facilities, community develop ment, social reforms, increased vocational training, job ladders and considerable emphasis on study abroad.
It should be mentioned that Kenya had racially separate educational systems that began with the inception of formal education.
A total of five systems eventually evolved supporting ethnic programs
for Africans, Indians, Goans, Arabs, and Europeans. The systems were
separate and unequal with the Asian and European schools getting most
of the money, per capita. European and Asian schools provided
compulsory primary education for seven years. Africans received only four years of primary education that was not compulsory or universal.
In 1959 on a per capita basis, approximately $14.00 was spent on each
African student; $78.00 on each Asian; and $108.00 on each European
child. The Europeans received a British education possibly in 84 preparation for a trip home to a university. The African received a colonial education which prepared him for little after four years.
Kenyan education in the mid-1950's underwent rapid change.
The end of the Mau Mau Emergency stimulated the government to devote more resources to African education. The political climate necessi tated a form of education that would provide Africans with the tools for more responsible citizenship. In 1960, the thrust toward independence and the economy's need for more and better trained manpower greatly influenced and shaped education programs for all races.
^^Weeks, pp. 7-8. EDUCATION IN KENYA
POST COLONIAL EDUCATION
The following discussion w ill focus on educational development in Kenya, during the period of independence from 1963 to the present.
Education in independent Kenya has developed from a strong traditional
British foundation with minimal Africanization.
Comparatively speaking, progress in educational development in
independent Kenya has been tremendous. All services to the people— public, private, and even overseas—have had large increases since
independence. Both public interest and desire and the government's
capability to deliver services made this possible. Having emerged from
the shadows of colonialism, Kenya leaders—most of whom were former
teachers—and educators have been making concerted efforts to attack
and eradicate many of the problems and inequities that prevailed during
the colonial period. Many obstacles had to be removed; progress had to
be made. In 1953, independent Kenya inherited a British system of
education that was, according to the Ministry of Education, "designed
largely to train a class of persons black in colour but foreign in
thought, culture, outlook and behaviour.Education in the new Kenya
^Opening speech by J. G. Kiano, M inister of Education, Second Kenya Conference on New Directions in Teacher Training, Nairobi, Kenya, May 6-9, 1968. 85 86 was given fresh impetus and new direction.
Six basic elements, characterized independent Kenya and gave education new direction. The first had to do with the relationship between individual goals and aspirations and the modern world. Because of the social stratification under colonial rule nearly all significant opportunities 'of the modern world were beyond the reach of Africans; consequently, education for responsibility was largely irrelevant to
African education.
A second difference between colonial and post-colonial Kenya was wrapped up in politics. During the colonial period, political limitations on African education were fostered by the total exclusion of Africans from the legislative body. It was not until 1954 that the first Africans were elected to the Legislative Council. With the ex
ception of tribal chiefs, Africans were seldom seen in district
administration. There were few in the professions and those who were in education taught only Africans. Accomplishments such as commissions
in the Army and membership on company boards were nonexistent. The
high echelons of banking, industry and commerce were European and Asian.
Thirdly, the relationships between church and state were quite different. The United Kingdom advocated the teaching of Christian
principles in all schools. Independent African policy-makers believed
that their approach should be one of a secular nature pledged to
respect the religious convictions of all people, atheist, agnostic,
and pagans alike. They were strongly against the use of any public
service to foster the precepts of a given religion.
The fourth distinction between independent Kenya and the
colonial committees on education is in the relation between education. 87 economic life, and the development of the country. The growing multi plicity of occupations which is evident in developing countries is now related to the educational design in Kenya.^
The fifth involves one of the most serious indictments of
colonial rule in Kenya; that is the obvious fact that much which was good and essential to the indigenous culture was lost or denigrated.
Many social rituals and institutions were destroyed.^
Lastly, the most obvious, is the elimination of segregated patterns of education. In 1963, when Kenya achieved independence within
the commonwealth, many schools were integrated, but it was not until
full republic status was gained, December, 1964, that all schools were opened to all races. As stated earlier, in 1964 the goal of seven years of education was set for all races, not just Europeans and Asians.
Previously, the vast majority of Africans who were lucky enough to get
an education could only hope for a maximum of four years. President
Kenyatta summed up the problems and the above differences when he wrote
that "to the European, individuality is the ideal of life; to the
Africans, the ideal is the right relations with, and behavior to,
other people.
Unlike the United States, with its state and municipal control
of education, the responsibility for education in Kenya rests with the
^Government of Kenya, Kenya Education Committee Report, Part I (Nairobi: The English Press, Ltd., December, 1964), pp. 21-23
^Government of Kenya, Education Commission, p. 23; see also Immanuel W allerstein, Africa: The Politics of Independence (New York: Vintage Books, 1961), pp. 121-135.
Kikuyu (London: Seeker and Warburg, 1938), p. 55. 88 central government. In 1963, the first Kenya constitution placed the responsibility for education largely under the control of the seven provinces. Sheffield stated the challenges in educational development that the provinces accepted. They were to "meet popular demand for primary schools, produce enough intermediate and high-level manpower to Africanize the civil service, and unify a country divided into factions having diverse interests and traditions.It soon became evident that the task was too burdensome for the provinces. When
Kenya became a republic in 1964, the central government assumed full responsibility for education. The Ministry of Education is an arm of the Government with the President of Kenya appointing the Minister of
Education from among ten members of parliament.^ Table 2 shows the
functional organization structure of the Kenya Ministry of Education.
The legal framework for education in Kenya was established by
the Education Act of 1968.
The act clarified the division of responsibility between local authorities (to whom it delegated certain duties such as establishing schools and hiring staff) and the Minister of Education (in whose hands it retained certain duties such as establishing national standards and making inspections of schools to ensure that they met those standards).^
Administratively, centralization is feasible in developing
nations where educational institutions have the task of stimulating
national development and social change. If national objectives in
^James R. Sheffield, Education in the Republic of Kenya, Office of Education, U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1971), p. 19.
^Sheffield, p. 19.
^Sheffield, p. 19. [
Assistant Minister Èor Education
fo r
Professional Department
Educational. Schools Adminis Standards
Curriculum Secondary Inspectorate Examination Development Prim ary T echnical
P hysical Physical P hysical Physical Education Education Education Educatic Minister for Education
Assistant Minister for Education
Permanent Secretary for Education
Planning and Adminis tr a tio n Development
Schools Administra Schools, tio n S ta ffin g
Secondary/ In tern a Finance & Higher Implemen T echnical Education n a tio n a l Establish- Education Planning Programmes tiysical Physical Physical ducation Education Education 90 education are to be accomplished, totally independent systems of education could not be tolerated. A sound defense for such reasoning is based on the scarcity of resources which the central government, with its careful planning, can best utilize. The power of the govern ment enables it to determine the nature, extent, and location of educational development.^
The Kenya government expected rebuttal from local^ administrators who were reluctant to surrender their freedom to exercise authority in their respective areas. In order for progress to be made, a meeting of the minds was necessary to demonstrate the importance of nationally planned development as the most equitable. Kenya being a one party state decided this policy by government decree. Although favoritism was frowned upon, more emphasis was placed in the less developed areas.
Part of the chore of nation-building was to direct or re-direct local
opinion in favor of national planning of all public services. This, no
doubt, entailed the pooling of resources and effort. Such cooperation
did not mean total submission on the part of local officials to every whim of the federal authority. But, in a twentieth century world, Kenya
had to come to the full realization that national cooperation was
necessary to make rapid progress. At the same time, it was of great
significance and importance that local authorities concerned with
education share in the responsibility for the planning and execution
^Government of Kenya, Education Commission, p. 46.
^The term "local" pertains to all sub-government levels— region, district, village, etc. 91 of the policies. They had to be allowed to exercise real powers of
administration on a day-to-da^/ b asis.
In December, 1963, a Commission of Enquiry was established to
undertake an extensive study into all aspects of education in Kenya.
After independence, there was great effort on the part of all concerned
to reappraise the purposes, aims, and objectives of education policy
under the new circumstances. This enquiry was helpful in the formula
tion of official education policy at a time when almost all policies
were coming under searching reconsideration. The theme which permeated
down through the entire study was "that our educational system must at
all times accurately reflect the actual needs of Kenya.
In December, 1964, a milestone was passed when the first
national report on education was made by the Kenya Education Commission
of the new independent Government. The scope of the report was
unprecedented because all other reports on education in colonial Kenya
were broken down into separate entities with designates such as
"African," "European," "Arab," and "Asian." Like all of society during
colonial days, education too, was stratified on racial lines. In
essence, what resulted was a caste system which was impenetrable until
independence was in sight. Colonized Kenya could never have become a
national society because the main constituent groups were poles apart—
at odd ends of the continuum in their perceived goals. Although
statistical reporting on education was no longer racially separate,
the first unified syllabus for all primary schools was not published
lOcovernment of Kenya, Education Commission, p. 27.
^^Government of Kenya, Education Commission, p. 23. 92 until 1967. Thereafter syllabi pertaining to only one race were illegal. Innovation was permitted, but the subjects taught, textbooks, and allocation of time were all predetermined.^^
After attempting to determine the basic needs of Kenya and evaluating the educational achievement of other societies, the
Education Commission in 1964, established the following objectives for educational programs :
a. Education is a function of the Kenya nation; it must foster a sense of nationhood and promote national unity.
b. Education in Kenya must serve the people of Kenya and the needs of Kenya without discrimination.
c. Our public schools are an instrument of the secular state in which no religion is privileged, but they must respect the religious convictions of all people.
d. The schools of Kenya must respect the cultural tradi tion of the peoples of Kenya, both as expressed in social institutions and relationships.
e. An excessively competitive spirit in our schools is incompatible with our traditional beliefs and must be restrained. Every young person coming from our schools must be made to realize that he has a valuable part to play in the national life.
f. Education must be regarded and used as an instrument for the conscious change of attitudes and relation ships , preparing children for those changes of outlook required by modern methods of productive organization. At the time, education must foster respect for human personality.
g. A most urgent objective of education is to subserve the needs of national development.
h. Education must promote social equality and remove divisions of race, tribe and religion. It must pay
(Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, 1972), pp. 16-17. special attention to training in social obligation and responsibility.
i. An outcome of our educational provision at all levels must be adaptability to c h a n g e . ^3
Kenya’s education process was goal oriented and based on the needs of the people as they moved toward building a viable nation.
The cultural diversity in Kenya has been a problem for a long time.
In 1972, the Ministry of Education stated its goals of education. One of the goals of education was to permit people to interact and live together as Kenyans and to bring them together in a common bond. A second goal of education was to provide citizens with sk ill, knowledge, and expertise in order to meet the political, social, and economic challenges for national development. Kenya aims at giving individuals opportunities for the full development of their talents.
Kenya Institute of Education
The Kenya I n s t i tu t e o f Education (KIE) was e sta b lish e d in 1964 as a center of professional activity for teachers, government officials, and others in educational work. The Institute sponsors conferences and in-service courses for educators. The major responsibility of the KIE
is in the area of curriculum development and evaluation, and this task
is conducted in conjunction with the Curriculum Development and Research
Center located at the University of Nairobi. It is here where education
is related to the needs of the nation through curriculum development and
l%overnment of Kenya, Kenya Education Commission, p. 25.
^^Ministry of Education, Educational Structure in Kenya, pp. 16-17., 94 revision. Each subject area of the schools has a panel of experts to
review its respective curriculum.The panel of experts for physical
education programs is chaired by W. N. Ndonye who is presently the
Inspector of Physical Education in the Ministry of Education.
Kenyanization of Education. In spite of the constant effort
that was being made to Kenyanize or Africanize the curricula, the basic methodology in Kenya continued to be that which was introduced and nurtured by colonialism. Nkonoki stated that while educational philo
sophies differed from one country to the next because of their political
systems, there were certain aspects of some that were possibly adaptable
to a Kenyan philosophy. Educational systems in many countries that have withstood the test of time should have something that can be shared with
others, especially the developing countries. This approach minimized
education experimentation which many new countries were trying to avoid.
But it did not rule out originality and creativity as Kenya developed
its working philosophy of education.Much of what Nkonoki spoke of
had already been "experimented" during colonialism.
Scanlon stated that Kenyanization of the curriculum, a natural
concomitant of independence, requires the recognition of the
^% inistry of Education, Educational Structure in Kenya, pp. 36-37.
j. j. Nyaga, "The Teaching of Physical Education," Teacher’s College News, August, 1968, p. 29.
l^S . R. Nkonoki, "What Philosophy o f E d u catio n ," T eacher' s College News, May, 1970, p. 2. 95 relationship between the social sciences and education, a truly American concept. This unity—sociological, philosophical, historical and psychological principles—is practically unknown in K enya.If
Africanization is ever to become a reality, such a marriage will have to be achieved. There is a great need for research in growth and development and the psychology of learning in Kenya. People involved in shaping the educational process must seek out common denominators in order to meet the needs of a m ulti-cultural society. The contemporary
African child encounters a far different educational experience than at the turn of the century—or better still, mid-century. The changes on the social and cultural scene alone were numerous. The big question remaining was, what are the characteristics and needs of African school children? Only extensive research will reveal the true nature of the s tu d e n ts .
Education and Manpower Needs
In an economy that was rapidly expanding, educated manpower was at a premium in Kenya. The quality and quantity of secondary education was of major importance to the manpower problems. The clamor for a secondary education in the I960's was much the same as that for a primary education twenty or thirty years before. The increased emphasis on eventual universal primary education made increases in the number of secondary schools imperative.
Unfortunately, two historical influences continue to dictate the content and character of education in Kenya, particularly, secondary
l^Scanlon, "Education," p. 214. 96 education. One, the problem of a white collar education, has already been alluded to. Secondary schools became known as an escape from arduous, manual occupations in general and from agriculture in particular. British educators in Kenya held vocational education for
themselves in contempt. Work accomplished by getting one’s hands dirty was left mostly for the Africans to do—thus creating in the minds of many Africans the idea that white-collar work was the only dignified means of employment.Although th e re was some evidence th a t co n d itio n s were changing, the fact remains that to bridge the economic gap in Kenya much more had to be done to e n tic e manpower in to p r a c t ic a l , and
especially agricultural, occupations. In order to improve agricultural
output, the image of it had to be changed. The inducements were not
sufficient to attract the school leavers and others to the farm areas.
Curriculum reform, in favor of including more agriculture, at both the
primary and secondary school levels was a possible approach. Callaway
The arguments are that schools should be made more environmental, should foster the idea of the dignity of labour, and should encourage greater realism and resource fu ln e ss among p u p ils in t h e i r home su rro u n d in g s. The school farm plot should serve as a training ground for improved farming . . . Academic subjects should be related to the local s c e n e . 20
Agriculture gains had been made, but more bold new policy
statements on the relationship between education and agricultural
19Government of Kenya, Kenya Education Commission Report, 1964, p . 68.
Archibald Callaway, "Unemployment Among African School Leavers," Education and Nation-Building in Africa, ed. L. Gray Cowan, James O’Connell and David G. Scanlon (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1965), p. 246. 97 development were needed to demonstrate that improved farming can yield as much money and be as rew arding a l i f e as o th er occu p atio n s. P o ssib ly
the further development of farm centers w ill draw school leavers from a sizeable radius and the development of the centers adjacent to villages might also help. Another gesture would be more technical assistance and education to introduce improved methods of farming on family holdings so they could get more yield for their time, space and
e f f o r t . 21
The second factor of historical significance was the Cambridge
Overseas Certificate Examination. This examination was thought to be
the panacea for individual progress and advancement. Although by name
it is no longer in existence, it has been replaced by similar examina
tions which are equally competitive. The examination systems fostered
competition which was inconsistent with one of the stated objectives
set forth by the Education Commission in its 1964 report. Like the
state regents' examinations found in some areas in the United States,
everything was geared to success on the examination; consequently,
materials which were not included on the examination received little or
no attention in the curriculum. Quite naturally physical education was
adversely affected. It was felt that the Cambridge School Certificate
was a real enemy because it was possible to pass in subjects merely by
cramming book-learning that was of little educational significance in
itself. Unless the certificate course was used to develop one’s
•^Archibald Callaway, "Unemployment” , pp. 245-247. 98
philosophy and a sense of reasoning it was of little value to oneself and less to national progress.
The Commission of Enquiry expressed itself rather well when it
What we need to do is break w ith th e s o c ia lly conditioned academic tradition of our schools and to give our children, each according to his ability, a well-rounded education . .
Kenyan educators wanted to see the development of certain types
of post-educative endeavors designed to provide manpower for production
in industry and agriculture rather than only for the university and
white-collar jobs. Actually, this concept was comparable to the
vocational or trade school in the United States. Efforts such as these
could entail measures to enhance the prestige of courses other than
the purely academic. One would, then, select courses on the basis of
one's ability and interest and not what the "Cambridge" or other such
examinations dictated. The increased implementation of the vocational
or trade schools—with an academic core—will present many difficulties
until the material advantages of agricultural and industrial employment
have been made commensurate with other types of employment.
Missionary Education
Brief mention is made of the role of the church missions in
independent Kenya, especially in view of the fact that they were
tremendously responsible for education as it evolved. Although the
22Government of Kenya, Kenya Education Commission Report, 1964, p. 68-69; see also Scanlon, "Education," p. 212.
^Government of Kenya, Kenya Education Commission Report, 1964, p. 69. 99 missionary influence was on the wane in Kenya after independence, the number of missionaries had actually increased. Generally speaking,
educational and medical assistance were welcomed, but the Christian
izing endeavors were often rejected. The resentment was not a
denunciation of Christianity because conversions were increasing at a
rapid pace. Between 1957 and 1967, one thousand churches were founded
in Africa. In 1938, only eight percent of the Kenyan population was
Christian. The percentage jumped to thirty-three percent in 1948 and
fifty-nine percent in 1 9 6 2 . Meisler of The Washington Post quoted
Dr. Bethwell A. Ogot, an African historian at the University of
Nairobi and the son of two devout early converts to Christianity:
There is no place for a missionary now in Africa . . . If there must be missionaries, why not send them to Britain? We don't need them here. Africans can do their own job of converting Africans to Christianity. 25
In spite of such reaction, Meisler felt that Christianity had
prospered in Africa because it was directly associated with twentieth
century modernization. People who modernized did not want to be
associated with paganism. Unfortunately, getting an education meant,
become a Christian. People in the areas where Christianity had made
its mark were the best educated, most progressive, most efficient, and
most modern.
The existence of and debate over the church-state relationship
is not a new phenomenon. The history of education has recorded an
24The Washington Post, June 3, 1967, Sec. D, p. 9.
25The Washington P o s t,June 3, 1967, Sec. D, p. 9.
26The Washington Post, June 3, 1967, Sec. D, p. 9. 100 unlimited number of possible combinations of these entities. Prior to the renaissance, secularism in the schools was virtually unknown. In the United States, the school has gradually emerged as a distinct entity although the ecclesiastical tradition in education is still evident. Kenya missionary schools, since independence, are patterned after the non-secularized concept but as long as religious education is properly taught and controlled and not used for proselytizing or propaganda—it is a welcome addition to the curriculum.
The Kenyan government did not feel that a totally secular education program, leaving religious teaching to the church, would work.
However, they did believe that there should be ample latitude to cover situations where the public desired to have neither religious instruc tion nor sponsorship in a particular school."In Kenya there is no worry of the worship of the state taking the place of the worship of
God, or of nationalism supplanting religion.In many c o u n trie s of the world, religion has served as a divisive force in national affairs, and Kenya, too, must accept the existence of that possibility as a fact o f l i f e .
Primary Education
From the inception of formal westernized education in Kenya,
primary education has outdistanced other levels. The problem carried
over from the colonial period of an inadequate number of secondary
27Govemment of Kenya, Education Commission, p . 34.
28Government of Kenya, Education Commission, p . 34.
29Government of Kenya, Education Commission, p . 33. 101 schools to handle the primary school leavers s till plagued the system.
It should be remembered that this problem existed without universal
primary education, one of the principal goals of the Government.^®
Kenya inherited many problems from the colonial government. One such
problem was the imbalance in educational opportunities. At the time of independence in 1963, there s till remained a school system in Kenya that discriminated along racial lines and the amount of resources allocated
to the various ethnic groups. Table 3 provides an ethnic breakdown of
the number of students on the primary level and the percentage of the
school-age population it represented, in 1963.
TABLE 3
NUMBER OF STUDENTS ON PRIMARY LEVEL IN 1963 AND THE PERCENTAGE OF THE SCHOOL-AGE POPULATION IT REPRESENTS.^
T o ta l Number of Percent Pupils Number of School-Age Constitute of Total Ethnic Group P u p ils C hildren Number of C hildren
A frican 840,677 2,421,300 34.7
Arab 3,322 9,000 36.9
Asian 40,915 52,800 77.5
European 6,639 8,900 74.6
a S h e ffie ld , p . 15
To give an indication of the growth of primary school education
Table 4 compares 1963 enrollment figures with the other years since
independence.
3%inistry of Education, Educational Structure in Kenya, p. 12. NIMBER OF STUDENTS IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN 1963 COMPARED WITH 1964-197la
Primary School Enrollm ent
1963 891,553
1964 1,014,719 ' 1965 1,042,146 1966 1,043,416 1967 1,133,179 1968 1,209,680 1969 1,282,297 1970 1,427,600 1971 1,525,500
^Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Education Annual Report, 1971, (Nairobi: Government Printer, 1972), pp. 75-76.
Primary education has not been compulsory, and with few excep
tions fees are paid by the students. Five to ten percent of the
students, who were very poor, did not pay fees.T he Government wanted to achieve universal primary education before making education
free at this level. In 1968, sixty percent of all primary school age
children were enrolled in school. By 1974, it is hoped that the figure
w ill reach seventy-fivepercent.The location and tribal affiliation
had a lot to do with the range of primary school enrollment. For
example, the Kikuyu who had always been aggressive in educational
33-Statement by J . T. Arap-Leting, personal interview, October 6, 1972.
32Ministry of Education, Educational Structure, p. 12. 103 achievements had as many as ninety-five percent of the primary school age children enrolled. Some tribes had only ten percent. Although the starting primary school age was six, forty-five percent began at seven and in the less developed outlying areas children started as late as nine and ten years of age.
Prior to January, 1970, the responsibility for primary education fell under the jurisdiction of the Provincial Education Officers. The officers were appointed by the government through the Ministry of
Education. Within each province, county councils and local councils were in turn delegated the responsibility to run the schools with sub sidies from the central government. The county council was responsible for programs and fee collection.In January, 1970, the central government took over the responsibility for running the primary schools.
The transfer of control and function was accomplished by an Act of
Parliament in 1959. After a rash of administrative problems brought on by the shift of control and the lack of accountability, the new operation began to run more smoothly.
Before 1962, primary school consisted of four years and a four year intermediate school followed. In 1962, the intermediate school was abolished in favor of a straight eight year primary school. In
1964, the primary school was reduced to seven years. Standards I-VII.^^
33Arap-Leting interview.
34sheffield, p. 22.
33Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Education, Annual Report, 1970, (Nairobi; Government Printer, 1971), pp. 3-4.
^^Sheffield, p. 30. 104
The experiences provided the student with both general education and subject of a practical nature. The "unified" syllabus that was put into effect, in 1967, included the courses found in Table 5.
TABLE 5
PRIMAI(Y SCHOOL SUBJECTS AND HOURS ALLOTTED PER WEEKS,b
Standards
III I I I IV to VII
Arts and Crafts 4 4 4 4 E nglish 4 4 7 10 Mathematics 6 6 7 8 Mother Tongue 10 9 5 Geography 3 3 History & Civics 2 3 Science (Agriculture, Gardening, Health Education) 1 3 4 6 Sw ahili 4 Physical Education 5 5 4 3 Music and Singing 1 1 1 1 Religious Education 4 3 3 3
T otal 35 35 40 45
SMinistry of Education, Educational Structure, p. 17.
^Flexibility for reasonable modifications was permitted.
Seven years of primary school culminated with the Certificate of
Primary Education. The certificate was awarded to those students who
completed the seven years and took the examination.^^ The results of
one examination determined who received further education at the
^^Ministry of Education, Educational Structure, p. 16. secondary level and, likewise, who received employment. ° According to
Sheffield and Arap-Leting, beginning in 1967, all students who sat or
showed up for the examination received a Certificate of Primary
Education. There was no "pass" or "fail" system, and students were
rated A, B, C, D, or E. The system is psychologically sound in that it
attempts to eliminate the failure syndrome.^9
In the interview with Arap-Leting, he provided information on the various avenues open to primary school leavers. In 1971, with only approximately fourteen percent going to Government supported secondary
schools and approximately thirteen percent attending unaided school,
most of the primary school leavers went into civil service type jobs
or training or went back to their village (see Table 6).
The problem of the ever-increasing number of primary school
leavers increases every year. This chronic problem resulted from the
large number of CPE holders who were not selected to continue their
education in a government supported secondary school, or who could
not get into an unaided secondary school, or who could not find
employment. In 1970 and 1971, there were 166,000 and 176,000 primary
school leavers, respectively. Only 44,000 were able to continue their
education on the secondary level. In 1971, there were over 100,000
leavers who became wastage, out of school and unemployed. Over the
past few years the backlog of wastage has been tremendous. As
staggering as the problem was, Arap-Leting explained the Government's
rationale that some education is better than none at all. Basic
3%heffield, p. 68.
Arap-Leting interview; see also Sheffield, p. 68. reading and writing were essential to communicating the views of the nation.O f course the larger question was, would the wastage problem get out of hand and create instability in the Government? The Govern ment has attempted to combat this problem by including skills on the primary level that the student could use in seeking gainful employment,
thus including a terminal seventh year component.
TABLE 6
OPPORTUNITIES FOR RECIPIENTS OF THE CERTIFICATE OF PRIMARY EDUCATIONS
Opportunities Percentage
Continue in Government secondary school 14
Go to Harambee secondary school 13
Go to teacher training school 6
Medical-Health assistance 4
Armed Forces 2
P o lic e 2
Sanitation, maintenance, etc. , industry 1
Back to village or farm 56
^Arap-Leting interview.
In spite of the large enrollments in primary school, many
school-age children did not attend. Some of the reasons were:
^^Arap-Leting interview.
^^Ministry of Education, Educational Structure, p. 18. 107
1) schools overcrowded; 2) could not afford fees; 3) education cultur ally destructive; 4) school atmosphere frightening to some children;
5) illness or handicapped; 6) not enough schools ; 7) distance; and
ncy.
Secondary education. Secondary education was alluded to in the discussion of primary education because many of the problems in secon dary education result directly from the primary level. It is appropriate to mention at this time the different categories of schools
in Kenya. Schools are categorized in three ways, maintained, assisted, and unaided. Maintained schools are supported by Government aid to make up the difference between what is collected from fees and the
overall expenditures. Assisted schools receive a set amount of
financial aid ranging from sixty to ninety percent of the expenditures
in primary schools and eighty percent for secondary schools.All maintained and assisted schools—those receiving financial assistance
from the Government—are managed by Boards of Governors in the respec
tive areas. However, all schools, including the unaided category,
have to register with the Ministry of Education.The unaided
schools, as the word connotes, do not receive government assistance.
Unaided schools include private schools owned by individuals or
organizations, schools run by religious groups, and the "self-help" or
"Harambee" secondary schools. The Harambee Schools are in the majority
^^Arap-Leting interview.
^3sheffield, p. 52.
44sheffield, p. 27. 108
in the unaided c a t e g o r y .^5 The word Harambee means "Let's all pull
together." It is the national motto which appears on the Government
shield. The Harambee schools are off-shoots or a resurgence of the
Kenya Independent School Association (KISA) started in the 1930's and
later banned during the Mau Mau Emergency. The Harambee schools began
to appear after independence in response to President Kenyatta's call
to assist in the expansion of educational facilities. These schools
a re b u i lt and m aintained by lo c a l communal e f f o r t. The curriculum i s
basically the same as the government schools.Some of the Harambee
schools s till include old African traditions in the curriculum exper
ience. These schools are supported by very high fees and attract
students who are not selected for the aided Government secondary
schools. Often the facilities are inadequate and the staff is sub
standard. But many people embark on opening Harambee schools with the
hopes of being taken over by the Government. 47 in 1967, the Ministry of
Education announced that eighty Harambee schools would become aided
schools.4^ In 1971, th ere was a t o ta l of 809 secondary schools— 312
maintained, 19 assisted, and 478 unaided. Of the total number of
unaided schools, approximately 340 were Harambee schools.49 in 1963,
45Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Education Annual Report, 1970, p . 4.
46îiinistry of Education, Educational Structure, p. 19.
47Arap-Leting, interview.
48sheffield, p. 28.
49Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Education, Annual Report, 1971, p. 43. 109 there were thirty-two Harambee schools.Harambee schools continue to grow in number. Regardless of their sub-standard conditions, the self- help schools are providing a great service in satisfying some of the post-primary educational needs of a very large number of Kenyans. The role that these schools play is recognized by the Minister of Education and educators in general who often give advice and moral support.
Weeks predicted that the Harambee schools of Kenya would have basically the same plight as the secondary schools that were started in
1956 in the Western Region of Nigeria to accommodate the large influx of pupils in need of post-primary education. These "modern" schools, as they were called in Nigeria, were not supported by the regional government, same as in the case of the Harambee schools. Disillusioned over the fact that a secondary education was no longer sufficient to qualify for civil service, teaching or nursing in Nigeria, the number of secondary pupils declined. Weeks went on to say that without government support, raising standards will be a difficult task and, "The Harambee school will serve the same social function as the secondary modern school in the Western Region of Nigeria—helping to keep a proportion of the youth off the labor market for three or more years.
Secondary schools are not compulsory, and they are expensive.
Even during the latter stages of colonial rule the relatively small number of Africans in Kenya's secondary schools was as much a problem
^Ogheffield, p. 27.
^^Sheldon G. Weeks, Divergence in Educational Development; The Case of Kenya and Uganda (New York : Columbia Teachers College Press, 1967), pp. 13-14. 110 of economics as it was social or administrative. Annually, since 1968,
the Government has allocated $531,000 for secondary school stipends for
needy students. Private organizations also provide scholarships for
secondary students. The normal starting age for secondary school is
thirteen or fourteen, once again with variation dependent upon the
lo c a tio n .
Since independence, the growth of secondary school education has
been more noticeable than any other phase. In 1963, thirty-seven per
cent of the secondary school enrollment was African. With the rate of
Africanization rapidly increased, 1967 found eighty-two percent of the
secondary enrollment African.To once again indicate the wide
disparities that existed, between the distribution of educational
services among ethnic groups at Independence, Table 7 is provided.
TABLE 7
NUMBER OF STUDENTS ON SECONDARY LEVEL IN 1963 AND THE PERCENTAGE OF THE SCHOOL-AGE POPULATION IT REPRESENTS.a
T o tal Number of Percent Pupils Number of School-Age Constitute of Total E thnic Group C hildren Number of C hildren
A frican 10,593 829,700 1.3
Arab 292 3,100 9 .4
Asian 13,912 17,200 80.9
European 3,265 3,300 98.9
asheffield, p. 15.
52sheffield, p. 25. I l l Table 8 reflects the rapid growth of secondary schools with the enrollment figures for the years 1963-1971.
NUMBER OF STUDENTS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN 1963 COMPARED WITH 1964-1971^
Year Secondary School Enrollment
1963 30,120
1964 35,921 1965 47,976 1966 63,193 1967 88,779 1968 101,361 1969 115,246 1970 126,855 1971 140,722
^Republic of Kenya, Education Annual Report, 1971, pp. 75-77.
In 1971, one-third of the national budget was spent on educational services. Since independence secondary schools have received the major portion of the education budget. In addition, most foreign money aid and technical assistances were channeled into the secondary schools.In 1969, forty-six percent of the education budget for recurrent expenditures went to secondary schools, and sixty percent of the educational budget for capital expenditures was allocated for secondary schools. In 1970 and 1971 the percentages for the same
items were as follows: twenty-seven and fifty-four for 1970 and
twenty-four and fifty-three for 1971.
53sheffield, p. 53. 112 The secondary school experience includes two phases of four and two years duration. The six years of grades are called forms rather than standards as in the primary school. Modifications in the secondary school curriculum have been made to include more practical subjects like agriculture, home science, and business. Table 9 provides a list of subjects taught during the school year with the number of class meetings per week. In addition to the prescribed two periods of physical educa tion, Saturday morning school, where possible, was used for sports activities.
TABLE 9
SUBJECTS TAUGHT ON SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVEL AND NUMBER OF CLASS MEETINGS PER WEEK.&
Periods (40 minutes each)
Mathematics 7 Physical Science 6 General Science 6 Biology 3 K isw ahili 4 English 8 5 H isto ry 3 Geography 3 Religious Education 3 Physical Education 2 Art Education 4 4 Home Science 6 Industrial Education 6 Agricultural Education 6 Business Education 6 Other subjects may be selected with the approval of the Director of Education.
^Ministry of Education, Educational Structure, p. 20.
54sheffield, p. 69. 113
After the first two forms, students who fail to complete secondary school are given an opportunity to receive a recognized certificate of achievement by taking an examination. The examination is called the Kenya Junior Secondary Examination (KJSE). This exami nation is also given on a voluntary basis to Harambee school students who, by passing it, could possibly be eligible for enrollment in a
Government maintained school.
Upon completion of four years of Government secondary school, a ll students take the first phase of the East African Certificate of
Education Examination (EACE). Unlike the primary school level, failure is possible and prevalent on the secondary level. Some of the others who pass are channeled into further education in upper secondary
schools (Form V, VI) and teacher training colleges. Others are
recruited for medical technician courses, secretarial courses, the army and police. Harambee schools w ill hire EACE recipients without teacher training. The job market claims a small percentage, but most remain unemployed. Of the 22,517 taking the EACE examination in 1971,
7,935 received certificates.^^ The failures* plight can be much more difficult because they are labelled as failures. After the last two years of secondary school, forms V and VI, the East African Advanced
C ertificate of Education Examination (EAACE) is given to those who were selected to go on to upper secondary school. Along with prepara
tion courses for university entrance, the last two years of secondary
55sheffield, pp. 71-72.
^^Republic of Kenya, Education Annual Report, 1971, p. 63. 114 school, forms V-VI, offer specialization in either social or physical sciences.In 1971, 2,448 took the EMCE and 1,899 received certifi cates. The recipients were selected to go to the university with all expenses paid. Those who did not pass the EAACE went either to Harambee schools as teachers, teacher training schools, industry, the armed forces, or the police. A few received scholarships to study overseas.
In 1971, 785 Kenyans were studying in the United States.
The problem of school lea v e rs i s fu rth e r am plified when the number of primary school leavers is compared with the projected number
of students, from among those leavers, expected to reach the university.
Of the 176,000 primary school leavers in 1971, it is projected that less
than 2,000 (less than one percent) will go to the university. Only
eight percent of the 1956 primary school enrollment made it to the
fourth form of secondary school—10,756 of 142,045. The problem is not
academic attrition alone but also lack of space. Hopefully more of the
school leavers w ill find gainful employment as the country develops.^ 60
Technical Education
There are twelve secondary technical or trade schools in Kenya.
They are the joint responsibility of the Ministry of Education and the
Ministry of Labor. In 1971, 3,051 students were attending the techni
cal schools. Four of the twelve trade schools were preparing students
^^Ministry of Education, Educational Structure, p. 19.
^^Arap-Leting interview.
60sheffield, p. 32. 115 to take and pass the EAACE. This added a lot of status and prestige to those schools.Students who satisfactorily passed one of the forty subject examinations either entered an apprenticeship in industry or took technician-level training at Mombasa Technical or Kenya Polytechnic
Institutes.There are two types of technical schools in Kenya. The subjects and time allocation for Type 1 and Type 2 are shown in Tables
10 and 11, respectively.
Higher Education
While there were not even secondary school facilities for
Africans a little more than 40 years ago, today the University of
Nairobi has over 3,400 students. Close to 2,600 of the students are
Kenyans.The University started as the Royal Technical College of
East Africa in 1956. In 1964, the college became a part of the East
African University System which included Makerere College and the
University of Dar es Salaam. In 1970 when the University of East
Africa disbanded, the University of Nairobi gained its present status.
The University of Nairobi is the highest level of learning in
Kenya. Kenyatta University College, formerly a secondary school teachers college, became an affiliate of the University of Nairobi in
1971. By 1967 Kenyatta University College had included courses in
^iMinistry of Education, Educational Structure, pp. 26-27.
^^Sheffield, pp. 28-29.
^^Republic of Kenya, Education Annual Report, 1971. pp. 73-74. TYPE "ONE" TECHNICAL SCHOOL SUBJECTS AND TIME ALLOCATION PER WEEK^
S ubjects Forms I & I I Forms I I I & IV
Mathematics 6 6 Engineering Science 6 6 E nglish 8 6 K isw ahili 3 3 General Studies 3 3 Physical Education 2 1 Technical Art 3 ...... Technical Drawing 5 3 Woodwork 4 M etal Work 5 -
Syllabus A—Basic Eng. course (with a specialization) Theory ---- 3
or
Syllabus B—Basic Eng. and B uilding
(with a specialization) Workshop 14 P r a c tic e — Syllabuc C—Basic Eng. and B uilding
(with no specialization)
“Ministry of Education, Educational Structure, p. 21. TYPE "TWO” TECHNICAL SCHOOL SUBJECTS AND TIME ALLOCATION PER WEEK^
Subjects Forms I to IV
Mathematics 7 P hysics 4 Chem istry 4 E nglish 7 K isw ah ili 3 Geography 3 H isto ry 3 Biology 3 Physical Education 2 Religious Education 1 Technical Drawing 5 Surveying 6 Metalwork (Engineering) 6 or Engineering Workshop 6 P r a c tic e
or
Building Construction or 6 Woodwork 6
^Ministry of Education, Educational Structure, p. 22. 118 home science, fine arts^4 and physical education.Teacher tra in in g colleges w ill be discussed in Chapter VII.
Secondary level education including technical education w ill
continue to have high priority in the development of a viable education program in Kenya. As more courses of a practical nature, such as
agriculture and industrial arts, are included in the curriculum the
school leaver and wastage problems will be reduced. Secondary level
education is the backbone of Kenya’s economy.
The role of women in the Kenyan society has been rapidly
improving since independence. However, in education and employment the
female of the species has not caught up with the male. Although the
sex disparity is not too great when school-age youngsters first enter
primary school, the female dropout rate and the number of female
leavers not continuing their education are far greater, proportionately, than the male statistics. Table 12 shows the 1971 enrollment by sex in
primary and secondary schools and teacher training colleges.
In conclusion, Kenya like all emerging nations cannot make the
transition from a colonial geographical expression to full nationhood
overnight. Attitudes and habits of the past, such as some of those
brought on by the colonial system, will be eradicated only by time and
constant effort. The education system must do its job to improve the
psychological understanding of nationhood. The progress and accom
plishments thus far represent just the beginning of what hopefully will
^^Ministry of Education, Educational Structure, pp. 22-23.
^^Letter from W. Ndonye, Inspector of Physical Education, Ministry of Education, Kenya, to the writer. 119 he a continuous plan of education in Kenya which w ill someday be effective and efficient. An appropriate end to the first official
Government report (1964) on education after independence was, "We in
Kenya must go our own way, accepting from other countries any of the fruits of their experience that may be useful to us, and offering them the fruits of ours."
TABLE 12
ENROLLMENT BY SEX IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND TEACHER TRAINING COLLEGES, 1971^
Enrollment School or College Male Female
Primary Schools 881,007 644,491
Secondary Schools 97,979 42,740
Teacher Training Colleges 5,302 3,326
^Government of Kenya, Education Annual Report, 1971, pp. 37, 55, 71. U n iv e rsity Professional, Social Sciences ; Physical Sciences Medicine, Vet. Medicine Teacher Education Engineering etc. Teacher Training, SI
East African Advanced C ertifi Forms cate of Education
Technical Training V Teacher Training P2, PI, 51
East African Certificate of E ducation
III Secondary Ed. Forms I I (Technical & G e n e ra l). Trade & Technical I Teacher Training P3 T rain in g Certificate of Pr. E ducation. C. P. E.
VI
V III Secondary Ed. II (Technical & G e n e ra l). Trade & Technical I Teacher Training P3 T ra in in g Certificate o ^ P r. Education. C P. E.
S tandards IV I I I I I I
Figure 3 EDUCATIONAL FLOf CHART
The chart does not take account of the an lual wastage of stagnation. Classification of teachers;
P3, primary school teacher grade 3, two y ears teacher training after seven years of general education. P2, primary school teacher grade 2, two y ears teacher training after nine years of general education; or dependent on performance, after 11 years, P I , prim ary sch o o l tea c h e r grade 1 , two y ears teacher training after eleven years of general education. SI, lower secondary school teacher, eithe r three years teacher training after eleven years of general education or o ne year teacher training after thirteen years of general education, The University trains graduate teachers for senior secondary level teaching NATION-BUILDING
The cry for nationalism and independence was finally heard and heeded throughout most of the African continent. The struggle for self
rule was so long.and so painful, and the preoccupation so great, that many people for various reasons did not involve themselves in what was
to happen after achieving self rule. There were different motivations
urging people on. Some of those in the vanguard possessed a true sense
of nationalism and did not permit themselves to be swayed from their
objective of complete control of their own destiny. They were caught
up in the changing tide of independence and nationalism and were no
longer fearful of reprisal. Others were motivated by blind hate for
their colonial oppressors. There were s till those who were conditioned
by constant rebukes and abuses and consequently did not believe that
independence would ever come.
