Abstract Reports: Student-Originated Studies Projects, 1973. INSTITUTION National Science R0,4Dation, Washington, D.C

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 100 708 SE 018 648

AUTHOR Hill, Berton F., Ed. TITLE Abstract Reports: Student-Originated Studies Projects, 1973. INSTITUTION National Science r0,4dation, Washington, D.C. REPORT NO NSF-74-33 PUB DATE Dec 73 NOTE .88p.; Presented at the Project Reporting Meeting (Washington, D.C., December 26-29, 1973)

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.75 HC-$13.80 PLUS POSTAGE DESCRIPT(IRS *Abstracts; College Students; *Environmental Research; Health; *Research; Science Education; *Sciences; *Student Projects; Student Research; Water Pollution Control IDENTIFIERS National Science Foundation; NSF; Research. Reports

ABSTRACT Presented is a collection of research reports of college-age investigators. The work of the students demonstrates one way in which reliable andilluminating data.on local problems of societal importance can be gathered and analyzed in relatively short time-spans for very little money. Water-related studies, health-related and basic environmental studies are prei,-nted in abstract form: Included in each paper are the college in which the student investigators were enrolled, the participants in each particular research endeavor, the student project director, and faculty advisor. (EB) I I U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORtiANIZATION ORIGIN ATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS STUDENT-ORIGINATED STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRE SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STUDIES PROJECTS EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 1973 Abstract Reports

Presented at Meetings in Washington, D.C. December 26-29, 1973

NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION bo Washington, D.C. 20550

to NSF 74.33 STUDENT-ORIGINATED STUDIES PROJECTS

1973

Abstract Reports

Presented at the Project Reporting Meeting December 26-29, 1973 Washington, D.C.

Edited by BERTON F. HILL

NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION Washington, D.C. 20550 Table of Contents

Foreword vii.

Section I. (Water-Related Studies) 1 Significance and Characteristics of Phosphates in an Agricultural Watershed (Heidelberg College) 2 An Evaluation of the Importance of Ephydra cinerea to the Ecosystem of the Great Salt Lake Reber State College) 6 A Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis of Fall Creek (Cornell University) 12 Establishment of Physical-Chemical-Biological Para- meters for Red Rock Reservoir (Central University of Iowa) 14

Net Primary Productivity and Related Parameters in Perry Reservoir (Benedictine College) 18

Investigation of Environmental Stress of the Cleve- land Lagoon System (Delta State College) 20

Concomitant Study: Sewage Effluent, Water Quality, and Regional Planning (Central Missouri State Uni- versity) 22 The Cocheco River: Its Composition and Effect on the Community (University of New Hampshire) 25 A Study of the Biology, Ecology, Extraction and Economics of Hypnea musciformis (Wulfen) Lamouroux (Rhodophyta: Gigartinales) (University of South Florida) 29

Biosystem Character of the Pigeon River in the Primary Stage of Recovery (University of North Carolina at Asheville) 33

A Comprehensive Ecological Study of Lake Shetek, A Model Lake (Southwest Minnesota State College) 37

Impact of Argo Tunnel Acid Mine Drainage and Mine Tailings and Abatement Procedures (Colorado School of Mines) ....44

Water Quality of the Upper Iowa River Watershed (Luther College) 48 The Water Quality of the Souris River Basin, North Dakota (Minot State College) 51

The Chemical Basis of Interaction between Aquatic Bacteria and Phytoplankton (Illinois institute Technology) 55

Pollution Studies of the Cuyahoga, Chagrin, and Grand Rivers Using Non-Dispersive X-Ray Fluores- cence Spectroscopy (Hiram College) 57 Analytical Aspects of Clams and their Habitat Relevant to Nutrition and Pollution (St. Mary's Dominican College) 62

Evaluation of Algal Productivity in Green Lake, Wisconsin, with Bioassay Techniques (Ripon College) 66

Chemical Mass Balances in Estuaries (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) 69

A Study of the Biogeocoenosis of Two Merging Rivers, the Sheyenne River and the Red River of the North (North Dakota State University) 72

Factors Governing the Dissolved Oxygen Content of the Waters of Dade County, Florida (University of Miami) 75 Study of Mercury and Heavy Metal Pollutants in the Jordan Creek Drainage (University of Idaho) 79 Toxic Chromium in Natural Waters - An Inter- disciplinary Approach (Stag: University of New York at Binghamton) 80

Aquatic Quality and Socio-Economic Uses of the San Jacinto River Watershed (Sam Houston State University) 85

Cadmium, Copper, Lead, and Zinc: Trace Metal Pollution in an Aquatic Ecosystem (Northern Illinois University) 90

Environmental Effects of Pollution Control Measures by Two Puget Sound Paper Mills (University of Washington) 94

Study of Colonization and Development of Corals on an Artificial Reef Substrate (University of Hawaii) 100 Caretta caretta on Kiawah Island, South Carolina: Offspririi78Wases, Population and Predation Studies (University of South Carolina) 103

Section II. (Health-Related and Basic Studies) 106

Identification of Man-Made Reservoirs for Human Pathogens in the Human Environment (Uni- versity of Georgia) 107

Development of a Device to Accelerate Communication in Mute, Severely Handicapped Children (University of Wisconsin at Madison) 110

Neighborhood-Mental Retardate Interaction Effects During the Deinstitutionalization Process (Hope College) 115

Circadian Variations in the Need and Administration of Antihistamine (Rice University) 120

The Effects of Sulfur Dioxide on the Respiratory Capabilities of the Laboratory Rat (Niagara Uni- versity) 122

Correlation of Atmospheric Trace Metal Concentrations with Body Burdens in Newark, New Jersey (Seton Hall University) 125

The Effects of High-Intensity Noise and Injected Tranquilizers on Social Behavior and Corticosterone Levels in Rhesus Monkeys (University of Wisconsin at Madison) 127

Effects of Artificial Polycythemia on Selected Physiological Responses to Strenuous Exercise (University of Oregon) 130

The Effects of Taurine on Ouabain Induced Arrhythmias (Manchester College) 136

Bone Marrow Transplants as Possible Treatment for Sickle Cell Anemia (Benedict College) 141

Oncogenic and Mutagenic Effects of N-Nitroso Compounds on Mammalian Cells in Vitro (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) 142

Physiological Studies and Identification of Active Components of the Staam-Volatile Distillate from Salsola kali (Southwestern State College) 145

Survey of VEE Virus Occuring in Mammals of the South Texas Area (Texas AM University) 146

iv. BESTCOPY AVAILABLE A Process to Prepare Paving Materials from Wood Industry Wastes (Arkansas State University) 148

Development and Testing of Improved Methods of Tritium Detection at Atomic Facilities (Yale University) 150

Detecting Aflatoxin-Producing Strains of Aspergillus flavus in Soil and Corn Samples (Morehead State University) 154

Information Level Studies Related to Venereal Diseases in South Dakota (Northern State College) 158

A Correlation of Toxicity with Heavy Metal Accumulation in Tissues, using Proton Induced X-Ray Emission Spectroscopy (William Marsh Rice University) 162

Bromolipids in Foodstuffs (Vanderbilt Uni- versity) 164

Investigation of the Transfer and Accumulation of Cadmium in Biological Systems (Purdue Uni- versity) 169

Biochemical and Cytogenetic Effects of Pesticides on Human Cells in Vitro (University of Maryland) 173

Mutagenic Effects of Food Additives and Their Metabolites, using Host-Mediated Assay (Reed

College) . 175

Functions of Prostaglandins in Reproduction, Parturition and Infertility (University of Pennsylvania) 176

A Study of Transmission of Selenium Across the Placental Membrane (Reed College) 178

Soluble Dithizones as Antidotes for Heavy Metal Poisoning in Test Animals (Johns Hopkins University) 181

Section III. (General Environmental Studies) 183

Seeding Trials and Soil Analysis in the Midway Watershed Area (New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology) 184

The Use of Industrial Wastes as Fertilizer (Mercyhurst College) 186

v. Forensic Soil Analysis (Michigan State University) 190

Public Service Delivery in Chicopee, Massachusetts (Amherst College) 192

Economic Analysis of Competing Public Utilities in Jacksonville, Illinois (MacMurray College) 203