Many who knew that the task after independence would be enormous
and maybe impossible, were still willing to take the risks. Sink or
swim, they would do i t on th e i r own. They would make t h e i r su ccesses ;
they would control their destiny. The cry for Uhuru, or freedom, after
independence was no longer valid. President Jomo Kenyatta with his
vision and foresight made his famous plea for Harambee, or "let us all
work together in unity." In 1963 he said, "Our aim will be to utilize
121 the dignity of freedom for improving the living standards of our people.He challenged the people of Kenya to show the world that they were capable of building a nation by first helping themselves.
A definition of nationhood or nation-building is as difficult to come by as the p rocess o f development i t s e l f . Time is the only true test of nationhood. The fact that there is little agreement as to what a nation really is, further complicates the matter. An over sim plification of the term might be the process by which emerging and developing countries, with all available resources, thrust themselves into the mainstream of the twentieth century socio-economically and politically. Emerson stated that a sense of community is essential to nation-building when he wrote:
The nation is a community of people who feel that they belong together in the double sense that they share deeply significant elements of a common heritage and that they have a common destiny for the future. In the contemporary world, the nation . . . the community with which men most uncondi tionally identify themselves, even to the extent of being prepared to lay down their lives for it, however deeply they may d i f f e r among them selves on o th er iss u e s . The f u l l e x te n t of the nation's claim found rich expression in Abba Eban's assertion to the General Assembly in 1955 of Israel’s right "to apply the elementary principle that those who enter Israel's gates shall be men and women the central passion of whose lives shall be devotion to Israel's flag, loyalty to Israel's independence, zeal for Israel's welfare and security, and a readiness to defend her against all assaults from near or far.
^Embassy of the Republic of Kenya, Kenya Newsletter, (Washington: Vol. 1, No. 7, 1972), p. 3.
The Rise to Self- Assertion of Asian and African Peoples (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960), p. 95. 123
Berlin's explanation of nationalism, which is applicable to
Kenya, cited psychological as well as social factors that bring about
a natural desire for self-development. He stated:
The rise of nationalism today is a worldwide phenomenon, probably the strongest single factor in the newly established s ta t e s , and in some cases among the m in o rity p o pulations of the older nations . . . It might be said that this is an automatic psychological accomplishment of liberation from foreign rule— a natural reaction . . . against oppression or humilitation of a society that possesses national characteristics. In most of these cases the desire for national independence is inter twined with social resistance to exploitation.^
Berlin went on to say that the class resistance is more significant
than the assertion of nationalism itself. People of the same race or
religious affiliation prefer being governed by members of their own
faith or nation.4
From the beginning of the nation-building process in Kenya,
there were some factors which mitigated against a smooth transition
from self-rule to nationhood. A major external issue was, and in some
areas s till is, the colonial imposed geographic boundary lines that
completely ignored ethnic, linguistic and economic factors. It was
not uncommon for the colonial rulers to draw new boundaries leaving
families and relatives separated. If it was politically and m ilitarily
expedient for the British, little else mattered. An excellent example
of this technique was the way in which the Uganda Railway split the
Nandi from their sister tribe the Kipsigis. This was done explicitly
^Isaiah Berlin, "The Bent Twig: A Note on Nationalism," Foreign A ffairs, LI (October, 1972), pp. 22-23.
^Berlin, "Bent Twig,", p. 23. 124 to prevent the tribes from joining each other and attacking the administrative forcesOther obvious examples of indiscriminate division occurred between Kenya and Somalia and Ethiopia and Somalia.
In both of these locations one finds disenchanted Somali people living
in Kenya and Ethiopia. There is little hope that they will be reunited with their people on the other side of the boundary. Those with the
advantage are not going to hastily surrender such a precious commodity,
Another point that continues to draw the attention of the world
is the repercussion from the feeling that African nationalism was more
racially than nationalistically inspired.^ Of course this depends upon what one means by racial. If one is only concerned about the black's
ouster of white colonial rule, then there is no doubt that that is
racial. However, when history shows that the colonists did not belong
in power, then, that is justice. Kenyan leaders have used the race
issue to its advantage by reassuring non-Africans that they are
welcome to stay on and take part in developing the country. Another
factor in the same connection that has been addressed by the Kenyan
government has to do with earlier predictions that the Kenyan economy
would be largely controlled by the minority European and Asian
^Rupert Emerson, "Crucial Problems Involved in Nation-Building in Africa," Journal of Negro Education XXX (October, 1961), 193-205; see also Peter Mwaura, "The Wars of Pacification, Part II," Inside Kenya Today, September, 1971, pp. 50-54.
^Emerson, "Crucial Problems," pp. 193-205. 125 communities which make up le s s than th re e p e rc e n t of the p o p u latio n .
Further Kenyanization of the economy w ill in due time minimize this problem -^
Tribalism, and there are more than forty tribes in Kenya, has been perhaps the most serious obstacle to developing countries in
Africa.® It has received its share of attention for the divided char acter of Kenya, sometimes to the extent that the tribes wanted to go it alone as spearate nations. Developing countries are going through great transition because the traditional society is giving way to modern ways of living. In some it is happening faster than in others.
The point of friction that has created high levels of frustration and chaos in Kenya is the displacement of traditional cultures without immediately replacing it with an advanced society. In other words, destruction was occurring more rapidly than reconstruction. Most countries have to cope with the problem of unifying people who pledge allegiance to the traditionally based tribal authority. Loyalty to
the nation is hesitant, precarious and in some instances non-existent.
Long histories of cohesiveness have been absent from most African nations due to the partitioning and colonial rule that encouraged and
fostered tribalism. The ruling political party and other parties before Kenya became a one party state have had their roots in tribalism.
With so many tribes, there was always deep suspicion of those who laid
claim to doing anything in the best interest of all. During colonialism.
^"Africa: A Country by Country Situation Report," Africa Report, VIII (November, 1963), pp. 25-26.
®Emerson, "Crucial Problems," pp. 193-205. 126 tribes from one area often had to succumb to the dominant language, customs and mores of others. Today many of them do not want that to happen again. The language diversity in and of itself creates problems of communicating the national issues and ideology. Also in connection with the issue of tribalism is the centralization of power and authority away from the regions and t r ib e s . The p a rty in power f e e ls th a t a decentralized government could not provide the unity necessary to build a strong nation.
When independence came to Kenya, the majority of the population was unaware of its true meaning and significance. Nation-states were founded on a unity created to combat an external force and when the external stimulus became non-existent there was no internal impetus to fill the void. This was one reason for some instability immediately after independence. The motivation for unity had been removed and the
concept of loyalty to nation had not yet developed.^ Wallerstein
concluded th a t :
There were many in a l l A frican s ta t e s who thought th a t freedom meant the end of social controls or the immediate radical redistribution of wealth . . . among the peasants or uneducated urban dwellers such illusions existed. Even if these illusions were only momentary, unfulfillment meant a sense of disappointment. Independence was not magic.
Education in i t s many forms i s the only way to o f f s e t such human
inadequacies and misconceptions.
Although there are numerous other problems that Kenya must solve
on the road to viability—among them shortages of capital; trained
^Immanuel W allerstein, Africa; The Politics of Independence (New York: Vintage Books, 1961), pp. 85-87. iOWallerstein, p. 86. 127 personnel; social and educational services; excessive concentration of population in relation to land; and efficient means of mobilizing both human and material resources—Pye stated that there are other psycho logical considerations of equal importance which could inhibit the process of nation-building in Africa. A trend has begun toward stag nation precipitating a readiness to rely upon authoritarian, military rule. The anxiety created out of fear of not achieving a viable nation could bring about a willingness to accept unchallenged rule.
In any discussion involving the character of the nation- b u ild in g p ro cess in A fric a , i t is d e s ira b le to comment b r ie f ly on how
the developed colonial mother countries in Europe evolved. If traced back far enough, the European and African scenes would take on many
sim ilarities because all European countries were at one point in history a conglomerate of tribes. The processes of unification over many centuries—including conquests, monarchies, the church and other
agents—armed them with common goals. On the other hand, Africa’s
efforts began only a few decades ago when the colonial powers attempted
to impose unity on what were often hostile tribes. Another significant
difference is that the European countries were unified long before they
were aroused to seek self-rule. Today there is a tendency to expect
too much too soon from underdeveloped countries.
Cognizance of world opinion plays an ever increasing role in
decision-making in developing nations. Establishing a nation is
l^Lucian W. Pye, Politics, Personality and Nation Building: Burma’s Search for Identity (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962), 128 basically domestic, but international forces often act as a stimulus or impediment. New nations are constantly being bombarded by a d iffu s io n of what is commonly re fe rre d to as th e age of modern techno logy. Some countries are thrust into the "jet-age" too rapidly and they do not have the ability to handle it—socio-economically, politically or technically. Oftentimes, efficiency was sacrificed for pride and the modern was accepted instead of the appropriate.^^ In the
American vernacular, it was keeping up with the Joneses.
During the great surge of independence in Africa, the reaction of Westerners to traditional people was mixed. At one end of the continuum were those who idealized and romanticized the efforts of the new countries and at the other end those who believed the worst form of barbarism would result, and then those in between. From any perspective the impact was felt around the world.
In conclusion, nation-building is closely related to the dissemination of modern culture. Kenya like many of the emerging
African nations is a product of that most precious commodity, time.
Kenya serves as an extraordinary example of many sovereign states that came into existence overnight on that continent. As entities on the most vast continent, many were inconceivable as late as a few decades ago. Now that they have asserted themselves to the tasks and realities of nation-building, they are not to be denied. The path over which so many A frican co u n tries have tra v e lle d has come c lo se to su b s ta n tia tin g
^2pye, pp. 10-12.
^3Pye, p. xvii. 129 the concept that a nation is that which can get away with establishing its claim to being one. From the United States to Nigeria, both with devastating civil wars, it has always been difficult building nations.
Kenya w ill need foreign economic assistance to develop further, but more important it w ill need increased production from within in all forms in order to thrive. Nation-building is a communal effort or self-help as it is popularly known throughout Kenya. The people must unify and share in the trials and tribulations, the successes, frustra tions and failures. In the words of the late Tom Mboya, Minister of
Economic Planning and Development :
When we look at the future, our Government is more concerned that we should create a community of people that share in their interest and think—and who are committed to the building of the Kenya nation. We are quite convinced that if independence is going to mean anything, it must bring with it tangible, material improvement for all our people. It must bring with it, removal . . . speedily, of poverty and the improvement in the health and educational services throughout the country. Those of our people, like the Europeans, who have the advantages, those of our people like the educated Africans who are professional men or skilled craftsmen have a much bigger responsibility in this task of economic development and nation-building. . . .^^
Now that the ideals of equal rights to all citizens, regardless of race, tribe or religion, have been enshrined in the basic laws of
Kenya, the concept of "Harambee"—working and pulling together—w ill be the life-line to the success of nation-building in Kenya.
President Kenyatta in a speech to the nation called on the people to unite:
To the nation I have but one message. When all is said and done we must settle down to the job of building the Kenya
l^Tom Mboya, "The Future of Kenya," African Affairs, Journal of the Royal African Society. LXIII (January, 1964), p. 8. nation. To do this we need political stability and an atmosphere of confidence and faith at home. We cannot establish these if we continue with debates on theories and doubts about the aims of our society. Let this paper be used from now as the unifying voice of our people and let us all settle down to build our nation. Let all the people of our country roll up their sleeves in a spirit of self-help to create the true fruits of UHURU. THIS IS WHAT WE IIEAH BY HARAMBEE. 15
ISRepublic of Kenya, African Socialism and its Application to Planning in Kenya (Nairobi: Government Printer, 1965), p. ii. CHAPTER VI
PHYSICAL EDUCATION^ IN KENYA
PRE-INDEPENDENCE
Although universal, physical education takes on different meanings the world over. Physical education is described in many more ways than it is defined and practiced in as many ways as there are situations. This discipline is often used interchangeably with aspects of recreation and leisure pursuits and at other times in the context of health. This chapter w ill be devoted to physical education in Kenya before independence. As physical education evolved it meant different things, at different times, in different places depending upon whatever purposes or motivations were in force. To a large degree time and space dictated its destiny. There was a time when man's work was the extent of his physical activity (education) because there were no hours left in the day to "play" after his job was done.
In an effort to stimulate more investigation into the role of physical education in society, McIntosh stated that:
At a time when the first man to run a mile within four minutes is called upon to broadcast as the spokesman of his generation, when cricketers, climbers and a jockey receive
^In Kenya, physical education, recreation, and athletics (sports) are all one and the same with all addressing the needs of individuals at different ages and levels of proficiency.
131 knighthoods, . . . and when, throughout the world, the Olympic Games have their diplomatic as well as their athletic importance, it may well seem that the study physical culture as an aspect of culture in general has not received the serious attention which it deserves.2
Traditional physical education in Kenya before the advent of westernization and colonialism was geared to the basic needs of the people. The education of youth which was prevalent in traditional
African society was no different from that which came naturally to a culture without formal education. Although a stated philosophy of physical education was not in evidence, a working or practicing philo sophy was effectively in use. The philosophy was centered around the whole concept of survival of the individual, the tribe, and the culture. It was necessary for the individual to make a contribution to the tribe so that the tribe in turn could perpetuate its culture. The various African societies within Kenya transmitted the total wisdom and knowledge of their cultures from one generation to the next, often through physical means. The livelihood of most tribes relied heavily on and consisted of hunting, herding, farming and smithing. At first, children were educated through imitation of their elders. Later they were put through the actual rigors of learning the skills. Likewise, other cultural skills of a physical nature such as building houses and household duties were learned by example and were essential to their
very existence.^
2peter C. McIntosh, Landmarks in the History of Physical Education (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1957), p. 1.
^Herbert V. Tobias, "Evaluation of East African and Central African Performance in the Mexico Games.” Paper presented at First Conference on Physical Education in East and Central Africa at Makerere University, April, 1968, p. 3. (Mimeographed.) 133
S till other more formal aspects of education transmitted certain personality and character traits from the older to the younger genera tio n . Once again many were p h y sic a l in n a tu re . The form al asp ects were disseminated in many different ways. Oral history, music, dance, games, and a r t were some of the ways i t was accom plished, and most of th ese required various levels and kinds of physical skill. Not all tribes used all of these skills in their cultural expression. These were practiced to instill pride in one's self and one's tribe, to provide a level of fitness for tribal welfare, and generally for purposes of s u rv iv a l.^
Dance has been a driving, welding force in African cultures for a long time. The movements of dancers which involved considerable coordination, stamina, and strength often served to express the quality of everyday life. There were elements of pleasure and physical release in African dances that related to psychological and physiological needs.^ Often the pleasure was derived simply from doing it well.
Many stories were told through dance, and they were also performed for special occasions such as the harvest, circumcisions, marriage and
funeral ceremonies. Children played amongst themselves, and parents
taught their youngsters how to throw spears, climb trees, leap brooks
and other skills.^ Producing music more often than not required a
^Tobias, "East African and Central African Performances," pp. 3-4.
^Simon Ottenberg and Phoebe Ottenberg, Cultures and Societies of Africa (New York: Random House, 1960), p. 67.
^Tobias, "East African and Central African Performances," p. 4 134 considerable amount of physical ability, especially when holding forth on the drums or similar percussion instruments.
Among some of the tribes, one of the great prominent "sports" before and during British administration, and one that still causes the government much consternation, was cattle rustling. Thefts of livestock had become so frequent that rustling was called a "national sport." The raids fell into three categories: those across inter national boundaries, inter-tribal raids, and raids involving productive cattle. Productive stock were those raised for their by-products, breeding or beef as opposed to unproductive which were merely kept as a symbol of wealth—the more you had the wealthier you were.
International raiding was the most difficult to combat. Gangs made quick hits, sometimes armed, and scrambled back across the border with the police in hot pursuit but, of course, only to the border.^
The tribes mainly involved were traditionally pastorallsts—
Somali, Boran, Turkana, Suk, and Masai.® Often during a raid, a battle would ensue. If anyone was killed, it used to be considered bad luck.
By 1969, killings were taking place rather frequently. Rustling was
regarded as a quasi-legitimate, wholesome, and manly activity. When the word got around that there had been a cattle raid, enthusiasm ran high.
The raids were illegal. However, during the colonial period the punish ment was never too severe and the raiding went on in all directions.^
^"The Fight Against Kenya's National Sport," The Kenya Police Review, July, 1969, p. 24.
®Kenya P o lice Review, J u ly , 1969, p. 24.
^Stated by Richard A. Lake, personal interview. May 21, 1966. 135
The number of cattle rustled on a given raid or year varied considerably. In fact, the reports were often wildly exaggerated because at one time compensation from the Government for stolen cattle was payable. In 1964, 35,273 head of cattle valued at $1,179,000 were stolen. The Government established the Stock Theft Unit (STU) to work with police in an effort to combat the problem. Rustling was seriously threatening the farming tr i b e s . I n 1968, the Minister for Foreign
Affairs declared that no compensation would be made since cattle steal ing among some trib e s was alm ost a hobby. The A ttorney-G eneral warned that convicted stock thieves would receive a maximum jail sentence of fourteen years and twenty-four strokes.B randing was part of the solution, except that seventy-five percent of the cattle were unbranded because it was time consuming, and it spoiled the appearance of the animal for show purposes. Marking the inside of the animals' ears was another method used for purposes of identification. But in some sections of the country it was not uncommon to see a herd of cattle without ears.
With the Kenyan economy so heavily reliant on agriculture, the national sport, rustling, needed to be brought under control. Uncon trolled grazing, alone, has always been one of the thorns in the farmer's pocket. Many times rustling produced diseased, emaciated herds
^^Kenya Police Review, July, 1969, p. 25.
^^Kenya Police Review, July, 1969, p. 29.
^^Kenya Police Review, July, 1969, p. 29. 136
with decreased by-product potential. This problem adversely affected
the economy.
Many of the Kenyan tribes had age-sets which were sim ilar to
clubs, fraternal and sorority groups in the United States. Meetings would be held amongst the various sets. During some of these meetings young men got together and had jumping competitions. For example, the
Moran set of the Masai tribe would get together to see who could jump highest. They would not jump over a horizontally placed stick or over
a specific height, but rather, they would jump just to see how well they
could out do each other. This activity would go on for hours on end
including with it a shuffling dance before a great hop in the air.^^
Using a slightly different example of physical activity, one
found that the Luo, from the Kyanza Province, had tribal enthusiasm for
paddling canoes on Lake Victoria. There was traditional boat racing by
this tribe before the colonial period. When the colonial administration
took over, many of the British officers had rowed for either Oxford or
Cambridge Universities, and the Luo became more enthusiastic about
racing. The British used to have an annual African canoe regatta.
The Kamba who are located southeast of Nairobi in the Eastern
Provinces are known for their singing and dancing ability which is
among the most outstanding throughout Africa. The dancing is gymnastic
in nature with flips and somersaults. The dances are done by age sets
13interview, Lake; see also G. W. B. Huntingford, "Nandi Age Sets," Cultures and Societies of Africa, ed. Simon and Phoebe Ottenberg, pp. 214-226.
^^Interview, Lake; see also Joy Adamson, The People of Kenya (New York: Earcourt, Brace and World, inc., 1967), pp. 165-166. 137 of boys, girls, men, women and married couples, and they are performed for a variety of occasions—births, deaths, weddings, harvests, spirit possessions, and circumcisions.^^ Survival, both physical and cultural, was central, and all forms of education, especially that which took place through the physical, attempted to insure that point.
As stated earlier—in regards to the beginning of missionary education and its influence—African customs, tradition and education were completely discounted in the prevailing philosophy and the ensuing curriculum design. The battle against illiteracy was coupled with saving the souls of the poor oppressed heathen from the throes of slavery and injustice. Accordingly, all efforts were directed towards this monumental illiteracy task almost to the total exclusion of other important aspects of education.
As in general education, colonialism had its effects on physical activity in Kenya. Hackensmith stated that, "The people of the United
Kingdom have . . . shown a predilection for adopting the sports of other people and making them a part of their own c u l t u r e . I f this was true during colonialism, there are two basic assumptions that could be drawn pertaining to Kenya. First, there were no African games and activities of sufficient interest to warrant adoption by the British during this period. Secondly, the British found games and activities in Kenya but deplored their use because traditional African activities and rituals
Survey of Africa, East Central Africa, Part V (London; International African Institute, 1953), pp. 72-78.
Harper and Row Publishers, 1965), p. 159. 138 were below their dignity and frowned upon as being "savage" or "evil" or both. In many instances Africans were not permitted by the colonists to indulge in their own traditional activities.
During the early stages on colonial rule, organized European games and com petition were not much in evidence amongst the A frican s, especially in the schools. As colonialism came to fruition, the influence of British physical education began to be felt, and it was possibly more effective than other areas of educational endeavor. The games that were popular in England were transplanted to Kenya and used in the schools on all grade levels. They included soccer, field hockey, netball, rounders, track and field, swimming, boxing and rugby.
Gradually, physical education became a regular part of the school curriculum. Competition between schools, especially within a particular district, was fostered. Lack of transport and racially oriented social factors limited competition. The nature of sports and games lent considerably to the ease of communication between tribes and British administrators. Although the relationships seldom extended over ethnic lines, sports and games served as a language that everyone understood.
The Phelps-Stokes Report, in the early 1920’s, found education steeped in the tradition of the four "R's," one of them being religion; most other things were purely coincidental. It was the first compre hensive effort to bring to light the inadequacies of the system. The
Phelps-Stokes commission stated that more emphasis should be placed on
the total development of youth and should include the physical, mental.
^^interview . Lake. 139
moral, and spiritual elements; the idea being that a full education would provide a product who would be of greater and lasting service to society.
The physical well-being of youth was further stressed by the commission's statements :
Recreation has evidently an intimate relationship to character. This may be ascertained by such questions as— do the amusements of the people strengthen or undermine the simple virtues of life, such as honesty, fair play, generosity, courage, purity, love of the beautiful? Or do they develop the sensuous, selfish and degrading qualities of human n a tu re .
All who are familiar with the pleasure loving and joyous temperament of the African, which finds expression in moonlight orgies, dances, and other physical excesses, readily agree that sound and healthful recreations should be added . . . The possibility of adopting African music, dancing and other amusements further commends recreation as an important element in education.
Judging people or their habits and customs by other cultural
standards does not do justice to them. Missionaries did not emphasize
the educational methods that were in practice when they arrived. It is
sometimes very difficult to differentiate between activities which are
"degrading" and those which have meaning and value.So, the early
missionaries transplanted their form of education in the African bush,
never deeming it necessary to alter their curriculum. Education,
^®African Education Commission, Education in East Africa, 1923-24 (Phelps-Stokes Fund, Edinburgh House Press, 1925), p. xx.
African Education Commission, pp. 13-14.
20African Education Commission, p. 8. 140 therefore, through physical experience was not included in the mission ary system, relegating it to activities in which one participated during f re e tim e.
Conceptually, the Phelps-Stokes Commission was far ahead of its time. It emphasized not only the immediate needs of school-age youngsters but also the kind of preparation that had to made to live a happy, healthy and prosperous life. This recommendation necessitated the inclusion of physical education and health in the curriculum. Each school would have the responsibility for initiating their programs.
Facilities would have to be considered in the overall plan and a basic understanding of the role of physical education in general education was essential. Quite naturally these ideas met with opposition. Native amusements or diversions of any kind were not considered important. By the 192Q’s, when such innovation was advocated, there began to emerge a cadre of n a tiv e A frican m in iste rs who w ere eq u ally and most empha tically opposed to the inclusion of educational experiences derived from pleasurable physical expressions. They, too, were so brainwashed by the missionary attitude toward African pleasures that they felt the encour agement of such activities would be demeaning and would have a degenerating influence on one's life.^^
Further information on the thoroughness of the ideas of the
Phelps-Stokes Commission is cited below:
The s e le c tio n o f both indoor and outdoor games should have regard for the physical, mental and moral needs of the Native people. Tribes that excel in running and jumping
^^African Education Commission, pp. 33-34. should be given a variety of games so that they may be able both to maintain their natural skills and to sup plement this s till by physical achievements in other directions. . . . The emphasis already given to essentially Western games such as football^^ is fully justified by their success in diverting the interest of the youth to more healthful ideas and actions.
The experiences of civilized countries should be used as fully as possible in enriching the life of the Native people in recreation.24
The last statement might appear to some to be in slight contradiction with an earlier position taken by the commission which encouraged the inclusion of traditional African activities. It should be interpreted to mean that a mixture of cultural activities would be more desirable. Parenthetically, but understandable, given the political climate at the time, this mixture was unidirectional, the blacks accepting the white man's ways but not the reciprocal.
In the early 1930's, the Kikuyu Independent School Association was instrumental in efforts to preserve African culture and customs in clu d in g games and dances. The i n s t i t u t i o n 's prim ary th ru s t was in opposition to the elimination of African cultural activities in the government controlled mission schools. Despite such efforts, much of the "African-ness" in Kenyan physical education was buried by the various imported innovations. According to Hackensmith, the British introduced and promoted sports and games in African colonies with great enthusiasm.But it must be remembered that because of the social
By the 1920's football, or soccer as it is also called, was gaining in popularity in England and was a part of the settlers activity program. A few African schools played soccer at that time.
2^African Education Commission, p. 34.
25Hackensmith, p. 159. 142 stratification on racial lines, organized programs of sports activities in the early days of colonialism were seldom integrated.
As stated earlier the third report of the Advisory Committee on education in the colonies was issued in 1944. The emphasis of this report was placed on the implementation of a mass education program in
Kenya. The mass education program was designed to feature opportunities for improvement in all facets of life including "those recreational and leisure time activities without which no people can long survive.
The report went on to say that pride, self-respect, and respect for one's past should be stimulated through research and the popularization of local history in the schools. Once again this was a gesture represent ing the position that African history not only produced basic insights into the past, but as a result of close examination, it could be instrumental in unlocking doors to the future. With this reservoir of knowledge and information tapped, a much better job of educating people and solving their problems could be accomplished. These efforts might help considerably in slowing or stopping the separation of people from
their culture. The development of sports clubs and competition in the
schools was also advocated by the report. This was the second indica
tion that physical education should be incorporated into the curriculum
^^Great Britain, Colonial Office, Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies, Mass Education in African Society (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1944), p.. 17. 143
The Advisory Committee's Report on mass education further emphasized the importance of a varied curriculum with the following statements on African communities.
Fortunately communities everywhere discover that they do not live by bread alone, and in even the poorest and apparently most miserable neighborhood, there are bursts of song, impromptu dancing, clever mimicry, flights of imagination, and attempts at decoration which show that the human d e s ire fo r some a r t i s t i c ex p ressio n cannot be stifled even by the most unpromising circumstances. It is as well to realize that there is everywhere some urge to escape from the monotony of work and some desire to create beauty and so find release from cramping poverty. The danger of the present time is that undue emphasis w ill be placed on economic welfare and mechanical progress, and that even leisure will be commercialized so that the true springs of artistic creation and enjoyment may have very little outlet.
It is nevertheless a truism to which unfortunately only lip service has been given except in a few outstanding instances that people of African origin are 'naturally artistic' especially in the realms of music, dancing and drama. It follows therefore that in any mass education programme in A frica . . . some c e n tr a l p lac e must be found for all forms.
Dancing can be regarded as a form of physical training and as an expression of the peoples artistic heritage. It affords, too, recreation and enjoyment in the fullest sense of the words. It is to be hoped that in village and town centres alike place w ill be found for dancing and other forms of physical training, both traditional and modern. In the mass education plan dancing and d rill competitions should be included, such as are common in many African rural areas to-day. Such meetings are a valuable social asset in drawing the community together for enjoyment and healthy rivalry. A common feature of the mass education plans in many countries, including Russia and China, is the training of youth in all forms of physical exercise, some of it form al, d isc ip lin e d and 'body b u i ld i n g ', some of i t sheer enjoyment and recreation. There need be no antagonism between the desire for modem ballroom dancing and the revival and encouragement of traditional open air dancing and games. Both have their place as forms of recreation. but the latter are worth encouraging because of their greater value as part of the healthp r o g r a m m e . 28
Whether interpreted as an art form or as an aspect of physical education, dance and music have always been integral aspects of African life in Kenya.
At first, African music and dance were not rapidly affected by
European influence. European prejudices constantly tried to reinforce the feeling that continued association with tribal songs and dances would render one inferior. The problem did not rest with the phenomena of superiority or inferiority but rather the right music in the right plac e .
African art has long fascinated the Western world. The aesthetic life of Kenya was a rich one, and it was intimately bound up in the everyday social and religious life of the people. Of the major art forms in Kenya music and dance appear to be the most popular.
Herskovits felt that when studying African culture, especially artistic aspects, the area of concern should not be confined to the African continent but also the Western Hemisphere countries where blacks are found in large numbers.80
Before the 1920’s, interest in African music and dance was purely descriptive. Information on musical instruments and emotional
descriptions of dance was available because most people who travelled
^^Advisory Committee on Education, 1944, pp. 49-50.
29David Reisman, cited by Hugh Tracey, "The Importance of African Music in the Present Day," African Affairs, LIX (April, 1961), p. 159.
^^Melville Herskovits, "Negro Folklore," Cultures and Societies of Africa , ed. Simon and Phoebe Ottenberg, p. 443. 145
in Africa at that time had a limited interest in the ways in which people expressed themselves.
Many tribes concerned with progress and the assimilation of
Western ways quite deliberately discouraged dance to a very great
extent.Many students in secondary schools did so with one goal in mind—to get to the university. It was quite likely that their parents may have told them or they themselves may have decided, "no dancing or
playing games for me; I am too busy or I am above doing the dances of
my ancestors." Many students thought that dancing was in conflict with
educational achievement, thus, they turned their backs on their
heritage. Reisman explains this behavior in the context of it being a
shame complex. He stated that the simple, childish, frivolous elements
of any society were practiced and integrated within that society with
a sense of shame and embarrassment. As individuals become more
developed they acquire a sense of guilt if they indulged in those
elements. By the time they were grown, their sense of guilt prevented
their indulgence in this, supposedly, "anti-social" behavior.
Many young people who left the rural areas in Kenya and went to
the cities and towns became hostile to the disciplines of rural exis
tence. Cities such as Nairobi have been transformed into industrial
and economic centers. Life in the city created some hostility toward
3lAlan Merriam, "Music and Dance," The African World: A Survey of Social Research, ed. Robert Lystad (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1965), p. 452.
32 F.] E. Baglo, "Sounds of Africa," The___ Lutheran, IV (May 11, 1966), 21; seesee also also interview, interv Richard A. Lake.
33^Reisman, p. 159. 146
traditional styles of music and dance which were looked upon by some as being primitive and beneath their dignity. Popular western music and
dance replaced that of the village which for so long was the mainspring
of discipline in tribal life. Many of the complex styles of African
folk music and dance and all that they stood for were seriously undercut
by the increasingly popular new modern beat and rhythm. It is most
essential to the welfare of African communities that their own forms
of music and dance continue to be socially acceptable and culturally
valuable. Many of the older Africans were perplexed by what happened,
but customs remain under attack. People who s till use music to accom
pany their daily activities are those who know what it is to share
through music as well as their efforts and their possessions.^^
In an interview with J. T. Arap-Leting, he said while reflecting
on the African personality, that Africans are not possessive people and
tend to share. Africans in general, especially Kenyans, are not
individualists. They thrive on the group and they share in the most
complete sense. A person who is too often by himself might be consid
ered abnormal. To see one person cultivating his fields alone is almost
unheard of; others pitch in without being asked. And when they are in
groups contributing to a joint effort, they tend to be very rhythmic.
To emphasize the points of not being possessive and sharing Arap-
Leting related the following story. He said, "in Kenya when you meet a
group of seven men and one woman, i t i s u n lik e ly th a t you w i l l be ab le
^^Reisman, pp. 158-159. 147 to determine to whom she belongs.Reisman offers other examples of sh a rin g :
A man loses his son - he composes a little song, and the whole village shares his sorrow. Something important happens - everybody sings about it, and they all rejoice. It is a community activity which we, living in an indus trial era, are so inclined to forget. Industry is the great destroyer of that sort of community music, diverting it frequently into other but often less socially useful c h an n els•
Physical education programs in Kenya were greatly influenced by British systems of education. Often British physical education teachers and coaching specialists were sent out to Kenya to assist in the development of programs.
During nearly eleven years of organizing and teaching physical education in Kenya, Barbara Dodd, from England, provided some insight into the kinds of things experienced when preparing teachers. She arrived in Kenya just before the end of World War II and stayed until the height of the Mau Mau Emergency in 1956. This was a time of great transition.
Much of the physical education was for show. Although many teachers wanted to specialize in physical education, the government would not permit teachers to specialize. They had to be general class teachers. It was Dodd's responsibility to provide the segment of physical education in their professional training. As far as equipment was concerned it all had to be homemade. According to Dodd, there was.
•^^Statement by J. T. Arap-Leting, personal interview, October 6, 1972.
^^Reisman, pp. 158-159. 148
"no money at all for equipment for such 'frivolities' as physical education. Gymnastics equipment was made in the woodwork shop and balls of a l l s iz e s , b a ts , hoops, mats and much more were made from raw materials found in the immediate area. Playing fields were carved from the bush, and even then, play fields were the first to be taken when new buildings were erected.
The daily period of physical training was gradually worked into the prospective teachers schedule. Because of the vast climatic changes due to elevation or lack of it, doctors were often consulted to determine the best time of day to participate in physical activity.
Dodd explained that in the African schools the students were permitted
and encouraged to continue to cultivate their dances. This was done with poetry and music, using both modern and traditional dances.
Dodd was of the opinion that trained specialists in physical
education for purposes of recreation would have been of great assistance with youth groups during the Mau Mau Emergency. She also felt that
specialists from other countries could be extremely helpful in
motivating and providing demonstrations. In 1956, there were only
nineteen physical education specialists in Kenya, and three were in one
European school in Nairobi.
Health education was taught as a part of physical education and
as in other areas it dealt with the immediate environment. Some
mathematics was taught while laying out the new athletic fields; and
•^'Barbara Dodd, Report on "Physical Education in Kenya," World Congress of Physical Education, Melbourne, Australia, Physical Education Association, 1956, pp. 57-66. 149 sport attire was made with economic implication in mind. Lastly, by the time of her departure Dodd saw evidence of a breakthrough in the direction of harmonious race relations which was non-existent when she a rr iv e d .
In most countries, modern physical education is considered to be, in varying degrees, an integral part of the total educational picture. In Chapters III and IV, it was found that education more than any other single factor brought independence into the grasp of the
Kenyan people. In more ways than one, those who introduced western education to Kenya—by doing so—set in motion and perpetrated their
own downfall and eventual expulsion from positions of control. The
power of education is mighty, and it is extremely wholesome when it is complete and does not exclude educational experiences such as those
gained through the physical.
The youth of Kenya are the hope of building the nation. Every
effort should be made to provide the people with the best possible
education of which physical education is a part. Bucher, during his
travels around the world, found that the outstanding leaders in
physical education were trying continually to upgrade their standards.
They rendered a great service to all citizens of their countries and
placed their programs on a respected level in the schools. Many of
them felt that their field of work was not regarded as important as some
of the academic subjects like science, mathematics, language, and
Barbara Dodd, "Physical Education in Kenya," pp. 57-66. 150 hisotry. But most were not discouraged as their continued hard work indicated.39
39charles A. Bucher, "Health and Physical Education in Other L an d s," Jo u rn al of H ealth, P h y sica l Education and R e c rea tio n , XXXIII (December, 1962), 14-15. CHAPTER VII
PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN KENYA
POST-INDEPENDENCE
In independent Kenya, some of the people's needs—education,
food production, medical facilities, housing, and transportation—have been more obvious than others, and they are being dealt with in
different ways. For various reasons, other needs, hopes and desires
that have been given less priority are not being adequately addressed.
Physical education programs in Kenya have been developing and have been satisfying some of the needs of the people. The role of physical
education and sports in fulfilling the dreams and aspirations of building a healthy, viable nation needs to be placed in proper perspec tive. This chapter w ill discuss physical education in Kenya after
independence and the contribution of this discipline to the nation-
building process in that East African country.
Physical Education in Education
Before independence, the concept of physical education was
narrow. The British introduced formal physical education to Kenya
which consisted of mass calisthenics and sports activities. It was
usually included in all of .the programs in educational institutions.
Ndonye pointed out that although it may have been well planned, it
151 152 was primarily geared to satisfying the needs of the relatively few athletes on teams rather than all students. Ndonye further stated that games of African origin were discouraged during the colonial period.^
This statement concurred with the above view of Meisler that missionary education and everything it stood for was associated with modernization.
Everything African was considered a drawback. The tone that was set
during the colonial period was carried over into physical education programs after independence.
Program Concepts in Kenyan Physical Education. Physical
education in independent Kenya does not have the image or prestige that
other subject areas enjoy, but it is by no means forgotten. A balanced
educational experience is desired for students so for this reason
physical education has had a place in the curriculum. Unfortunately,
opportunities for development were not always used to the best advantage,
but the desire to provide a program was always in evidence. According
to Habte, programs often lacked direction and to a large extent they were referred to by many as physical training or "P.T." That was about
all that took place—training—with little or no education. Many
students came to consider physical education as a period of rest or where they did not expect to do much more than play soccer or basketball.
Very few students were ever heard discussing physical education con
s tr u c tiv e ly a f t e r th e c la s s was ov er. The moment th e p h y sical
-"-Based on letter from W. Ndonye, Inspector of Physical Education, Kenya Ministry of Education, to the w riter, January 15, 1973. "training" class was finished it seemed everything pertaining to the
subject ceased. There was limited carry-over.^
Mai Whitfield, Cultural Attache (Africa), United States
Information Agency, has spent close to twenty years in many African
countries including Kenya, and he shared the sentiment that physical
education in Kenya needed to be re-structured. According to Whitfield
in 1972, the physical education programs were sports oriented. The
emphasis was placed on sports activities because it was one of the
characteristics inherited from the British. In Kenya, the British did
not place much emphasis on an education through the physical with its
behavioral implications. The class was more or less activity for
activity's sake, without regard for specific needs or outcomes. When
conducted, the physical education experience went from calisthenics to
sports activities excluding a progressive learning process and the meaning and significance of physical education.^ According to Van Dalen
and Bennett, in many parts of Africa, physical education for the
unskilled and for girls was neglected. Greater emphasis was placed on
competitive sports and high performance that would bolster national
pride and international prestige.^ Whitfield also stated that because
the "inversion"—emphasis on sport for a few—had gone so far, physical
^Aklilu Habte, "Education: Africa's Unfinished Business," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXXVI (November- December, 1965), p. 31.
Statement by Mai W hitfield, personal interview, December 29, 1972. 154 education programs and their organizers might have to work backwards in order to make headway. Working backwards meant a more pragmatic approach with emphasis on competitive sports activity and later broadening the program. Conceptually, this is the opposite from most systems in the United States where athletes get their start in the
physical education programs. Kenya has not arrived at the point where physical education programs are "farm systems" for athletic programs.
The major drawback of placing a disproportionate amount of time and
resources on a relatively small number of people was that the average
and poor athlete did not get a fair shake. In a way, it was not only a drawback but also rather self-defeating because it was more difficult
to develop a broad base from which to select the top performers. In
spite of the strong emphasis on organized, competitive sport, Whitfield
stated that sport was a part of physical education. The problem of
catering to the highly skilled often resulted from inadequate facilities,
equipment, and staffing. One took what one had and worked with as many
people as possible.^
Another indication of the emphasis on competitive sports for
the purpose of instilling pride and gaining prestige was clearly shown
in an article by Martin Kane in Sports Illustrated. He pointed out that
as a result of many administrative and program inadequacies—lack of
^Deobold B. Van Dalen and Bruce L. Bennett, A World History of Physical Education: Cultural, Philosophical, Comparative (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1971), p. 603.
^Whitfield, interview. 155 facilities, equipment, teachers, and money—physical education and sport involved a minority of youth and not the masses
Although physical education is a regular phase of the school curriculum in Kenya, it did, in the early stages of independence, emphasize a formal d rill type methodology. A series of exercises were executed to the harsh commands of the person in charge. The relation ship between mind and body was almost non-existent except for the mental exercise involved in counting and in responding to commands. According to Aish Jeneby, the first Inspector of Physical Education in the
Ministry of Education after independence, some of the characteristics of such a program were boredom, dullness, unwillingness on the part of students, lack of imagination and creativity, the absence of progres sive skill proficiency training, little or no carry-over value, and even
less incentive. The programs lacked progression and did not approach
the satisfaction of individual needs.^ In 1966, Aish Jeneby stated
f u rth e r :
The underlying motive was: "This is a necessary evil to be got over as soon as possible." If for disciplinary or other purposes it is desired to retain such arrangements no objection w ill be raised, but the illusion that they fu lfill the requirements of physical education scheme must be shattered. Let us hope that those days are gone.®
^M artin Kane, "A Very Welcome R edcoat," S ports I l l u s t r a t e d , XXV (December, 1966), 82.
^Aish Salim Ali Jeneby, "Physical Education in Kenya," Inter national Council on Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 8th Congress Report (Washington: National Education Association, 1967), p.49.