The Determination of Property Assessment Differentials in Metropolitan Philadelphia - With Emphasis in Delaware County, Pennsylvania (Swarthmore College) 207

A Comparison of Interaction Patterns in an Open Space and a Fixed-Plan School (Virginia Poly- technic Institute and State University) 210

Computer-Based Community Communications (Uni- versity of Illinois at Urbana) 212

The Effect of Government Involvement in Housing on Social Interaction in Communities (Providence College) 216

Energy Efficient Air Conditioning of Architectural Spaces by Self-Actuating Devices (University of Michigan) 218

Research into the Building of Algorithms to Evaluate Model Cities Programs (New Hampshire College) 222

Application of Modeling and Simulation to Design of Pollution Control Equipment (Manhattan College) 225

An Analysis of the Effects of Sulfur Dioxide on Lichen Metabolism (Bethany College) 229 Pollutants in San Diego County (University of California at San Diego) 231

Missoula Valley Air Pollution Study ( University of Montana) 235

Computer Studies in Air Pollution (University of California at San Diego) 237 The Distribution of Pentachlorophenol in the En- vironment and its Effects as a Pollutant (Uni- versity of Southern Mississippi) 239 Properties and Utilization of Small Particulates in Cattle Manure (University of Nebraska) 242

vi. BEST COPY AVAILABLE The Hana Rain Forest Project (University of Hawaii) 250

The Collection and Integration of Land, Water, and Recreation Data Used in Resource Planning (Uni- versity of Wisconsin at Stevens Point) 255

Rat Control: An Interdisciplinary Approach (Beaver College) 259

Land Use Alternatives for Mark Creek West (Sonoma State College at Sohoma) 265

A Consultative Study of Occupational Safety and Health for the City of Tuskegee, Alabama (Auburn University) 270

Ecological Stability and Persistence of Natural Meadows and Man-made Grasslands in Southern California (San Diego State University) 273

A Kinetic Study of the Sulfur Species in Smelter Emissions (University of Arizona) 275

Environmental Impact Statement on Recreational Land Development: Factual Forecast Study Group (Western Washington State College) 276

vii. FOREWORD

The readyr of the abstracts that follow likely will be struck, as I have been, by three significant lessons to be ;;!arned from Student- Originated Studies: (a) Collect .age investigators are exhibiting admirable maturityeducational, scientific and personal- -as their SOS teams come to grips with genuinely difficult and challenging problems. There is a moral here for those on the Nation's campuses who bear responsibility for the effectiveness of the science curricula in our colleges and universities. These students are revealing their readiness for educational efforts the rigor and depth of which are all too rarely found in undergraduate classroom- laboratory work. (b) These groups of developing young scientists are demonstrating one way in which highly reliable and illuminating data on local problems of societal importance can be gathered and analyzed in relatively short time-spans for very little money. They present a source of skilled, highly motivated and under-utilized manpower-- -available for work on short-term issue-oriented topicsto public decision- makers who are.,nstantly harrassed by the necessity for resolving technical issues in the absence of adequate data. (c) Interdisciplinary teams of student investigators are demonstrating that objectives and strictures ti wt initially appear to be mutually exclusive can often be. reconciled. Appropriate mixtures of social. pt.isical. life, engineering and environmental scientists can be very effective in marshalling together hard facts from their several vantage points and then in cooperatively seeking an optimized solution. There is reassurance here for our National society that often seems dismayed over the complexity of the problems that arise out of our technological age. For these three lessons the Foundation extends its thanks to the seven hundred and fifty participants who directed the efforts of their 79 projects toward the diverse problems chronicled in the following pages. Their ability, industry and perseverance have earned our sincerest commendation. We wish to each of them the benefits described as accruing to SOS participants in a recent issue ofThe Journal (,?1' College Science leaching: "(Most) participants return to their formal studies with new motivation, self-confidence, and sense of purpose. It is not just their facility with lab instruments that is impressive. It is the sudden blossoming of their "scientific maturity " -their appreciation of the nature and value of evidence, their tenacity in pursuit of a question, their disciplined imagination; in sum. the fruits of their first success as scientific investigators. These are youngsters who have seen their tentative commitment to scientific careers fully confirmed. Ina significant way, they've already launched upon them."

yford Stever Director Section I.

Water-Related Studies

Papers from Heidelberg College, Weber State College, Cornell Uni- versity, Central University of Iowa,.Benedictine College, Delta

State College, Central Missouri State University, University of

New Hampshire, University of South Florida, University of North

Carolina at Asheville, Southwest Minnesota State College, Colorado

School of Mines, Luther College, Minot State College, Illinois

Institute of Technology, Hiram College, St. Mary's Dominican Col- lege, Ripon College, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, North

Dakota State University, University of Miami, University of Idaho,

State University of New York at Binghampton, Sam Houston State Uni- versity, Northern Illinois University, University of Washington,

University of Hawaii, and the University of South Carolina. Si nificance and Characteristics of Phos hates in an Agricultural

Watershed (Grant no. GY-10758)

Heidelberg College Tiffin, Ohio 44883

May 28, 1973- August 10, 1973

Participants:

Clint Beckert Richard Murbach

Janice Beyerle Leslie Rohr

Robert Bonin Michael G. Scherer*

Susanna Jesse Marsha Williams

Jeffrey McGuire Hillary Wresche

*Student Project Director

David Baker, Faculty Advisor

The increasing rate of eutrophication of Lake Erie has been attributed to phosphates. In a predominately agricultural area, much of the phosphate contribution to the surrounding waters comes from diffuse sources. Some of these are erosion, feedlot run-off, septic tank effluent and surface run-off from fields.

The exact locations of these phosphate contributors are difficult to pinpoint; to attempt to treat them with a phosphate removal system, such as one does with municipal point sources, is impossible. Once the nutrient is in the water, one would have to treat the whole body of water, be it stream or lake, to extract it.

Ohio has a law which requires all cities with a wastewater flow of one million or more gallons per day to have a phosphate removal system in operation by January 1, 1974. This is a

2 reasonable solution in the industralized city. This group questions the effectiveness of such a system in an agricultural arealike the

Sandusky River Basin. It was felt that, although such a system deals with part of the phosphate problem, it is not the most efficient means to use for this area. The study conducted at

Heidelberg College = attempted to prove this hypothesis and to suggest an alternative for reducing the contributionof phosphates, and slowing the rate of eutrophication of Lake Erie. For this purpose, the project has three sections, chemistry, algae, and economics.

The chemistry section monitored the phosphorus(soluble orthophosphorus and total phosphorus) input into the Sandusky River from the Upper Sandusky Waste Water Treatment Plant, with and without phosphorus removal facilities in operation.. During-the nine-week sampling period, the phosphorus removal facilities were turned off for two two-week periods. Daily samples were taken upstream and downstream from the treatment plant to examine phosphorus levels in the river. Phosphorus levels in Tymochtee Creek (the major tributary in the study area) were also monitored.

Three methods of sampling were used throughout the course of the study: grab sampling, sequential sampling and composite sampling. Grab samples comprised the majority of the specimens obtained. One sample was taken every day at each of the nine sites located along the Sandusky River, two sites at the treatment plant (influent and effluent), and Tymochtee Creek.Flow measurements were also taken at the three United StatesGeologi-

cal Survey stream gauge stations located at thesites. Flow measurements were also obtained for the treatment plant.

3 The analysis of the water specimens included a determination of soluble orthophosphorus, total phosphorus, total suspended solids, pH conductivity.Analytical techniques followed the methods established in: Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes (EPA, 1971).

The chemistry section determined the efficiency and loading of the treatment plant, the phosphorus and suspended sediment variations in the river (in relation to its flow), the relation of phosphorus and suspended sediments and the possible instream benefits of phosphorus removal.

To determine whether instream benefits can be derived from the installation of phosphorus removal systems at municipal wastewater treatment plants in agricultural watersheds, it isnecessary to consider how much phosphorus the plants contribute to the phosphorus levels in the river. Only 6% of the soluble orthophosphorus flux and .77% of the total phosphorus flux which passed the site immediately downstream from the treatment plant (1.94 miles) could be attributed to effluent from the treatment plant. These values decreased for the farthest site downstream (38.5 miles).

Thus, sources other than this effluent should be viewedas the major sources of phosphorus input to the Sandusky River.