8Jeneby, "Physical Education in Kenya," p. 49. 156
There have been movements afoot to change the approach, and therefore the image, of physical education in the schools which includes the discouragement of formal d rill. Through the use of various demon strations, lectures, in-service training programs, and teacher training, modern concepts and methods have been employed. Jeneby further stated
This means that physical education is being made to play a leading part and an effective one in the development of character. Every child may develop soundly as an individual according to his particular physical capacity, instead of responding like any automaton, irrespective of his needs to the d ire c tio n and whim of the te a c h e r . ^
Kenyan physical educators have challenged the old philosophy of physical education by re-evaluating imports such as European gymnastics and broadened the base of activity to include more people than the gifted in the inter-scholastic and intercollegiate athletic programs. At the meeting on the Adaptation of General Secondary
Curriculum in Africa at Tananarive, Malagasy, in 1962 it was decided;
That gymnastics as practiced in European e_ucational systems was by no means an absolute and tangible ideal and that physical education could very well incorporate movements borrowed from local and traditional choreography. The meeting also recommended the encouragement of certain traditional games of skill which would help to preserve the individual "personality" of Africa, e.g., spear-throwing, shooting with bow and arrow, etc. In this field the greatest possible liberty should be allowed to every African country to select the types of activity best suited to the physical develop ment of the individual.
9Jeneby, "Physical Education in Kenya," p.50.
*%abte, "Education," p. 30. 157
In Kenya where diversity often overshadows unity, physical education programs were altered to emphasize the value of cooperative team spirit and at the same time capitalize on individual talents.
Evidence of this is found in the de-emphasis of "P-T" and the inclusion of activities like soccer, basketball, field hockey, and others. It is not suggested that the talents of Kipchoge Keino and Wilson Kiprugut^^ and others are not appreciated but broadening the base and giving more opportunities to more children is a better gamble for getting, by far, more outstanding talent.
Objectives of physical education. In order to give direction to the challenge of developing a new philosophy of physical education in the broader context of Kenyan education, program aims and objectives should be in concert with those of education and also consistent with the goals of the nation. While discussing the development of the physical education program in Kenya, Jeneby noted that:
In Kenya today our broad aims of physical education are physical, social, mental and recreational development through the medium of physical activities and sport. There should . . . be some c a rry -o v er from p h y sic a l education in the school to recreational activities in the community. . . . Aspects of social behavit j taught and practiced at school should carry over to community living.^
The major objectives of Kenyan primary and secondary school
physical education as submitted by Jeneby and reported by the Inter
national Council on Health, Physical Education and Recreation (ICHPER)
in the 1967-68 Revision were as follows:
^^Two of Kenya's world renowned distance and middle distance ru n n ers.
^^Jeneby, "Physical Education in Kenya," p. 49. 1) Primary school: to develop an enjoyment and skill in physical activities.
2) Secondary school: to develop game skills to create an enjoyment of physical activity, to further sound health and recreation.
In 1969, Jeneby resigned his post as Inspector of Physical
Education to assume the position of Deputy Kenya Sports Officer, Sports
D iv isio n , Department of Community Development and S o cial S erv ices.
This department is located under the Ministry of Co-operatives and
S o cial S e r v i c e s . W . Ndonye became the next In sp e c to r of P h y sical
Education.U nder Ndonye's leadership, the above objectives of
secondary school physical education stated by Jeneby in 1967 were
broadened as follows :
1. To contribute to the physical development of each pupil.
2. To increase the physical ability of each pupil.
3. To enable each pupil through physical activity to
experience a sense of achievement.
4. To help pupils to learn how to co-operate with each other
and to work successfully as a group.
5. To develop the natural learning powers of enquiry and
discovery through creative and imaginative physical activity.
^^International Council on Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, Physical Education in the School Curriculum 1967-68 Part I (Washington: ICHPER, 1969), p. 46. (The Council is hereafter referred t o as ICHPER).
S e rv ic e s, Department of Community Development and S o cial Services Annual Report, 1969 (Nairobi: Government Printer, 1971), p. 23.
^^Based on letter from Ndonye. 159
6. To develop physical and mental co-ordination, self- control and confidence.
7. To provide opportunities for as wide an experience as possible of all types of movements and activities, both with and without apparatus.
8. To help pupils make a more positive use of leisure time.
9. To enable those pupils who are capable of becoming champions in some aspects of physical education to do so.^^
In 1968 Nyaga, a physical education instructor at Kigari
Teachers College, argued that physical education in the primary schools was in need of evaluation from within and without. He found fault with the lofty ideals that were often expressed in regards to the aims and objectives of education but at the same time the child was not receiving a full education. Too much ertçhasis was placed on passing examinations to the exclusion of other essentials such as physical education. Although physical education had always been in the curriculum, those teaching it were not aware of a sound philosophy and principles of physical education. Nyaga also pointed out that
teachers and the Ministry of Education have not taken the program
seriously. He further stated that some subjects are more important
than others but this should not affect the quality of teaching but
rather the allocation of time for various subjects. Nyaga disagreed
l^Kenya Ministry of Education, Physical Education Syllabus for Secondary Schools (Nairobi: Ministry of Education, 1970), p. 1. 160 w ith th e ad v o cates, such as Dodd^^ and Lake,Qf teaching English, mathematics and other subjects through the physical education experi ence. He did not feel that they had anything in common. Nyaga also wanted the pendulum to swing towards Africanization of staff and
There a re a t th e moment f a r too many fo re ig n ideas in our ed u catio n system . . . C e rta in ly we need new id e a s , suggestions and guidance but what is equally important, I feel, is the ability to utilize personal initiative and discretion to meet the local demands or situations . . . Teachers should come out with suitable substitutes.^0
Finally, Nyaga felt that a lack of confidence and enthusiasm and the failure to understand the role of physical education in child development were the biggest reasons for unsatisfactory primary school
Physical education in the maintenance of health. The battle
to improve the image of physical education in Kenya has been gradually making progress. At the time of independence, the program needed new direction more than anything else. President Kenyatta provided a
great deal of impetus in 1964 when he stated that:
^^Barbara Dodd, Report on, "Physical Education in Kenya," World Congress of Physical Education, Melbourne, Australian Physical Educa tion Association, 1956, pp. 57-66.
^^Statement by Richard A. Lake, personal interview. May 21, 1966.
19j. j. Nyaga, "The Teaching of Physical Education," Teachers College News, August, 1968, p. 29.
^%yaga, "The Teaching of Physical Education," p. 29.
23-Nyaga, "The Teaching of P h ysical Education," p. 29. We must not lose sight of the fact that the word "education" does not simply mean attending schools and universities and obtaining the requisite degrees.
Education in other spheres is of equally vital importance to a country. If people do not enjoy full h e a lth . . . then t h e i r country cannot make f u l l use of its economic potential. Without good health our children cannot take full advantage of the increasing opportunities which are now available to them.
For this reason, I feel it is important that all people should be educated in the ways to obtain and m ain tain good h e a lth . . .^2
Mungai—former Kenyan M inister of Health and Housing and now the Minister of Internal Security and Defense—shared the view of
Kenyatta but expanded his position and emphasized the importance of long range preventive health practices. He spoke of the knowledge necessary to enable people to enjoy life and their national heritage of freedom and liberty.
In the early 1960's educators began to look more seriously at physical education in Kenya and its close relationship to preventive health measures and health maintenance. Many^^ of them wrote books on the subject. Their awareness of the health implications of physical activity was very evident in health books. Life itself is dynamic and moving, and the body is designed for movement. Inactivity is
(London: Thomas N elson and Sons, L td ., 1964), p. i i .
^^Holmes, ; worth Press, 1964); see also W. Norman-Taylor, A Textbook of Hygiene for Teachers in Africa (London: Longmans, 1966); see also Leonard Goodwin and Antony Duggan, A New Tropical Hygiene (London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd.,1966). 162 d egenerating. A g re a t d eal o f money w i l l have to be made a v a ila b le to improve health conditions in Kenya, but money is not the only answer.
In the United States, the most affluent country of the world, billions of dollars are spent annually on health and medical care, but the cost of those services continued to spiral upward. People should try to understand that good health cannot be purchased. One’s health should be conscientiously maintained. Kenya with its limited resources is presently incapable of providing adequate health services for every citizen; in fact some may never get any at all. Individuals should be taught effective health self-care. Self-care could be an aspect of the expanding self-help program that has caught on so well as Kenya builds its nation. Physical education could provide a major service to assist people to more effectively practice self-care by maintaining a physically fit body and a proper balance between recreation, work, and r e s t .
Such an objective should be spelled out clearly and implemented.
People in developing countries need educational assistance to cycle work, fatigue, rest and physical activity more effectively. The growth of the economy has provided employment for people who only a short time
ago were part of subsistence farming. This change necessitates re
ordering their lives. People in developing nations need to utilize more effectively physical exercise as a "health modality." Physical
education afford opportunities for individuals to reinforce an under standing of themselves through a physical, social, and emotional
appraisal and at the same time gain a better understanding of the role
of physical education in their rapidly changing society. 163
The M inister for Information and Broadcasting spoke to the
r e la tio n s h ip betw een h e a lth and p h y sic a l a c ti v it y when he made a p lea
for more facilities. He said, "If we are to build a healthy society
in this country there must be plenty of facilities for leisure and
sporting activities.
Barclay, in his report to the All-African Conference on Health
and Physical Education in 1962, offered some insight into the role of
physical education in the improvement and maintenance of health stan
dards in developing nations. He supports a very close working
relationship between public health agencies and physical education
programs in order to stress the importance of total physical fitness in
the building of a nation. In Kenya as in all socieites, "the destiny
of a state depends on the health and strength of its citizens.
Kenya is attempting to produce a citizenry that has the ability to
judge and make decisions based on the interrelationship of many factors.
They cannot afford to only think of health in the sense of doctors,
pills, bills and clinics. Positive preventive education should be the
theme. Health maintenance must be one of the prime objectives of
physical education. At the same conference, Bropleh expressed a
concept of maintaining health as an objective of physical education
-tdiich fitted in very nicely with the self-help scheme that is at the
"Minister Backs Sports," Kenya Sports Review, December, 1964, p. 13.
Murray Barclay, "Physical Fitness in the Building of New Nations," Report of the All-African Conference on Health and Physical Education, Monrovia, Liberia, June 3-7, 1962, Prepared by the World Confederation of Organizations of the Teaching Profession (Washington, 1962), pp. 6-9. 164 core of Kenya's development. The concept is sound because it finds its solution in people combatting health problems in the home, school, and community.
To be even more effective programs of physical education have to relate to special health and other social conditions because no amount of physical exercise and skill development w ill help the African child who is already hopelessly undernourished as a result of improper diet. Participation in games would be harmful to children who do not get adequate rest and sleep. Lectures on personal and community health are to no avail if running water and latrine facilities are not available. Another area of health and physical education which is of great concern to Kenyan educators is the attitude and disposition of handicapped children. Although concern is expressed for the psycho logical adjustments of handicapped children, reports dealing with this area emphasize the need to allow these students to receive their education under normal conditions whenever possible. Teacher training colleges are given the responsibility for acquainting prospective teachers with the potential problems of the atypical student.^28
Social implications of physical education. Another objective
that is apparent is the whole area of socialization—local, regional, national, and international. Physical education and sports can play
^^Francis Bropleh,. "Health—A Prerequisite for National Development," All-African Conference, Monrovia, Liberia, June 3-7, 1962, pp. 9-11.
Part I (Nairobi: The English Press, Ltd., 1964), p. 132. 165 an enormous role in creating a positive image that could lend to the unifying efforts of Kenya.
Jose Cagigal, Director of the Institute of Physical Education and Sports in Spain, provided applicable rationale for the development and support of sport programs. Cagigal did not ignore many of the ills that were apparent in some sports programs, but he felt that the socialization process in sports provided the individual with extremely beneficial interpersonal relations, or a social education that out weighed the ills. Social education is a continuous dialogue between the individual and the surrounding environment which includes educating people to live with their fellow m en.C agigal referred to this process as social human activity, and he expressed this phenomenon using sport as an example:
1. It is a competitive form of play. The competition is sometimes with oneself, a question of pitting oneself against one's own physical limitations (for example, trying to better one's previous high jump record or time for running the mile), but more often it is direct competition with other persons in the endeavor to outdo them in one form or another of skill.
2. It is human contact when, apart from or over and above any artificial social consideration (caste, group, and so forth), two or more persons meet, ready to accept the superiority of the one who proves himself outstanding in his mastery of the particular sport. In a land where social differences go deep, under ordinary conditions the son of the potentate and the son of the working man never escape from the class barriers that keep them apart; when they meet in the stadium or on the running track, they compete with each other as human beings, nothing more.
“^^Jose Maria Cagigal, "Social Education Through Sport," The Eleventh International Congress of the International Council on Health, Physical Education, and Recreation (Washington: International Council on Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1969), pp. 64-66. 3. It is voluntary recognition of authority. If 13, 15, or 17 boys decide to play football in an open space, the two designated captains choose their teams, one by one. At the end, one boy w ill be left, the one nobody has chosen, because he is the poorest player. This boy is told: "You will be the r e f e r e e ." From th en on we have the curious phenomenon th a t all the rest obey the one with the least prestige as a player. Spontaneous sport is thus, surprisingly enough, the occasion for one of the most significant and necessary virtues of social life: the sense, almost an instinct, of obedience to auth ority. At the magic bidding of the ball or the stick, a temporary and simple but nonetheless sound and sturdy democracy i s s e t up.
Cagigal went on to say that "sport has a valuable contribution
to make in the promotion of social integration. Much of it has great
educational value.
One would have thought that racial integration in the schools
of Kenya would create no problems, especially since 97 percent of the
Kenya population is African, 2.3 percent Asian, and 0.6 percent
European.How ever, the difficulties were numerous because of the
various systems of education in Kenya right up to independence. Begin
ning in 1960, efforts were made to bring about an integrated system
but only to the extent that schools considered the needs of their own racial groups before throwing their doors open to others. In reality,
these efforts strenghtened the bastions of racial segregation. The
secret of national unity, which should override tribal and ethnic
loyalties, lay in bringing about much more conscious mixing within the
30Cagigal, "Social Education," p. 66.
^^Cagigal, "Social Education," p. 66.
3^Government of Kenya, Kenya Education Commission Report, 1964, p. 29. 167 educational system than was previously practiced. This was quite possible on all levels, especially through the medium of physical education and sports activities. A child, from the earliest stages of comprehension, should think of himself as a Kenyan and not as a Luo,
Kikuyu, Asian, European, Kipsigis, or anything else. This does not mean that one should lose one's cultural identity;
The Commission of Enquiry felt that:
Unity is not the same thing as uniformity. We believe that our objective should not be to destroy individuality, but to train it, for the many differences between the peoples of our country are a source of enrichm ent. I'Jhat we seek, therefore, is respect for those differences, but at the same time their comprehension within a common loyalty.
Inter-personal relations should be marked by the ease of
communication and the absence of snobbery. Kenya did not desire to see preserved two systems of education, one for the relatively rich and
the other for the less fortunate. Public schools in England have presented that very problem and to reproduce this dichotomous
system in Kenya would be a disservice. "In order for people to unite
they must first understand each other and be able to communicate."
When this statement is placed in the context of educational endeavor,
it appears that it would be far more beneficial for children of
different faiths and ethnic groups to receive their education in an
integrated rather than a segregated system. Often, it has been stated
that children who played together stayed together. Universally, play
has been the primary way to socialize children. Too often schools
^%overnment of Kenya, Kenya Education Commission Report, 1964, p. 29. 168
are regarded as places for formal education, and the very important
socialization aspects are neglected.
There a re a few m ajor d iv is iv e fa c to rs p rese n t in Kenyan
society, tribe, race, religion and the distribution of wealth. With the proper interaction within and between these elements—resulting
from increased transportation, communication, industrialization,
education, and sports—there could be greater harmony and acceptance
on everyone's part. There will be tremendous opportunities for training
in human dynamics which are so essential to nation-building.
During an in terv iew w ith Lake, he commented on some break
throughs in race relations in interschool competition over the previous
few years. Initially, such competition was generally hampered by the
lack of transportation and the cost factor. Many communities remained
isolated. However, within many districts one found competition
developing between Catholic, non-Catholic, and African government
schools. Annually, there would be a physical education field day
during which time each school would have performances and the children
represented their schools in displays of drills, physical exercise,
and games. The performances were executed with great precision and
beauty, and quite often there was tribal singing and dancing.
The Kenyan student displayed as much enthusiasm in getting
school "colorsin soccer or tennis as any American youngster.
^^Lake interview; see also A. S. A. Jeneby, "Physical Education: Primary Schools" (Nairobi: Ministry of Education, 1967). p. 2 .(Mimeograph.)
awards used in American schools and colleges. 169
When a student wrote up a job application or entrance application form for the university, the colors that he had earned would be in dicated. Recruiting officers made a special note of students who had participated in sports. The social aspects of physical education are vitally important. The schools which produced good hockey or football players would acquire desirable social reputations.^ 36
Recreational implications of physical education. It is essential that students be given opportunities in school to develop recreational competencies. The proper and positive use of leisure
time should be taught in the schools and carried over into community
life. The development of a wholesome sports conscience in Kenya is difficult to accomplish unless it is nurtured from youth. In
addition to this early association, one has to have the means to pursue these activities after their relations with the formal school atmosphere have been severed. Many Kenyans gave up the idea of
sports participation after their school days owing to the lack of
facilities, and organization.R ecreation is essential for maximum
child development, and as long as the student was within the confines
and under the jurisdiction of the school, the chances for wholesome
development were enhanced. But it was when the youngsters left
school that the real problems arose in relation to physical education
needs. The whole social context of playing games depended on the
school. When they dropped out of school—either because they had not
■^"Lake, in terv iew .
^^Lake, interview. 170 made the grade for secondary school or wanted to tackle something more manly—contact with a structured social organization was lost and a very serious gap was created. In the absence of the school environ ment, there were comparatively few sports clubs to join. Some that were available the parents could not afford them. The Kenyan government has made concerted efforts to foster adult sports programs.
To prevent a loss of interest in the activities taught, a bridge of participation needs to be built for those individuals leaving the schools. Teachers have been asked to join with the school leavers and form sports clubs that would use school facilities and play various schools in the neighborhood.It is disappointing and frustrating for teachers to discuss and incorporate the concept of leisure and recreation when the opportunities for such endeavors are practically non-exis tent.
Whitfield pointed out that some of the big industries have donated money to r e c re a tio n program s. U sually t h is money was used to further develop programs already in operation, more often than not, in some industries or government agencies. Some people feared that donations would eventually lead to control of the recreation programs by the industries. When Whitfield cited numerous United States' models of sponsorship, apprehension subsided. Some of the donors included Goodyear, Shell, Esso, Caltex, Firestone, and Party Packers
^Sjeneby, "Physical Education: Primary Schools,", p. 2.
^^Habte, "Education," p. 30. Canners (California). Besides, donations were good public relations for the firms.
Prim ary school p h y sic a l e d u c atio n . In a 1957 memorandum distributed to education officers in the provinces, counties, local schools, teacher training colleges, and all provincial school inspectors, Jeneby stated the following:
Physical Education in schools consists of lessons, games and athletics. It is a subject to be TAUGHT in j u s t th e same way and w ith j u s t the same s in c e r ity as any other subject. It is an indispensable part of general education and should be placed in the time table in every school in the country.
Physical education has always been an integral phase of the education process in all schools and institutions—primary, secondary,
technical institutes, teacher training colleges, and higher education.
Physical education is compulsory in varying degrees in the above
institutions. According to Ndonye, in 1973, primary school physical education was scheduled for the five-day w e e k .In 1967, Jeneby
stated that primary standards I and II had a daily period of physical
education of twenty minutes and a ten minute period of health education.
The classes were taught by the regular classroom teachers. Students in
standard III received four periods per week of forty minutes duration.
Primary standards IV-VII were required to take three forty minute physical education classes per week. One of these periods was used for
'^^Hfliitfield, interview.
41jeneby, "Physical Education: Primary Schools," p. 1.
42iBased on letter from W. Ndonye. 172 playing games, track and field and dancing. The other two periods were devoted to specific skill development essential to major games and track and field competition. Jeneby further stated that boys and girls should be placed in separate classes in standards V-VII. It was recommended that girls be taught by women instructors. If staffing problems prevented this arrangement, classes could be mixed, but the girls should be asked to stand behind the boys. No reason was given for this procedure.
In the Ministry of Education’s book. Educational Structure in
Kenya, a similar account to that of Jeneby's of the allocated time for scheduled physical education classes was presented (see Table 6). The source indicated that standards I and II had five daily periods of physical education of thirty-five minutes; standard III four periods, forty minutes ; and standards IV-VII had a three-period requirement forty-five minutes in length.
During inclement weather, physical education classes were conducted indoors. This time was used for demonstrating techniques, reviewing rules of the various games, and discussing points of interests in sports.
In the past, secondary school officials complained about the
low skill proficiency levels exhibited by new students from the
43Jeneby, "Physical Education: Primary Schools," p. 1.
44Kenya Ministry of Education, Educational Structure in Kenya (Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, 1972), p. 17; see also Sheffield, p. 64.
45Jeneby, "Physical Education: Primary Schools," pp. 2-3. 173 primary level. In 1957, it was suggested by the Inspector of Physical
Education that more organization might be necessary at the primary level, and he offered the following helpful hints:
1. That students be permitted ample opportunities to play actual games, under the teacher's guidance, after the skills had been learned and developed.
2. That better care be taken of the playing fields and equip ment. A poorly or incorrectly marked field did not permit students to put the rules into practice properly. The wrong type of equipment,
equipment in need of repair or the absence of equipment—such as goal posts—encouraged careless play.
3. That a sufficient number of teachers be on duty to coach
and supervise.
4. That the best utilization be made of teaching stations and
equipment by providing a schedule for posting.
5. That the scope of the curriculum be broad enough to include
more than one game.
6. That records of the students' progress be kept in order to
determine strengths and weaknesses.
7. That the organization of the class be related to the age of
the students and the facilities and equipment available.
8. That the teacher with the best physical education qualifi
cations in the school should serve as the coordinator to supervise and
assist the other teachers.
^Jeneby, "Physical Education: Primary Schools," pp. 2-3. 174
In 1963, the year of Kenya's independence, an ICHPER question naire study was conducted to determine the status of physical education in school curricula around the world. Another three-part ICHPER study was conducted in 1967-68: 1) Part I, Physical Education in the School
Curriculum; 2) Part II, Teacher Training for Physical Education;
3) Part III, Status of Teachers of Physical Education. Below, along w ith o th er m a te r ia ls , some comparisons a re made between curriculum
content in 1963 and the more recent 1967-68 response submitted by
Jeneby. Parts I and II will be discussed later under teacher training.
In 1967, activities in the primary school curriculum for boys
included rugby, soccer, rounders, basketball, track and field, and
swimming when pool was a v a ila b le . On the in te rm e d iate level,cricket
and volleyball were added. The 1963 report only indicated that
exercises, skills, and games of all kinds were included in the program
for boys and girls. The primary and intermediate curricula for girls was the same—rounders, netball, field hockey, volleyball, swimming,
and modem and tribal dancing.
The Inspector of Physical Education along with the panel of
physical education experts from the Kenya Institute of Education are
responsible for developing a primary school syllabus. The Ministry of
Education also provides primary school physical education handbooks.^ 49
A list of handbooks and general source books for primary physical
47it should be noted that the intermediate school, which is no longer in existence, is incorporated in the seven-standard primary school.
48ICHPER, Physical Education in the School Curriculum, Part I , p. 46. 49jeneby, "Physical Education: Primary Schools," p. 3. 175 education can be found in Appendix (A). According to Ndonye, the primary school syllabus was under revision and not available as of
January 1973. However, Ndonye stated that, "The attached (secondary) syllabus will give some ideas of the type of programme schools and
colleges follow. . . . The layout of the syllabuses in this country
for institutions is more or less the same. "50
Secondary school physical education. As indicated above there was some concern in the secondary schools for the level of skill pro
ficiency achieved in primary school. Evidently, when students entered
secondary school they were expected to have achieved a particular level
of skill performance.
The secondary school physical education program was organized
so that students experienced a variety of skills in gymnastics, games,
track and field, and dance. A great deal of emphasis was placed on
achievement. It was felt that maximum benefit and enjoyment were
possible only when the individual desired to achieve high standards of
performance. "People enjoy the things they do best." In secondary
schools, at least two physical education classes are taught per week.
As was the case on the primary level, physical education was supposed
to be taught with specific goals in mind and for the same length of
time as other subjects, forty minutes per class. Class size was not to
exceed forty students at a given time. Unlike the primary schools,
students were expected to change into a uniform for physical education
on letter from ¥. Ndonye. 176 classes. To save time it was recommended that students change clothes either before school, during a break or at the end of a session. It was further recommended that the changing room be near the activity : 51
The Inspector of Physical Education along with the panel of physical education experts from the Kenya Institute of Education are responsible for developing the secondary school syllabus. Contents of the syllabus w ill be discussed below.
The methodology employed for teaching physical education in secondary schools was very basic and can be described in the following way. Tell the students how (explanation); show them how (demonstration); let them try and find out (participation); and test them (evaluation) .52
The investigator will briefly discuss some of the highlights of each of the above methods of teaching.
a. Before explaining the lesson content, students should be comfortable and paying attention. Before teaching tradi tional dances, teachers should have a knowledge of their background and the reason for their origin. Teachers should be thoroughly familiar with games before attempting to teach them. Explanation should be brief, utilizing a vocabulary suitable for the age-group. Do not review all of the rules before starting to play. Inject them gradually. Each child is different; try different methods.
b. Demonstrations are used to motivate and to illustrate a skill, step or pattern. Demonstrations should be done well even if it means having a student do it. Keep at the students’ level and lim it further explanation and the number of questions.
S. A. Jeneby, "Physical Education in Secondary Schools (Girls and Boys)" (Nairobi: Ministry of Education, 1967, p. 1. (Mimeograph.)
52"Ministry of Education, "Physical Education Syllabus,"p. 2. c. The greatest amount of time should be spent in parti cipation by the student and teacher. For maximum participation the class should be divided into groups of six or eight. Maximum participation enhances the enjoyment factor and minimizes disciplinary problems. Homogeneous groups lends to successful participation. Four line formations are taboo because they are m ilitaristic and not educational. The t e a c h e r's voice should be c le a r b u t commands such as "1 , 2, 3, 4" should not be given. One should say: "Let's try this? or can you do this?" Finish the participation phase while the student is at a high level of enjoyment and interest.
d. The evaluation phase should help teachers and student- teachers realize the contribution of physical education to the goals of education. Students should be evaluated to determine their level of physical, emotional, and social skills. The program should be evaluated on student achievement, time allotted, proper utilization of facilities and equipment, and health and s a f e t y . ^3
In 1967, physical performance tests were developed by each
teacher and were given to boys and girls at the secondary levels during the first y e a r . 34 Structured performance evaluations had not been fully developed, but those used were concentrated in the areas of
sports skills proficiency. Records were kept of primary and secondary
school students’ progress in various game-playing positions and other
duties that they performed. The other duties for which students were
evaluated consisted of the distribution, collection, and storing of
equipment. Physical fitness testing as it is known in the United States
was not conducted in the schools. Such testing bordered on the mass
33ninistry of Education, "Physical Education Syllabus," pp. 3-5.
^^ICHPER, P h y sical E ducation in th e School Curriculum , P a rt I , p. 46. calisthenics so prevalent during colonialism and the beginning of self- government.^^
The 1963 ICHPER Report indicated that there were no physical performance tests at the time of independence.^^
The secondary school curriculum as indicated in the 1970 syllabus was greatly improved since the 1967-68 ICHPER Report was made.
In the 1967-68 report developed by ICHPER, it showed that boys were exposed to all major and minor British games and girls participated in rounders, netball, hockey, volleyball, swimming, and modern and tribal dancing. In 1963, a sim ilar ICHPER study reported only physical education e x e 'c is e s and games of a l l kinds.The 1970 sy llab u s included the following activities :
a. Gymnastics with and without apparatus for individuals, partners, and groups.
b. Team games: soccer, field hockey, netball, rounders, volleyball, basketball, cricket, softball, and rugby; individual games: badminton, tennis, squash, table-tennis, quoit-tennis; group games: skittle ball, stool ball, keep the basket full, long ball, hand ball, change mat ball, one way goal, non-stop cricket, attack and counter, puck hockey, ring the stick, Danish rounders, change hockey, heading tunnel ball rounders, dodge ball, team passing, and free team volleyball.
c. Track and field: sprinting, middle distance, and long distance running, hurdling and steeplechase, weight throwing, jumping events, cross-country running, decathlon and pentathlon.
55Jeneby, "Physical Education: Primary Schools," pp. 2-3.
56ICHPER, P a rt I , p. 46.
57ic h per, P a rt I , p. 46. d. Swimo-ing: I t was recommended th a t schools attem pt to develop and improve facilities for swimming through "self- help" schemes. Program; water confidence practice; pool hygiene; strokes, personal survival; elementary life-saving resuscitation.
e. Dance: tribal and folk; modern educational dance.
f. Other aspects of physical education: rock, hill, and mountain climbing; hiking; camping; canoeing, sailing and rowing; outward bound scheme; boxing, karate, judo and w r e s tlin g .58
In his correspondence with the w riter, Ndonye mentioned that
African games do exist. However, participation in such activities was discouraged during colonialism. Although many of the games are not used as much today, there is a vigorous effort to revive them. The names of the games are in tribal language. As far as instruments are concerned each tribe has its own equipment and instruments for its games and dances, and Ndonye stated that descriptions of them would be difficult. There are no unifying elements between the various tribal games and dances.
It was only recently that students in African research realized the broader implications of music and dance as a basis for social science studies relative to education. Although it would seem important,
the actual training of musicians or dancers in African schools was rela
tively unknown. Stimulation of dance programs and activities in general
in the schools w ill have to come from the teacher training colleges.
Whole areas of the physical education curriculum could be developed
around folk dancing and music. These areas of study have historical and
58ninistry of Education, "Physical Education Syllabus," pp. 6-7.
59sased on letter from W. Ndonye. 180 geographical significance, and oral accounts could be exchanged and recorded to include an interesting dimension in the physical education experience. Comparative cultural studies could be of extreme value in the search for common denominators in Kenya using dance as just one approach. More attention needs to be devoted to all forms of African art at all levels as an integral phase of the educational process for cultural pride and nation-building. In view of the natural abilities and the reservoir of material at one's disposal, music and dance should be emphasized in Kenya. Provided music and dance are treated with a certain degree of exactitude, one "should be able to note acculturative processes, trace migration, chart distributions, study variations, and undertake other kinds of problems with an extremely high degree of certainty.Modern forms of tribal dancing were recollections of inherited tradition and, at the same time, an expression of the contem porary spirit. "The use of such modern developments of traditional artistic forms in education is entirely in line with the dual role of
education to 'initiate' children into the inherited spirit of the past
and at the same time to prepare them for the demands of the present and
the future.
A system of physical education specialist teachers has not been
implemented. When such a specialist is teaching at a school, he should
be responsible for coordinating the program of physical education with
assistance from other regular school teachers. Physical education is a
^®Alan Merriam, "Music and Dance," The African World, ed. Robert Lystad, p. 459.
^^Govemment of Kenya, Education Commission Report, 1964, p. 41. 181
required course in. the preparation of teachers. If a specialist is not available, the responsibility should be assumed by an enthusiastic
teacher who is willing to plan the lessons and organize varsity teams
after school h o u r s . assist the teachers, books were made avail
able from Great Britain and the United States Peace C orps.A l i s t
of references recommended for secondary school physical education
classes by the Ministry of Education can be found in Appendix (B).
Organized primary and secondary school sports programs. The
organized sports program in the schools is conducted after normal
school hours, 4:00-5:00 P.M. and on Saturday mornings where it is
possible.Interscholastic sports competition is encouraged on all
levels, even in the primary schools. In 1967, with the exception of
the boarding schools, there was not much organized sports activity after
school hours.However, Jeneby stated that some primary schools had
organized competitive teams, and he encouraged interscholastic games at
all cost. If in a given location there were' a group of schools without
teams, the school and county education officers were advised to meet
and consider ways of beginning such competition. Parents and other
people who had sports reputations were encouraged to help with the
training and organizing of interscholastic competition. It was
Jeneby, "Physical Education in Secondary Schools," p. 1.
63 ic h per, P a rt I . p. 46.
^^Based on letter from W. Ndonye; see also James R. Sheffield, Education in the Republic of Kenya (Washington: U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1971), p. 69.
65'ICHPER, Part I . p. 46. suggested by Jeneby that provincial sports officers and community development officers be approached to lend assistance in the primary and secondary school sports programs. Often the primary school
competition took the form of physical education displays.
A form of competition, most likely unique to developing coun
tries like Kenya, was mentioned by Jeneby. He stated that:
Inter-School competitions should also include competitions in equipment making. This w ill give both teachers and pupils an incentive to prove their marked skill in adapting local materials and thereby improve the general standards of equipment....67
Most of the emphasis was placed on interscholastic sports
competition on the secondary level. According to Jeneby, well-organized
competition was expected at this level. The competition began on the
inter-form and inter-house levels. This was comparable to the intra mural level in the United States. Next came the interscholastic
meetings within a certain location followed by divisional competition.
Each province would have championship meets in all sports before going
on to the inter-provincial sports meetings. . All of the above activities
would be culminated in the national championships.6^ The calen d ar of
events in each sport was drawn up and distributed to all schools.
Dependent upon an individual’s ability and his school’s level of
organization, he was given opportunities to represent his school,
province, and possibly the nation.
66Jeneby, "Physical Education: Primary School," p. 3.
67Jeneby, "Physical Education; Primary School," p. 3.
68’ICHPER,- Part I , p. 46; see also Jeneby, "Physical Education in Secondary Schools," p. 1. 183
According to Ndonye, the secondary schools formed a national athletic association called the Kenya Secondary Schools Sports
Association. The Kenya Secondary Schools Sports Association is respon sible for national competition in all sports activities. Each province has membership in the Provincial Secondary Schools Sports Council whose responsibility it is to set all inter-provincial championships.^^ Each provincial sports council is responsible for all secondary sports
activities within its province. Most of the secondary scholastic
competition includes soccer, basketball, cricket, boxing, track and
field, and field hockey. The 1967 Provincial Secondary Schools Sports
Councils are listed in Appendix (C). The results of the girls and boys
1966 Inter-Provincial Secondary Schools Athletic Championships are in
Appendix (D) and (E) respectively.
In 1963, there was very little inter-school competition. Each
school conducted out-of-doors programs in dance, soccer, volleyball,
n e tb a l l, ro u n d ers, and some f ie l d hockey.
Although most level of government—local, provincial, and
national—support physical education and sports programs more philo
sophically than financially, the national government does provide annual
grants for school sports programs. Whitfield also stated that because
of national priorities, the government often gives more verbal than
financial support.
^^Based on letter from Ndonye.
^®Based on l e t t e r from Ndonye; see a lso ICHPER, P a rt I , p. 46.
71 ic HPER, P a rt I , p. 46. 184
In spite of the problems, the competition and school spirit has the potential of unifying and bringing people closer together.
Expanding this to competition within and between the provinces in Kenya has stimulated the exchange of ideas and culture which in turn creates a better understanding of these diverse areas. Kenya desperately needs
this welding together of its people. In 1967-68, the organized sports program throughout the country in the secondary schools was hailed as
the most significant accomplishment in Kenya's physical education program. Provincial level primary interscholastic sports was considered
for the future.^72
Facilities and equipment. Facilities for physical education
and sports on all levels have been inadequate. The lack of facilities has had adverse effects on the programs. In spite of the limited
facilities, programs continued to develop. This was due in part to the
ability of teachers to improvise.It was not uncommon for students
and staff to make equipment for physical education classes. It was
also suggested that equipment could be made in the local prison indus
try. In fact, it was "recommended that pupils who were unable to
participate in physical education should be made responsible for
repairing equipment."74 Teachers had the responsibility for providing
.storage space for equipment and for training students to distribute.
72ich per, P a rt I , p. 47.
^^Based on letter from Ndonye.
74jeneby, "Physical Education: Primary School," p. 2. 185 collect, and store the equipment. The equipment was stored near the teach in g statio n .In the s p i r i t of s e lf -h e lp —Harambee—some lo c a l communities built their own facilities such as swimming pools and running tracks. Ndonye stated that efforts by the government and indus try were being made to create more facilities. He also stated that the
Kenyan climate does not necessitate the building of gymnasia. The facilities needed most were swimming pools, tennis courts, squash courts, and running tracks.^6
Architect F. B. Scriven, in a very recent study prepared for
UNESCO, offered some insight into the problem of school physical educa tion facilities in developing countries which is applicable to Kenya.
Because of the introduction of many western oriented games to tropical regions, most countries find it difficult to enjoy these activities without specially constructed facilities. This venture when undertaken creates problems for the less economically developed countries.
Scriven's "study is aimed at encouraging developing countries to make better use of local sporting traditionals and locally available m a te ria ls .
Scriven cited the following problems as those that often made the construction of school physical education facilities in developing countries prohibitive ;
^^Jeneby, "Physical Education: Primary School," p. 2.
^^Based on letter from Ndonye.
^^F. B. Scriven, Sports Facilities for Schools in Developing Countries (Paris: UNESCO, 1973), p. 3.
^%criven, p. 3. 186
1. The lack of money now and in the foreseeable future is a major problem. Although developing countries spend a disproportionate amount of the national budget on education—Kenya, one-third—physical education facilities, if even considered, have a very low priority.
The physical education facilities presently in use are those built during colonialism. Scriven stated that:
It has been estimated that 15 percent of every dollar spent on schools in the U.S.A. is spent on facilities for physical education and sport. Spending in the developing countries is way behind this figure; it would be surprising i f many of them spent more than 1 p e rc e n t.
Officials at the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) were unable to recall a single case where they had financed a school gymnasium or swimming pool. They stated that it was not their policy to finance gymnasiums unless they doubled as cafeterias or auditoriums. Officials at the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) rep eated th e same s to r y .
In the future, some governments might finance facilities for sports in school as a means of encouraging the production of athletes capable of winning international awards and Olympic gold me dais.
Other possible sources of revenue might be lotteries, sports pools,
commercial sponsorship, and promoting sports along with tourism.
More about these sources of revenue w ill be discussed under sport as an industry. The fact of the matter is that in developing countries
school physical education facilities expenditures are not the best
use of national resources. 81
^^Scriven, p. 19.
®^Scriven, p. 20.
81,■Scriven, p. 20. 187
2. The lack of physical education specialists pose a major obstacle in developing countries. The problems of facilities and staff go hand in hand, one should not be solved without the other being remedied. Facilities without staff or staff without facilities can be equally frustrating.
3. There exists an inadequate appreciation of the objectives of physical education in developing countries. Before building facilities in developing countries, it is essential to know how physical education and sports contribute to national development.
4. There is a lack of appreciation of the historic and social differences in developed and developing countries. As a result programs
and facilities are predicated on inappropriate foreign models.
5. The limited view of physical education often puts too much emphasis on the traditional types of facilities rather than the
inclusion of the natural environment.
6. The lack of technical information on the structure of
physical education facilities in the tropics is a problem.
7. To a large degree the climate dictates the kind of
facilities that should be built. For example there is little need in
tropical climates for the enclosed gymnasium such as in the more
temperate zones. It is possible to conduct most physical education
classes out-of-doors except when it is raining.
®2scriven, pp. 3, 14-28. 188
Teacher Education
Teacher training for Africans did not have an official beginning.
Establishing a calendar date for its inception is difficult. European and Asian educational institutions of learning in Kenya did not have the issue or problems of supplying teachers to contend with because they virere imported. However, with an entirely foreign educational system superimposed on the African society, it was evident from the beginning that expatriates alone could not do the job. Missionaries could not have truly understood the magnitude of their undertaking—the introduc tion and education of an African society to the ways of Western tradition. The colonial government's initial aid to teacher training took place in 1918. Meager as it was it represented the first such aid to indigenous teachers.
African teachers emerged rather unostentatiously. One might say that first they received on-the-job training while they themselves were students. If they learned rapidly, they were singled out to help o th e rs . P ro ficien cy in th e th re e "R 's" was im p o rtan t, and i f one was fairly articulate this was in one's favor; communication could now be established between the missionary and those who had little or no proficiency. The new "leader" served as the mission's agent in the
campaign against both ungodliness and illiteracy. Often the self-
taught turned out to be the teachers. Others started as members of
evangelizing teams and in order to understand the new magic, reading
and writing were necessary. Egotistically speaking, many were spurred
83Kenya Colony and Protectorate, African Education in Kenya (Nairobi: Government Printer, 1949), p. 3. 189 on because of the prestige that went along with the teaching position.
Usually, that was about where the personal gains ended. Ayany, a
Kenyan tea c h e r who came up through the ran k s, s ta te d th a t the 35 cents a month bordered dangerously on nothing at all.®^ Despite the unsat isfactory conditions, teachers gave freely of their time and were very enthusiastic about their work. Ayany gave a further description of the character of the first African teachers :
He was also simple, unsophisticated and undemanding. He believed in being compensated in the next world; he dreamt no dreams of a teachers organization. For close to two decades he shouldered his community responsibility as religious instructor, leader, and consultant in matters that came between his community and his white friends, but remained virtually unnoticed and unrecognized by the Government.
It is safe to say that early teacher training was conducted informally on a day-to-day in-service training basis. The first teacher training programs began in 1926 at the Alliance High School and at the Church of Scotland Mission, both in the Kikuyu area. The first four lower Primary Teachers' Certificates were issued to Africans in
1927^86 Although these teachers held unique positions of responsibility
their training was woefully inadequate. Some of these teachers were in
the vanguard spearheading the opening of the Kikuyu Independent School
Association (KISA).
The outbreak of World Ware II found approximately a dozen or
more teacher training centers in Kenya and a Primary Teacher's
^^S. G. Ayany, "The Future of the African Teacher," Panorama, Teaching Throughout the World, I (Winter, 1959), p. 18.
Ayany, "Future of the African Teacher," p. 18.
®^Peter King, "The Development of Teacher Training in Kenya," paper presented for the Kenya Institute of Education, Nairobi, Kenya, July 23, 1964, p. 1. 190
Certificate had been added to the lower primary qualification. The number of new teachers rose to about 40 per year. Tribal languages were taught in the primary (lower) and Swahili was taught in the inter mediate (upper). Toward the end of the war output of teachers increased.By and large, the training schools were isolated from one another. This arrangement worked a tremendous hardship on those responsible for administration. The isolation of the centers was difficult to prevent because the policy of teaching in the tribal
(vernacular) language meant that there had to be more centers to accommodate the variety. With so few teachers each would end up teaching an extremely wide range of subject matter.
In 1957, attempts were made to consolidate the training schools and coordinate their efforts. This was partially successful for in
1964, a reduction policy was implemented and there was a decrease in the number of schools, from forty-four to thirty-five.^®
In 1969, there were twenty-four primary and two secondary teachers' colleges in Kenya.The Ministry of Education's policy of reducing the number of primary teachers' colleges continued to be implemented and in 1971, another college was closed. By 1974, it has been projected that six more primary teachers' colleges w ill be
87King, "Teacher Training in Kenya," p. 1.
®®King, "Teacher Training in Kenya" p. 2.
89Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Education, Annual Report, 1969 (Nairobi; Government Printer, 1970), p. 9. 191 phased out, leaving seventeen.^® Appendix (F) lists all existing primary teachers’ colleges.
There are two secondary teachers' colleges, Kenya Science
Teachers College and Kenyatta College. Kenyatta College is located in
Nairobi in the spacious facilities of a former British army barracks.
The facilities were turned over to the Government in December 1964.
Most of the secondary school teachers are prepared at Kenyatta College.
However, in 1969, of the eighty-six instructors at the college, only twelve were Kenyan.
The Kenya Science Teachers' College (KSTC) for secondary teachers was established in 1966 and is located eight miles west of Nairobi.
Sweden i s the d riv in g fo rce behind KSTC. Sweden c o n trib u te d n in ety p e r
cent of the four million dollar capital cost, pays seventy percent of the
college's recurrent expenditures until 1975, and staffs the college.
In 1960, there were 4,089 students in training colleges in Kenya.
In 1971, the enrollment in all teachers' training colleges totalled
8,628.^^ In 1971, teacher education was geared towards meeting the
demands for primary and secondary school teachers brought on by the
^^Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Education Annual Report, 1971 (Nairobi; Government Printer, 1972), p. 12.
91sheffield, p. 34.
^^Government of Kenya, Ministry of Education Annual Report, 1970 (Nairobi: Government Printer, 1971), p. 9.
93sheffield, p. 34.
■p. 71. 192 increased student enrollment. The increased emphasis was also aimed at reducing the number of unqualified teacher and expatriate teachers.
Legal responsibility for teacher education. The Ministry of
Education is legally responsible for the coordination of teacher education. The primary task of the teacher education section is to find ways of staffing educational institutions with qualified instructors.
The selection of students for the teachers' colleges is predicated on the school enrollment in any given district. This procedure is very logical because it helps ensure an equitable distribution of staff to all districts.^96
Qualifications for entry into Teachers’ College. Teacher
education preparation can begin after all levels of formal education.
After the completion of seven years of primary school, some of the
students who are not selected to go to secondary school are permitted
to enter primary teacher training college. After two years of training,
they become P3 teachers in the lower standards of the primary schools.
The P3 level is being phased out because the volume of more qualified
teachers is increasing.The number of places available in primary
teachers' college for primary school leavers was reduced in 1971.^^
^Government of Kenya, Ministry of Education, Annual Report, 1971, p. 10.
^Government of Kenya, Ministry of Education, Annual Report, 1970, P* ^^Ministry of Education, Educational Structure, p. 28.
^Government of Kenya, Ministry of Education, Annual Report, 1970, p. 11. 193
Candidates who complete form four of secondary school are permitted to enter primary teachers’ college and after two years, they are qualified as teachers to work in the upper standards of primary school. If they happened to have done well on the East African
Certificate of Education Examination (EACE), the candidates have the
option to take a three-year teacher training course which qualifies
them to teach the lower forms in secondary schools. Students completing
form six of secondary school and the East African Advanced Certificate
of Education Examination can take one year of secondary teacher
training. This qualifies a person to also teach in the lower secondary
school. At the University of Nairobi and Kenyatta College a compre
hensive Bachelor of Education course qualifies one to teach in the
upper forms of secondary school.
Opportunities for teacher education preparation were scarce
for technical teachers and teachers for the handicapped.
Professional preparation for physical education. In 1967,
Kenyatta College became the first college to offer a specialization in
physical education. Requirements for selection included the highest
primary teaching certificate—four years of secondary school and two
years of primary teachers' college—experience, and a strong recom
mendation from one’s employer.The specialist training in physical
^^Ministry of Education, Educational Structure, pp. 28-29.
^®%inistry of Education, Educational Structure, p. 29.
^Government of Kenya, I-tinistry of Education, Annual Report, 1970, p. 8. 194 education was started on an experimental basis to prepare African teachers to take over from the foreign teachers. The specialization was for one year and qualified teachers for the secondary schools.
In 1969, there were twenty-two students enrolled in the specialist course.
According to the 1967-68 ICHPER Report, a specialized profes sional curriculum was established at Kenyatta College.However,
Ndonye, in his correspondence with the writer indicated that the curriculum was under revision and not available. Theoretically, all
Kenyan teachers received training in physical education as a part of their general preparation. In fact, physical education courses are required for teaching in the schools. Kenyatta College was selected as the site for the physical education specialist program primarily because of the facilities. The facilities include a modern gymnasium, swimming p o o l, and ex ten siv e play f ie ld s . Most of th e lib r a r y resources are of British and American origin.
Research in physical education is almost non-existent. Most of the manpower and other resources are utilized in the on-going programs for students. Possibly a joint effort with another department, such as anthropology or physiology, might be a way of initiating some meaningful research. Velzian raised an interesting subject that, if researched.
^^^ICHPER, Teacher T raining fo r P h y sical E ducation, P a rt I I , p. 55.
lOScovernment of Kenya, M inistry of Education, Annual Report, 1969, p. 12.
'^ICHPER, Part I I , p. 56. 195 would lend considerably to the physical education body of knowledge.
Velzian's cursory analysis of body type, diet, and environment and their relationship to participation in certain sports activities could be developed into a significant research project 106
Professional organizations and status. According to Ndonye,
in the early part of 1973, Kenyan physical educators were about to establish a professional association. Before the inception of the physical education specialist program at Kenyatta Teacher Training
College, there was not a cadre of "pure" physical educators. There were a number of people interested in physical education, but they were also loyal to other disciplines. The proposed professional
physical educators association is very timely. The main purpose of
the organization will be to advise the Ministry of Education on matters
of improving programs of physical education.The relationship
between physical educators and the Ministry of Education is wholesome.
The group w ill meet periodically to discuss problems and issues of
common concern. It is hoped that a professional journal w ill be pub
lished in order to better communicate information pertinent to the
profession. The above efforts will improve the status of physical
education in Kenya.- 109
lOÊQuoted in M artin Kane, "A Very Welcome R edcoat," pp. 80-81.
^^^ICHPER, S tatu s of Teachers of P h y sica l E ducation, P a r t I I (Washington: ICHPER, 1969), p. 77.
^O^Based on letter from W. Ndonye. 196
In 1967-68, most of the physical education specialists taught
on the secondary school level, and they were expatriates who were
trained overseas. They were accorded full faculty status, but because
they were foreign they were not permitted to provide much input into
the formation of educational policies and program development. It was
felt that graduates from the Kenyan physical education specialists program would achieve full faculty status and be integrally involved
in policy formation and program development.^^®
Physical educators participate in international organizations
through the Ministry of Education. The Ministry is a member of UNESCO,
WCOTP, and ICHPER.
All Kenyan teachers receive salary based on the same salary
scale. Educational attainment and experience determine individual
salaries. In-service training and short-term courses were available
for overseas teachers only.
Organized sports program. In addition to the required physical
education program that all prospective teachers take as a part of their
preparation, teacher training colleges have organized sports programs.
The Kenya Teacher Training College Sports Association governs all
intercollegiate sports competition. The Association is responsible for
the conduct of national competition and provincial teacher college
associations are affiliated with the national body.^^^ The first
•^•*-^ICHPER, Status of Teachers of Physical Education, Part III, 17. ------
llllCHPER, Part III, pp. 33, 87. 197 national intercollegiate athletic tournament was held at Kitale in 1968 between the following teacher training colleges; Eregi, Masoriot,
organ of the Kenya Institute of Education, many references were made to a variety of physical education activities. Some of those reported included special demonstrations, co-educational activities, intra-mural acitivties, athletic practice sessions, and intercollegiate contests.
When he was the Inspector of Physical Education, Jeneby published an article discussing the organizational make-up of a school sports day.
The key to the success of the program was long-term and detailed planning.Jeneby's plan is reproduced in Appendix (G).
Teachers' union. Prior to World War II, attempts were made to organize teachers, but tribalism and religious differences did not permit them to survive. During most of the Mau Mau Emergency, most
Africans were not permitted to meet in groups larger than three. This prevented teachers from organizing to improve the conditions in the schools. By 1957, a semblance of order had returned to Kenya and teachers were permitted to meet. The Kenya National Union of Teachers
(KNUT) was formed in 1938.^^^ The purpose of the KNUT has been to:
1 ) improve the socio-economic status of teachers and 2 ) to improve the
ll^Teachers' College News, August, 1968, p. 37.
^^^Teachers' College News, August, 1968, pp. 32-37.
^^^A. S. Jeneby, "Preparing for the School Sports Day," Kenya Education Journal, II (January, 1964), pp. 22-24.
H^Job K. B. Rob, "KNUT President's Message," The Kenya Teacher, I (October, 1966), p. 4. 198 professional efficiency of teachers. In 1958, there were 30,000 members and the first official journal for the organization was published in
October of that year. The Kenya Teacher, as the journal was named, served to communicate vital information between teachers all over Kenya and matters under discussion between the Ministry of Education and
KNUT.^^^ Those p h y sic a l education s p e c i a li s ts , lik e a l l teach ers who wish to become members of KNUT, are subsequently represented by the organization.
The first strike took place in October, 1965. The strike issues were more money, better housing, better working conditions, and improved benefits. Many of the KNUT officials were jailed. Some teachers refused to join the union which prompted alienation action against the non-union teachers. It was decided in conference that all b e n e fits and rew ards won through union n e g o tia tio n s would go to members only. It was also proposed that union membership be required before professional membership.
In 1959, KNUT became a member of th e World C onfederation of
Organizations of the Teaching Profession (WCOTP). Stephen J. Kioni was the first General Secretary of KNUT. He later became the third
person from the African continent to be elected to the WCOTP Executive
Committee and was the first African to be re-elected for a second term.
Nairobi became a WCOTP sub-office. 119
^^^Rob, "KNUT Presidents's Message," p. 4.
^^®Job K. B. Rob, "Job Rob's Reply to P re sid e n t K en y atta's Message," The Kenya Teacher. I (October, 1966), p. 8.
119"The World Greets KNUT," The Kenya Teacher, October, 1966, p. 6. In a speech, prepared by President Kenyatta for the Eighth
Annual Delegates Conference of KNUT in 1966, he described the two-fold
task for Kenya's educators as:
1. To inculcate knowledge in the basic skills of communication and understanding which are essential to an educated work force. The education which we give our children must fit them for the employment opportunities in our so c ie ty . The tim e has long p a st when the h e ig h t of a school boy's ambition was to be a clerk in a Government office. . . . The attention of the young needs to be drawn to the occupations where they can best contribute to our Nation's progress.
Farming shares with teaching the pride of place among our national professions. . . . We need educated farmers just as much as we need educated technicians.
2. To provide the psychological climate for national unity. For the present generation the national struggle for freedom has provided a force for unity. To maintain this unity, on which the integrity of our nation depends, the next generation must develop a deep sense of national pride and loyalty from infancy. The feeling of national integration must be embodied in our culture.
In a reply to President Kenyatta's message, Rob, KNUT president,
stated that teachers were not involved in planning the nation's
education. Teachers' salaries were not high enough, but they should be
the highest in the nation, especially since many ministers and parents
have said that teaching is a noble profession. Rob further suggested
that all key education positions be given to citizens because such
positions are not given to non-citizens in other parts of the world.
120 Nyamweya, "Message from Mzee K enyatta, The Kenya Teacher. I (October, 1966), pp. 5, 16, 19.
^^^Rob, "Job Rob's Reply," pp. 8-9. There were no restrictions placed on teachers, including physical education specialist, to join teachers' organizations and
other educational groups.
As a result of organizing a viable body from which meaningful
deliberation and action came, African teachers were better prepared
to work out some of the problems. One such problem was the different
salaries and conditions of service between Africans, Asians and
Europeans purely on the basis of race.
Studying to be a teacher did not have the prestige of pursuing
higher education. Nonetheless, it was and s till is extremely vital to
the growth of Kenya. Unfortunately or fortunately which ever way one
sees it, the best teachers often left their positions for more
lucrative and responsible positions. The Government administration
took its share. In 1959, 78 percent of the African legislators
were former teachers. In every walk of life the teacher is respected,
resourceful and indispensable.
122ICHPER, P a rt I I , p. 6 8.
^^^Ayany, "Future of African Teacher," pp. 19-20; see also S. H. M. Jones, Survey of the Status of the Teaching Profession in Africa, A Report to the World Confederation of Organizations of the Teaching Profession (Washington: May 13 to November 11, 1961), pp. 45-51. CHAPTER V III
GOVEEMMENT-SPONSORED SPORTS PROGRAMS
UNITED STATES IMPACT ON KENYA
Government-sponsored sports programs are directed by the
Division of Sports in the Department of Community Development and
Social Services which in turn is a branch of the Ministry of Co operatives and Social Services. The Department of Social Services was established in 1963. As in the education system there exists a certain amount of centralization and control of sports in the
Government.^ The governing body for sports programs in the Division of Sports is the Kenya National Sports Council (KNSC). The KNSC was established in January, 1966. In essence, the KNSC usurped the role and power of the original voluntary amateur sports organizers.^ The development of amateur sports in Kenya outside of the schools began in the early days of the colonial period. However, most organized activity was reserved for the settler population. Before and after independence, sports clubs and leagues were organized and with the
enfranchisement of the masses of Kenyans after the inception of self- rule, the clubs and leagues rapidly increased. The Kenya Amateur
S e rv ic e s, Department of Community Development and S o cial S e rv ic e s ' Annual Report, 1969 (Nairobi; Government Printer, 1971), p. 22.
^"Talking Sport," Kenya Sports Review, March, 1966, p. 2.
201 202
Athletic Association (KAAA), whose responsibility it was to supervise
amateur sports, could not realistically satisfy the financial needs of
the sports programs. Because of the growth and lack of coordination, money, facilities, equipment, and coaching the sports groups were at
the mercy of the voluntary and inexperienced organizers. Everyone was
"doing their own thing." But the financial woes crippled plans to move Kenya ahead in the world of sports. With the increased interest
and chaos keeping pace with each other, the Government experienced
difficulty in determining how and where to fund the programs. In the
early days of independence priorities were being established and sports
did not have a high ranking. It should be understood that expenditures
of money m eant, a t th e l e a s t , some say in th e o p e ra tio n of th e programs
and, at the most, control. In 1966, the latter approach was taken by
the Government.
Senator Nathan Munoko, Assistant Minister for the then. Housing
(Co-operatives) and Social Services, stated that "Kenya is now entering
a new e ra ; i t i s an e ra in which we a re moving from th e E ast A frican
Calendar to the international field of success.The establishment of
the KNSC meant that all sports would be financially backed by
Government.^ The purpose of the KNSC is to promote and co-ordinate all
sports at the national, provincial and district levels. Raising stan
dards of competition, coaching, and facilities have been the major tasks
of the council. It was felt by the KNSC that facilities, especially
^"Talking Sports," Kenya Sports Review, p. 2.
^"Talking Sports," Kenya Sports Review, p. 2. 203
for track and field, would encourage competition that would produce
more Keinos and Kipruguts and others who had put Kenya on the world sports map. In 1966, the issue of building a national stadium was discussed both by the KAAA and the KNSC. The National Playing Field
Association in Britain was consulted to gain insight into building the national stadium and playing fields throughout Kenya.^
By 1967, Ronald G. Ngala had become the îlinister of Co-operatives
and Social Services and also President of the Kenya National Sports
C ouncil. N g ala's new ro le s gives one some in d ic a tio n of th e in creased
centralization of control of sports by the Government. This was accom
p lish ed in an atm osphere of m ajor re-o rg a n iz a tio n . The f i r s t woman,
Elisabeth Pash, President of the Kenya Netball Association, was elected
to the KNSC, in 1967. Once again, it was reiterated that more
responsibility would be shifted to the KNSC from the voluntary agencies.
Ngala tried to assure his audience at the 1967 annual meeting of the
KNSC that the Government did not want to interfere with the untiring
efforts of the voluntary organizations and that the sports situation
in Kenya had to be straightened out. Ngala warned the audience when
he s a id :
Sport being what it is , it can be used for several other purposes, and as such . . . the policy of the country must be considered in relation to those of other African countries when making decisions as to whether a foreign team should be allowed in our country and, for that matter, when our teams should play outside of Kenya.
Approval for teams leaving or visiting the country w ill, in future, be considered on merit by the Kenya National Sports Council and also after having convinced the Council
"Talking Sports," Kenya Sports Review, p. 2. that neither the Government nor the organizations concerned would be embarrassed by such v isits.^
Ngala commended the v o lu n tary o rg an izatio n s and c re d ite d them with the progress that Kenya had made in international sports competi tion. In order to gain even more international recognition, Ngala felt that four problems had to be resolved.
1 . sport facilities comparable to those found elsewhere in the w orld.
2 . necessary equipment.
3. , technical staff to teach the skills.
4. a show of interest and love of sports by participants.^
Ngala further stated that sports had an important role to play in the development of one's personality. The educational implications of sports as well as its cultural and social aspects, mean that those responsible for sport programs must in still, "an absolute respect for that spirit which gives sporting activities their nobility and moral value." Ngala asked everyone to work in the spirit of "Harambee" because "Here in Kenya, we have participants who, given the courage and motivation, could do better than those whose countries have been in the field of International Sports for a longer period than Kenya.
6"Ngala " N j Addresses KNSC-New O fficials for Council " Kenya Sports Review, June, 1967, p. 6.
^"Ngala Address," Kenya Sports Review, p. 6. 205 Government Financial Support
In 1956, the Government spent approximately $60,000 on sports
programs. This amount included facilities, equipment, travel, staff,
and many other expenditures. By United States standards it is not very much but considering other priorities and services provided by the
Government, it was quite a lot.^ In 1967, the Government, through the
Kenya National Sport Council, gave approximately $22,000 for the devel
opment of sports.The Central Province received approximately $6,000
from the KNSC to assist in the promotion of sports.How much of the money in 1966 and 1967 was originally unbudgeted and allocated for
sport program was not known. However, the 1969 report of the Ministry
of Co-operatives and Social Services stated that the Government's
"annual grant" to sports was approximately $9,000. At that time, the
Division of Sports recommended that the amount be increased to $15,000
to enable the division to improve existing facilities and other
development. The Divisions of Youth and Sports were to receive top
p r io r ity in 1968. O ther recommendations th a t were made in th e 1969
annual report to improve the quality of programs included:
1 . the employment of district sports supervisors by the central government.
^"Ngala Address," Kenya Sports Review, p. 6.
^^Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Co-operatives and Social Services, Department of Community Development and Social Services Annual Report 1967 (Nairobi: Government Printer, 1967), p. 13.
^^"Sports News from the Provinces," Kenya Sports Review. June, 1967, p. 13. 2. the promotion of sports by the KNSC through the entire country rather than only in selected areas.
3. the hiring of more qualified coaches in all sports.
4. the upgrading of the salary structure for the officers of the division in order to attract professionally and academically qualified pe r sonnel.
In 1967, the staff size was increased from seven to nine with the help of the voluntary associations of the various sp o rts.In
1969, A. Jeneby, the first Inspector of Physical Education after independence, was appointed to the Division of Sports, bringing the staff total to ten.^^ Jeneby moved on to a new position in one of
Kenya’s breweries in 1972.
Self-Help Sport Projects
The self-help concept—groups initiating useful projects in their community—continued to increase and intensify, especially in new areas of the country. Procedurally, community development workers were supposed to make certain that projects were properly organized and planned before they were started. This was not always possible because of the shortage of staff and the projects were so numerous.
A project was said to be successful if the self-help group: 1) was involved in the project, from start to finish; 2 ) was e le c te d from its constituency; 3) was meeting regularly; and 4) put the project to
^^Republic of Kenya, Social Services Annual Report, 1969, p. 24.
^^Republic of Kenya, Social Services Annual Report, 1967, p . 13.
^^Republic of Kenya, S ocial Services Annual Report, 1969, p. 23. 207 use after completion. The population, through self-help or Harambee, is Kenya's chief resource.The extent to which Operation Crossroads
Africa^^ had an impact on the development of the concept of self-help in Kenya is not known. However, one of the major thrusts of Crossroads has been to encourage African people to lead in the development of their countries. Some of Kenya's present leaders who worked closely with Crossroads in the past were the Minister of Foreign Affairs,
Njoroge Mungai, the M inister of Finance and Economic Planning, Mwai
Kibaki, and the Minister of State, M. Koinange. The first Crossroads group went to Kenya in 1961.
Self-help projects have been greatly responsible for the number of sports facilities in Kenya. The total number of sports projects built through the efforts of self-help in 1967 was eighty-nine.
Table 13 provides a breakdom of sport facility self-help projects in each province in 1967.^^ If enough initiative was shown and a project met Government approval, financial assistance to the project was possible. In 1967, all self-help projects received eleven percent of
the Department's budget or approximately $165,000.^® By 1969, the
Government's allocation to self-help projects reached approximately
$267,000. The 1969 percentage expenditures for various categories of
^^Republic of Kenya, Social Services Annual Report, 1967, p. 5.
^^Operation Crossroads Africa, a private voluntary agency was briefly discussed in Chapter I.
^^Republic of Kenya, Social Services Annual Report, 1967, p. 29.
^^Republic of Kenya, Social Services Annual Report, 1967, pp. 3-4. TABLE 14
SELF-HELP SPORTS PROJECTS COMPLETED BY PROVINCES IN 1967^
Number of P ro je c ts
Nyanza 38
E astern 22
W estern 14
Coast 7
Rift Valley 5
C en tral 3
Northeastern 0
T o tal 89
^Republic of Kenya, Social Services Annual Report, 1967, p. 29. 209 projects were: 1) sixty-five percent for educational institutions
(primary schools, Harambee secondary schools, nursery centers, and
youth centers); 2) twenty-five percent for health projects (health
centers, dispensaries, clinics, wards, and water schemes); and 3) ten
percent for water projects (cattle dips, sports facilities, access
ro ad s, b u sh c le a rin g , e t c . ) . ^19
Community Development T raining Programs
The Department of Community Development and S o cial Services provided many short crash courses and seminars for adults. Most of
the courses were conducted in the rural areas at the more than twenty
community development centers. When centers were not available, farms,
villages and other facilities were used, and the duration of the course
ranged from five days to six months. Although the courses were
sponsored and organized by the Department, other agencies such as
agriculture, health, education, administration, and veterinary services
provided input. Some of the experiences were directed towards
individual needs, and others related to the general welfare of the
people. In 1966-67, the Department, through the KNSC sponsored seven
courses in athletic coaching, skill development, and organization. One
hundred and sixty-six adults participated in the courses that lasted
f or a total of ninety days.^ 20
^^Republic of Kenya, Social Services Annual Report, 1969, p p. 2-3.
pp. 15, 20, 23, 27. 210 The courses were designed to provide basic coaching technique and strategies. In attendance were school teachers, club officials, leaders in sports, players, and former players. Courses were scheduled
for all of the provinces. In Mombasa, Coast Province, forty-three
candidates—two-thirds school teachers—attended a one-week soccer course. Forty took the theory and practical examination. The results were good. The Western Province soccer clinic was held at Kakamega.
Thirty-one attended and twenty-eight sat for the examination with good
results. The clinics in Eldoret in the Rift Valley Province and Embu
in the Eastern Province included theory and practice in soccer, track
and field, field hockey, basketball, rules of soccer, and officiating.
Examinations were only given in Eldoret on rules. Three ladies
attended the Eldoret meeting. Participants had to achieve at least
sixty-five percent to receive a certificate. Seventy-five percent and
above would give a participant an opportunity to take a more advanced
course. Failures were recommended for another basic course. Coca-Cola
contributed basketball coaching films to the KNSC.
Since the inception of the Department, effort has been made to
provide in-service training for staff members. The staff was expected
to stay current on their particular area of expertise. Some members
took courses in Kenya while others travelled abroad. Twenty-four
members of the local staff who had first received special training took
courses overseas. One member of th e Sports D iv isio n took a course in
21"Coaching Courses in Progress," Kenya Sports Review, June, 1967, p. 5. 211
England.In 1966, William Yeda, Kenya Sports Officer, Sports
Division, toured the United States for two and one-half months under the auspices of the USIS in Nairobi. He attended athletic dines, seminars, and national athletic meetings.
The Kenya Institute of Administration (KIA)—the in-service training institute for all branches of the Government at Kabete— offered special courses in a variety of subject areas. Such a course was conducted for Provincial Sports Officers, May 22, through June 9,
1967. The course covered rules, officiating, basketball, volleyball, boxing, and soccer. It was a very comprehensive exposure which saw the need for a great deal of studying for examination.^^
The Sports Division like the Department was in need of additional staff and funds to more adequately accommodate the rapid
increase in sports development throughout Kenya.
Other Programs
Prior to the inception of the KNSC, in 1966, there were provin
cial sports associations that were organized by the KAAA before
independence, in 1959. Aish Jeneby, who held the position of Honorary
Public Relations Officer in the KAAA, said in 1965 that tremendous credit should be given to the Provincial Sports Associations who
22Republic of Kenya, Social Services Annual Report, 1967. pp. 20- 21 .
^^"Sports Officer on Course in U.S.A.," Kenya Sports Review, March, 1966, p. 3.
"Coaching Courses in Progress," Kenya Sports Review, p. 5. 212
organized every national and inter-territorial championship since 1959.
At the 1965 Annual Meeting of the KAAA, the first African president was elected. Sila Kibet Boit, former vice president, who was largely
responsible for bringing Kenya's athletes to the attention of the
world, took over the helm.^^
After independence the KAAA began to expand its program in an
effort to keep pace with the rapid expansion of sports. In 1965, a
group of United States Olympic athlete-coaches were invited to kick-off
the KAAA Coaching Scheme and to provide early season competition for
the leading athletes. The scheme was necessary in order to achieve
a higher standard of athletics. Rapid athletic development was diffi
cult when relying on so few experienced coaches who were fortunate
enough to have studied abroad. Candidates for the coaching scheme
were notified by newsletter.The coaching scheme was highly success
ful, and it received praise from the participants and the American
group. Other KAAA-sponsored events in 1965 were the Kenya track and
field championships at Mombasa, the East African track and field
championships which Kenya won, and the All-African Brazzaville Games.
The KAAA also sanctioned international trips for Kenya’s athletes and
visits to Kenya by other countries. The KAAA is an affiliate of
the International Amateur Athletic Federation.
^^Aish Jeneby, "The KAAA Newsletter," Kenya Sports Review, March-April, 1965, p. 7. .
Jeneby, "KAAA Newsletter," p. 7.
^^Aish Jeneby, "The KAAA Newsletter," Kenya Sports Review, March, 1966, p. 5. 213
When the KNSC was established, most of the responsibility for organized s p o rts in Kenya was taken away from th e KAAA. S ta ff members such as Jeneby and Jeda were later appointed to the KNSC. Arap-Leting in his personal correspondence with the writer stated that "You w ill note that unlike United States, the Government of Kenya is very much involved in sport through the Ministry of Co-operatives and Social
Services. Even the President of the country is very much interested in s p o rt.
Sports organization in Kenya.Ndonye pointed out that there are sports clubs and associations dotted all over the country. Listed below are many of the sports groups in Kenya and including some in which
Kenya is directly involved internationally.
Supreme Council for Sports in Africa (SCSA), established, 1966 East African Athletic Association (EAAA) Kenya N atio n al Sports Council (KNSC), e s ta b lis h e d , 1966 Kenya Sports Officers (KSO) Provincial Sports Officers (PSO) Kenya Olympic and Commonwealth Games A sso ciatio n (KOCGA) Kenya Amateur Athletic Association (KAAA) Kenya Amateur Boxing Association (KABA) Kenya Football Association (KFA) National Football League (NFL) Kenya Hockey Union (KHU) Kenya Volleyball Association (KVA) Kenya Swimming A sso ciatio n (KSA) Kenya Cricket Association (KCA) Kenya Lawn Tennis Association (KLTA) Kenya Rifle Association (KRA) International Shooting Union (ISU) National Cycling Club (NCC) Kenya Golf Union (KGU)
^®Based on l e t t e r from J . T. A rap-L eting, Senior Education Officer, Kenya Ministry of Education, to the w riter.
Compiled from the East African Standard, Kenya Sports Review, Kenya Police Review, Daily Nation (Kenya), Africa Report, and Inside Kenya Today. Kenya Jockey Club (KJC) Kenya Netball Association (KNA) Kenya Women's Hockey A ssociation (KWHA) N airobi Judo Club (NJC) East African Challenge Cup (EACC, soccer) African Football Federation (AFF), All-African African Hockey Federation (AHF), All-African
Outward Bound. Another very interesting program is the Outward
Bound School of East Africa which is an extremely unique experience. The
school was s ta r te d in Kenya in 1951 and i s operated by th e Outward Bound
Company. Although i t was b u i l t , and is s t i l l sup p o rted , by the Kenya
Government, private organizations, and individuals, the school had a
very meager beginning as an outgrowth of the Jeanes School^® concept
of community and environmental education. Uganda and Tanzania are a
part of this experience and make annual contributions, however, recently
they have not filled their quota of one-third of the total student
enrollment. The primary objective of the program is to provide young
men and women with adventurous experiences in an effort to foster the
characteristics of rugged individualism.^^ Jeneby, in quoting an
unknown author, said "that without the instinct for adventure in young
men, any civilization, however enlightened, any state, however well
ordered, must wilt and wither. The building of nations demands that
30,Great Britain, Education in the United Kingdom Dependencies (London; Central Office of Information, 1954), p. 28.
Kenya Today, September, 1972, pp. 28-30.
^^Aish Salim Ali Jeneby, "Physical Education in Kenya," Inter national Council on Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 8th Congress Report (Washington: National Education Association, 1967), p. 51. 215 Nine courses are offered during the year at a cost of 550 shillings($77.00) per course. Non-East Africans pay 750 shillings
($105.00). The school, 28 acres, is located in Loitokitok on the borders of Kenya and Tanzania. Despite its very successful short history, the school has recently been experiencing financial difficulty.
In the past, many of the graduates went on to very influential posi tions, pursuing them with the same kind of determination.^^ Kenya recognizes the importance of such principles and the Outward Bound experience as essential elements in building self-reliance in future leaders and citizens.C lim bing Mt. Kilimanjaro, 19,320 feet, is part of the course. Matiba, the Chairman of the Company said, "After all, it is gratifying to stand on top of Africa.
Lake remembered only one slight incident of someone being in o p p o sitio n to th e Outward Bound Program. Tom Mboya did once suggest
that climbing Mt. Kilimanjaro for future district officers was a bit
British and far-fetched. It was only because he wanted to make a point politically. When Mboya and President Kenyatta were asked whether or not they wanted the school to continue, they both said, "by golly yes.
We did not mean that this was to stop. We just thought that the
emphasis was perhaps just a little too much on boy scout games rather
33Mbitiru, "The School," pp. 28-30.
34Jeneby, "Physical Education in Kenya,"p. 5.
35Mbitiru, pp. 28-30. 216 than on the serious business of training." They had not appreciated
the intrinsic values of experience.
United States Impact on Kenya
The United States and Kenya have had diplomatic relations with each other since Kenya’s independence in 1963. In 1972, the resident
American community was about 3,500, most of whom were missionaries and their families. Over 51,500 Americans applied for visa permits and toured Kenya in 1970. American tourism is expected to increase. United
States private investment in Kenya is substantial with about ninety firms
involved in commerce, light manufacturing, and tourism. The total
private investment is about $90 million. Current United States Govern ment aided programs include agriculture, water supply, range management,
and veterinary assistance. The United States Information Service is
located in Nairobi and the United States Agency for International
Development (AID) contributes to projects of joint concern to Kenya,
Tanzania, and Uganda.
In 1970, William P. Rogers became the first United States
Secretary of State to v isit Kenya. He was followed by Vice President
Spiro Agnew in 1971. In cooperation with the Kenyan Government, the
United States Government invites government officials, media repre
sentatives, and educators to visit the United States.
36Mbitiru, pp. 28-30.
^^United States Government, Department of State, Republic of Kenya; Background Notes (Washington: Bureau of Public Affairs, 1972), p . 5.
^^United States Government, Department of State, Kenya, pp. 5-6. 217
At the end of 1971, the United States had 340 Peace Corps volunteers in Kenya. During 1972, seventy more volunteers were assigned. Carolyn Gullatt, Director, Kenya Desk, Peace Corps, stated
that as of November, 1972, the majority of the volunteers serving in
Kenya were assigned as teachers in Government secondary schools, voca
tional and polytechnic centers, and teacher training institutes
throughout the country. All teachers assigned to secondary schools
taught math and science as their primary subject while those teaching in the technical areas covered subjects ranging from machine shop and
carpentry to mechanical and electrical engineering. Other volunteers were located in agriculture programs with most of them being placed in
small scale farming in the former African reserve areas and in the arid
ranching areas of the country. As a result of the Peace Corps programs
the academic status of the agricultural institutions has been
increasing.
Peace Corps volunteers are exposed to a very extensive orienta
tion before starting their projects in their respective countries.
Sometimes the training takes place in the United States and other times
in the host country. The writer was a member of a Peace Corps
training program for Senegal, West Africa, that was conducted at Berea
College, Kentucky, 1963. In addition to preparing the athletic
specialists in the Senegal project, all participants were required to
take part in an early morning physical fitness session and, also, later
3^U. S. ACTION, Peace Corps, Peace Corps Projects in Kenya (Carolyn Gullatt) (Washington: 1972), p. 1. (Mimeographed.) 218 in the day learn a variety of games and sport events. This aspect was, and still is, in keeping with Peace Corps policy. There is a twofold purpose for the physical aspects of the orientation: 1) to increase the overall health efficiency of the volunteer; and 2) to provide the volunteer with additional tools to satisfy the needs of the host country better. One of the aims of the training session is
"to conduct extracurricular activities in conjunction with the proper authorities."^® As a member of the school staff, the volunteer teacher, "initiates, guides, and participates in those clubs and societies, sports, or other voluntary activities related to his special interests or skills which w ill benefit the students and the school by supplementing classroom instruction or developing hobbies and
skills.The following people, most of whom have worked directly
or indirectly with the Peace Corps have stated that although there have been no officially organized sports development Peace Corps projects
in Kenya, many volunteers have been instrumental in fostering such
programs: Carolyn Gullatt; Joseph Howell, Director, Africa Region;
Glenn Randall, former director of the Peace Corps' Sports Corps
Program; Herbert Tobias, former volunteer; and Mai W hitfield, USIA.
In 1970, while with the Peace Corps, Glen Randall, who was
the Sports Corps Director, conducted a qu$stionnaire-survey in forty-
one African countries in an effort to determine planning priorities
U. S. ACTION, Peace Corps, Memorandum, Proposed Kenya T echnical Education P ro je c t fo r Summer, 1972, P ro je c t No. 615-72-07; Approval No. 72-PC-74, (Calvin H. Raullerson) (Washington: 1972), p. 8.
41:•U. S. ACTION, Peace Corps, Kenya P ro ject, p. 49. 219
for athletic programs. Responses were obtained from all forty-one
countries. Three countries rated athletic priority very high, nine
rated it high, sixteen moderate, and thirteen rated it low. Kenya's priority was rated "high." The results of the questionnaire provided valuable insights into the feasibility of formulating Peace Corps sports programs in African countries. Randall stated that:
Perhaps the most interesting and valuable responses . . . concern the s p e c ia l co n sid eratio n s which must be made when planning athletic programs for Africa. . . . It was noted that athletic programs possess a unique ability to transcend political differences and thus gain access in countries with which official relations are strained of even non-existent. Peace Corps experiences with athletic programs have repeatedly proved this to be the case.
Randall also felt that United States involvement in the devel
opment of African sport programs should be concentrated in sports in which the United States excells. Short term programs should be directed
at training coaches rather than athletes in order to eventually reach
more people. Kenya's emphasis has been concentrated in the development
of track and field, and coaching is desperately needed at the school and
college levels as a regular part of the program. A national coach and
basketball and tennis coaches were also desired by Kenya. In 1970, the
Kenya Amateur Basketball Association requested an American basketball
coach. The army and the prisons produce the best athletes because they
have the best facilities.
U. S. ACTION, Peace Corps, Memorandum, Summary of Responses to Questionnaire on Sports Programs in Africa (Glen C. Randall) (Washington: 1972), p. 2.
S. ACTION, Sports Programs in A frica , p. 3. Finally, Randall stated that:
In Africa, the need for sports and physical education volunteers is great. In the United States the volunteers are available and willing to go. The Peace Corps must now recognize the value of sports in the national development of newly formed nations as a meaningful vehicle to channel the energies of young p e o p l e . 44
It was also brought out in the above questionnaire that West
Germany has provided sh o rt-te rm coaching a s sis ta n c e to Kenya. Recent travel by Kenyan coaches to other countries was not indicated.
Generally, France appeared to provide the most athletic personnel and equipment to her former colonies. Accordingly, the United Kingdom offered little assistance to her former colonies. West Germany provides athletic assistance in thirteen African countries, mostly anglophone.
Russia and other eastern bloc nations furnish thirteen nations with sport assistance.^^
Whitfield said that communists in general have not been deeply involved in Kenya. The reason is that Kenya's socio-economic stability poses too much of a challenge to the communist bloc. Kenya appears to be pro-western. Whitfield felt that"less" developed countries like
Somalia might be more non-aligned and as a result more prone to accept aid and have trade and exchange agreements with the eastern and western blocs.
Both Whitfield and Randall agreed that the continued United
States contribution to Kenya through sports would make the greatest
44u. S. ACTION, Sports Programs in Africa, p. 4.
S. ACTION, Sports Programs in Africa, p. 2.
^^Statement by Malvin % itfield, personal interview, December 29, 1972. 221 impact. In the past, such contributions have been W hitfield's involvement in Kenya, the United States coaching teams' visits, Kenya's
Sports Officer William Yeda's tour of United States athletic programs, and the many trips by Kenyan athletes to the United States— especially the training and competition at the United States-Pan-
African track meet at Durham, North Carolina. Aish Jeneby also toured the United States for a month in 1965. Herbert Tobias, former Peace
Corps volunteer,, was the athletic trainer for the Kenyan Olympic team a t the Munich Games in 1972. In 1965, two Americans, Donald Dell, former United States Davis Cup Captain and Alan Fox participated in a
Kenya Lawn Tennis Association tourney. They were volunteers and not directly affiliated with the United States government. It was the highlight of the tennis season as they were very impressive.'^^
^^"International Lawn Tennis at Nairobi," Kenya Sports Review, March-April, 1965, p. 10. INTERNATIONAL SPORTS COMPETITION
Intercultural exchange should not be limited to a few areas of
study. Every possible source should be thoroughly explored. Too often
the emphasis on scientific and technological advancements over-shadows
the areas of human relations only to come to the full realization at a
later date that people are still strapped with the tension, worry, and
unrest that everyday life produces. The crisis of the shrunken world has brought into clear focus the world's immense cultural diversity and
has offered a challenge to every nation to utilize every available
reso u rce to improve human r e la tio n s . One of th e reso u rces and common
denominators of almost all cultures is sports activity. When dis
cussing "The Common Denominators of Cultures," Murdock^ classified
sports, dancing, games and hygiene as some of the common elements of
all cultures. All are aspects of physical education. By its very
nature, the role that physical education and sports play in inter
national understanding is essential. Movement the world over is
basically the same, and it speaks a language all its own. Physical
activity represents a means of understanding which is basic to a
^George Peter Murdock, cited by Richard C. Havel, "Physical Education: A Medium for International Education," College Physical Education Association 63rd Annual Proceedings (December, 1959), p. 155. 223 society's health, expression, and recreational endeavors. Physical education at the competitive level can transcend cultural, racial, and religious differences.
The effects of international athletic participation on the nation-building process cannot be ignored. Athletes are not only
competitors but in many ways they are ambassadors of the country to which they belong. W ithout a doubt com petition in the Olympic Games,
the B r itis h Commonwealth Games, the A ll-A frican Games, and o th er
contests has a tremendous amount of impact on identifying oneself with one's country. To promote racial harmony in any society is a worthy
objective to pursue. Kenya, as mentioned above, has had difficulties
cementing the various tribes and ethnic groups into a unified nation.
Tribal names and distinctions continue to be nurtured and all Africans
in Kenya are not yet willing to say, "I am a Kenyan." How soon this
problem w ill be erased is hard to determine, but all people of all
races and tribes are proud when a person from Kenya, of whatever racial
stock, wins a medal in one of the international games. This has had
great impact. Kipchoge Keino's impressive track exploits evoked a
tremendous feeling of satisfaction and pride amongst all Kenyans.