The algae section collected samples every third day, simultaneously with the chemistry collection. Algae were sampled at eleven locations, one upstream and eight downstream from the treatment plant, and two on Tymochtee Creek. In addition to the regular plankton and river collections, benthic samples from an artificial substrate were collected every six days. All

4 identifications were made taxonomically to genus.

The algae section counted phytoplankton and diatoms, made a chlorophyll analysis of artificial substrate andphytoplankton, and determined biomass and artificial substrate phosphates. These parameters were measured to determine quantitatively if phosphate removal from a domestic source is effective in limiting algae growth.

The lotic phytoplankton was sampled by pouring 32 liters of

surface water through a Wisconsin Style Plankton Net for concen-

tration. Identification, cell counts, and chlorophyll analysis were conducted. The chlorophyll analysis procedure is described

in Algae, Man and the Environment (edited by Daniel F.Jackson).

The counting and identification of samples were performed by the

Sedgwich-Rafter chamber method. The benthic diatom specimens

were collected just above the water. These samples were diluted

and a portion transferred for collection on a .45p membrane filter.

The diatoms were cleared with cedarwood oil and counts were made.

The artificial substrates were provided to quantify further the

growth of algae in the river. Biomass, chlorophyll analysis and

orthophosphates tests were conducted on the artificial substrate

slides every sixth day.

The data show that the plankton and diatom counts, and the

artificial substrate determinations were higher during low flow

periods. The data also indicate that there is no correlation between the quantity of algae in the section of river sampled

and the activation of the phosphate removal at the treatment

plant. The economic section of the project had two-fold responsibility. First, the cost-effectiveness of the phosphate removal system at the Upper Sandusky treatment plant was determined.

This plant is in an agricultural area so the study yielded a reasonable idea of the effectiveness of the phosphate removal system planned for Tiffin. This included a study of the effects of different levels of phosphate contribution on eutrophication of Lake Erie. Water quality control standards for Ohio were also reviewed.

Part two of the study tried to find an alternative method of phosphate contribution control. Visits were made and interviews conducted at the Soil Conservation Service, Agricultural

Extension Service, the Ohio Agricultural Research and Development

Center at Wooster, and the United States Department of Agricultural

Research Center at Coshocton. It was determined that the prevention of phosphate contribution was the best solution, rather than trying to treat the problem after the phosphates had entered the water. A comprehensive watershed management authority is suggested. This body would make a detailed study of the area and "tailor-make" a program which fits this area. This would include soil tests and a total land-use planning program.

Reference copy: Heidelberg College Library ****************************************************************

An Evaluation of the Im ortance of E h dra cinerea to the Ecosystem of the Great Salt Lake (Grant no. GY-10775)

Weber State College Ogden, Utah 84403

6 June 11, 1973 - August 30, 1973

Participants:

Thomas E. Garvanian Bruce J. Netschert

Brent J. Hartog Kathy Prigmore

Blake Hazen Gary L. Rasmussen*

M. Wayne Hodge Dick M. Suekawa

Durell N. Nelson Michael C. Welker

*Student Project Director

David S. Havertz, Faculty Advisor

The brine fly, Ephydra (Diptera: Ephydridae), creates

a nuisance for the recreational and industrial facilities on the

Great Salt Lake. This problem has caused the State of Utah to

initiate control measures which involve yearly expenditures of

forty to fifty thousand dollars. Some interest groups call for

the total eradication of the brine fly.

It is a general rule in insect control to study all phases

of the target insect's life cycle and general biology and attack

it at its most vulnerable point, providing however, that the im-

portance of the insect as a pest or health hazard outweighs the

importance of the insect to its ecosystem. An extensive litera-

ture review made by members of this research team has revealed

very little information on the general biology and life cycle

of the genus, Ephydra. For these reasons, an interdisciplinary

study of the life cycle and general biology of the brine fly and

its importance to the ecosystem of Antelope Island State Park

was proposed for the summer of 1973.

7 The team was divided into three areas of study: botanical, invertebrate, and vertebrate.

The life cycle and biology of E. cinerea were determined under laboratory conditions approximating those in nature. Field observations were also made when feasible.

E. cinerea undergoes a complete metamorphosis. The females deposit about 34 yellow eggs which measure approximately 0.6mm X

0.18mm. These eggs, in small clusters, slowly turn light brown and hatch at around 58 hours at 80°F.