Another example of national togetherness has to do with the Asian
dominated hockey programs. It has only been within the last ten years
that Africans began competing in organized field hockey. Until that
time field hockey was reserved almost exclusively for the Asian segment
of Kenya's population. The team has played well in international com
petition and participated for the first time in the 1956 Melbourne
Olympic Games finishing tenth. In the next three Olympic Games, the 224 team placed sixth in Rome 1960, seventh in Tokyo 1964, and eighth in
Mexico 1968. All Kenyans took great pride in the athletic achievements of the Asian-dominated hockey team when they represented their country.^
A great deal of emphasis was placed on international competi tion. There was a concerted effort in schools and sports clubs to develop all sports activities to the point where participation with other countries was possible. In the various stages of development,
Kenya's image in Africa and around the world has been very important.
During independent Kenya's short history, international athletic competition has thrust this young country into the world limelight more than any other single factor. Participation in international sports has provided the Kenyan people with something around which everyone can rally. It cannot be reiterated too often that such unifying elements need to be frequently injected into Kenyan society if it is ever to become strong and viable. International sports competition has few barriers, and it can be used as a means of promoting national loyalty and good citizenship. One can say without hesitation that sports activities have assisted greatly in prompting national ideologies. Whenever Kenyan athletes travelled abroad to
other parts of Africa, Europe, Australia, or the United States, their
participation and accomplishments were registered in the media at
home and abroad.
Competitive sports participation did not escape the wrath of
the call for mandatory citizenship, especially for participation in
^Walter Nyawanda, "Kenya's Olympic Heroes," Inside Today, March, 1972, p. 50. 225 international events. As discussed in Chapter II pressure was brought
to bear on non-citizens to renounce their motherland and work for the
development of the Kenyan nation as a citizen. Sports activities have become inextricably woven into the fabric of life in the new Kenya,
and many people f e l t lik e M. Brunner, Chairman, Kenya Commonwealth
Games Committee, did in 1965 when he recommended th a t only Kenyan
citizens should represent the Republic in international tournaments or
games. In p rep a ra tio n fo r the Commonwealth Games in Jam aica in 1966,
he expected most of the team to be comprised of athletes and boxers—
the implication being that most would be African and therefore citizens.
That statement by Brunner was made shortly after Kenya participated in
the Olympic Games for the first time since independence, Tokyo, 1964.
Further discussion of international competition and results will
follow later.
In Chapter II, the point of a supposedly disproportionate
number of Kikuyu in government, civil service, armed forces, and other
positions of control was discussed. It is appropriate at this juncture
to briefly discuss further the effect of tribalism on the development
of sports programs. Sports programs and the heroes that are produced—
local, district, provincial, national, and international—are playing
an ever increasing role in Kenya and its development. How much has
sports development been affected by tribalism? So far, it has had
little effect. Occasionally, the reporters included tribal affiliation
but as long as time clocks and tapes are used to determine results, as
one Kenyan put it, that will work itself out. However, if there is a
large influx of recruits from any tribe into the police and the army. 226 the chances of more participation in sports by that tribe w ill be enhanced. In a conversation with a Kenyan, the investigator inquired about the tribal breakdown of the delegation to the Olympic Games,
Munich 1972, and received an answer tantamount to "We don't know; it is not important." That was a healthy sign. If that was the case and despite the progress that needs to be made, it demonstrated that tribal affiliation and differences were surmountable. Such sports participation can serve as an educational tool for the general public.
Olympic Games P a r tic ip a tio n
The Olympic movement can be more than j u s t winning medals and breaking records. It is a golden opportunity to show the world convincingly that one of the most important ways to develop healthier
and better citizens is through national programs of physical education,
competitive sports, and exposure to the high moral principles of the
competitive spirit.^ A strong national image begins with the first
step—the individual. When intellectual and athletic ability are
developed in one's personality in unison, the combination is unbeatable.
This includes sports activity for the exceptionally gifted and meaning
ful sports experiences for others. With 124 countries represented in
Munich in 1972, the Olympic movement became once again one of the most
effective socializing forces in the world. It encompasses every race,
religion, color and political affiliation. When taken home by Kenyans,
^Avery Brundage, in an address to the 8th International Congress, International Council on Health, Physical Education and Recreation (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, July, 1965), reported 1966, p. 10. 2 #
this kind of competitive indulgence can be used an an ingredient for building a great nation. No international contests and assemblage have
had as glorious a history as the Olympic Games.^
Olympic Games, pre-independence. Prior to independence Kenya's
participation "in Olympic Games competition was limited to the Melbourne
Games in 1956 and the Rome Games in 1960. Field hockey was the only
sport activity in which colonial-ruled Kenya participated. Asians
comprised the team. The results were reported above. During the Man
Man emergency most activities for Africans, formal and informal, were
eliminated or severely curtailed. This was certain to have an effect on
the Africans' skill development and levels of participation in sports
and recreational activities in general. Under those conditions,
achievement of Olympic caliber qualifying times would have been
impossible. With the emergency, along with the fact that Africans had
never participated in the Olympic Games previously, one could see why
Africans were not involved. The 1960 Rome Olympic Games saw quite a
transformation in the racial composition of the member participant
c o u n trie s . Newly emerging independent A frican co u n tries began to make
their Olympic debuts. Membership in the United Nations and the Olympic
Games were both treasured by the world's newest arrivals. Kenya,
however, was digging out of the aftermath of the emergency and was
about to be plunged into the crisis leading up to African majority
^Kenneth L. Wilson, "The Olympic Games," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXXIII (October, 1961), pp. 24-26. 228 rule, then independence. Once again only the Asian-dominated national field hockey represented Kenya in Rome.
1964 Olympic Games. Independence brought many changes to Kenya.
One in p a r tic u la r was the much improved a th le te s who were coming over the horizon. Approximately five months after independence, December
12, 1963, Kenya's sports officials and participants began organizing to send a contingent to the 1964 Tokyo Olympic Games.' Much to the surprise of everyone Kenya's inexperienced performers did remarkably well. The team was m ultiracial, including Europeans, Asians and
Africans for the first time. Thirty-seven athletes participated in track and field, the marathon, the decathlon, boxing, shooting, field hockey, and yachting.^
Speaking at a reception in Nairobi given in honor of the
Olympic athletes on their return, the Kenya M nister of Labor and Social
Services, E.N. Mwendwa said:
The image of Kenya created by our representatives to the 1964 Olympic Games and the great' determination they showed at Tokyo justifies all the work and amount of money devoted to make th a t t r i p p o s s ib le .^
He further congratulated the team for having shown the rest of the
world that there was a country called Kenya in which lived people with
%ezekiah Mepukhulu, "Kenya Olympic Team's Performance," Kenya Sports Review, December, 1964, p. 4.
^David N juru, "Welcome from Tokyo—Get Set fo r M exico," Kenya Sports Review, December, 1964, p. 3.
^Njuru, "Welcome from Tokyo," p. 3. 229
Kenya placed twenty-seventh out of ninety-four participating countries which surprised many. Before leaving Tokyo and after arriving home the team members announced th a t they were ready and w illin g to accept any and all assistance that would help them to improve their performances. They had learned what was to be expected at the Olympic level of competition and were relying heavily on athletes and coaches from more advanced n atio n s to show them how i t was done. The Kenyan sportsmen did not consider themselves inferior. They just needed more experience and technique.^
There were a few setbacks in Tokyo for Kenya's first truly
Olympic team. In addition to an abundance of nervousness, a number of the athletes caught influenza. Based on their qualifying performances before leaving for Tokyo, those affected were expected to do better than they did. Another problem was that most of the athletes, not knowing what to expect, were preoccupied with achieving standards necessary only to represent Kenya at Tokyo.^
Looking ahead, the head of the Kenya contingent Harbans Singh s a id :
Let us not wait until six months before Mexico . . . we must start preparing now for the 1968 Olympics. The time we spend practicing is absolutely nothing compared w ith what some co u n tries put in .
A major problem, especially with the athletes, is that, due to the shortage of expert coaching in the country, they may put in hard work in practicing but keep repeating mistakes over and over without knowing. This is a problem
% ju ru , "Welcome From Tokyo," p . 3.
% ju r u , "Welcome From Tokyo," p . 3. the Minister of Labor and Social Services will make all efforts to solve. Public support is also something greatly urged, not only in responding generously to fund appeals, but also in generating and encouraging enthusiasm in the many men and women of our country who do not even know what sp o rtin g ta le n ts lay dormant w ith in them.^*^
Further indication of determination was expressed by David
N juru, the author of the a r t i c l e "Welcome From Tokyo—Get Set For
Mexico," who stated that "with what we have learned and all that we
are going to learn let us hope that the 1968 Olympics w ill see Kenya even more firmly established in the sporting map."H
Although most of the Kenyan track athletes performed close to
their own capabilities, some turned in performances better than ever before. Wilson Kiprugut, an arny sargeant, went down in history as the
first Kenya Olympic medalist having received the bronze for his third
place finish in the 800 meters run. He established some other firsts by being appointed the first captain of a Kenya Olympic track team and
the first Kenyan Olympic flag bearer. Kiprugut even had the honor of
sharing the 800 meters Olympic record for a day. His bronze medal
time in the finals was 1 min. 45.9 secs, and placed him fifth in the
world in 1964. Kiprugut also ran in the 400 meters but did not place
after the second round when he ran his best time, a very respectable
47.1 secs. For his exploits he was proclaimed one of the most
stunning re v e la tio n s of th e Games.
lOjijuru,"Welcome From Tokyo," p. 3.
l% ju ru , "Welcome From Tokyo," p . 3.
^^Wepukhulu, "Kenya Olympic Team," p. 4. 23:1
At the tim e o f th e Tokyo Games, Kipchoge Keino was a tw enty- four years old policeman. He participated in the 5000 meters and 1500 meters. After qualifying by placing second in his heat to Ron Clarke, the great Australian runner, Keino missed the bronze medal in the 5000 meters by six-tenths of a second behind B ill Dillinger (U.S.A.). The gold medal was won by Bob Schul (U .S.A .) and the s il v e r won by H arald
Norpoth, West Germany. Keino placed fifth in a strong field with his best time to date of 13 min. 50.4 secs. In the 1500 meters run, Keino made another fine show of fifth place in the semi-finals with a time of 3 min. 41.9 secs. He was tabbed as a man to watch.
Benjamin Kogo improved his personal record by placing fifth in a qualifying heat of the 3000 meter steeplechase with the time, 8 min.
51.8 secs. This time established a new East African record. Kogo just missed qualifying for the finals. Kiprol Koech's seventeenth place effort in the decathlon labelled him the outstanding athlete in
Africa. His 5,707 points were 1,180 points behind the winner. Other performers are listed below.
Seraphino Antao who caught influenza was considered an out
standing sprinter and one of the favorites for a medal. He qualified
for the second round in the 100 and 200 meters run but because of his
health he faded badly. Being rather disappointed Antao retired but
later changed his mind.
John Owiti qualified in the first round of the 100 meters run
with a time of 10.6, two-tenths of a second slower than his best.
Kimaru Songok also caught influenza and did not qualify in the
400 meters hurdles. His time was 54.4 secs. 232
Peter Francis, a twenty-eight year old policeman, did not get by his first heat in the 800 meters run. With the first four in each heat qualifying for the second round, Francis placed fifth with a respectable time of 1 min. 50.1 secs.
Kenya en tered th re e men in th e m arathon : C h rista n tu s Nyakwoyo,
46th place, 2 hrs. 38 min. 28.6 secs.; Naftali Temu, 49th place, 2 hrs.
40 min. 46.6 secs.; Andrew Arap-Soi dropped out.
The five-man boxing team won a total of three matches. Phillip
Waruinge, the all Africa featherweight champion, Alex Oundo, light weight, and John Olulu, light welterweight—all won their first match and lost their second. John Kamau, flyweight lost his first match by a close three to two split decision to the subsequent gold medal w inner. Mwangi Mugo, m iddlew eight, lo s t h is f i r s t match.
The lone yachtsman, Peter Cooke placed twenty-fourth and Len
Bull and Ale Handfordrice who comprised the shooting team placed 44th and 51st, respectively. The field hockey team won three, lost three,
and tied one for a seventh place finish.
The impressive debut of the first Kenya Olympic Team was a memorable occasion f o r a l l Kenyans. There were many who r e f le c te d on
their experiences trying to piece together all that had transpired in
such a short space of time. In an article written by the youngest
member o f the Kenya Olympic Team, seventeen y e a r old John Kamau, he
gave his impressions of his journey to Tokyo.
Most of us established friendships with the Japanese. Some of us were taken to f r ie n d s ' . . . homes and were warmly treated with local drinks and foodstuffs. So magnificiently were we treated that I felt that I should stay there and not go back home to Africa. On the day of our departure, many friends were present at the airport to see us off. It was hard to part with such good
In Kamau's case, two entirely different worlds were brought together in a bond of friendship providing both with more knowledge and understanding of each other by the time they went their separate ways.
They met, shared, and learned. They searched for common denominators of understanding and, hopefully, they will seek common worldly goals.
The following interview with Olympic bronze medal winner,
Wilson Kiprugut, by David Njuru was conducted not long after the 1964
Tokyo Olympic Games. The e n tir e in te rv ie w was used h ere because reflected in it is a great deal of insight into some of the trials and tribulations, triumphs and problems that confronted the overall development of a comprehensive sports program in Kenya.
Q. Wilson, casting your memories back, do you remember when you s ta r te d running and what made you s ta r t?
A. I started competition running when I entered the Sitotwet Intermediate School near Kericho in 1956 and I had to run since it was the normal routine for the school.
Q. What events did you s t a r t w ith?
A. Half a mile and six miles were the two I did best in.
Q. And how were your performances in those days?
A. In those early days I wasn't very good in running but as time passed I kept improving and in 1958 I came 2nd in the half mile at the Nyanza Championships and also second in both the Kenya and East African Championships in the same event.
Q. Do you consider your joining the Army as having helped you improve in sports?
John Kamau, "Impressions," Kenya Sports Review, December, 1964, pp. 11. 14. A. Very much so . You know b efo re th a t I did not do proper training but after joining the Army I got much more practice and that was the time I started coming first in most competitions I took part in.
Q. You have just had your first chance to represent Kenya at the Olympic Games where you did very well in the 800 m etres. Which of the two occasions t h r i ll e d you most: breaking the Olympic record in the heats or winning a bronze medal in the finals?
A. I was very much pleased to receiv e th a t medal knowing it was the first to be received by anyone from Kenya but breaking the Olympic record with my rival George Kerr of Jamaica was by far the most thrilling thing I felt in Tokyo.
Q. Which sportsm an did you admire most a t Tokyo?
A. I admired Peter Snell of New Zealand most, and I also liked George Kerr of Jamaica.
Q. What d id you lik e in th ese sportsmen?
A. I t is t h e i r way of p r a c tis in g . I was very much interested in watching them practice and tried to copy what I saw. This helped me as I did not have a coach of my own.
Q. Comparing our athletes with those from other parts of the world what do you think are the main differences?
A. The main d iffe re n c e here i s th a t of p ra c tis in g and coaching. Every athlete from the more advanced countries had a coach to himself. Americans for instance had two coaches where one would concentrate on the set— that is starting—while the other would coach on the method of actual running, how he would swing his arms, his steps, posture while running and so on.
Q. Now th a t you have been running fo r some e ig h t years, which do you consider to be happy sporting times and which times don't you like?
A. Obviously practising days are very tiring times and I cannot say I enjoy them. Only because I know I cannot become a good runner without practising that I have to do so. The sp o rtin g tim es I lik e a re when I am doing actual competitions.
Q. Are you p r a c tis in g a t the moment? A. I am doing so every day. In the morning I run six miles along the road—that is three miles out and three miles back—and I repeat the same thing in the evening.
Q. Is that just trotting along the road, dashing for some yards or what?
A. That is running hard all the way, just as I would run if I were competing in a six miles race, and I have always someone to tim e me.
Q. Do you intend to keep that up until the next Olympics a t Mexico in 1968?
A. Mostly yes. I was advised by those runners I met at Tokyo that road running is the best practice for the time when there is no actual competition and to return to prac tising on the track when competition draws near.
Q. What would you lik e more w hile p ra c tis in g ?
A. Firstly I would like to have more fellow Kenyans p ra c tis in g and competing w ith me. You know i t does not help me much to be competing against myself all the time. I would like to have someone either ahead of me so that I can run harder to overtake him or someone following so that I can try to maintain my lead. Secondly I would like to have more international competitions. People like Peter Snell have already had some international competitions sin ce we l e f t Tokyo w hile I have had none.
Q. Is there any help you think you need?
A. The help I would like to have most is in coaching. It is not only me but all of us runners in Kenya. Now I just practise the way I feel and on a few hints I got from Tokyo. I t i s d i f f i c u l t to know what I do wrong and what I should do to improve m yself.
Q. And your ambition and future plans?
A. It is to bring many gold medals to Kenya, not just one. I w ill keep on running as long as my body can do so and I do not intend to retire unless I am unable to do anything. I would also like to help other new runners in Kenya with what I have learnt from those world champions I have met.^^
^^Njuru, "Many Gold Medals," Kenya Sports Review, December, 1964, p. 14. 236
The first Kenya Olympic trip to Tokyo was financed jointly by the government through the Ministry of Labor and Social Services, the
Kenya Olympic Association’s special fund drive, the Kenya Amateur
Athletic Association and private donors.At the time the Government
Division of Sports was housed under the Ministry of Labor and Social
Services. Immediately after the 1964 Olympics fund drives were set up to raise money for the 1968 Games. Among the contributors were three youth clubs who donated approximately $20.00 to the fund. Six children made the presentation at the Kenya Institute of Administration, and they each received a sheet with autographs of the athletes who rep resen ted Kenya a t the Tokyo Olympic G a m e s . ^6
Having felt the impact of organizing for Olympics participation and also because of the increased interest in international competition as a result of the initial exposure, a great deal of effort was exerted to improve the logistics and performances of future athletic ventures.
In addition to getting an earlier start, M. Brunner, then Chairman of the Kenya Commonwealth Games A sso c ia tio n , recommended th a t the
Commonwealth Games A sso ciatio n and th e Kenya Olympic A sso ciatio n amalgamate to form one governing body. The new body would have the
responsibility for raising funds and selecting teams for both sporting
e v e n ts .17 The Olympic and B r itis h Commonwealth Games A sso ciatio n of
Kenya is presently in operation.
l % ju r u , "Welcome From Tokyo," p. 3.
l^"Murang’a Youth Club Aid Fund," Kenya Sports Review, December, 1964, p. 13.
l^Don Diment, "Commonwealth Games Association," Kenya Sports Review, March-April, 1965, p. 12. 237
In May, 1965 the Kenya Amateur Athletic Assocation invited a three-man coaching team from the U.S.A. to inaugurate the KAAA coaches' development scheme. The United States Department of State was responsible for the selection of the team. According to Silas K. Boit,
President of the KAAA the course was a tremendous success and the organization and the results were praised by students and the American
coaches. This was just the beginning of a long series of sports
clinics and seminars that began taking place in every province for
school teachers, club officials, leaders of sports, and past and present
p la y e rs .
Something else that occurred as a direct result of Kenya's success and new image in the sporting world was the increased number of
invitations from around the world for Kenyan athletes to travel and
compete. For example two months after the Tokyo Games, Kipchoge Keino was invited to compete in Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina.Not too
long after, it was England, Sweden, and New Zealand. Kenya had a new
saleable product and it was being tested around the w o r l d . 20
One other important outcome of Kenya's first and successful
participation in the Olympics was a whole new concept of scheduling a
series of athletic events leading up to the big events. The events took
place on the local, district, provincial, national, and international
level, but they all pointed to something bigger.
^®Aish Jeneby, "The KAAA Newsletter," Kenya Sports Review, March, 1966, p. 5.
^^"The KAAA Newsletter," Kenya Sports Review, December, 1964, p . 10.
^^Jeneby, "KAAA Newsletter," p. 5. 238
1968 Olympic Games. At the 1968 Mexico Olympic Games, th e b ig question that loomed in Kenya and other parts of the world was, "Could
the Kenyan athletes repeat or improve their performances of the 1964
Tokyo Games?" Based on established times after that remarkable
showing, there was wide speculation that they would do well in Mexico.
The Kenya delegation of sixty-one was comprised of eighteen track
participants, eighteen field hockey players, four boxers, three
shooters, and eighteen officials. Included on the track team were three women. The in c lu s io n o f women made Kenyan s p o rts h is to r y fo r they were
the first women ever to represent Kenya at the Olympic Games. Led by
Kipchoge Keino who was entered in the 1500 meters, 5000 meters, and
the 10,000 meters, the track team was—in the words of Wilson Kiprugut
a f t e r th e Tokyo Olympics fo u r y ears e a r l i e r —ready to b rin g home many
gold medals.The final Olympic trials were held at Kisumu in the
Nyanza Province, and then the teams moved their training sight to a
7,000 foot high altitude training camp to get acclimated to Mexico's
rarefied air. The camp lasted twenty-five days.
One hundred and eighteen nations participated in the Nineteenth
Olympiad at Mexico City in October, 1968. • Only half of those nations
won medals, but Kenya finished fourteenth with nine medals—three gold,
four silver, and two bronze. This was quite a leap forward and as a
result, Kenya emerged from the Mexico Olympic Games as the African
2%Hezekiah Wepukhulu, "Nation Races into the Lead," Inside Kenya Today, September, 1968, p. 31.
^%ezekiah Wepukhulu, "Kenya on the Gold Standard," Inside Kenya Today, December, 1968, p. 30. 239 continent's leading sports power. While the United States dominated the sprint events Kenya clearly swept the distance events by winning gold, silver, and bronze in every event from the 1,500 meters to the
10,000 meters. There were many who attributed Kenya's success to the natural high altitude training possibilities in that country.
However, there are other ingredients to success as Ronald Ngala,
Minister for Cooperatives and Social Services—under which the Division of Sports is presently located—pointed out. He said, "Kenya's success is not only due to the altitude, but also due to other factors such as determination and dedication on the part of the athletes to hard training.It should also be remembered that most countries attempted to acclimatize their athletes to high altitude conditions before arriving at the Mexico Games. In the United States a great deal of money and time was devoted to developing such conditions for our a th l e te s .
At the Mexico Olympics Kenya made its greatest impression ever on the world of sports. The Kenya team had a number of outstanding performances, especially from those who were expected to do well (See
Tables 15 and 16 for individual performances). Some of the highlights of the Games involved Kenyan participants. Kipchoge Keino—with an
infected gall bladder and after winning a silver medal in the 5,000 meter run and collapsing in the 10,000 meters—won the 1,500 meter
glamour event over the American world record holder, Jim Ryun. Naftali
^%epukhulu, "Kenya on the Gold Standard," p. 30.
^^Wepukhulu, "Kenya on the Gold Standard," p. 30. 24o
TABLE 15
KENYA MEDALS—1968 MEXICO OLYMPIC GAMES
GOLD MEDALS
Kipchoge Keino 1,500 Meters
Amos Biwott 3,000 Meters
N aftali Temu 10,000 Meters
SILVER MEDALS
Wilson Kiprugut
Ben Kogo 3.000 Meters Steeple-chase
Kipchoge Keino 5.000 Meters
Kenya Team 4 X 400 Meters
BRONZE MEDALS
N a fta li Temu 5,000 Meters
Phillip Waruinge Boxing TABLE 16
KENYA TEAM RESULTS— 1968 MEXICO OLYMPIC GAMES
Charles Asati, eliminated first round Julius Sang, eliminated first round
Charles Asati, did not qualify for semi-finals Julius Sang, did not qualify for semi-finals
Hezekiah Nyamau, did not qualify for finals Naftali Bon, did not qualify for semi-finals Daniel Rudisha, did not qualify for semi-finals
Wilson Kiprugut, Silver Medal, 1 min. 44.7 secs. Thomas S a is i, did n o t q u a lify fo r f in a ls Robert Ouko, did not qualify for semi-finals
1,500 Meters
Kipchoge Keino, Gold Medal, 3 min. 34.9 secs. New Olympic Record Ben Jipcho, did not place in finals
3.000 Meters Steeplechase
Amos Biwott, Gold Medal, 8 min. 51.0 secs. Ben Kogo, Silver Medal, 8 min. 51.6 secs.
5.000 Meters
Kipchoge Keino, Silver Medal, 14 min. 5.2 secs.
10.000 Meters
N a f ta li Temu, Gold M edal, 29 min. 27.4 se c s. TABLE 16 (continued)
4 X 100 Relay
Kenya Team did not place in finals
4 X 400 Relay
Kenya Team, Silver Medal, 2 min. 59.6 secs. Equalled world record; second country to break three minute barrier.
N a f ta li Temu, placed 19th Paul Mose, placed 48th
100 M eters—Women
Lydia Stevens, eliminated first round ,
200 M eters—Women
Lydia Stevens, withdrew, leg injury
400 M eters—Women
Tecla Chemabwai, eliminated first round
800 M eters—Women
Elizabeth Chesire, eliminated first round
BOXING
Phillip Waruinge, featherwieght. Bronze Medal, voted b e s t boxer of th e 1968 Olympic Games, receiv ed th e Val B arker Cup.
Stephen Thega, lightweight, eliminated in second round.
Samuel Mbugwa, bantam w eight, e lim in a te d in second round.
John Olulu, light welterweight, eliminated in first TABLE 16 (continued)
HOCKEY
Won Kenya 2 France 0
Won Kenya 2 - Holland 0
Won Kenya 3 - B r itis h 0
Lost Kenya 0 - Australia 2
Lost Kenya 1 - P ak istan 2
Lost Kenya 2 - Australia 3
Draw Kenya 1 - M alaysia 1 244
Temu won the first gold medal of the Mexico Olympics in the 10,000 m eter ev en t. Temu’s gold medal was the f i r s t ever won by a Kenyan in
the Olympic Games. President Kenyatta sent a special message of
congratulations.
Upon arriving in Kenya, the team received a tumultuous welcome
led by President Kenyatta who honored the athletes at a State House luncheon. At the luncheon. President Kenyatta announced the award of scholarships to all competitors who were either in school or in
training colleges 26
Hezekiah Wepukhulu, Kenyan sports w riter, stated that:
President Kenyatta, who has taken a keen interest in Kenya athletes and boxers who have written their country's name in letters of gold in the annals of international s p o rts , sa id : "What the Kenya Olympic team has brought back could not be bought with money. Our competitors have won the Games because they had unity in their heart for success when they l e f t K e n y a . " ^7
Edward Belsoi, the Kenya Olympic delegation's Chef de Mission,
in his assessment of the team's performance stated that,"Our track
success exceeded our greatest hopes.T he minister of Cooperatives
and Social Services, Ronald Ngala announced at a civic reception that
Kenya would apply to h o st the 1976 Olympic Games. Ngala fu rth e r s ta te d
th a t:
25wepukhulu, "Kenya on the Gold Standard,"pp. 31-32.
2%epukhulu, "Kenya on the Gold Standard," p. 32
27wepukhulu, "Kenya on the Gold Standard," p. 33.
2®Wepukhulu, "Kenya on the Gold Standard," p. 33. Kenya now enjoys a good reputation in world sports and I am sure the International Olympic Committee w ill consider the offer. It will also depend on whether we can build our Olympic standard stadium before 1976.^^
Kenya did not receive approval for a Nairobi Olympic Games. The 1976
Games will be held in Montreal, Canada. At that time, Kenya had also applied to host the 1973 All-African Games. However, they were held in Lagos, Nigeria, January 7-18, 1973.
1972 Olympic Games. Having learn ed s t i l l more and gained valuable experience from the 1968 Mexico Olympic Games and other international and national competition, the Kenyan athletes vying for positions to represent their country in the 1972 Munich Olympic Games, started their rigid training in March, 1972. Kenya emerged from the
1968 Mexico Games as the leading sports country on the African continent and—with its many heroes and medals—one of the world's most prolific track contingents. Track and field usually take center stage at the Olympic Games and Kenya with eight medals placed second to the United States in the track events. The big question in 1972 was, "Because of the high altitude in Mexico were the performances by
the Kenyan track team geographical accidents?"
The Kenya Amateur Athletics Association working with the Division
of Sports in the Ministry of Cooperatives and Social Services developed
a series of athletic events in most of the large towns culminating with
the Kenya Championships in Mombasa, the Olympic trials in Kisumu, the
high altitude training again at Thomson's Falls, and the East African
2%epukhulu, "Kenya on the Gold Standard,"p. 33. 246
Championships at Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. In 1971 the Kenya Olympic and Commonwealth Games A sso ciatio n receiv ed the q u a lify in g tim es and distances necessary for participation in the Munich Games. As e a rly as March 1972 no less than thirteen Kenyan athletes had already qualified, some in as many as three events. This gave one an indication of the intensity of their training. The qualifiers were as follows:
400 M eters .400 M eters H urdles
Julius Sang William Kaskei Mike Murei Mike Murei F. Kimaiyo 800 M eters 3000 Meters Steeplechase R obert Ouko Thomas S a is i Ben Jipcho Mike B oit Cosmos S i l l e i 400 M eters, Women Wilson Kiprugut T ecla Chemabwai 1500 Meters
Kipchoge Keino Ben Jipcho
5000 Meters
Kipcho Keino N a f ta li Temu Ben Jip ch o
10,000 Meters
N aftali Temu
In the traditional pre-Olympic international competition held
before the opening of the Games in Munich, the Kenya track team was very
impressive. There were four heats in the 800 meters event and the Kenya
ru n n ers won a l l . In th e f i r s t h e a t, Kipchoge Keino came in f i r s t w ith
^%yawanda, "Kenya's Olympic Heroes," pp. 48-49. 247 the time of 1 min. 46.4 secs, and Cosmos Silei took second place in
1 min. 48.0 secs. The second heat was won by Mike Boit in 1 min.
48.1 secs. Robert Ouko won the third heat with the time of 1 min.
48.2 secs. Daniel Omwanza placed fourth in this heat. Tom Saisi made
a clean sweep as he won the fourth and final 800 meters heat in 1 min.
49.5 secs. Another highlight of the mini-Olympics was the 4 x 400 meters relay when the Kenya team ran the fastest time so far that year,
3 min. 2.6 secs. A few minutes afterwards the American team lowered
that time by two seconds. In the 3,000 meter steeplechase, Ben Jipcho
won his heat in the fast time of 7 min. 54.7 secs.
By 1972, many other African countries had begun challenging
Kenya's athletic supremacy on the continent, and the Olympics were
shaping up to be one of the best ever for the, once referred to,
"dark" continent. However, the Munich Olympic Games were quite
different from other games even before they got started and before they
were over people the world over were hoping that there would never be
another like it. Opening day had not yet arrived and the Twentieth
Olympiad was threatened with a boycott over Rhodesia's participation
in the Games. African nations, black Americans and other sympathizers
refused to participate with white minority ruled Rhodesia. After much
d e lib e ra tio n , Rhodesia was excluded from th e Games. Midway through the
Olympics tragedy struck. The Middle East crisis was thrust into the
midst of the Games in the form of an Arab terrorist attack on the
Israeli Olympic team. When this incident was over, seventeen were
dead—eleven Israelis, one West German policeman, and five Arab
3lEast African Standard, August 25, 1972, p. 1. 248
terrorists—and the incident had a sobering effect on millions. There
were repercussions for sometime afterwards. Because of the tight security throughout West Germany, the investigator and his family who
had attended the Olympic Games were delayed for five hours on departure
from th e Munich A irp o rt.
One of the bright spots for the vast majority of Kenyans who
were unable to travel to Munich for the Olympic Games was the excellent
t e le v is io n tran sm issio n receiv ed in Kenya v ia th e S a t e l l i t e Communica
tion System. The 1972 Olympics were of special concern to Kenyans
because their great distance runner Kipchoge Keino was selected to
represent the African continent as a torchbearer in the opening
ceremonies. The opening ceremonies, sem i-finals, and championship
events were the only events transmitted to Kenya.
Another honor went to Wilson Kiprugut who carried Kenya’s flag.
Kiprugut was the first Kenyan to ever win an Olympic medal for his
country. Ten thousand athletes representing 124 nations participated
i n th e Munich G a m e s . 33 When the Munich Games ended, Kenya—one of the
smallest nations in Africa with eleven million people—had two medals
more than all the rest of the continent put together. Kenya won six
medals, two gold, two silver, and two bronze. The Kenyan athletes'
performances at sea-level indicated rather conclusively that their
Mexico feats were not geographical accidents.34
33East African Standard, August 28, 1972, p. 1.
33£ast African Standard, August 28, 1972, p. 1.
(October, 1972), pp. 19-20. 249
The 3000 m eters steep lech ase provided g rea t excitem ent when
K enya's Kipchoge Keino was the unexpected winner w ith a new Olympic record of 8 min. 23.5 secs. Until the Olympics, the steeplechase was not his speciality. Before the race, one of the favorites was Belgium's
Gaston Koelants who won the steeplechase in the 1968 Mexico Games setting the record at 8 min. 30.8 secs. However, the silver medal went to Keino's teammate Ben Jipcho whose time was 8 min. 27.1 secs. Another
Kenyan, Amos Biwott made the finals and placed sixth. Early in the heats Biwott established a new Olympic record of 8 min. 23.8 secs, which was later erased by Keino.
Kenya's 4 x 400 meters relay team won the second gold medal for their country. The team consisted of Charles Asati, Hezekiah Nyamau,
Robert Ouko and anchorman Julius Sang whose final leg, 43.6 secs., was
the second fastest ever. Sang also placed third in the 400 meters to win a bronze medal. After being disqualified and later reinstated,
Mike Boit went on to win a bronze medal in the 800 meters.
Phillip Waruinge, who was voted the most outstanding boxer in
the Mexico Games, lived up to that praise by winning a silver medal in
the featherweight class. Most of the other Kenyan boxers had close matches.The field hockey team had a rather unsuccessful time at
the Games, winning one, losing five, with one draw. The team did not
35paily Nation (Kenya), September 5, 1972, p. 1.
^^Republic of Kenya, pp. 19-20.
37East African Standard, October 4, 1972, p. 1. 250 live up to their fourth-place performance in the World Cup Hockey
Championships the year before in Barcelona, Spain.
The new nation of Kenya is racing to catch up to the Twentieth
Century. So far in sports they are very much in the competition.
Independent Kenya has participated in the Olympic Games since 1954 in
Tokyo and has met with great success. Each year there was more improve ment, and the 1972 Munich Olympic Games were by far the most successful for Kenya. Ironically, the success could only be measured by the exploits of the track team. This limitation was quite obviously a weakness that had been overshadowed by Kenya's outstanding runners.
More programs are being developed so that eventually a complete track and field team as well as other sports’ teams will be competing in the
Olympics. In the Munich Games, all of Kenya's problems were not associated with team depth and the number of sports. The track team experienced some internal problems that could have had adverse effects on team performances. According to Norman Da Costa, reporter for the
Daily Nation, there were some problems that threatened to disrupt the
Kenya track team. There were reports alleging the practice of tribalism
and that some athletes were only interested in travelling to Munich for
the trip, not hard work. Kenya's Chef de Mission for the Games, Bill
Martin, issued a statement in an attempt to correct negative reports in
the Kenya press. Martin explained that the situation had been
exaggerated and that the team was in good spirits. He felt that one or
'°Daily Nation, September 5, 1972, p. 1. 251 two disgruntled athletes may have been the cause of the problem.
However, D. Rotich, President, Kenya Amateur Athletic Association, stated
th a t:
We w i l l have to tak e a c tio n when we get back so th a t some of the things that have happened here are not repeated in future major competitions. The executive committee of the Kenya AAA w ill meet . . . and decide on what action to take.
Kenyan s p r i n t e r , Dan Amuke, q u a lif ie d fo r the second round of the 200 meters but failed to show up at the stadium. He was not aware of the race and went into town.
A welcoming committee was formed to greet the Kenya Olympic
contingent at a State House reception on their return home from Munich.
The committee included six members—three from the Kenya National Sports
Council and three from the Kenya Olympic Association. Also included were representatives from the Office of the President, the Ministry of
Cooperatives and Social Services, and the Traffic Department. The
general public was invited to help and other provincial centers such
as Mombasa, Nakuru, and Kisumu a lso planned to have rec e p tio n s . The
Mayor of Nairobi, Miss Margaret Kenyatta planned a civic reception
honoring the returning team.^^
The B r itis h Commonwealth Games
The f i r s t B r itis h Commonwealth Games, known as th e B r itis h
Empire Games, were held in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada in 1930. The Games
^^Daily Nation, September 5, 1972, p. 30.
^^Daily Nation, p. 30.
^^Daily Nation, p. 30.
^^East African Standard, August 25, 1972, p. 1. 252
are held every four years when amateur athletes of all countries within
the British Commonwealth, including the colonies, compete in a variety
of athletic events. In 1952, the name of the Games was changed to the
B r i ti s h Empire and Commonwealth Games. Again i t was changed to i t s
present title in 1966.^^ Another noteworthy change took place in 1970
when th e B r itis h Commonwealth F ed eratio n found i t necessary to amend
its constitution in two sections to read that:
For the B r itis h Commonwealth Games no d isc rim in a tio n against any country or person shall be permitted on grounds of race, colour, religion or politics.
The a f f i l i a t i o n of the Rhodesia Commonwealth Games Association is held in suspense until such time as Rhodesia returns to a state of legality within the Commonwealth.^'^
1954 Commonwealth Games. Kenya's first international competi
tion as a team took place, while still a colony, in the Fifth
Commonwealth Games h e ld in Vancouver, B r itis h Columbia, Canada, 1954.
Some of the better performances by the Kenya team included a fourth
place finish in the three mile distance run by N. Maiyoro in 13 min.
43.8 secs.; the 4 x 440 yard relay—K. Boit, K. Keter, K. Barno and
M. Mbathi—in 3 min. 17.6 secs., also fourth place; and the javelin
throw by M. Tesot of 203 feet, 1/2 inch for sixth place.
^ ^ B ritis h Commonwealth Games F e d e ra tio n , C o n s titu tio n of the B r itis h Commonwealth Games (London: 1969), p. 37.
^'^Commonwealth Games F e d e ra tio n , pp. 5-6.
^^Commonwealth Games Federation, p. 44; see also Martin Kane, "A Very Welcome Redcoat," Sports Illustrated, XXV (December, 1966), 80. 253
1958 Commonwealth Games. No medals were won in Vancouver, but in 1958 Kenya won two bronze m edals, the f i r s t ever in Commonwealth
Games Competition. One third place was achieved in the six mile run by
A. A nentia in 28 min. 51.2 s e cs. The o th er bronze was won by
B. Rotich in the 440 yard hurdles in 51.7 secs. Other successful participants included a sixth place finish by K. Sum in the six mile in 30 min. 3.6 s e c s . ; an o th er s ix th p lace in th e 4 x 440 yard r e la y —
B. R otich, K. K e te r, S. Chemweno, and K. B o it— in 3 min. 16.7 s e c s . ; and a fourth place in the high jump by J. Leresae, 6 feet, 6 inches.
1962 Commonwealth Games. In th e 1962 Commonwealth Games in
Perth, Australia, Kenya struck gold for the first time. Seraphino
Antao won the 100 yard dash in 9.5 secs, for his first and Kenya's first gold medal ever. He then went on to win his second gold medal, s e ttin g a Commonwealth Games record of 21.1 s e c s, in th e 220 yard sprint. K. Songok ran 51.9 seconds in the 440 yard hurdles for second place and a silver medal. P. Francis placed fourth in the 880 yard run
in the time, 1 min. 49.9 secs. J. Leresae who high jumped six feet,
six inches in 1958 added on two inches in Perth for a 6 feet, 8 inch
jump and a fifth place. The 4 x 440 yard relay time also improved by
1.7 secs, to 3 min. 15.0 secs, for fifth place. The relay runners
were K. Songok, P. Francis, S. Antao, Artis W. Kiprugut. In boxing,
two bronze medals were won by Phillip Waruinge, flyweight and Ali Juma,
featherweight.
^"Norris and Ross McWhirter (eds.). The 1966 Guinness Book of B r itis h Empire and Commonwealth Games Records (London: Guinness Superlatives, Ltd., 1966), pp. 10-44. 254
The financing of international sports trips was always an
expensive and troublesome venture. When the Kenyan team left for the
Commonwealth Games in P e rth , A u s tra lia in 1962, th ere was a sh o rtag e of
approximately $600.00 for travelling expenses. While the team was
competing in Perth, funds were raised to defray the costs with a little
to spare to kick o ff the d riv e fo r th e 1966 Commonwealth Games in
Jam aica.
1966 Commonwealth Games. In 1966, i t co st n early $900.00 to
send one a th le te to the Commonwealth Games in K ingston, Jam aica.
Normally, the cost would have been higher except that the airlines
allow ed s p e c ia l low ra te s to tra n s p o rt a th le te s to the Commonwealth
Games and, while in Jamaica, accommodations and food were free.