Larvae have 8 pair of prolegs, are lightly pigmented and almost translucent, with an anal tube sometimes measuringas much as 1/3 of the larva's body length. Three larval instars were determined. The first stadium was 16 days, the second was

25 days, and the third, 18 days.

A simple method of analyzing and quantifying the composition of gut contents of several species of larvae was devised. Bottom sediment samples were taken from different areas of the Great Salt

Lake in an attempt to get a good cross-section of habitats. Quan- tification of food was presented in the form of percentages, with differences between habitat and trophic levels explained when possible. Ephvdra larvae seemed to be generalists in feeding habits, with bacteria associated with non-living organic matter being of primary preference.

Areal distribution of several species of Ephvdra larvaewas determined qualitatively from bottom sample sites. Algal, as well as larval, content was analyzed from these sites. The algae in-

8 eluded several different genera of blue-green algae, as well as some diatoms. One genus of blue-green algae appeared to be an epithelial oscillatory attached to the brine fly larvae.

Prior to pupation, a slight thickening of the area about the prolegs occurs, after which the third instar exocuticle becomes the pupal skin and turns from a grayish-white to agolden brawn color. The pupae attach themselves to substrata by the anal tube, utilizing its basal and apical fork. The time spent in this stage was 9 to 10 days.

Adult E. cinerea lived from 1 to 6 days; the majority

(86.01%) lived 3 to 5 days. Only males survived as long as 6 days. No courtship ritual nor territorial behavior was observed.

Females, after mating once, would not allow other males to mate with her for a period of time. The males, however, would attempt to mount other females immediately after copulation.

An adult species diversity index was also established at sites on the island. Species diversity seemed to correlate with salinity of habitat.

The total life span of the laboratory-reared E. cinerea was

65 days. Under laboratory conditions, this may not represent the true life span. Field life span data could not be determined because of the cost/time budget of the study and the overalldif- ficulty of sampling the harsh environment of the lake.

The vertebrate study consisted of two phases: taxonomy of the vertebrates found on the island, and a food habit analysis to determine which vertebrates were feeding on the brine fly.

9 Ten species of mammals, 32 bird species, and five species of reptiles were observed directly. Of these, one mammal species and two species of birds had not previously been reportedon

Antelope Island. Reports of observations by reliable sources, especially the park ranger, added another seven species ofmam- mals to the totals. A literature search increased the species of mammals by one, and two introduced speciesare also included.

The total number for each group reported in this studyare, therefore, 20 species of mammals, 32 bird species, and five species of reptiles.

Data concerning food habits of the mammals and reptiles were obtained through laboratory observation and stomach content analysis.

The mammals and reptiles studied in the laboratory seemed to be omnivorists and did not appear to prefer one food to another.

It was observed, however, that for the small mammals studied, large numbers of brine flies ware necessary (in excess of 100 ml/day) for them to maintain constant weight.

The only reptile found to eat the brine fly was Uta stans- buriana. Four species of mammals, ,Peromvscus manicuiatus, Mi- crotus pennsylvanicus, Perognathus parvus, and Reithrodontomvs megalotis, were shown to be feeding directly on the adult brine fly. Of these, Peromyscus maniculatus had the largest numbers of brine flies in their stomach contents.

Food habit data for the avifauna were obtained both by direct field observation and by the salvaging of dead specimens

10 for stomach content analysis. Three bird species were found to be feeding on the brine fly. These were Wilson's phalaropes,

California gulls, and western meadowlarks. Other species of birds reported in this study may be potential or actual predators of the brine fly. One, in particular, the snowy plover, has been reported to feed extensively, if not exclusively, on

E. cinerea. This summer's preliminary investigations indicate that brine flies play an important role as nutrient recyclers inthe ecosystem of the Great Salt Lake. The stage most susceptible to control is that of the adult. The egg, larva and pupa are extremely hardy. The brine fly is a food source for members of each major vertebrate group found on Antelope Island. Some members appear to be feeding extensively on the brinefly during the summer months. Many of the vertebrate species found on the island, such as the short-eared owl, marshhawk,

raven, bobcat, and various snakes, aresecondary and tertiary members of the food web associated with the brine fly.