According to Don Diment, such arrangements' were not available during
th e Olympic Games. I t was a t th is p o in t th a t M. Brunner, Chairman of
the Kenya Commonwealth Games A sso c ia tio n , recommended the m erger of
the Kenya Olympic A sso ciatio n w ith the Commonwealth Games A sso ciatio n —
an effort to reduce cost and duplication.^^
The Jamaica Games took place in the carnival atmosphere of the
Carribean Islands. Teams from twenty-two countries participated in
nine athletic events—track and field, swimming, boxing, cycling,
fencing, shooting, weightlifting, badminton, and wrestling. From the
start, one of the primary concerns of both spectators and participants
was the heat factor. Many events were started early in the morning
or late afternoon in an effort to avoid the heat. As the opening
'Diment, Commonwealth Games A ssociation , p. 12. 255
ceremonies approached, the heat was also increasing over the highly publicized duel between the great Australian distance runner Ron Clarke
and Kenya’s Kipchoge Keino. Clarke was entered in the three mile, six mile, and marathon events and, for at least in the distance races, it
looked like Clarke versus Kenya. Clarke, who had not won a gold medal
in Commonwealth and Olympic Games co m p etitio n , l o s t a l l th re e ev e n ts,
two to Kenyans. In the s ix m ile run, Kenya’s N a f ta li Temu, in the words of the Times (London), "crushed" Clarke in a fantastic display
of judgement, power, and speed. Temu’s time of 27 min. 14.4 secs, also
beat his personal best by more than three minutes and set a new
Commonwealth Games reco rd . Clarke s u ffe re d h is second d e fe a t in the
three mile run to Kipchoge Keino. Keino’s gold medal time was 12 min.
57.4 secs. Other Kenyan participants in the three mile event included
a fourth place finish by Naftali Temu in 13 min. 10.4 secs.; an eleventh
p lace fin is h by C. Nyakwayo in 13 min. 40 s e c s . ; and B. Kogo who
finished thirteenth with a time of 13 min. 46.4 secs.
Keino’s three mile victory was followed by his win in the
coveted mile run. He eclipsed Roger Bannister's mile record of 3 min.
58.8 secs, twice—once in a heat with a time of 3 min. 57.4 secs, and
again in the finals with the time of 3 min. 53.3 secs. Other Kenyan
track successes included a silver medal for W. Kiprugut in the 880
yard run in the time of 1 min. 47.2 secs.; a seventh place finish
in the 880 by P. Francis in 1 min. 48.3 secs.; a bronze medal in the
440 yard run for D. Rudisha in 47.2 secs.; and a bronze medal in the
steep lech ase fo r B. Kogo in 8 min. 33 se c s. S t i l l o th ers provided a
good account of themselves. Kenya began to show signs of development 256 in the f ie l d ev en ts. T. K ipruto placed seventh in the hammer w ith a throw of 153 feet, 3 inches. J. Sang, who was eliminated in the semi finals of the 440 yard hurdles, placed eighth in the long jump with a distance of 24 feet, 4 inches. P. Otieno placed eleventh in the discus with a distance of 149 feet. The decathlon was included in the
Commonwealth Games fo r the f i r s t tim e in Jam aica. K enya's K. Kiprop placed seventh in a field of ten with a total of 6,399 points. The winner, R. Williams of New Zealand, had a total of 7,270 points.
C. Nyakwoyo rep resen ted Kenya w e ll by p lac in g seventh out of seventeen in the always gruelling marathon. His time was 2 hrs. 44 rain.
59.4 secs.
In boxing, P. Waruinge won a gold medal in the featherweight division. S. Baraza, lightweight, and M. Nderu, bantamweight, both won bronze m edals. The 1966 Commonwealth Games was Kenya’s b e s t international effort to date and was just a prelude to what was to come at the Mexico Olympic Games in 1968. Kenya's medal total was four gold, one silver and four bronze.^ 48
1970 Commonwealth Games. The N inth Commonwealth Games were h eld in Edinburgh, Scotland in 19 70. The Games were the first major inter national sports event ever staged in Scotland, and forty-two countries,
eleven African, participated. Although the weather was far from ideal,
th e f a c i l i t i e s were th e f in e s t ever provided fo r th e Commonwealth Games
^^The Times (London), August 4-15, 1966, pp. 4, 5, 6; see also Gwilym S. Brown, "F ierce F ig h t in the Fam ily," Sports I l l u s t r a t e d , XXV (August, 1966), 56-57. 257
since their start forty years ago. Despite the racial dissension in
the competitors' village and a threatened boycott over the political
problems regarding South Africa, the "Friendly Games" were very
successful.A lthough the African nations performed well in the
running events, especially Kenya, they left something to be desired in
the field events. The six Kenyan boxers made a respectable showing.
Twenty-seven Kenyan athletes participated and won twelve medals—five
gold, three silver, and four bronze. Although many African women took
p a rt in the Games, no Kenyan women competed.The notable Kenyan
performances are mentioned here. Charles Asati won a bronze medal
with a third place finish in the 200 meters run in 20.7 secs. Julius
Sang finished eighth. Asati moved up to the gold medal in the 400
meter run with a time of 45.0 secs, and once again Sang placed eighth.
In th e 800 m eters run, Robert Ouku picked up an o th er gold medal fo r
'Kenya in 1 min. 46.8 secs. T. Saisi was eliminated in the semi-finals
and N. Bon in th e f i r s t round. K enya's s t a r Kipchoge Keino, won a
gold medal in the 1500 meters, in 3 min. 36.6 secs., but his teammates,
B. Jipcho and D. Mungai, were eliminated in the first round. Keino won
his second medal, bronze, in the 5000 meter run with the time of
13 min. 27.6 secs. J. Ngeno was eighth. D. Mungai was eliminated in
the first round. Kenya could do no better than sixth, seventh and
nineteenth places in the 10,000 meters. In the 3000 meter steeplechase.
^^"Edinburgh '70 Reflections," World Sports, August, 1970, p. 13.
50"Edinburgh '70 Games R e s u lts ," World S p o rts, August, 1970, pp. 41-46. 258
Ben Jipcho won a silver medal with the time 8 min. 29.6 secs. Amos
Biwott took third place for the bronze. Ben Kogo was sixth. In the
400 meter hurdles, C. Yego placed third for the bronze medal in 50.1 seconds. An interesting sidelight in this race was the fourth place finish by the Ugandan hurdler John Akii-Bua in 51.1 secs. In the 1972
Munich Olympics, Akii-Bua set an incredible world record in the 400 meter hurdles—47.8. In a field of thirty marathon runners, P. Ndoo placed fifteenth. The highlight of the Games for Kenya was the victory in the 4 x 400 meter relay in 3 min. 3.6 secs. Nyamau, Sang, Ouko and Asati comprised the team.
All of Kenya’s boxers at least reached the quarter-finals with one advancing to the semi-finals and three to the finals. Phillip
Waruinge won a gold medal in th e feath erw eig h t c la s s . Sam Mbogwa, bantamweight and J. Olulu, welterweight won silver medals.
The n ex t B r itis h Commonwealth Games w i l l be h e ld in
Christchurch, New Zealand in 1974.
The All-African Games
The All-African Games were patterned after the Olympic and
B r i ti s h Commonwealth Games. The A ll-A fric a n Games w ere conducted in
the same spirit of unity provided in the continent's political body,
the Organization of African Unity (OAU). The nations of the world
deliberate in the United Nations and compete in sports in the Olympics.
The member co u n tries in the. B r itis h Commonwealth a ls o have th e
Commonwealth Games. The Pan-American n a tio n s have th e Pan-American
Games. It was only fitting and quite natural that the All-African Games
came in to e x iste n c e . The common language of movement in th e co n tex t of 259
sports has aided considerably in narrowing the communication gap between many African countries. With the membership of the OAU
represented, the Games automatically took on political significance.
The OAU has opposed the white minority rule in Khodesia and South Africa
and has taken similar stands in regards to athletic competition.
1965 A ll-A frican Games. The f i r s t A ll-A frican Games were held
in Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo, former French Colony, July 1965.
For many of the newly independent African countries this was a showplace
for their new found freedom. Participation in such sports events was
a symbol of nationhood. According to Mai W hitfield, who at that time
was assigned to the USIS in Kenya, and one of the few Americans per
mitted to attend the Games, twenty-eight African countries participated
in the Brazzaville Games.The Games had’ the approval of the
International Amateur Athletic Federation and the International Olympic
Committee.This hostorical event was touted by the Kenya Sports
Review as "the cream of Africa's sportsmen in action, competing in an
atmosphere of friendship, cheerfulness and unity.
^^Statement by Malvin W hitfield, Personal Interview, December 29, 1972; see also "News In Brief," Africa Report, X (October, 1965), p. 59.
^^"The KAAA Newsletter," Kenya Sports Review, December, 1964, p. 10.
53”First All-Africa Games," Kenya Sports Review, March-April, 1965, p. 9. 260
The Games were held in B ra z z a v ille ’s new 30,000 s e a t,
$2,800,000^^ stadium which was opened in June 1965.^^ But before the
Games were officially declared opened problems developed. The Republic of the Congo's government arrested eighteen suspected saboteurs allegedly from neighboring Leopoldville, Congo, former Belgium colony.
All movement of personnel, except athletes bound for the All-African
Games, was halted.Alphonse Massamba Debat, P re sid e n t of Congo-
Brazzaville accused Congo-Leopoldville of attempting to sabotage the
Games and return a former leader, Fulbert Youlu, to power. There was some question of United States involvement in the plot, but the
United S ta te s was exonerated.There was a lso some concern th a t the best athletes were not selected to represent the various countries.
In some instances, team selection was based primarily on political
"ability" and affiliation and not athletic proficiency. The instability
that characterized those countries at that time was in evidence through
out the competition. Glen Randall—Executive Director, Special
Olympics, Joseph P. Kennedy Foundation, Washington, D. C. and former
Director, United States Sports Corps, Peace Corps—also attended the
B ra z za v ille Games and commented th a t some c o u n tries were not w ell
represented with only eight or ten competitors. Uganda, Kenya, and
Nigeria had the largest delegations. Randall also felt that the track
55"News In B r ie f ," A frica R eport, X (August, 1965), p. 25.
^^Africa Report, October, 1965, p. 41.
^^Africa Report, October, 1965, p. 42. 261 was in very bad condition and some running events were held on the grass. He mentioned another point of interest in regards to spectator appeal. The crowds were very large for soccer games and very small for track events.
Based on Kenya's performance in the Tokyo Olympics less than a year earlier, they were expected to maintain the reputation of being one of the leading African nations in track.A lim it on th e s iz e of each contingent was imposed by the Games' organizers, forty-four men, sixteen women and five officials. Kenya’s team included twenty-five track competitors, ten boxers, four tennis players, and one volleyball observer. Selection to the Kenyan team was dependent on the standards set by the Olympic Association Committee; past and current performances; the results of the Kenya Championships in Mombasa, June
1965; the East African Championships (Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya) in
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, July 1965; and final confirmation by the s e le c tio n committee.History was made when two women p a rtic ip a te d
for the first time ever for Kenya's track team. Diana Monks won a
silver mdeal in the 80 meter hurdles, and Anna Vivian placed fourth
in the javelin. Other creditable performances by Kenyans included
Kipchoge Keino's gold medal effort in the 5,000 meters run in a time which was 1.4 secs, better than the Olympic record and ten seconds
^^Statement by Glen Randall, Personal Interview, December 13, 1972.
^^Kenya Sports Review, March-April, p. 9.
^^Kenya Sports Review, March-April, p. 9.
^^Kenya Sports Review, March-April, 1965, p. 9. 262 faster than the best time in the Tokyo Olympic Games; Naftali Temu's great victory over Ethiopia's Mamo Wolde in the 10,000 meters; John
Owiti's silver medal finish in the 100 meters dash; Wilson Kiprugut's v ic to ry in th e 800 metersand Phillip Waruinge's gold medal finish in the featherweight division in boxing.
The United Arab Republic was the overall winner with eighteen gold medals, ten silver medals, and three bronze medals. Nigeria,
Kenya, and Senegal followed, respectively.^^ Whitfield stated that the vast majority of the officials were Egyptian. African countries had not yet developed a cadre of officials of international caliber. 65
The investigator observed a great deal of Egyptain officiating during his visit to Somalia.
In spite of the political overtones which marred diplomatic relations with some of the African nations, the first All-African
Games was a giant step forward for sports on the African continent.
President Debat and Avery Brundage, President of the International
Olympic Committee, officially opened the first All-African Games on
July 18, 1965.666
1969 All-African Games. The All-African Games were scheduled
to be held every four years, the year following the Olympic Games.
6^Kenya Sports Review, March, 1966, p. 5.
63wepukhulu, "Nation Races into the Lead," p. 33.
64Africa Report, October, 1965, p. 59.
63whitfield, interview.
66Africa Report, October, 1965, p. 59. 2 »
Wepukhulu, in his report of the 1968 Mexico Olympic Games, mentioned that "Kenyans are wasting no time in getting prepared for next year's
(1969) All-African Games in Mali . . . However, "A series of political and administrative problems have prevented them . . .
And for other reasons unknown, the Mali Games never materialized.
1973 All-African Games. Lagos, Nigeria was the scene of the second A ll-A frican Games, January 7-18, 1973. More than 1500 a th le te s from thirty-six black and Arab nations participated in what was the largest gathering of athletes ever assembled on the African continent.
The Games took p lace in the new $ 2 1 -m illio n stadium in Lagos and the entire cost of the spectacular was estimated at $30-million. The
60,000-seat stadium was built especially for the Games at that time, and, had the only eight-lane, all weather synthetic track in Africa.
Other facilities in the complex include a hall for indoor sports, two swimming pools, seven tennis courts and a squash center. The events for the African Games included track and field, soccer, boxing, basketball, volleyball, tennis, swimming, cycling, table tennis, hand ball, and judo.
The Games showed a close resemblance to the Olympic pattern.
Congo-Brazzaville, the last nation to host the Games led the grand
^^Wepukhulu, "Kenya on the Gold Standard," p. 33.
^^Aaron Segal, "Pan-African Athletes Score a First," Africa Report, XVi (October, 1971), p. 26.
^^The New York Times, January 8, 1973, p. 36.
^^The Washington Post, January 7, 1973, Sec. C, p. 10. 264 procession into the stadium as was the custom in the Olympics. Congo-
Brazzaville was also responsible for delivering the Games torch to the stadium. After the parade, about seven hours of festivities followed including traditional African dances. Thomas Johnson, a New York Times reporter, referred to the festivities as a study of fashions.
Upper Vo1tan youths, wearing conical straw hats and the striped, pajama-like cotton suits of Fulani cattle herders, contrasted both with the Tanzanians in their plain Maoist suits and with the bell-bottomed, trendy pants-suits— reminiscent of Paris boulevards—worn by women athletes from the Ivory Coast.
Business suits were worn by the Algerians, desert robes by the Sudanese, blazers by the Kenyan men and m ini-skirts by th e Kenyan women. The Cameroons d e leg ates came in flow ing white boubas with white caps.
There was great ethnic variety also. Among the mostly black and Arab delegates were sprinklings of Europeans and East Indians. The athletes from Mauritius reflected that island's African, East Indian and Chinese population, and the Malagasy Republic's athletes were mostly descendants of the Indonesian peoples who migrated to the East Indian Island many c e n tu rie s ago.
Prestige and politics played a significant role in the second
All-African Games. Nigeria's m ilitary ruler. General Yakubu Gowon,
declared that the new stadium was "not just another prestige project"
but rather an "essential product of our development efforts and a
symbol of our aspirations in the field of sports.Three years
earlier Nigeria had been embroiled in a civil war that threatened to
bring that country to its knees and blacken its image around the world.
The New York Times, January 8, 1973, p. 36.
^^Washington Post, January 7, 1973, p. 10. 265
At the Gamesi Gowon was calling upon all Africans, black and Arab, to
unite. There was no doubt that îjigeria’s credibility was bolstered.
Even the All-African Games' anthem provided a political challenge for
the athletes.The Munich massacre was not forgotten, and the memory of that event resulted in very strict security measuresLike
the first All-African Games, Avery Brundage, former president of the
IOC, was along with his successor. Lord Killanin of Ireland. They
provided great prestige to the event.
During the Games’ organization meetings, the Supreme Council
for Sports in Africa met and the English-speaking African nations
decided to boy co tt the 1974 B r itis h Commonwealth Games in New Zealand
if that country allowed an all-white South African rugby team to
participate there while on tour this year.
At the end of the largest sports spectacular ever held in
Africa, Egypt emerged with most gold medals, twenty-five. Eighteen
of them were won in swimming. Kenya won six gold medals, four silver,
and one bronze. The outstanding performances by Kenyans are listed
Gold Medals
100 Meter H urdles, F atw ell Kimano 14.14 se cs.
400 Meters, Charles Asati, 46.26 secs, (broke Wilson Kiprugut’s All-African record set in Brazzaville in 1965, 46.9 secs.)
800 Meters, Cosmos Silei, 1 min. 45.33 secs.
73washington Post, January 7, 1973, p. 10.
^‘^New York Times, January 8, 1973, p. 36. 266
3000 M eter S teep lech ase; Ben Jip ch o , 8 min. 20.69 se cs. (new w orld record)
5000 M eters, Ben Jip ch o , 14 min. 7.6 s e c s.
4 X 400 M eter Relay 3 min. 6.33 secs.
Silver Medals
800 M eters, John K iprugut, 1 min. 47.24 secs.
1500 Meters, Kipchoge Keino, 3 min. 39.58 secs.
10,000 Meters, Paul Mose, 29 min. 5.67 s e c s.
400 Meter H u rd les, W illiam K oskei, 50.17 secs. (lost to John Akii-Bua 48.49 secs. 19 72 Olympic Champion)
Bronze Medal
5000 Meters, Paul Mose, 14 m in. 8.38 s e c s.
Pan-African—USA
The first Pan-African effort in the field of sport took place— outside of continental Africa—in Durham, North Carolina. The unity exemplified by the All-African contingent was of historical significance.
Never before had African nations organized themselves to compete against
a common foe. Forty-two African men and seven African women augmented by other women competitors from Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the
Philippines took p a r t . ^5 Aaron Segal, former editor of Africa Report,
referred to the competition—track and field—as, "An effective and
meaningful demonstration of Pan-Africanism in sport . . . but it was
also a cultural happening in the fullest sense of the w o r d . "76 The id ea
75Segal, "Pan-African Athletes," p. 25.
76segal, "Pan-African Athletes," p. 26. 267 idea originated with Dr. Leroy Walker, track coach at North Carolina
Central in Durham, North Carolina.
The Supreme Council for Sport in Africa (SCSA) sponsored the track meet and the competitors represented fourteen African countries with Kenya and Nigeria providing most of the clout.
Rather than a selection process with a series of national and regional elimination competitions, the selection of the Pan-African team was done by utilizing the past performances of individuals. This type of selection is undesirable because it eliminates perhaps 6,000 potential candidates, and it does not permit the kind of challenge necessary to build champions. The final scores were in favor of the
U nited S ta te s—men 111 to 78 and women 79 to 53.
The SCSA was founded in 1966 and operates on an annual budget of nearly $300,000 "provided by its membership and the OAU to which it i s affiliated.The SCSA has provided assistance to national sports organizations by establishing coaching clinics. The SCSA felt that
the training of competent coaches was the best way to improve standards.Segal further points out that many athletes join the police, prison staff or the military to get the necessary time and
discipline to improve. He also cited one of the fallacies of those
institutions being that, "as champions retire their limited education makes them less than suitable for full-time teaching and coaching
p o s itio n s . .79
77segal, "Pan-African Athletes," p. 26.
7®Segal, "Pan-African Athletes," p. 25.
7^Segal, "Pan African Athletes," p. 25. 268 The first Pan-African effort in sports was a great success and a credit to the nations of Africa.
Kenya's top performers, especially in track, compare with any in the world but after them there is very little depth. There is a need for more competition, more and modem equipment, qualified teachers and coaches, and financial assistance in order to remedy the situation.
The progress made and demonstrated around the world is encouraging and gives rise to the optimism that Kenya will make a strong contribution
to the world of sports. Jeneby stated that, "We believe we can match
any nation in the world per head of population for natural ability.
Above all and in order to prove that, a better understanding of physical education and sports activities by the Kenyan general public is needed.
As far as raw material is concerned Kenya, in fact Africa, has a vast
amount of untapped natural talent.
Kenya has replaced Mgeria as the bright star of Africa, and its
image has grown by leaps and bounds. Sports have not only contributed
notably to the unification of the country but have also contributed
greatly to its continental image. The keenness of African competition
throughout the continent has catapulted a significant number of world
class Kenyan athletes onto the world scene. This level of visibility
has created a new international image for Kenya. The notoriety given
to the exploits of Kenya's athletes since independence has coincided
with increased foreign investments. During the same time span Kenya
hosted the first All-African Trade Fair in February 1972, and Nairobi
SOJeneby, "Physical Education in Kenya," p. 52. 269 w ill be the site for the 1973 International Monetary Fund annual meeting. The first major United Nations' project not located in one of the major power countries has been established in Kenya. It is the world environmental experiment station. All of the above ingredients and more lend considerably to the stability of Kenya. ANALYSIS OF KENYAN STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE
In an effort to obtain additional data pertaining to physical education in Kenya, a questionnaire survey was conducted. The information received served as a primary source in gaining further insight into this aspect of education. In 1966, a questionnaire consisting of twelve items was sent out to 374 Kenyan students who were studying in the United States and Canada in institutions of higher learning, preparatory schools, and high schools. A copy of the ques
tionnaire is found in Appendix H. Over ninety percent of the students were located in colleges and universities. The names and addresses of the respondents were obtained through the Kenya Mission to the United
N ations. ^ Due to the d ire c to r y 's d ate of com pilation, some o f the
addresses had been changed. However, this did significantly affect the results of the survey. The investigator interviewed the person^ primarily responsible for compiling the directory. The interview was helpful and served to update the directory and gain other information.
^Compiled by Kenya Mission to the United Nations, "Directory of Kenya Students, Territorial United States and Canada," March, 1965.
^Interview with Joseph K. Koinange, Education Attache, Kenya Mission to the United Nations, New York, March, 1966. 271 The respondents represented all seven political-geographical provinces and the Nairobi area in Kenya and more or less paralleled
the concentration of population. The heavily populated areas had the
highest representation in the survey and the least populated had the
lowest. Having left their country only recently they were able to
relate more accurately the latest developments, trends and changes.
Table 17 provides a provincial breakdown of the respondents. Of the
3 74 questionnaires distributed there was approximately a fifty percent
return. The investigator was actually able to utilize 182 returns.
Six respondents either did not include their name or their province,
but the information was still useful. Fifty-one questionnaires were
returned due to insufficient addresses.
A brief analysis of the responses from the Kenyan students
follow s ;
Q uestion Number 1— Did you have p h y sic a l edu catio n in Kenya?
On the primary school level, all respondents had physical
education. Only ten students did not have physical education in
secondary school—five from the Central Region, three from the Nyanza
Region, and one from the Eastern Region. This information coincided
with that received from other sources which stated overwhelmingly
that all primary and secondary schools had physical education programs.
This was an indication that at least a certain amount of consideration
and planning had been given to this area in the curriculum.
Question Number 2— Was physical education required?
Only three students indicated that physical education was not
a primary school requirement while four believed that physical education TABLE 17
PROVINCIAL BREAKDOWN OP QUESTIONNAIRE RESPONDENTS
Provincial Location of S tudents in Kenya Women T o tal
C en tral 49 3 52
W estern 30 5 35
Nyanza 37 3 40
N airo b i 12 3 15
E astern 17 2 19
Northeastern (included in Eastern)
Coast 7 2 9
R if t 5 1 6 ------T o tal by sex 157 19 176
Name or Provinces not included on re tu rn s 6
Total number of useable returns 182 273 was not required on the secondary level. Two students who were not
required to take primary physical education were from the Central
Region and the other from the Eastern Region. Three who believed
that physical education was not a required course in secondary school
came from the Nyanza Region while the other lived in the Central Region.
Although the requirement existed in most schools, physical education
was not a part of the permanent record or grading systems. This is
possibly due to the fact that the examinations that determine
whether or not one continues one's education do not test in the area
of physical education.
Q uestion Number 3— L is t games o r a c t i v i t i e s in which you p a rtic ip a te d
a t sch o o l.
Tables 18 and 19 attempt to give a cross-section of the
physical education activities found in the primary and secondary school
programs. In the primary school, some of the activities appear to be
a bit advanced for children. However, some pupils do not start
primary until they are seven or eight, making them possibly fifteen
years old after completing the seven standards.
Speaking in terms of a possible Kenyan national sports past-time,
soccer ranked number one. This was quite obvious in the listings of
both the primary and secondary school programs, 137 and 139 respec
tively. In addition, other popular activities in school were track and
field, volleyball, native dancing, lawn tennis, field hockey, and
swimming. Dancing, rhythms, and folklore, which were categorized
together, were not experienced as much on the secondary level as on the
primary. The investigator did not feel that this was necessarily due GAMES OR SPORTS IN WHICH THERE WAS PARTICIPATION ON" THE PRIMARY SCHOOL LEVEL IN ORDER OF FREQUENCY
Activities & Frequency Activities & Frequency
1. Soccer 137 13. Swimming 7
2. Track and Field 104 14. Rugby 7
3. Physical Training 60 15. Tug-O-War 7 (calisthenics) 4. Volleyball 40 16. Gymnastics 6
5. Dancing (Native) 35 17.Baseball 5
6. Tenniquoits 24 18. Badminton 4
7. F ie ld Hockey 18 19. Table Tennis 4
8. W restling 17 20. 4
9. Basketball (Netball) 12 21. Climbing Trees 2
10. Rounders 10 22. Handball 2
11. Lawn Tennis 8 23. Boxing 1
12. Cross Country 7 24. Touch F o o tb a ll 1 GAMES OR SPORTS IN WHICH THERE WAS PARTICIPATION ON THE SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVEL IN ORDER OF FREQUENCY
Activities & Frequency Activities & Frequency
1. Soccer 139 16. Rounders 10
2. Track and Field 110 17. Gymnastics 7
3. V o lley b all 90 18. B aseball 6
4. F ie ld Hockey 72 19. W restling 6
5. B ask etb all 38 20. Boxing 5
6. Physical Training 31 21. Mountain Climbing 4
7. Lawn Tennis 29 22. Tug-O-War 3
8. Swimming 27 23. Scouting 3
9. Table Tennis 22 24. Squash 2
10. T enniquoits 22 25. Handball 2
11. Dancing (native) 17 26. Tree Climbing 2
12. Rugby 16 27. Water Polo 1
13. Cross Country 14 28. Cycling 1
14. Badminton 14 29. Horseshoes 1
15. 11 276 to a lack of interest but partially to an expanded program with more challenging experiences. Activities for the growing, gregarious, secondary school student centered around the team sports such as field hockey, the "new" game of basketball and others already mentioned.
Possibly westernization curtailed traditional dance on the secondary
P h y sica l tr a in in g , or c a lis th e n ic s as i t was more commonly known, did not fare as well on the secondary level possibly for some of the same reasons "in-groupism" was lacking. The team activities offered security and prestige, two essential elements for success during late pubescence and adolescence. Physical training also meant regimentation which evoked a certain amount of resentment and rebellion.
Wrestling which was usually a rather popular sport dropped from a primary school rating of eighth place with a frequency of seventeen to a secondary rating of nineteenth place with a frequency of six.
This drop was in keeping with the comments of several students who were of the opinion that interest in wrestling was on the wane. In other parts of Africa such as Senegal, wrestling—or "gole" as it is called
in the Coastal Region of Kenya—is actually growing in popularity.
Based on the growth of wrestling around the world, the investigator
feels that it will gain back much of its appeal in the near future.
Quality of instruction may have attributed to the decline.
Netball and rounders are two games which are played primarily
by girls. Netball is on the order of girls basketball in the United
States. Rounders is very similar to the American game of baseball.
Games which were introduced more recently by the Peace Corps, 277 Operation Crossroads Africa and others, such as basketball and volley ball, have been catching on. Increased facilities and equipment for
these activities will create even more interest.
Amateur boxing was featured quite a lot in British history.
From the point of view of educational value it was a part of British education to be able to look after oneself. Many students were taught
boxing, particularly in the Kenya army. Kenya’s boxers, as indicated
above, have done rather well in the Commonwealth, All-African and
Olympic Games. People like Dick Tiger of Nigeria were trained in a
B ritish background.
Q uestion Number 4 —Were any of th ese games of A frican o r ig in , not
European? Please list.
The responses elicited by this question proved to be quite
interesting. About thirty-four percent answered "no" while thirty-
seven percent listed dancing as a game or activity which was of
African origin. Of the percentage who mentioned dance, only one was
from the Nairobi Region. This could possibly be an indication of the
willingness of Africans to rid themselves of tribal customs as they
migrated to the large metropolitan areas. Nairobi City, the capital,
is the major area where de-tribalization is emphasized.
The investigator had to sift through other activities listed
as having African origins—high jumping, foot races, wrestling,
spearth ro w in g , tu g -o -w ar, a rch ery , mock b a tt l e s and swimming. The
in v e s tig a to r i s co n fid en t th a t many o f th ese a c t i v i t i e s or in some
cases basic motor movements, are rooted in antiquity; consequently,
many parts of the world could lay claim to them. However, Africa, 278 and especially East Africa, had a slight edge on these claims because according to some of the latest findings by anthropologists, the earliest forms of man were found on that continent. It would be pure conjecture, but maybe the first foot race, jumping contest, wrestling match, tug-o-war and other events were held during these early periods of man's existence on the earth.
Nineteen respondents listed spear throwing. The implement was r e f e r re d to by some as th e j a v e l in , b u t i t i s commonly accepted th a t
the word javelin is not an African term. In the Nyanza Region, a spear game called "nyange" was listed by a few students. The game consists of throwing a pole, which represents a spear, through a rolling wheel. Wrestling or "gole" showed up twenty-five times.
Jumping i s a p opular movement in many p a rts of A fric a . Whether i t
occurred while dancing or in spontaneous play it was common place to witness the great potential in jumping ability in such tribes as the
Watusi of Burundi and the Masai of Kenya and Tanzania.
Although small in number, the most significant response to
this question brought out one of the oldest practices of colonial rule
which was the condemnation and denigration of many aspects of African
culture. A few students stated that they were not allowed to partici pate in activities of African origin because they ran contrary to
Christian ways of conduct. Much of the cultural damage was done
unconsciously by the British which made it even worse because not
understanding all what had been done it was difficult, if not impos
sible, to remedy the situation. The proposed recommendations by the
Kenyan students weighed heavily in the direction of a renewed emphasis 279 on keeping the African culture alive. A large percentage recommended indigenous singing and dancing as integral forms of physical education.
In spite of this, a great interest in Western activities was apparent.
Q uestion Number 5 — Were those who tau g h t you p h y sic a l education professionally trained in the area of physical education?
Over seventy-five percent of those who participated in the questionnaire-survey answered "no"—that their teachers were not trained as specialists in the profession of physical education. The responsibility for the conduct of physical education classes rested
almost entirely with staff members who were actually involved in other
areas of study, biology, history, mathematics and so on. If they were
available, especially if they were outstanding sportsmen in own rights,
the teachers would be expected to take physical education classes in
turn. According to numerous so u rc e sa ll teachers were not only required to take physical education as a part of their preparation, but they were also expected to teach it. Unfortunately the extent of
physical education preparation was never clearly spelled out.
A relatively small number, eight percent, stated that although
their primary school teachers were not in the field of physical
education, their secondary teachers were trained specialists. As an
afterthought, six students stated that the physical education staff at
^Statement by Richard A. Lake, personal interview, May 21, 1966; Also statement by Joseph K. Koinange, personal interview, March, 1966; See also Government of Kenya, Teaching Opportunities at Secondary Schools and Colleges in Kenya (Nairobi: Ministry of Education, 1965). 280 the teacher training colleges were specialists. Another interesting note was that some students, who were good athletes, were sometimes allowed to conduct the classes in the secondary schools. No mention was made of the effects of this arrangement on peer group relations.
This is basically a desirable practice that should become a permanent fixture in the program. Students benefit considerably from what is fundamentally a practicum experience.
Question Number 6 — Is physical education synonymous with sports a c ti v it ie s in Kenya?
The investigator found that the terms physical education and sports activities were being used interchangeably. The returns on
this item did not support either extreme. Fifty-five percent of the respondents believed that physical education and sports activities were synonymous in Kenya. Forty-three percent did not think that the
two terms were synonymous. Of course many factors entered the picture.
Looking at the statistics there was a balance of yes’s and no's in each region. In the developing stages, it was quite possible that little attention was given to this relationship and everyone was allowed to interpret it for themselves.
The great majority of those who said "no" stated further that physical education on the one hand was a required phase of the curricu
lum which was given a special place in timetable, usually between nine
and eleven in the morning. On the other hand, competitive sports
activities were not compulsory. They were conducted after school hours
-and they had little or no supervision. Other comments advanced as
reasons to distinguish between the two elements were: 281
1. Physical education was calisthenics while sports activities were games.
2. Sports activities were challenging.
3. Physical education also included health education.
4. Sports activities were carried over into the community whereas physical education took place during school hours.
5. Sports activities were seasonal and physical education was year round.
6. A sportsman developed on his own initiative and physical education was taught and supervised.
7. I t was p re s tig io u s to be a member of a team e s p e c ia lly where one could earn colors.
8. In elementary school physical education and sports activities were thought to be the same.
Question Number 7 — Could physical education and sports activities assume a positive role in combating the large influx of juveniles to urban areas? Briefly discuss.
This question, without a doubt, was the most explosive, and it evoked some very constructive ideas. It also was the most misunderstood question in the survey. The term juvenile was automatically translated
to mean juvenile delinquent by a sizeable percentage of the returnees.
Some who replied made the horrendous assumption that the investigator
thought that physical education and sports activities were panaceas for
all the political and socio-economic ills of Kenya. In spite of these
honest misinterpretations, a great deal of information was obtained. 282
In one way or another, seventy percent felt that physical education and sports activities were essential to alleviate the problems besetting the urban areas by the large influx of young people. Nineteen who answered in the affirmative gave consideration to the impact that such programs could have on economic conditions. This would mean more jobs for professional teachers and coaches.
Others who were interested in more emphasis on these programs stated that the inclusion of an expanded professional sports program, not only for more employment but also for increased entertainment, would give young men new goals in life. They felt that extremely proficient athletes should be recognized and rewarded for their talents. Possibly, this would also mean increased revenue from gate r e c e i p ts .
The need for more rural programs in physical education and
sports activities was emphasized as a means of cutting down on the
influx of juveniles to the city. More community clubs as well as school programs and facilities should be implemented in both rural and
urban areas. Some efforts had been made to duplicate urban social
life in rural areas. The fact that urban sports activities, in themselves, attract youngsters to the cities cannot be negated. One
person who was quite obviously familiar with juvenile conditions in
New York City suggested an agency comparable to the Police Athletic
League (P.A.L.). A number of people believed that delinquency was
definitely being curbed through the use of such programs, but more
should be done in this area. They felt the more government financial
support was needed. 283
Discipline and self-control were mentioned by twenty-six students as by-products of well organized activities during one’s leisure. The leisure aspect of sports activities was emphasized because physical education classes tended to be too m ilitaristic and authoritarian and not in keeping with democratic ideals.
About twenty-four percent of the group did not feel that physical education and sports activities had much to do with combating the influx of youths to the cities. They based their answers on the belief that the lure to the metropolitan centers was purely economic.
The juveniles migrated to urban from poverty stricken or broken homes in search of employment. In some instances, youngsters just liked city life; consequently, when parents were no longer able to discipline
them, they headed for the bright lights.
Question Number 8 — Is physical education an important part of the educational process in Kenya? Briefly discuss.
There was a consensus of opinion that physical education is an important phase of the educational process in Kenya. Seventy-four
percent of the survey participants felt that physical education, and
in many cases sports activities, should be included in the school time
table. No one distinguished between school levels so the investigator
assumed that the answers pertained to primary, secondary, and higher education. For various reasons nineteen percent of the respondents
did not believe that physical education was an important part of the
educational process in Kenya. Some who answered negatively felt that
the m ilitaristic approach to physical education was unacceptable in the 284 schools. Other factors supporting their views were: 1) the exclusion of examinations in physical education, 2) no grades were given for this course, and 3) physical education was not included in one's permanent record. Most important of all it was difficult to conceive of physical education as an integral phase of the total process when non-specialist and upperclassmen had the responsibility for the conduct of the course.
Another reason advanced in support of physical education not being an important part of the total process was the fact that so much stress and importance was placed in the academic areas. This was due in part to the examination system which did not include physical e d u c atio n .
On the positive side of the ledger, the international element
entered the picture. Some seemed to think that strong physical
education programs are the logical place for future athletes to get
started, especially of international caliber. It is also a training
ground for good citizens, a prime ingredient for the success of the
nation-building process. The health of the Kenyan people is vital,
and the physical education programs are responsible for the dissemination of health information ; therefore, physical education is
considered to be an integral phase of the educational process.
In terms of importance in regard to facilities, the soccer
field is usually a part of every school layout. When the local members
of a tribe asked for a school, it was understood that enough land would be provided to build a playing field. This emphasis might be inter
preted as an indication of the importance of physical education and
sports activities in the schools. 2M
Question Number 9 — Do you believe physical education should be required in the schools and colleges in Kenya?
Eighty-two percent answered "yes" to requiring physical education in primary and secondary schools. Only fourteen percent indicated that they did not want the requirement in higher education.
Question Number 10 — Is leisure time a reality in urban life in Kenya?
There was a chance that this question was a bit confusing.
The concept of leisure varies as one examines different cultures—in the case of Kenya different tribes. Possibly, leisure was confused with unemployment, which might be acceptable in Kenya. An opportunity for a more subjective answer, rather than a "yes-no" response would have possibly given a more satisfactory explanation of the Kenyan concept of leisure. On hundred replied "yes" and thirty-five replied
"no."
An acceptable definition of leisure according to Kaplan^ is a b u lk of tim e w ith a minimum of o b lig a tio n to o th ers and which offe re d
freedom from work or household chores.
Francois sees physical education playing a major role in
preparing people to profitably use their leisure time.
There is a growing concern the world over about the increasing number of problems relating to young people. One of the most serious of these problems concerns the constructive use of leisure time. Educators everywhere have a vital interest in this problem and must take the
^Max Kaplan, Leisure in America; A Social Inquiry (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1960), pp. 21-22. initiative in developing adequate programs with a variety of activities which w ill meet the needs and desires of the younger generation. Physical educators and recreation leaders are particularly interested because they prepare children for and conduct activity programs in and out of the school. As leisure time becomes more readily available, we must provide programs and prepare youth to utilize these hours in constructive ways. Schools are coming to realize that they share in the responsibility of educating for l e i s u r e . 5
Kenyan educators have realized the significance of such
education, but, unfortunately, the ways and means for'implementing
such a movement have not been worked out. There is a great concern over what working people do while away from their employment. "In addition
to its economic benefits, widespread education should develop good
citizens, promote national unity, and encourage proper use of leisure
tim e."^
Question Number 11a— L is t what you th in k a re s a tis f y in g le is u re
activities and which are available to you in Kenya.
11b— List those which are satisfying but not available
to you in Kenya.
The response regarding leisure activities that are available
coincided somewhat with those that appeared in question number three.
Soccer, African dancing, swimming scored high. Two sit-down activities
were close behind—motion pictures and spectator events such as
^Pierre Francois, "Education for Leisure—A Worldwide Need,' A Speech Delivered at the Seventh International Council on Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Paris, August, 1954, p. 58.
^Republic of Kenya, African Socialism and its Application to Planning in Kenya (Nairobi: Government Printers Office, 1965) , p. 40. 287 horseracing, auto racing, soccer matches, etc. It was very obvious that certain activities while available to some showed up on the "not available" list for others. For instance if one lived near a lake, river, stream or the Indian Ocean one swam. In fact, forty-three persons swam for leisure, and a near equal number, forty-two did not have it available. Tables 20 and 21 give a long list of activities available and not available.
Q uestion Number 1 2 — P lease l i s t recommendations w hich, i f im plem ented, would improve programs and standards of physical education in Kenya
and also provide wholesome leisure activities.
The following are recommendations made by Kenyan students.
They represented ideas that would possibly improve programs of health, physical education, and recreation if they were properly implemented.
The responses were extremely meaningful because the students were
exposed to various cultural backgrounds—British, Indian, American, and
their own m ulticultural society. The exposure gave them tremendous
variety from which to select. The recommendations were doubly
significant because the students ranged in age from secondary school
age to those who were former teachers. Lastly, the ideas represented
all of the regions in Kenya. The recommendations are in order of
frequency in the survey.
1. The largest number—eighty-six—felt that personnel involved
in the teaching of physical education, interscholastic, and inter
collegiate activities should be specialists in their area of study just
like all other subject fields. TABLE 20
LEISURE ACTIVITIES AVAILABLE TO RESPONDENTS
Activities & Frequency Activities & Frequency
1. Soccer 79 18. C ycling 7
2. A frican Dancing 52 19. Badminton 7
3. Swimming 43 20. Water Skiing & Boating 5
4. Movies 35 21. Television 5
5. Spectator (horse 29 22. Rugby 5 , racing, auto racing, soccer matches, etc.) 23. Gymnastics 4
6. Field Hockey 28 24. Wrestling 4
7. Volleyball 23 25. Western Dancing 4
8. Track and Field 21 26: Horseback Riding 4
9. Golf 17 27. Tenniquoits 4
10. Parks 16 28. Mountain Climbing 3
11. Fishing 16 29. Boxing 3
12. Hunting 14 30. B illia r d s 3
13. Basketball 13 31. Baseball 2
14. Table Tennis 12 32. P ic n ic 2
15.Tennis 12 33.Gardening 2
16. Camping 10 34. Squash 1
17. 7 35.Rounders 1 TABLE 21
LEISURE ACTIVITIES NOT AVAILABLE TO RESPONDENTS
Activities & Frequency Activities & Frequency
1. Swimming 42 19. P icn ics 3
2. Bowling 23 20. Weight Lifting 3
3. B aseball 22 21. W estern Dancing 3
4. Boating & Water Skiing 18 22. Field Hockey 3
5. B ask etb all 18 23. Television 3
6. Golf 16 24. Squash 3
7. Tennis 13 25. Boxing 2
8. Sports Clubs 9 26. 2
9. Roller Skating 9 27. 2
10. American Football 7 28. Wrestling 2
11. Parks 6 29. Fencing 2
12. F ish in g 5 30. Archery 2
13. African Dancing 5 31. Badminton 2
14. Table Tennis 5 32. Horseback Riding 2
15. Camping 4 33. Cycling 1
16. Hunting 4 34. Lacrosse 1
17. Billiards 4 35. Rugby 1
18. C ricket 3 36. Handball 1 290 2. Facilities were of next greatest concern. Sixty stated th a t th e re was g rea t demand fo r school gymnasiums, sp o rts clu b s, swimming pools—both indoor and outdoor, and r u r a l f a c i l i t i e s of a l l
3. Physical education should be compulsory in the primary and secondary schools with discussion classes, examinations and grading.
Twenty-eight stated that it would improve programs.
4. More government financial and moral support for physical education and sports activities had a relatively high priority; twenty- six supported this idea.
5. Financial support from sources outside of the country was mentioned as a possible means of improving programs.
6. Additional opportunities for competitive sports should be made a v a ila b le . This recommendation came from tw en ty -fiv e s tu d e n ts .
7. Education for leisure should be an important phase of the educational process. Twenty-five felt educating a society for leisure is important.
8. Public relations techniques for physical education and sports should be revamped to include radio and television. In this way, twenty-three stated, the image of physical education would be improved, thus providing more status.
Other recommendations are listed without frequencies.
9. The programs of physical education should be improved by:
a. Altering the aims and objectives of physical education
to satisfy the needs of contemporary life.
b. Changing methods of teaching physical education. 291
c. Reviewing course content of physical education.
10. Research should be conducted to salvage the traditional
African activities, especially dancing.
11. More American games should be included in the p h y sic a l education curriculum.
12. Professional sports should be inaugurated, especially
for economic reasons.
13. More emphasis should be p laced on p a r tic ip a tio n in
international competition.
14. The establishment of health clinics should be stepped up
and health education should be an integral part of the school program.
15. There should be a national program of physical education
to improve the overall fitness level of the Kenyan population.
16. Camping programs should be expanded to take advantage of
the beauty and great diversity of the Kenyan environment.
The investigator believes that the data supplied by the
questionnaire-survey distributed to Kenyan students was extremely
useful in gaining insight into physical education in Kenya. It was a
good source of information and the students expressed a willingness to
assist. Their responses were serious and open-minded which demonstrated
a genuine concern for improvements in physical education and the further
development of their country. The recommendations elicited by the
questionnaire indicated quite clearly that the students were vitally
concerned about the role of physical education in the educative process.
Tossibly, some of the respondent's replies were affected by their
experiences in North America, for example the need for various kinds of 292
facilities. There was an apparent desire to become physically
educated, and the health implications of physical education weighed
rather heavily.
The Kenyan students who participated in the survey were not willing to relinquish totally their traditional cultural activities,
but they are quite obviously reaching out for more Western forms of
education and activity. Their education, their jobs, and their
"adopted" way of life almost dictate that they not only reach out but
catch on to the present in hopes of a brighter future—which,
unfortunately, will not include as much of the traditional.
The writer feels that another questionnaire-survey conducted
with Kenyan students in the United States in 1972 would have yielded
the same basic results as in 1966 with indications of improvements.
Programs of physical education have improved considerably in Kenya
since 1966. With the increased teacher preparation in this field,
programs of physical education should continue to make a valuable
contribution to the educative process. With the achievements of
Kenya's athletes in national and international competition coupled
with the increased number of sports clubs and leagues, more youngsters
can give thought to starting their athletic careers in school
physical education programs. Kenyan students have heroes to emulate,
and when they travel to the United States, they w ill be more prone
to relate to the positive thrust of athletics at home. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
History shows that the task of developing a nation and bringing it to fruition over centuries was an arduous undertaking of unbelieve- able proportions. Building a nation overnight as African countries are attempting to do is also an enormous task. Being born in the twentieth century has its distinct advantages but also disadvantages such as trying to—or being forced to—catch up too fast. Kenya, one way or the other, is being swept along in the tide, sometimes not having time to take a breath. This relatively new East African country is making great progress and as stated above, education and physical education have played their roles. Physical education has played a significant role in Kenya's development. With time and the necessary resources the contribution could even be greater.
This study was conducted in an effort to point out basic concepts in the development of physical education and sports in Kenya.
The writer in selecting the subject was primarily concerned about the
nation-building process in the developing country of Kenya and the
role that physical education and sports played in that difficult
process. The data for the study was compiled from library sources, interviews, a questionnaire, visits to Kenya, and letters. Part of the
study included background information pertaining to characteristics
293 294 peculiar to Kenya such climate, geography, and the people. A brief history was presented to clearly indicate significant events, such as settlement patterns, that change the complexion and course of Kenya and started the country on the road to the present. A discussion of educational development in Kenya was included which provided a context from which physical education and sports was discussed. In order to show how physical education and sports were related to nation-building, a definitional model of the process of development was created.
IJhen a new country lay s th e groundwork fo r i t s th ru s t in to the twentieth century world, priorities must be established.^ The ordering of priorities is often unduly weighted towards one or another aspect of development. But in the leaders' haste to catch up with the rest of the world some areas of concern are relegated to a very low position.
In Kenya, physical education is having an uphill struggle. The status of physical education and physical educators is s till low compared to other subject areas. Physical education needs the respect and support of the government, the education profession, parents, students,
and the community at large.^
The w riter would like to review the hypotheses developed for
the study in light of the data compiled. The fact that physical
education and sports have provided common denominators was clearly
^Republic of Kenya, African Socialism and Its Application to Planning in Kenya (Nairobi: Government Printer, 1965), pp. 25-26.
^Aklilu Habte, "Education: Africa's Unfinished Business," Journal of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, XXXVI (November-December, 1965), p. 31. 295 indicated by the growth of physical education programs and the inter- school competition that has been generated, especially since indepen dence. Kenya i s made up o f more than fo rty d iv erse tr ib e s and th e increased relationships through sports in schools, colleges, and the community help to bring people together. There is a lot of support for
the theory that people who play together have a tendency to relate to each other better and possibly stay together. T. Kankasa, Minister of
State in Zambia, ..encouraged the development of sports as a contribution
to national development in his country. Teamwork, respect for others,
and interdependence are all outcomes of true sports. The social
interaction brought about through sports influences, reduces, and often
eliminates prejudices based on traditional beliefs.^ The ethnic composition of athletic teams representing Kenya on the African continent and around the world—of European, Asian, Arab, and African
extraction—show clearly and succinctly that people can put aside their
differences when indulging in a common cause. Sport activities are usually performed in a spirit of sportsmanship, especially when these
qualities are inculcated at an early age. Loyalties can be developed
toward those that one plays with and against and even toward the rules
of the game of life itself. When nurtured and kept in proper perspec
tive, such loyalties can be placed in the context of and directed
toward nation-building. Mai Whitfield felt that sport has played an
important part in the development of Kenya by providing new trends in
^T. Kankasa, "Role of Sport in National Development," The Contribution of Sport to the Construction of Modern Africa, Rabat (London; International Council of Sport and Physical Education, 1971), p. 12. 296 togetherness between tribes, ethnic groups, socio-economic levels, religions, and competitors and non-competitors. Unity among the
Kenyan people was also demonstrated when they applauded the accomplish ment of their heroes at home and abroad regardless of ethnic origin.
Kenya has been producing Kenyan idols to worship rather than foreign
ones. In the United States, there are the Wilt Chamberlains, the
Mickey Mantles, and the Arnold Palmers for the young and old alike to emulate. Kenya has Kip Keinos, Wilson Kipruguts, and Ben Jipchos.
Although formal education in Kenya began with an infusion of
church missionary societies from various foreign countries, the
hypothesis that contemporary education is firmly steeped in British
tradition is borne out. The political realities of former British control created a situation whereby the only formal education known
to the majority of Kenyans was that—British—which they saw in action
and eventually supported by the government. The educational base which has been largely responsible for modern progress in Kenya was estab lished by the British. The organization of the schools, most of the curriculum, and the systems of examination used to evaluate students
are of British origin. Kenyan educators and students have spent time
in the United States observing various systems of education. The Peace
Corps has provided hundreds of volunteers, most of whom are involved in
teacher training. Such exchanges have permitted Kenya to be exposed to
other functional innovations that they might choose to implement. The
tremendous impact that British education has had on the schools and the
fact that progress and modernization are directly related to that
education have pushed traditional African education on its way to 297 extinction. Most Kenyans and their leaders know and appreciate the importance of contemporary methods and forms of education. But as
Isaiah Berlin has stated that often resistance to modernization during colonialism was really resistance to social and political exploitation.^
The Kenya Independent Schools Association (KISA), started in the 1920's by African N ationalists and proscribed during the Mau Mau Emergency, no longer exists in the way that it was originally intended. In its place have emerged the very popular Harambee schools which are patterned after the British system. These developments mitigate strongly against the prolonged existence of the indigenous schools.
The two hypotheses dealing with dance were explored. Dance is one of the few activities that is indigenous to Kenya and that has survived the effects of modernization. Information on African games was difficult to obtain. Ndonye, Inspector of Physical Education in
Kenya, stated that such games do exist but because they were discouraged during colonialism, it will take some effort and time to revive them.
Dance on the other hand, is in the primary and secondary school curriculum . From P re sid e n t K enyatta on down, e f f o r ts a re being made to further develop tribal dances to bring about a complete cultural revival. Joy Adamson, who toured and visited with most of the Kenya tribes, found that dance was the mainspring of tribal existence and
communication.5 j. Arap-Leting. said that Kenyans are very rhythmic
^Isaiah Berlin, "The Bent Twig : A Note on Nationalism," Foreign Affairs. LI (October, 1972), pp. 22-23.
and World, I n c ., 1957). the w riter was in Kenya under the auspices of Operation Crossroads
Africa, in 1964, he visited President Kenyatta's home just outside of
Nairobi. Tribal dancing lasted most of the afternoon. Dance festivals at the President's Gatundu home take place every week and on special occasions they might last steadily for a week. In spite of these efforts, westernization of the schools and other social institutions have adversely affected the resurgence of dance. "Modern" man has put much of this behind him. This can be potentially dangerous because losing or not identifying with one's past can hamper a smooth transition into the future.
The hypothesis that physical education in Kenya was narrowly based seems to have been proven accurate. This basic inadequacy or lim itation of the program was due to many factors. The carry-over from
British physical education catered to the few students who excelled in competitive sports. This point was substantiated by Ndonye, Kenyan
Inspector of Physical Education, and Jeneby who formerly held that post. Economic conditions prevented the necessary staffing, facilities, and equipment, especially after schools and colleges began to grow in numbers and size. Another example of the limited scope of the physical education programs was the emphasis placed on certain activities and skills such as track and field. Of course, the lack of well-rounded
programs was noticeable on international competitive levels.
^Statement by J. T. Arap-Leting, personal interview, October, 1972. 299 The United States has had more effect on physical education and
sports programs in Kenya than the w riter’s hypothesis indicated. Mai
W hitfield's involvement with the Kenyan sport program was a credit to the
United States. He was instrumental in developing the system of athletic
competition from the local level to international competition. He was
also responsible for short term courses in athletic coaching and
organization.^ Kipchoge Keino credited Mai Whitfield for much of his
success as a world class runner. Whitfield was especially generous
with his knowledge of indoor running.® The Peace Corps probably has
made the reatest impact on physical education and sports. The number
of volunteers in Kenya coupled with the program aims that require the
volunteers to participate and assist in sports activities provided an
unlimited number of contacts with Kenyans. The Kenyan athletes
benefitted considerably from visiting American coaching contingents.
While gathering information on "physical education" and
"sports," the two terms were used interchangeably. Whitfield stated
that sport activities were an integral phase of the process of physical
education in Kenya. The highly competitive nature of school—primary
and secondary—and college physical education programs indicates quite
clearly where the emphasis is placed. Those persons responsible for
the development of the classroom physical education curriculum made a
concerted effort to eliminate as much of the formal British mass
^Statement by Malvin W hitfield, personal interview, December 29, 1972.
®David H ornberger, "Kipchoge Keino—Kenya's Image Around the World," Inside Kenya Today, September, 1972, p. 44. 300 calisthenic-type training from the program. Health education is an aspect of the physical education program in the primary school. But nowhere was that experience mentioned in the 1970 Physical Education
Syllabus for Secondary Schools.
The hypothesis, that education and physical education for
females has lagged considerably behind that for males is shown by
1) the larger number of male students who initially enroll in primary s chools as opposed to the number of females ; 2) the higher dropout rate
among girls in primary and secondary schools; 3) the proportionately high number of female primary school leavers, and therefore, low
number of females selected to enter secondary schools; and 4) the
proportionately low number of females who continue on to higher education. Although there may have been some, there was no mention of
women being enrolled in the teacher preparation physical education
course at Kenyatta College. As a direct result of having fewer
females in the system, their physical education experiences are not as
numerous as the males. With physical education programs structured so
competitively there are more activities for the males. The sports
program is geared to the males because it gets more notoriety that way.
As Jeneby stated earlier, when women teachers are not available, girls
stand behind boys in coeducation physical education classes. Although
women are gaining ground, the socio-economic system m itigates against
rapid advancement.
Political influences are brought to bear in the selection of
-athletic teams for national and international competition. This was
apparent in 1966 when the Kenya National Sports Council was established 301 as an arm of the Government through the Ministry of Cooperatives and
Social Services. At that time it was clearly indicated that sports
programs would be monitored by increased organization and centralization
in the Government. Selection of teams and approval of sport events are
channeled through the KNSC. With the school system centralized in the
Ministry of Education, curricular and special programs must meet the
approval of the Government. The army, police, and prisons, also
controlled by the. Government, are the best organizations to be affiliated with for athletic development. Many join these organizations specifi
cally for the facilities, training, and discipline necessary for
athletic improvement.
There is a serious lack of physical education research in Kenya.
According to the ICHPER Report, Part II, 1967-68. research facilities and programs are non-existent. Hopefully, with the new professional
association about to emerge, one of the major tasks w ill be to develop
research programs. Such programs w ill enable the professionals to plan
and project wholesome physical education courses and ultimately enhance
the contribution of physical education problems to the total ecucational
experience.
The following recommendations were made in an effort to present
possible ways to further develop programs of physical education and
sports in Kenya;
1. That the professional preparation of physical educators be
bolstered and up-graded by establishing specialist training programs in
teacher training colleges where professional staff and facilities can
be made available. This must be accomplished with the greatest of haste 302 and it would serve as a short term goal. The interest in physical education and sports is growing considerably and specialists must be made available to channel the energy of youth in a positive and constructive manner. Misinformation and malpractice in methodology would have adverse effects on any progress already made. With the necessary expertise physical education could become a farm system for future world class competitors. As the number of professionally trained teachers increases and physical education facilities become more numerous programs should be expanded to include all teacher training colleges.
2. That candidates for prefessional preparation in physical education be selected from all provinces to ensure the availability of professional staff in all areas.
3. That the distribution of trained physical education staff be equitable throughout the provinces.
4. That although physical education specialists are being
trained for the first time at Kenyatta College, the requirement of physical education in teacher training schools should remain in force.
The requirement not only serves to maintain interest and health but
if the responsibility is shifted to the specialist too soon, there w ill not be enough to go around.
5. That specialists from other countries continue to be invited
to teach, conduct clinics, offer in-service training, and provide input
for organization and administrative functions. These resource
persons could also be utilized to further stimulate interest in new clubs and be used to motivate through demonstration. 303
6. That periodic in-service programs and workshops be conducted by specialists from Kenya and abroad for physical educators and non- p r o fe s s io n a ls .
7. That physical education specialists, although there are not many, be intricately involved in all of the day-to-day affairs of the entire school, not just physical education. They must at all times be involved in the comprehensive planning and policy formation of the institution.
8. That a professional physical education association be
established as soon as possible with an official organ to communicate matters of concern to the professionals and educators in general.
9. That physical education assume a role in the education of
the whole person by incorporating subject matter from other disciplines into the curriculum and initiating efforts to get those persons in
other disciplines to incorporate physical education in their programs.
Examples of this exchange might be with physics, mathematics, history
and vocabulary-building. Nyaga, a Kenyan educator, disagrees with
this concept, but it should be tested. This concept could be extended
to include joint research projects.
10. That physical educators, along with the physical education
panel at the Curriculum Development Center, come to grips with the
development of a unified national philosophy of physical education
which incorporates aims and objectives and when implemented, w ill
satisfy the physical needs of the Kenyan people. These stated goals
should allow for variation brought about by cultural differences,
topography, and climate. The objectives should be both general and 304 behavioral, and should be in keeping with the goals of education and
the nation. They should be articulated and widely disseminated in the
government, Ministry of Education, all schools and colleges, and the
general population.
11. That, as Dodd stated, the curriculum design be modified to provide more traditional cultural activities, especially dance. It would be rather unique, but the music department should be closely
related to or merged with physical education because traditional
African music is seldom played without some form of dancing which is
descriptive and conveys messages. Respondents to the investigator's
questionnaire also indicated that these activities should be
rejuvenated and perpetuated mainly in the schools as part of the
educative process.
12. That indigenous African activities and games be researched,
compiled, and distributed to provide more cultural exchanges between
the tribes and provinces. Competition with impartial judges could be
included. This exchange could very well be part of the answer to
national unification.
13. That, in an effort to further enhance ethnic unification,
the Indian populations' field hockey ability be utilized by expanding
this program in the curriculum of all Kenyan schools and colleges.
14. That tribal and other ethnic labels and affiliation be
excluded from the reporting of sports in the news media. This could
help to increase the emphasis placed on becoming a "Kenyan."
15. That emphasis be placed on progression in curriculum
development. It was not clear in the findings whether or not it 305 already exists. The impression was given that most activities were provided in all grades for everyone without regard for progression.
16. That local, provincial, national, and all-African standards of skill performance be established to determine levels of achievement in physical education programs in Kenya.
17. That physical educators establish contacts with Government and private industry to coordinate joint involvements such as research and industry's sponsorship of sport programs.
18. That as Don Anthony, Aaron Segal, Randall, and others have suggested, Kenya should move as rapidly as possible towards the manufacturing of athletic goods. Presently all commercial athletic goods are imported. Such an industry would have positive economic implications.
19. That technical physical education facility guides, unique
to the Kenyan environment and economy, be developed by experts from
Kenya and abroad.
20. That the importance of physical education as a modality in
the maintenance of health be stressed in teacher preparation colleges, schools and the community. This would stimulate more interest in the national thrust of the "self-help" concept. The Kenyan people should be encouraged to take better care of themselves through activities.
Research should be conducted to establish the relationship between physical activity and nutritional and dietary needs of the Kenyan population. Physical educators should not place demands on an
individual's body without this knowledge. Good use of other studies
from other populations could be utilized. 306
21. That concerted and massive efforts be mounted by physical educators to assist in combatting the problem created by the hundreds of thousands of school leavers who are dropped so abruptly after they finish primary and secondary schools. Sports clubs should be organized in the rural and urban areas. They should be given direction in the form of objectives and should be well-structured. By organizing sports clubs in the rural areas, the people will be brought into contact with the mainstream of Kenyan development through activity. Ideologies can be dissem inated. Members of the p o lic e and armed fo rces could a s s i s t with the instruction and supervision. By doing this, the image of the soldiers and police could be positively enhanced.
22. That youth groups be the nucleus for sports' programs outside the schools, especially for school leavers.
23. That, if in fact the Kenya Sports Review has been discontinued, the publication should be resumed along with other sports' journals and that a fee for purchase be established rather than issuing i t f re e .
24. That the "Outward Bound School" concept be expanded and not be permitted to go out of existence. Urban youngsters should be given an opportunity to rough it.
25. That although application was made but approval not given for Kenya to host the Olympic, Commonwealth, and All-African games,
Kenya should re-apply.
26. That because of notable progress toward political stability and socio-economic development and because of the remarkable success of an infant sports program and although previous attempts to host 307 international games failed, Kenya should re-apply to host the All-
A fric a n Games, Commonwealth Games, and the Olympic Games in th a t order. Thorough feasibility studies should be conducted before accepting
any of the games, especially the Olympics.
27. That because of the high cost factor involved in hosting international games, Kenya should explore the possibilities of a
cooperative East African venture to develop centralized sports facilities for that part of the continent. Such a project might become a part of the East African Cooperation Treaty of 1967.
In order to build a viable nation, Kenya w ill need many ingredients. Kenya needs capital and efficient banking systems; import- export trade; increased agricultural output; improved utilization of
natural resources; industrialization; increased employment; improved
transportation and the list goes on. Kenya also needs as many unifying elements as possible: a good strong national, continental, and
international image; a higher standard of health and the know-how to
maintain it; increased educational output ; new and exciting symbols to
rally around; national heroes; cultural exchanges to bring tribes
closer together and this list goes on. Physical education and its many
contributions can only indirectly assist with the first list, but it
can help more directly with the second. Often as a result of being
more successful with the second list of needs, items on the first can
be gained more easily.
APPENDIX A
BOOKS RECOMMENDED FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Those suitable for Lower Primary Classes
Handbook of P h y sical Education Book I , A. R. E n tw istle .
A Four Year Course in Physical Education, D. J. T. Miller.
Moving and Growing P a rt One . Planning the Programme Part Two
Those suitable for the Upper Primary Classes
Handbook o f P h y sical Education Book I I , A. R. E n tw istle .
Handbook of P h y sica l E ducation Book I I I , R. M. MacNeil.
Physical Education in the Tropics, W. H. White.
Physical Education for African Primary Schools Books I and II, Whitworth-Smith and G. K. Huntley.
G irls' Physical Education in the Tropics, M. M. Reid and Jill Goldsm ith.
Physical Education for Girls in the Tropics, Zoe Nichols.
Post Primary Physical Education for Boys, Whitworth Smith.
Post Primary Physical Education for G irls, G. Huntley.
G eneral Source Books
Activities and Games for the Tropical Schools, Edith R. Clarke.
Athletics. D. Miller and J. Cawley.
Athletics for Schools. Geff Dyson.
Know the Games Series, Respective Associations.
Games and A c t iv i t ie s , M argaret L aing.
The Girls* Book of Sports and Games, Staley Wilson.
Soccer Coaching, Walter Winterbottom.
A Handbook of Physical Activities and Games, Alice Paterson. BOOKS RECOMMENDED FOR NON-SPECIALIST TEACHERS IN SECONDARY SCHOOL PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Girls Physical Education in the Tropics, M. M. Reid and Goldsmith (Allen & Unwin).
Physical Education in the Tropics for G irls, Zoe Nichols (Evans).
Post Primary Physical Education for G irls, G. K. Huntley (Nelson).
C urrent Rule Books on the Games Played.
Games and Athletics for Tropical Schools. M. M. Reid (McMillan).
Netball, Rena Stratford (George Lee & Sons).
Know the Games S e rie s— on the games p lay ed .
Boys
Physical Education in the Tropics, W. H. White (Evans).
Basic Physical Education for Boys, J. Keegan (McMillan).
Soccer Coach, W. Winterbottom (Naldrett).
C irc u it T ra in in g , Morgan and Adamson.
Know the Games S eries fo r Games P layed.
Gymnastics, Peter Rodwell.
G irls and Boys
A th le tic s fo r Boys and G i r ls , Edmundson ( B e ll) .
Basic Basketball, Clarke.
The Long Jump, D. C. V. W atts (A .A .A .).
High Jum ping. G. Dyson (A.A.A.).
Rules fo r C om petitions. A.A.A. Laws (A .A .A .).
The Schools Athletics, Ass. Handbook of the Association. First Aid Book, Red Cross or St. John Ambulance.
Swimming I n s tr u c tio n , A.S.A.
Athletic Training, Duncan & Bone. INS/W/lA/33 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION Inspectorate, CIRCULAR LETTER NO. INS/67/62 P.O. Box 30486 NAIROBI
20th June 1967.
PROVINCIAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS SPORTS COUNCILS
The following are the Officials of the Provincial Secondary Schools Sports Councils who are responsible for all Sporting activities for Secondary Schools in their Provinces. The Secretaries of the Coun cils are their Executive Officers. All correspondences to Provinces should go to the Secretaries ONLY
RIFT VALLEY PROVINCIAL SPORTS COUNCIL FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS
President: Provincial Education Officer (Mr. S. Katua Chairman: Mr. D. S. Bhangu S e cretary : Mr. A. S. Mand P. 0. Box 926 NAK.URU T reasu rer: Rev. F ather Bohan
COAST PROVINCE SECONDARY SCHOOLS SPORTS COUNCIL
P re sid e n t: Mr. R. W ells Vice P re sid e n t: F ath er Duke S ecretary : Mr. S. H. Shah P.O. Box 8412 MOMBASA T reasu rer: Mr. C y ril B. D'Souza
WESTERN PROVINCE SECONDARY SCHOOLS SPORTS COUNCIL
Chairman: Mr. E. C h ia re lli S ecretary : Mr. M. M. Bwosi P.O. Box 80, KAKAMEGA T reasu rer: M iss S. Mohney
NAIROBI SECONDARY SCHOOLS SPORTS COUNCIL
P re sid e n t; Mr. Baldev Aggarwal V/President: Mr. Edger Fernandes V/President Lady: S ec/T reasu rer: Mr. N. K. B halla P.O. Box 584, NAIROBI NYANZA PROVINCE SECONDARY SCHOOLS SPORTS COUNCIL
P re sid e n t: Mr. A. H. Muraya Chairman: Mr. R. J . Dodding S ec/T reasu rer: Mr. P. A. Jennens P.O. Box 120 MASENO
CENTRAL PROVINCE SECONDARY SCHOOLS SPORTS COUNCIL
P re sid e n t: Mr. Mathews Koshi S e c re ta ry :’ Mr. Roger A u stin , C/O THIKA HIGH SCHOOL Private Bag, THIKA T reasu rer: Mr. J . V. S alandra
EASTERN PROVINCE SECONDARY SCHOOLS SPORTS COUNCIL
P re sid e n t: P. E. 0. (Mr. K. Koinange) Chairman; Mr. J . Nyaga S e c re ta ry : Mr. R. W illiam s P.O. Box 24 EMBU T re asu re r: Mr. H. Roberts
A.S.A. JENEBY fo r PERMANENT SECRETARY copies to : All National and Provincial Sports Associations INTER-PROVINCIAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS ATHLETIC CHAMPIONSHIPS—GIRLS
Saturday, 30th June, 1966
100 yds Time
1. Mwangombe (Coast) 11.8 sec 4. Juma (Western) 2. D’Mello (N airobi) 5. Ngembi (E astern) 3. Dinah (R ift) 6. Kemunto (Nyanza)
220 yds
1. Chiagi (Nairobi) 27.3 sec 4. Kadzoo (Coast) 2. Kageni (Eastern) 5. Jebet (Rift) 3. Kemunto (Nyanza) 6. Mabia (Western)
440 yds
1. Kageni (Eastern) 60.7 sec. 4. Atieno (Nyanza) 2. D'Souza (Nairobi) 5. Chelengal (Rift) 3. Mugala (Western) 6. Wanjiru (Central)
880 yds
1. R egeria (E astern) 2m.33.7 sec. 2. Getteriah (N airobi) 3. (Nyanza)
) metres Hurdles
1. Likimani (N airobi) 4. Shitsukane (Western) 2. Okanga (Nyanza) 5. Mwangombe (Coast) 3. Kageni (E astern) 6. Chemweno (R ift)
High Jump H eight
1. Kiongo (N airobi) 4'8" 4. Okhanga (Nyanza) 2. Kalayu (R ift) 5. Mwangombe (Coast) 3. E lija h (Western) 6. Teei (Eastern) Long Jump
1. Muthoni (Eastern) 16*7" 4. Kihara (Nairobi) 2. Shitsukane (Western) 5. Ojiem (Nyanza) 3. Chemweno (R ift) 6. Laureate (Coast)
1. Watson (Rift) 95'1/2" 4. Ojiem (Nyanza) 2. N jiru (E astern) 5. Gacengeci (Nairobi) 3. Obanda (Western) 6. Pius (Coast)
1. Nasambo (Nairobi) 98'10 1/2" 4. Chelengal (Rift) 2. Sehba (Nyanza) 5. Aunda (Coast) 3. K anini (E astern) 6. Chemtai (Western)
1. Ojiem (Nyanza) 31'3 1/2" 4. Akinyi (Nairobi) 2. Nyenyeki (W estern) 5. Aunda (Coast) 3. N jiru (E astern) 6. Grace (Central)
4 X 110 yds Relay
1. E astern 4. Nyanza 2. Coast 5. Western 3. N airobi 6. R ift
PROVINCE PLACING AND POINTS
NAIROBI 55 RIFT VALLEY 29 EASTERN 53 COAST 25 NYANZA CENTRAL 2 WESTERN
Individual and Relay Points : 7 5 4 3 2 1 ) INTER-PROVINCIAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS ATHLETIC CHAMPIONSHIPS—BOYS
Saturday, 30th J u ly , 1966
RESULTS
100 yds Time
1. Bekah (N airobi) 9 .8 se c. 4. Kihara (Central) 2. Kusiraba (Coast) 5. Nyakwaka (Nyanza) 3. Ngei (E astern) 6. Shikumu (Rift)
220 yds
1. Eshikhati (N airobi) 4. Ngei (Eastern) 2. Kusimba (Coast) 5. Awuoro (Nyanza) 3. Wanyeki (C entral) 6. Chemweno (R ift)
1. Ndiba (C entral) 4. Kibisu (Western) 2. Oyuko (Nyanza) 5. Ndungu (N airobi) 3. Nyamai (E astern) 6. Limo (R ift)
880 yds
1. Gekonge (Nyanza) lm'.53.6sec. 4. Wachira (Central) 2. Jipcho (Western) 5. Nzioka (Eastern) 3. Chege (N airobi)
1. Cherop (Rift) 4m.l7.7sec. 4. >b/alili (Eastern) 2. Jipcho (Western) 5. Mbiu (Central) 3. Mutua (Nairobi) 6. Onyancha (Nyanza)
1500 Metres Steeplechase
1. Chepkoyo (Rift) 4m.32.0sec. 4. Mutiso (Eastern) 2. Mutonyi (Nairobi) 5. Nijihia (Central) 3. Maina (Nyanza) 6. Wambuyu (Coast) 1. Cherop (Rift) 14m37.6sec. 4. Damau (Nairobi) 2. Ogara (Nyanza) 5. Karume (C en tral) 3. Ndoo (Eastern) 6. Sabwa (W estern)
120 yds Hurdles
1. Eshikhati (Nairobi) 14.9 sec. 4. Amolo (Nyanza) 2. Bor (Rift) 5. (E astern) 3. Maina (Central) 6. Otieno (Coast)
440 yds Hurdles
1. Mukunya (N airobi) 56.3 sec. 4. Munvao (Coast) 2. Maoga (Nyanza) 5. Amuke (Western) 3. Nyongesa (Rift) 6. Maina (Central)
High Jump H eight
. 1. Mumo (Eastern) 6' 1 1/2" 4. Maiyo (N airobi) 2. Chepweng (R ift) 5. Dongo (Coast) 3. Wachira (Central) 6. Cheruivot (Western)
Long Jump
1. Omenei (Nairobi) 22’7" 4. Hamisi (Eastern) 2. Maina (C en tral) 5. Rakula (Western) 3. Chepk Wong (R ift) 6. Juma (Nyanza)
T rip le Jump
1. Mogusu (Nyanza) 45'11" 4. Hamisi (E astern) 2. Maina (C en tral) 5. Kebaya (R ift) 3. Okwach (N airobi) 6. Rakula (Wes te rn )
Pole Vault H eight
1. Chepwony (R ift) 12' 3" 4. Okila (Western) 2. Kipkemoi (N airobi) 5. (Nyanza) 3. Kavuku (C en tral) 6. M usindi (Coast)
Discus D istance
1. Chege (N airobi) 137' 3" 4. Okila (Western) 2. Mwangi (C en tral) 5. Nyaga (Eastern) 3. Oyieko (Nyanza) 6. Mbuvi (Coast) 1. N d eritu (Central) 178’ 1" 4. Muriithi (Eastern) 2. Kiptim (N airobi) 5. Nyanguro (Nyanza) 3. W anjala (Western) 6. Mvanzia (Coast)
1. Chege (N airobi) 4. Murunga (Western) 2. Oloo (Coast) 5. Njeru (Eastern) 3. tfc?angi (C en tral) 6. Maoga (Nyanza)
4 X 440 yds Relay
1. N airobi 3m.22.0sec. Western 2. C en tral R ift 3. Nyanza E astern
4 X 110 yds Relay
1. C en tral 4. E astern 2. N airobi 5. Coast 3. Nyanza 6. R ift
PROVINCE PLACINGS AND POINTS
1. NAIROBI 5. EASTERN 49 2. CENTRAL 6. WESTERN 36 3. NYANZA 7. COAST 27 4. RIFT VALLEY (Individual and Relay Points: 7 5 4 3 2 1 ) PRIMARY TEACHERS' COLLEGES
Asumbi K ls ii
Chadwick* K itale *
E goji K iteta *
E regi Loreto-Kiambu*
H ighridge Machakos
Kagumo M athari*
Kaimosi Meru
Kamwenja M osoriot
Kericho Mutune*
K ig a ri Shanzu
Kilimamogo S irib a
Thogoto
* Will be closed by 1974. PREPARING FOR THE SCHOOL SPORTS DAY
by
A. S. Jeneby Inspector, Ministry of Education
SPORTS DAY is a yearly event in the school calendar. It is one of the occasions when parents, friends and important guests are invited to see the school in action. It is one of those days when mistakes, confusions, technical hitches and oversights cannot be kept in the family and cannot be comfortably lumped with the dozens of other over sights and hitches which occur during the school year in the private routine of the school.
It is a day when smooth running, competent organization and unobtrusive management are everybody's desire from the Headmaster downwards, not to mention Boards of Management and Boards of Governors.
Many schools are proud of their efficiency on Sports Day. Many others have had reason for dismay at the tangles which have developed. These notes are written to help those who feel the need of assistance in organising Sports Day.
The present article deals with the pre-Sports Day arrangements ; a second article in the May issue of this journal will deal with the setting out of the ground and arrangements on the actual day.
A. Staff meeting at the opening of the school year.
The secret of success is long-term planning. This gives plenty of time for everyone to brood over their particular responsibilities and gives the Headmaster or responsible Games Master plenty of time to check and re-check the arrangements.
So at the staff meeting at the beginning of the year. Sports Day should be on the agenda, even if the event is not to take place until the third term. The meeting w ill decide who is to be in overall command under the Headmaster (this w ill usually be the Games Master). It will discuss and ideally fix the date and place, and w ill select the Guest of Honour who w ill be expected to present the prizes. The Headmaster w ill then write the necessary letters, so that as soon as possible these three basic points are confirmed. B. Housemasters' meeting
School Sports normally take the form of a competition between the various Houses in the school. So the next move lies with the Housemasters. They meet together under the chairmanship of the master appointed to organise Sports Day. This meeting has three matters to d ecid e.
1. The formula for directing pupils into standard groups, perhaps two or three groups; junior, intermediate and senior. This formula takes into account weight, height and age. It is usually unsatisfactory to fix groups by forms without considering the above three factors. Schools desiring advice on this point should be able to obtain it from a neighbouring school or, failing that, from the Inspector- in-Charge of Physical Education at the Ministry of Education.
2. The standards for the various events. Every pupil, unless he has a disability, should take part in all the events and have an opportunity to earn points for his House. Obviously all cannot take part in the heats and finals so the Housemasters fix standard times for track events and standard heights and distances for field events. Some time, a week or two before the actual Sports Day, all the school com petes against these standards. Every pupil who equals or does better than the standard earns a point for his House. These points are shown on the score board at the beginning of Sports Day and are added in with the points earned by the finalists. Of course, each group, junior, intermediate and senior, will have its own set of standards.
3. The timetable for House training. Each House will have its fixed times for training, so that facilities are regularly and properly used.
C. Housemaster and House Captain and other House officials
Now each House s t a r t s to implement the plans made under (B) above. Each Housemaster will get his officials around him, explain procedure and lay plans for his House. This is most important. The winning House is usually the one which has organised itself best. First of all the pupils in the House w ill be sorted into groups by the agreed form ula, each p u p il being weighed and m easured. Somebody w ill be made responsible for the training of each event or group of events. It will be up to him to get the best help he can for the practice of his events.
D. S ta ff d u tie s
Everybody on the staff has his part to play in the preparations for Sports Day. So in good time the responsible organiser calls the staff together, or better s till monopolises a morning tea-break and allots duties. Here is a check list of duties;—
1. Printing and ultimate posting of invitation cards. 2. Drawing up of the guest list.
3. Refreshments for athletes and guests.
4. Collection of the necessary equipment and ensuring that it is in order. (N.B. The person who gets this job is properly appointed Clerk of the Course on Sports Day.)
5. Responsibility for the programme, including drawing up an accurate list of officials and list of finalists in each event; printing or duplicating the programme.
6. Ordering prizes.
7. Responsibility for getting an amplifier, record player, megaphone and a record of the National Anthem and records of suitable interval music if required. This job includes seeing that all these are in order on the actual day.
8. Master appointed to be in charge of stewards, guest stewards, competitor stewards. House stewards. Use of the school Scout troop arranged.
Ideally, the Housemasters should be left free to organise their Houses, quite a big enough job for one person. In a small school this is usually not possible.
E. List of events
The Games Master, who is normally the master responsible for Sports Day, must draw up a list of events. He will probably do this in consultation with Housemasters and prefects. Deciding on events is not difficult; more difficult is putting them in a proper order on the programme and allowing adequate but not excessive time for each. The following points should be borne in mind:—
1. Field events are apt to be long drawn out. This means that if they are taken one after another, the programme w ill drag on for hours and the audience will get bored. It is better to have two field events in progress at once in different parts of the field, and at the same time to carry on with the track events. Junior races can take place at the same time as senior field events, for example.
2. A ruling is usually necessary on how many events one pupil may compete in. Competitors need a rest after taking part in an event; a competitor entered for too many events w ill find himself tired out before the end of the meeting and unable to do well in later events. Programming is much easier if a lim it is put to the number of events any single pupil may compete in. 3. How many "comedy" or non-point-earning events should be included and at what point in the programme? "Comedy" events such as an obstacle races, sack races, egg-and-spoon races and three-legged races are fun and one or two lighten the seriousness of the important events. More than a couple may take away the seriousness of athletics altogether and turn the occasion into a teenagers' picnic!
Girls' schools are more apt to go in for frivolity on Sports Day than are boys' schools, which is perhaps one reason why women in Kenya lag behind men in athletic attainment and recognition. It is important that "comedy" events should not be point-earning.
4. The programme must be accurately timed. Each event should be scheduled to begin at a certain time:—
4.00 p.m 100 yds. senior 4.02 p 100 yds. junior 4.05 p.m High jump, senior 4.10 p 880 y d s. s e n io r 4.14 p.m 88 yds. junior
The Clerk of the Course and his assistants w ill keep the events bustling along in accordance with the timetable so that the meeting is lively, exciting, full of action and free from deadly pauses when nothing happens. Also there should be no nasty surprises, such as a meeting gaily planned for about two hours, dragging on for three hours or more, ending with prizes being presented by the light of the moon.
5. It should be decided whether any events should be decided prior to Sports Day. If a lot of field events are included, then it w ill probably be advisable to settle some of them previously, leaving a few spectacular ones for the big day.
F. Staff meeting to check arrangements
We are now within a few weeks of Sports Day and it is time for the Headmaster to hold a formal staff meeting to check progress and make f in a l arrangem ents.
He w ill check:—The guest list, that invitations have gone out and that there are no omissions; the state of the programme; refreshments; prizes; equipment and officials.
He will finalise arrangements for the standards (detailed in B 2); heats, and the march-past of athletes (and time of rehearsals).
The heats w ill be held on the days immediately preceding Sports Day so that athletes will have reached peak form.
The march-past of athletes w ill be arranged by Houses, perhaps headed by drummers or the school band. The meeting will end with instructions to staff to report to the field or stadium half an hour before the sports begin.
Our second article will deal with officials and their duties and the arrangement of the field. KENYAN STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE
(Name) ( D is tr ic t of Kenya) (Region of Kenya)
1. Did you have physical education in Kenya? (a) prim ary sch o o l, Yes ___ No ___ ; (b) secondary sch o o l. Yes ___ No .
2. Was physical education required? (a) primary school. Yes (b) secondary sch o o l. Yes No ____ .
3. List games or sports activities in which you participated a t school;
(a) primary school
(b) secondary school
4. Were any of th ese games of A frican o r ig in , n o t European? Please list.
5. Were those who taught you physical education professionally trained in the area of physical education? Yes No . If not, in what areas were they trained?
6. Is physical education synonymous with sports activities in Kenya? Yes No ___ . If not, briefly explain differences.
7. Could physical education and sports activities assume a positive role in combating the large influx of juveniles to urban areas? Briefly discuss. 8. Is physical education an important part of the educational process in Kenya? Briefly discuss.
9. Do you believe physical education should be required in the schools and colleges in Kenya? Yes No ___ .
10. Is leisure time a reality in urban life in Kenya? Yes ___ No ____ .
11. (a) List what you think are satisfying leisure activities and which are available to you in Kenya.
(b) List those which are satisfying but not available to you in Kenya.
12. Please list recommendations which, if implemented, would improve programs and standards of physical education in Kenya and also provide wholesome leisure activities. YEARLY PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM
SECONDARY SCHOOL
(3 Periods per week)
SAMPLE OF WHAT THE TEACHER MAY EMPHASIS
TERM 1 TERM 2 TERM 3
Games (Emphasised) Games (Emphas is ed) Swimming (Emphasised) Swimming ( I f d e sire d ) Swimming (Emphasised) Movement Experience Movement Experience Movement Experience Through Gymnastics Through Gymnastics Through Gymnastics Dance (Emphasised) Dance (Emphasised) Athletics (If desired) Athletics (Emphasised) Athletics (If desired) PHYSICAL EDUCATION UNIT PLMS
SECONDARY SCHOOL
I . GYMNASTIC SCHEME OF WORK
MOVEMENT EXPERIENCE THROUGH GYMNASTIC ACTIVITIES
Outline of Gymnastics Syllabus - Secondary Level i. Based on formal teaching of gymnastics ii. No attempt is made to divide the syllabus into years.
LESSON OPENINGS
P r a c tic e o f known s k i l l s w ith aim to b u ild up sequence of movements - Handstand, Cartwheels, etc.
Sequence: Roll and handstand and jump and cartwheel, etc.
All lessons should include a "set" of formal gymnastic exer cises based on all parts of the body. These exercises are designed to improve strength and mobility and to correct physical defects.
Exercises include - Trunk, Arms and Shoulder Girdle, Legs.
Exercise consist of rhythm swinging, pushing, pulling climbing, heaving, bends, twists, lateral and dorsal exercises, running, jumping, landing and climbing.
The teaching of vaulting and agility should be the main aim of a "gymnastics" lesson. The ones to be taught in the first years are:
AGILITIES: Rolls, Handstand, Headstand. Cartwheel, Arab-spring, Neck-spring, Head-spring, Hand-spring, Fly-spring, Back-flip, Somer-saults.
VAULTS; Astride vault. Through vault. Overswings, Thief vault. Side vault. Gate vault and Face vault.
In later years the aim is to build up these movements to form a sequence. The teaching and practice of the above should be done in the Class Activity and Group Work. Other Activities to be included
i. Pair work - using partner as a piece of apparatus ii. Pyramids iii. Circuit Training Circuit Training could be given in place of exercises in the later years.
I I . GAMES - SCHEME OF WORK
ASSOCIATION FOOTBALL: K icking: T rapping: P assin g : D rib b lin g : Running with the ball; Throwing-in; Tactics and Positional Play; Goal-Keeping
CRICKET BATTING: ..Grip; Stance; Forward and Back Defence. The D rive: C ross-bat S tro k es. Fielding: Throwing and Catching; Wicket-keeping. Bowling: Grip; Leg and Off-Break; Spin Bowling; Swerve.
HOCKEY: Hitting; Flicking; Passing; Gathering the ball; Dribbling; Tackling; Shooting; Goalkeeping; Roll-in; Bully; Tactics.
RUGBY FOOTBALL: Running; Passing; Fielding and Falling on the ball; Catching and Kicking; Dribbling; Tactics.
BASKETBALL: Catching; Footwork and Arm-work; Jumping; Dribbling; Passing; Shooting; Defense and Offence; Tactics.
LAWN TENNIS: Grip ; Stance; Footwork; S e rv ic e ; S tro k es; Fore-hand and Back-hand; The Volley; The Lob; Half-Volley; Smashing; Spin; Drop-shot; Tactics.
BADMINTON: Grip ; W rist F lip ; Footwork and P o s itio n ; Strokes Smash ; Clear; Drive; Drop; Service; Tactics.
SQUASH: Grip; Footwork; Strokes; Forehand and Backhand; Service Volley; Half-volley; Lobbing; Tactics.
NETBALL: Ball handling; Foot and Body work; Aiming and intercepting Passing: Interchanging positions; The Centre Pass ; Inter cepting and Shot for Goal; Shooting; Tactics.
ROUNDERS: Throwing and Catching; Fielding; Batting; Bawling; Tactics.
VOLLEYBALL: Passing or Patting; The Dig; Boosting; Spiking; Service; Smash and The Block; Retrieving Ball from the Net: Offence; Tactics.
QUOIT TENNIS: Serving; Throwing; Catching; Varying Direction of throws; Tactics. TABLE TENNIS : Grip (Backhand and Forehand); Serving ; Footwork and stance; strokes; (top spin-halfvolley-back-hand-chop- crop-shot-smash); Tactics.
SOFTBALL: Throwing (arm swing underhand); Catching; Batting; Pitching; Base Running; Tactics.
I I I . TRACK AND FIELD SCHEME OF WORK
1. RUNNING: Racing - Starting (standing and Crouch) - Running Action for Sprints, Middle distance and Long distance races.
RELAY-RACING: visual and non-visual exchange - shuttle relay tech n iq u e.
CROSS-COUNTRY RUNNING
HURDLING: Low and High Hurdles - "sprinting over hurdles"
2. JUMPING: Long Jump - Run up - Take o ff - F lig h t - Landing S a il - Running in the air - Hitch kick
High Jump - Take o ff - Approach - Jump - Landing Western Roll - Scissors - Straddle - Eastern Cut
Pole Vault - Take off - Approach - Vault - Landing Getting off the ground - The carry - The run - Pole planting Riding the Pole - The pull-up and scissors kick
3. THROWING: Shot - Hold - Stance - Putting the Shot Action The Reverse - The Glide or Shift
J a v e lin - Hold - Approach - S trid e Plan - The Throw "Follow - Through"
Discus - Hold - Stance - Swing - Movement of F e e t- Throw - Follow-through (The R everse - Turn & Throw)
Hammer - Hold - Stance - Footwork - Setting implement in motion - Swings and Turns - The release
IV. SWIMMING SCHEME OF WORK
OUTLINE SYLLABUS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVEL
For non-swimmers the Primary course of confidence practices PLUS some work in a basic stroke technique can be followed. Basic teaching strokes in order of presentation:
1. Breaststroke and Backstrokes including the modified Breaststroke leg action recommended by the R.L.S,S. for towing purposes with simultaneous arm action.
The arm action to be taught firstly with an underwater, recovery, later with an over-water recovery.
2. Back Crawl. This stroke can be introduced simultaneously for the benefit of those children who had difficulty in mastering the movements and co-ordination involved in Breaststroke.
3. Plain Diving from the bank and low platforms including f l a t t e r swimming e n te ry .
4. Survival skills and general watermanship including Treading water Under-water swimming Surface diving, feet and head first Endurance tests on multiple strokes
5. Front Crawl
6. Elementary Life-Saving techniques: Expired air resuscitation Supporting passive subjects Towing passive subjects
7. Advanced swimming fo r ta le n te d p u p ils : S urvival Award T ests A.S.A. of Gt. B ritain/K enya Swimming Proficiency Tests A.S.A. of Gt. Britain/ Royal L ife Saving Society Award T ests Com petitive Swimming Competitive Diving Butterfly (Dolphin) Stroke
DANCE SCHEME OF WORK
1. Tribal and Folk Dancing
i . Body M obility E xercises - Head) Trunk) Circling Arms) Shaking Feet) Bending and Stretching ii. Dancing Steps - a) Running Steps b) Skip steps c) Gallop steps d) Toe point e) Swing hop f) Step hop
LESSON SEQUENCE:
I . Foot movements I I . Hand Movements I I I . Whole Body (Trunk) Movements
T rib a l Dances : Giriam a, Wakamba, Embu, Meru, Nandi, Kikuyu Luo, Kalenjin, etc.
Folk Dances: e .g . Kikuyu "Muomboko" Dance and o th er African folk dances. Arab, Goan, Indian, Pakistani, Punjabi, European, English, Scottish, Irish and American folk dances. Put emphasis on African Folk dancing
2. "Modem Educational Dance"
16 B asic Movement Themes a) 1-8 Elem entary Movement Themes Themes concerned w ith a) awareness of the body b) awareness of force and time c) awareness of space d) awareness of the flow of the weight of the body in space and time e) the adaptation to partners f) the instrumental use of the limbs of the body g) awareness of isolated actions h) occupational rhythms
b) 9-16 Advance Movement Themes
i) th e shapes of movement j) combinations of the 8 basic movements viz. Wring, Press, Glide, Float, Flick, Slash, Punch, Dab k) space orientation 1) the performance of shapes and efforts by different parts of the body m) elevation from the ground n) the awakening of group feeling o) group formations p) th e ex p ressiv e q u a litie s or moods of movements. Rudiments of Free Dance Technique
Four main types of movements : a) Direct/Strong b) Flexible/Strong c) Light/Direct d) Flexible/Light
Conception of the Sphere of Movement
Useful for the dance teacher - 3 dimensions Each dimension has a direction and a counter-direction high and deep right and left forwards and backwards COMMENTS BY AFRICAN STUDIES SPECIALISTS
The follow ing comments were made by people who a re d ire c tly involved with African studies centers or other agencies dealing with African affairs-
B everly C. A lb rig h t Office of African Programs Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs Department of State
"You have chosen an i n te r e s tin g f ie l d in which to do your research. .
David G. Scanlon Teachers for East Africa Columbia University New York, New York 10027
"I am happy that you are dealing with the international aspects of physical education. If a key factor in the pertinence of education is its relationship to life, then physical education must occupy a high position.
I am sure that your dissertation study will be fruitful."
Edwin S. Hunger Department of Geography California Institute of Technology Pasadena, California
"Doing a dissertation on physical education in East African or Kenyan schools is an excellent idea."
Gwendolen M. Carter, Director Program of African Studies Northwestern University Evanston, Illinois
"There is no doubt that your topic is a stimulating and impor tant one. . . . There are obviously wide ramifications possi b le . . . ."
Raymond A. Ciszek International Relations International Council on Health, Physical Education and Recreation 120 — 16th Street, N.W. W ashington, D. C. "We were very pleased to hear from you and to learn of your interest in physical education in the selected African countries."
A. A. Castagno, D irec to r African Studies Center Boston University 10 Lenox S tre e t Brookline, Massachusetts
"I am interested in your drawing a relationship between the effects of physical education and sports activities with interna tional relations. The latter field has been my specialization, and I do not know of any work that treats this matter."
Robert D. Baum, Deputy D irec to r Office of Research and Analysis for Africa Department of State
According to Mr. Baum, th ere were no government re p o rts or pamphlets which deal specifically with physical education in Africa. "It would seem, therefore, that there is a need for work to be done in the field."
R ichard A. Lake Institute of African Affairs Duquense University
"The subject which you have chosen for your thesis is an ex tremely interesting one, on which I can certainly give you a very great deal of information, as I was personally involved for eighteen years in educational development in Kenya."
G ilb e rt D. Schneider Center for International Studies - Ohio U n iv ersity Athens, Ohio
"Ohio University can assist you greatly in your project."
Hugh C. Brooks, D irec to r Center for African Studies St. John's University
"I think your proposed study is very worthwhile and w ill fill a very big gap in the field of African Studies."
Eugene C. Kirchherr, Chairman African Studies Program Western Michigan University
"Indeed, . . . your study will be a valuable contribution to the study of comparative education. I might add that your study should be of interest to the Peace Corps. Some members of our P.E. staff worked with the volun te e rs in a tra in in g program on our campus l a s t summer and f e l t somewhat handicapped by the lack of information which you are currently studying.
I hope you'll consider publishing some parts of your study in one of the African journals."
Dr. James H. Robinson, Director Operation Crossroads Africa, Inc. New York City
"I think you are undertaking a very important study, because all Africa is alert and alive to programs of physical education and sports." Telephone: N airobi 24344 Ext. 1 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION When rep ly in g p lease quote INSPECTORATE P.O. Box 30426, NAIROBI Ref. No. INS/B/24/3/57 and date 15th January, 1973
Mr. Sydney 0. H a ll, Director of Physical Education, FEDERAL CITY COLLEGE.
PROGRAMME OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN
KENYA SCHOOL
Before I answer your questions, I would like to apolo gise for the delay in sending you the information. It appears that your letter went to the wrong hands before it was received in this office. I would also like to inform you that Mr. Jeneby is no longer with the Ministry of Education. Mr. Ndonye took over as the Inspector of P h y sica l E ducation when Mr. Jeneby resig n e d .
I would lik e on b e h a lf of Mr. Letin g to rep ly to some questions directed to him.
EQUIPMENT FOR TRIBAL DANCES/GAMES ;
Kenya has many tribes and each tribe has its own instru ments. It is difficult to describe how each of these instruments from different tribes are played. The Games/dances (Tribal) are not unified.
The Government of Kenya has stated and does support sports development. Schools are given grants every year for such purposes. The amounts vary with the size of the Institution. Women are being thoroughly involved in the sports programmes in the country. International competitions include women.
PLACE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE NATIONAL SCHEME OF EDUCATION :
In the case of educational Institutions physical Educa tion is well organised and it is also being improved. The subject is included in the curriculum. It is compulsory for teaching in the schools. Primary schools teach one period of P.E. everyday of the five-day week. There are three periods per week in secondary schools and some Teacher Training Colleges. Games periods are on everyday from 4 p.m. to 5 p.m.
STATUS OF P.E. AND SPORTS IN KENYA SOCIETY :
Owing to lack of w ell tra in e d manpower in th is f ie l d and lack of facilities, the physical and Education and sports in schools and the society suffer considerably. Efforts by both the Government and willing firms are being made to improve the situation. All colleges endeavour to train all teachers in this subject. A P.E. college has been opened at Kenyatta College to train teachers for P.E. only. In a developing country this state of affairs is inevitable.
All various levels of government Provincial District Locational do demonstrate support for Physical Education and Sports more philosophically than financially. Finance is the main set-back.
THE SCOPE OF P.E. AUD SPORTS PROGRAMMES IN SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES :
The attached syllabus will give some ideas of the type of programme schools and colleges follow. The syllabus is under review this year. The Colleges' syllabus is more detailed but I was not able to get a copy for you. The layout of the syllabuses in this country for institutions is more or less the same.
A part from the programme shown in the syllabus. Schools and colleges have formed two National bodies
Kenya Secondary Schools Sports Association and Kenya Teacher Training Colleges Sports Association. These two bodies are responsible for National Competitions in all the games. There are also similar Provin cial bodies affiliated to the national one.
You will note that there are sports clubs and Associations dotted all over the country. All sporting activities are caresed for. The main sports in the country are Football, Hockey, Basketball, Boxing, athletics etc.
In your question, you want to know how an athlete gets to represent his locality, province and Nation. When Calendar of events is drawn up for the following year, competitions are arranged in order. Take for example the athletic sermon. The Programme should start with locational competitions. This is followed by Divisional, Provincial and then National hence International. The same patern is followed by schools. House system competition in a school. Locational (all schools in a location) Divisional, Provincial and then National. The National Championship for the country is the last in the programme. An athlete therefore is able to take part at all different levels.
The Physical Educators are just about to form an Associa tion which w ill be responsible for advising the Ministry on the 339 required developments in this field. They will be meeting periodically to discuss matters related to their area of work. They will also try to publish a periodical journal which can be a source of information.
Your question No. 8 syllabuses for Physical Education are available for all levels of our institutions. As I informed you pre v io u sly , i t is not p o ss ib le a t th e moment to supply you w ith th es e . Revision and amendments of these syllabuses is going on and until these are finalised they cannot be official. You will get the secondary schools' one.
FACILITIES ; No. 9 .
Facilities for Physical Education are truly scarce, but we have the minimum req u irem en ts. We have f i e l d s , we do im provise, we can buy what we can, we hope conditions w ill improve: We do not need gymnasium because our country is warm enough. The main requirements are swimming pools. Lawn Tennis Courts, Squash Courts etc.
No. 10. This matter is Psychological and difficult in any develop ing country. The fact is that Kenya Government is very much involved in such competitions, be they World or International. There is no sys tem of financial support for teams going out of the country but whenever the need arises the Government is ready to help.
African games do exist but for the past few years during Colonial time these were discouraged, they are now being revived very vigorously. Names of these games are in tribal names.
No. 12. Kenya has participated in the Olympic games since 1956, the progress of attainment has been remarkable all through up to date. The number of athletes are determined by the requirements of the Olym pic committee standards.
No. 13. We have p a rtic ip a te d in the Commonwealth games e a r l i e r than the Olympic games. We started in 1954 during the colonial time. The experience was awful but we did s t a r t . We are a t th e moment among the best African states in athletics and probably Boxing. We are doing our best according to availability of financial assistance.
No. 14. The Colonial Government did introduce Physical Education in all our educational institutions. It was well planned but it was not for all, however, the start was made and we have taken over. We w ill improve the situation.
N.B. All I could find in my office connected with P.E. is for warded to you for further information. Please feel at home to write to this office and ask for any information.
W. Ndonye
f o r PERMANENT SECRETARY OF EDUCATION
WN/MWK Ministry of Education, Joggo House, P.O. Box 30040, NAIROBI.
20th December, 1972
Sydney 0. Hall, Director Physical Education, Federal City College, 1529 16th S t. N.W. W ashington, D.C. 20036
Dear S ir ,
Thank you very much for your letter which I received a few days ago. I was glad to hear that everything is alright with you and the family. I hope you received my two greeting cards one sent while at Paris and the other sent from Nairobi. ( I used your home address which I am not sure whether I have it correct).
I have been trying to get the information you wanted but the officer concerned in our Inspectorate is on leave although we have talked about it and he ensured me that he has most of the information you wanted. He i s now working on i t w hile he i s on leav e. By th e way Mr. A.S.A. Jeneby is not with the Ministry of Social Services but he is with Kenya Breweries. I am told that he could not be more useful than our Inspectors in our Ministry.
I therefore will continue pressing our Inspectorate to get you this information as soon as possible. I regret for this delay but as I have explained, the officer concerned is on leave and there is very little that I should do myself.
Of course I would be able to entertain the lady that you said will be,visiting Kenya in January. Here in Kenya everything is alright and we are just about to celebrate Christmas as you w ill be doing there in Washington; at this juncture I would like to end by wishing you and your family and your friends Merry Christmas and happy New Year!
Yours sincerely.
( J .T . Arap-LETING ) SENIOR EDUCATION OFFICER (PL) f o r PERMANENT SECRETARY______Telegram s: "Education" MINISTRY OF EDUCATION Telephone. 28411 JOGGO HOUSE When rep ly in g p lea se quote HARAMBEE AVENUE P.O. Box 30040, NAIROBI Ref. No. G .35/1/V ol.IV /112 and date .. .23rd. January ...... 1973.
Sydney 0. Hall, D irec to r Physical Education, Federal City College, 16th St. N.W., WASHINGTON. D.C. 20036
Dear Mr. H a ll,
Thank you very much for your letter of 8th January, 1973. I was very pleased to hear that all is well in Washington. Before I go on I must once more apologise for the delay in sending you the information. But I am glad that I am finally enclosing the information you have been hunting for. I hope this information w ill give you most of what you wanted.
I had n o t r e a lis e d th a t you had n o t known my f i r s t name and I am happy to tell you that my first name is 'Joseph'. One of the reasons why very few o f my frie n d s know my f i r s t name is th a t I r a r e ly use i t . However, I have no objection if I am called by my first name.
Mr. Ndonye, the Inspector of Physical Education in the Ministry of Education has supplied most of the information as he has explained to you in the enclosed documents. I have not been able to find out when Mr. A.S.A. Jeneby was appointed to the Ministry of Co-operatives and Social Services. As soon as I find this information I w ill communicate it to you. About Journals that deal with sports, I am still investiga ting whether these can be obtained anywhere.
I would lik e to add few comments on Mr. Ndonye' s documents. As he has pointed out, Kenya has been participating in both Olympics and Commonwealth Games sin ce 50s. I would l ik e to add th a t the f i r s t Kenya Olympic Medal was won by Mr. Wilson Kiprugut in 1964 Olympic Games in Tokyo. Then 1968 Kenya improved and got gold, silver, bronze medals a t th e Mexico Olympic Games. So 1964 i s a tu rn in g p o in t in Kenya's Olympic history because it was the first time that Kenya managed to come home w ith a t le a s t one Medal. You w ill note that unlike United States, the Government of Kenya is very much involved in sport through the Ministry of Co-operatives and Social Services. Even the President of the country is very much interested in sport.
The latest International Games meeting that Kenya participated was the recent All Africa Games which was held in Lagos, Nigeria. In these games Kenya demonstrated that she is one of the top sporting Nations in Africa when she took the third position in the medal list, Egypt was first followed by Nigeria.
I should like therefore to add that Kenya is improving its prowess in sport and ability from year to year. Incidentally Kipchoge Keino is currently touring United States and I hear that he will parti cipate in some Athletic competitions in various parts of your country. Please try and see whether you can meet and talk with him while he is still there.
Yours sincerely,
(J.T. Arap-LETING ) SENIOR EDUCATION OFFICER (PL)
PS I am also enclosing a booklet on education Structure in Kenya. I hope it will also be useful to you. APPENDIX 0
Telephone; N airobi 24205 E xt. 272 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION When rep ly in g p lease quote INSPECTORATE P.O. Box 30426, NAIROBI Ref. No. INS/N/ 4 / 6/V0 I.I /3 3 and date 18th July, 1967.
Mr. Sydney 0. H a ll, Instructor, Howard U n iv e rsity , Washington, D.C. 20001, U.S.A.
Dear Mr. H a ll,
Thank you for your letter dated 7th July, copy of which we also receiv ed from the Chairman of the Kenya Olympic and Commonwealth Association, Mr. R.S. Alexander.
I am sorry I was unable to reply to you before due to pressure of work of Athletic activities in schools throughout the Republic.
The M in istry o f E ducation is a member of ICHPER under th e S e c re ta ry , Mr. Carl Troester Junior, of NEA in Washington. Recently I forwarded up to date information on a questionaire on Physical Education in Kenya Schools i.e. P.E. and Games in the curriculum; Teacher Training for P.E. ; the status of P.E. teachers in Kenya. I am sure this can be made available to you if you ask the ICHPER-Secretary.
However, I have a few documents on General Education from our Ministry, a few circulars which w ill tell you something about our organisations in the Provinces such as Secondary Schools Sports Councils; a short guide to Education in Primary, Secondary and Teacher Training College, and also a Bulletin sent to all Schools on activities of the Ministry. I also include a short report on P.E. in our Kenya Schools, which you will find is similar to the British system.
If at any time you are in New York our Kenya Student Attache w ill be very pleased to help you with some of our Education Reports which we published. He was the Secretary of the Commission when he was in
As for adult Sports Mr. William Yeda is the right person to deal with this section. I will ask him to write to you on this subject as soon as possible. If there is anything more on Physical Education you need to know please do not hesitate to write and I will do my best to help.
Enclosed please find a number of documents on P.E. in Kenya Schools.
Yours sincerely,
Aish Jeneby fo r PEEMANENT SECRETARY
c .c . Mr. R.S. A lexander, Chairman, Kenya Olympic and Commonwealth Games Assoc. P.O. Box 2437 NAIROBI BIBLIOGRAPHY
PUBLIC DOCUMENTS
African. Education Commission. Education in East Africa, 1923-24. London: Phelps-Stokes Fund, Edinburgh House Press, 1925.
B r itis h Commonwealth Games F ederation- C o n stitu tio n of the B r itis h Commonwealth Games. London, 1969.
East African Statistical Department. Economic and Statistical Review. No. 41. December, 1971.
Embassy of the Republic of Kenya. Fifty Facts About the East Africa Community. Washington, n.d. (Mimeographed.)
Embassy of the Republic of Kenya. Kenya Newsletter. I, No. 7, 1972.
Embassy of the Republic of Kenya. Kenya Newsletter. II (October, 1972), 19-20.
Government of Kenya. Kenya Education Commission Report Part I . Nairobi; The English Press, Ltd., 1964.
Government of Kenya. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Kenya: A Land of Contrast. Nairobi: Government Printer, 1971.
Government of Kenya. Teaching Opportunities at Secondary Schools and Colleges in Kenya. Nairobi: Ministry of Education, 1965.
Great Britain. Colonial Office. Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies. Mass Education in African Society. London : His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1944.
Great Britain. Colonial Office. African Education: A Study of Educational Policy and Practice in British Tropical Africa. London: Oxford University Press, 1953.
Great Britain. Education in Britain. London: Central Office of Information, 1952. Great Britain. Education in the United Kingdom Dependencies. London; Central Office of Information, 1954.
Great Britain. Kenya; Progress and Problems. London: British Information Service, 1960.
Kenya Colony and Protectorate. African Education in Kenya. Nairobi: Government Printer, 1949.
Kenya Colony and Protectorate. Education Department, Triennal Survey, 1958-60. Nairobi: Government Printing Office, 1960.
Kenya Ministry of Education. Educational Structure in Kenya. Nairobi: Jomo K enyatta Foundation, 1972.
Kenya Ministry of Education. Physical Education Syllabus for Secondary Schools. Nairobi: Ministry of Education, 1970.
Kenya Mission to the United Nations. "Directory of Kenya Students, Territorial United States and Canada," March, 1965. (Mimeographed.)
Republic of Kenya, African Socialism and Its Application to Planning in Kenya. Nairobi: Government Printer, 1965.
Republic of Kenya. Ministry of Cooperatives and Social Services. Department of Community Development and S o c ial S ervices Annual Report, 1967. Nairobi: Government Printer, 1967.
Republic of Kenya. Ministry of Cooperatives and Social Services. Department of Community Development and S o c ial S ervices Annual Report, 1969. Nairobi: Government Printer, 1971.
Republic of Kenya. Ministry of Education Annual Report, 1969. Nairobi: Government Printer, 1970.
Republic of Kenya. Ministry of Education Annual Report, 1970. Nairobi: Government Printer, 1971.
Republic of Kenya. Ministry of Education Annual Report, 1971. Nairobi: Government Printer, 1972.
United S ta te s ACTION, Peace Corps. Memorandum, Proposed Kenya T echnical Education P ro je c t Summer, 1972, P ro je c t No. 615-72-07; Approval No. 72-PC-74, (Calvin H. Raullerson). Washington: 1972.
United S ta te s ACTION, Peace Corps. Memorandum, Summary of Responses to Questionnaire on Sports Programs in Africa (Glen C. Randall). Washington: 1972. United States ACTION, Peace Corps. Peace Corps Projects in Kenya (Carolyn G ullatt). Washington: 1972. (Mimeographed.)
United States Department of State. Background Notes: Kenya. Publica tion No. 8024. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1966).
United States Government. Department of State. Republic of Kenya: Background Notes. Washington: Bureau of Public Affiars, 1972.
Adamson, Joy. The People of Kenya. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1967.
Askwith, G. The Story of Kenya's Progress. Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau, 1958.
B u e ll, Raymond L e s lie . The N ative Problem in A fric a . New York: The MacMillan Company, 1928.
Cameron, James. The A frican R ev o lu tio n . London: Thames and Hudson, 1961.
Cowan, L. Gray, O’Connell, James, and Scanlon, David G. (eds.). Education and Nation-Building in Africa. New York: Frederick A. P raeg er, 1965.
Cox, Richard. Kenyatta*s Country. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1966.
Dilley, Marjorie R. British Policy in Kenya Colony. New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1937.
Emerson, Rupert. From Empire to Nation: The Rise to Self-Assertion of Asian and African Peoples. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960.
Evans, E. J. Tropical Hygiene for Schools. London : Lutterworth Press, 1964.
Goodwin, Leonard and Antony Duggan. A New Tropical Hygiene. London : George Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1966.
Gregory, J. W. The Rift Valley and Geology of East Africa. London: Seely S ervice and Company L im ited, 1921.
Gunther, John. Inside Africa. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1955.
Hackensmith, C. W. History of Physical Education. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1966. 349
Hobley, G. W. Bantu Beliefs and Magic. London: Witherby, 1922.
Holmes, Alan C. Health Education in Developing Countries. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, L td ., 1964.
International Council on Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. Physical Education in the School Curriculum., Part I . Washington: ICHPER, 1969.
International Council on Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. Teacher Training for Physical Education, Part II. Washington: ICHPER, 1969.
International Council on Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. Status of Teachers of Physical Education, Part III. Washington: ICHPER, 1969.
Jones, S. H. M. Survey of the Teaching Profession in Africa. Washington: World Confederation of Organizations of the Teaching Profession, 1961.
Kaplan, Max. Leisure in America: A Social Inquiry. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1960.
K enyatta, Jomo. Facing Mount Kenya: The T rib a l L ife of the Kikuyu. London: Seeker and Warburg, 1938.
Lambert, H. E. Kikuyu Social and Political Institutions. London: Oxford University Press, 1966.
Leakey, L. S, B. Mau Mau and the Kikuyu. New York: The John Day Company, 1952.
Lewis, L. J. Equipping Africa: Educational Development in British Colonial Africa. London: Edinburgh House Press, 1948.
Lystad, Robert A. (ed.). The African World: A Survey of Social Research. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1965.
Matheson, Alastair. Kenya: A New Era. Nairobi: The English Press, Ltd., 1963.
______. The Tribes of Kenya. London: Department of Information,
McIntosh, Peter C. Landmarks in the History of Physical Education. London : Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1957.
McWhirter, Norris and Ross (eds.). The 1966 Guinness Book of British Empire and Commonwealth Games R ecords. London: Guinness S uperla tives, Ltd., 1966. Middleton, J. The Kikuyn and Kamba of Kenya. London: International African Institute, 1953.
Morton, Henry W. Soviet Sport: Mirror of Soviet Society. New York: Collier Books, 1963.
Noman-Taylor, W. A Textbook of Hygiene for Teachers of Africa. London: Longmans, 1966.
Ottenberg, Simon and Phoebe Ottenberg (eds.). Cultures and Societies of A fric a . New York: Random House, 1960.
Plimpton, Ruth T. Operation Crossroads Africa. New York: The Viking Press, 1962.
Pye, Lucian W. Politics, Personality and Nation Building: Burma’s Search for Identity. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962.
Scott, H. S. Some Aspects of Native Education in Kenya. London: Oxford University Press, 1936.
Scriven, F. B. Sports Facilities for Schools in Developing Countries. P a r is : UNESCO, 1973.
Sheffield, James R. Education in the Republic of Kenya. Office of Education. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1971.
Singleton, F. Seth and John Shingler. Africa in Perspective. New York: Hayden Book Company, I n c ., 1970.
Turnbull, Colin M. The Lonely African. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1962.
Van Dalen, Deobold B., and Bruce L. Bennett. A World History of Physical Education. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1971.
W allerstein, Immanuel. Africa: The Politics of Independence. New York: Vintage Books, 1961.
Weeks, Sheldon G. Divergence in Educational Development: The Case of Kenya and Uganda. New York: Columbia Teachers College, 1967. PERIODICALS
"Africa: A Country by Country Situation Report," Africa Report, November, 1963, pp. 8-52.
Ayany, S. G. "The Future of the African Teacher," Panorama, Teaching Throughout the World, I (Winter, 1959), 18-20.
Bablo, F. E. "Sounds of Africa," The Lutheran, IV (May 11, 1966).
Barclay, E. Murray. "Physical Fitness in the Building of New Nations," World Confederation of Organizations of the Teaching Profession, June 3-7, 1962, pp. 6-9.
Berlin, Isaiah. "The Bent Twig: A Note on Nationalism," Foreign Affairs, LI (October, 1972), 22-23.
Bropleh, Francis. "Health-A Prerequisite for National Development," World Confederation of Organizations of the Teaching Profession, June 3-7, 1962. pp. 9-11.
Brown, Gwilym S. "Fierce Fight in the Family," Sports Illustrated, XXV (August, 1966), 56-59.
Bucher, Charles A. "Health and Physical Education in Other Lands," Jo u rn al of H ealth , P h y sical Education and R ecreatio n , XXXIII (December, 1962), 14-15.
Cagigal, Jose Maria. "Social Education Through Sport," The Eleventh International Congress of the ICHPER. Washington: National Education Association, 1969.
"Coaching Courses in Progress," Kenya Sports Review, June, 1967, p. 5.
D'Anna, Andrea. "The Masai are Dying Out," Nigrizia, July-August, 1965, 21-24.
Diment, Don. "Commonwealth Games A sso c ia tio n ," Kenya Sports Review, March-April, 1965, p. 12.
"Edinburgh, '70 Games Results," World Sports, August, 1970, pp. 41-46.
"Edinburgh '70 Reflections," World Sports, August, 1970, p. 13.
Emerson, Rupert. "Crucial Problems Involved in Nation-Building in Africa," Journal of Negro Education, XXX (October, 1961), 193-205.
"First All-African Games," Kenya Sports Review, March-April, 1965, p. 9. Gatabaki, N. "The Truth About Asian Businessmen," Inside Kenya 2, June, 1972, pp. 46-47.
Habte, Aklilu. "Education: Africa’s Unfinished Business," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXXVI (November- December, 1965), 28-31.
Havel, Richard C. "Physical Education: A Medium for International Education," College Physical Education Association 63rd Annual Proceeding, (December, 1959).
Hornberger, David. "Kipchoge Keino—Kenya's Image Around the World," Inside Kenya Today, September, 1972, pp. 42-44.
"International Lawn Tennis at Nairobi," Kenya Sports Review. March- April, 1965, p. 10.
Jeneby, Aish Salim Ali. "Physical Education in Kenya," International Council on Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 8th Congress Report. Washington: National Education Association, 1967.
"Preparing for the School Sports Day," Kenya Education Journal, II (January, 1964), 22-24.
. "The KAAA Newsletter," Kenya Sports Review, March-April, 1965, p. 7.
"The KAAA Newsletter," Kenya Sports Review, March, 1966, p. 5.
Kamau, John. "Im p ressio n s," Kenya Sports Review, December, 1964, 11, 14.
Kane, M artin. "A Very Welcome R edcoat," S ports I l l u s t r a t e d , XXV (December 19, 1966), 79-82.
Kankasa, T. "Role of Sport in National Development," The Contribution of Sport to the Construction of Modern Africa, Rabat. London: International Council of Sport and Physical Education, 1971.
Maheu, Rene. "Sport is Education," The Australian Journal of Physical Education, March, 1964, 15-18.
Mbitiru, Chege. "The School That Toughens Character," Inside Kenya Today, September, 1972, 28-31.
Mboya, Tom. "The Future of Kenya," African Affairs, Journal of the Royal African Society, LXIII, (January, 1964).
"M inister Backs Sports," Kenya Sports Review, December, 1964, p. 13. "Murang'a Youth Club Aid Fund," Kenya Sports Review, December, 1964, p . 13.
Mwaura, Peter. "The Wars of Pacification, Part II," Inside Kenya Today, September, 1971, pp. 50-54.
"News in Brief," Africa Report, X August 1965, 25.
"News in Brief," Africa Report, X October, 1965, 59.
"Ngala Addresses KI Njuru, David. "Many Gold Medals," Kenya Sports Review, December, 1964, p. 14. . "Welcome from Tokyo-Get S et fo r M exico," Kenya Sports Review, December, 1964, p. 3. Nkonoki, S. R. "What Philosophy of Education?" Teacher College News, May, 1970, pp. 1-5. Nyaga, J. J. "The Teaching of Physical Education," Teachers College News, August, 1968, pp. 29-30. Nyamweya, James. "Message from Mzee K en y atta," The Kenya T eacher, I (October, 1966), 5, 16, 19. Nyawanda, Walter. "Kenya’s Olympic Heroes," Inside Kenya Today, March, 1972, pp. 48-49. Rake, Alan. "Jomo Kenyatta: The Man and the Myth," Africa Report, VI (May 1961), 5-6. Rob, Job K. B. "Job Rob's Reply to President Kenyatta's Message," The Kenya Teacher, I (October, 1966), 8-9. . "KNUT President's Message," The Kenya Teacher, I (October, 1966). Segal, Aaron. "Pan-African Athletes Score a First," Africa Report, XVI (October, 1971), 25-27. Spencer, John. "Kenyatta's Kenya," Africa Report, XI (May, 1966). "Sports News from the Provinces," Kenya Sports Review, June, 1967, p. 13. "Sports Officer on Course in U. S. A.," Kenya Sports Review, March, 1966, p. 3. "Talking Sports," Kenya Sports Review, March, 1966, p. 2. "The Fight Against Kenya's National Sport," The Kenya Police Review, July, 1969, pp. 24-25, 27-29. "The KAAA Newsletter," Kenya Sports Review, December, 1964, p. 10. "The World Greets KNUT," The Kenya Teacher, October, 1966, p. 6. Tracey, Hugh. "The Importance of African Music in the Present Day," African Affairs, LIX (April, 1961), 155-162. Uba, Sam. "Women and Politics," Africa: An International Business, Economic and Political Monthly, December, 1972, pp. 18-23. Wepukhulu, Hezekiah. "Kenya Olympic Team's Performance," Kenya Sports Review, December, 1964, p. 4. "Kenya on the Gold Standard," Inside Kenya Today, December, 1968. "Nation Races into the Lead," Inside Kenya Today, September, 1968, p. 31. Wilson, Kenneth. "The Olympic Games," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXXIII (October, 1961), 24-26. NEWSPAPERS Daily Nation (Kenya), September 5, 1972. East African Standard. August 25, 1972, August 28, 1972, October 4, 1972. The New York Times, January 8, 1973. The Washington Post, June 3, 1967, July 13, 1968, August 11, 1969, January 7, 1973, January 8, 1973, January 9, 1973. The Times /London/, August 4-15, 1966. Brundage, Avery. An address to the 8th International Congress, ICHPER, Addis Ababa, E th io p ia , J u ly , 1965. Burke, Fred G. "Political Evolution in Kenya," Occasional Paner. No. 2, Program of East African Studies, Syracuse University. Dodd, Barbara. "Physical Education, in Kenya," A Report Prepared for the World Congress of Physical Education. Melbourne, 1956, pp. 57-66. Francois, Pierre. "Education for Leisure—A Worldwide Need," A speech delivered at the Seventh International Council on Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, Paris, August, 1964. Jeneby, A. S. A. "Physical Education in Secondary Schools (Girls and Boys)." Nairobi: Kenya Ministry of Education, 1967. (Mimeographed). "Physical Education: Primary Schools," Nairobi: Kenya Ministry of Education, 1967. (Mimeographed.) Kiano, J. G. M inister of Education, Opening Speech, Second Kenya Con ference on New Directions in Teacher Training, Nairobi, May 6-9, 1968. King, Peter. "The Development of Teacher Training in Kenya," Paper prepared for the Kenya Institute of Education. Nairobi, July 23, 1964. Tobias, Herbert V. "Evaluation of East African and Central African Performance in the Mexico Games." Paper presented at the First Conference on Physical Education in East and Central Africa, Makerere University, April, 1968. (Mimeographed.) Westwood, Andrew F. "Political Sketches of Sub-Saharan African Countries," Foreign Affairs Division, The Library of Congress, (April, 1960), pp. 63-67. INTERVIEWS Arap-Leting, J. T. Senior Education Officer in Charge of Planning and Development, Ministry of Education, Nairobi, Kenya. The interview, Washington, D. C., October, 1972, provided the investigator with an excellent account of current trends, problems, and priorities in Kenyan education. Chingawa, Arthur E. Press Attache, Embassy of the Republic of Kenya, Washington, D. C., January, 1972. The interview provided the investigator with Kenya Ministry reports, current periodicals and general information on contemporary issues in Kenya. Gullatt, Carolyn. Director, Kenya Desk, Peace Corps, Washington, D. C., November, 1972. As the lead official for Peace Corps projects in Kenya, she described the nature of the programs. Howell, Joseph. Director, Africa Region, Peace Corps, Washington, D. C., December, 1972. He discussed how Peace Corps volunteers relate to Kenyans in their spare time by teaching them recreation and sports skills. Koinange, Joseph K. Education Attache, Kenya Mission to the United Nations, New York, March, 1966. This interview produced some of the first information about Kenya that was compiled by the new Government after independence. He also provided the investiga tor with a list of Kenyans studying in the United States, some of whom were contacted for the questionnaire used in the study. Lake, Richard A. Institute of African Affairs, Duquesne University. The interview, Columbus, Ohio, May, 1966, provided insight into physical education and sports, general background information, and the transition of Kenya from colonial to independent status. Longat, Ernst. Education Attache, Embassy of the Republic of Kenya, Washington, D. C., October, 1972. In addition to being the investigator's primary contact at the Embassy, he was also helpful in providing a general overview of educational development in Kenya and prospects for the future. Randall, Glen C. Executive Director, Special Olympics, Joseph P. Kennedy Foundation, Washington, D. C., December, 1972. He is the former director, U. S. Sports Corps, Peace Corps. He had a wealth of information on sports programs in African countries. Whitfield, Malvin. Cultural Attache (Africa), Students, Youth, and Sports Affairs, United States Information Agency, Washington, D. C., December, 1972. The information provided by this respondent was extremely appropriate to the subject of the study. He provided some interesting program concepts that have been implemented and what he envisioned for the future. Kenya Ministry of Education. Letter from Aish Jeneby, Inspector of Physical Education, to the author, July 18, 1967- Kenya Ministry of Education. Letter from J. T. Arap-Leting, Senior Education Officer, to the author, December 20, 1972. Kenya Ministry of Education. Letter from J. T. Arap-Leting, Senior Education Officer, to the author, January 25, 1973. Kenya Ministry of Education. Letter from W. Ndonye, Inspector of Physical Education, to the author, January 15, 1973.