The imago, although a very important link in the food

chain, could possibly be controlled(with little overall effect

on theecosystem), providing the control does not exceed certain

limits. It is one thing to control the fly population on the bathing beaches and quite another to attempt to control the

entire population of the lake. "Shotgun" insecticides should

be examined very carefully before extensive use ismade of them

for control measures. Perhaps the use of chemosterilants on the

11 male fly is feasible, since it was observed that the femalere- jected male suitors after copulation occurred.Studies in this area, as well as on the emergence and population of the brine fly, are needed.

Reference copy: Weber State College Library *****************************************************************

A Quantitative and Qualitative Anal sis of Fall Creek

(Grant no. GY-10805)

Cornell University Ithaca, New York 14850

May 26, 1973 - September 1, 1973

Participants:

Dennis Adler Lee Palmer

Margaret Fallon Joseph Rosen

Thomas Grenninger David Schwartz*

Ed Moczydlowski John Zimmerman *Student Project Director

Paul J. VanDemark, Faculty Advisor

Fall Creek flows from an area 35 miles north of Cayuga Lake, near Lake Como in Cortland County, into Cayuga Lake at Ithaca

(Tompkins County). By means of quantitative analysis, we attempted to determine the actual amount of specific pollutants.

By means of qualitative analysis, we tried to determine the specific pollutants found in Fall Creek. Microbiologically, we were concerned with the most probable number of fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci. In the area of chemistry, we were concerned with the results of the following specific tests: nitrate,

12 nitrite, ammonia, total organic nitrogen, ortho-phosphorous, total phosphorous, chemical oxygen demand, biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, dissolved solids, alkalinity, pH, chloride, calcium and hardness. We also attempted to analyze the viral levels within the Fall Creek watershed. The numbers of coliphage correlated well with the numbers of coliform during good weather, but during inclement weather, the findings were not as accurate. We attempted to determine the presence of human viruses in the creek by growing them on human and monkey kidney cells.

During the twelve-week period, we completed seven sampling runs, covering Fall Creek from its mouth to its sources, in an effort to establish a basic profile of the water system, and to detect sites suitable for detailed examination. In general, the

Creek appears to be well-aerated, but it shows an increase in specific chemical components as it enters the more populated, industrialized area near its mouth. There are also concentration differences between the two branches of the water system,

Fall Creek and Virgil Creek, and definite level increases after it passes some of the small towns situated along Fall Creek.

Most of the levels of the chemical components that we have examined seem to be within acceptable limits, end thus may serve to provide a representative example of a "clean" water system, as well as establishing a reference for future comparisons by the community.

13 BEST COPY AVAILARI.E We have tested individual point sources of possible contamination in a variety of ways, including such techniques as the daily sampling of an area for a specified time period, and sampling at short distance intervals downstream from a source.

Some of our point sources were trailer park outlets, pipe effluents, industrial effluents, swamps, tributaries to the main creek, and the Lake Como area which has come under .public scrutiny recently.

At this point, we can conclude that the Fall Creek Water

Basin is generally a "clean" water system with relatively low levels of the pollutants we have studied. We have found, however, certain areas of the system to be higher in some pollutants than others.

Reference copy: Olin Library, Cornell University ****************************************************************

Establishment of Ph sical-Chemical-Biolo ical Parameters for Red

Rock Reservoir (Grant no. GY-10800)

Central University of Iowa Pella, Iowa 50219

May 28, 1973 - August 4, 1973

Participants:

Kevin Curry Les Hook

Terri Broxmeyer Jane Lowe

Beverly Hinkle* Jan Palmer

Patsy Hoekstra Helen Wichhart

*Student Project Director

John B. Bowles, Faculty Advisor

14 The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the

status of the Red Rock Reservoir in terms of its biological, chemical, and physical components. Secondary aims were to

familiarize students with standard techniques employed in water quality analysis, to initiate interest in further studies, and to

aid concerned civic groups in making major decisions about the

study area.

Volumetric water samples were collected twice a week during

the investigation at eight different sites and three depths.

Sample collections were made with a 1200 ml Kemmerer water sam-

pler. Water temperatures and Secchi disk readings were recorded.

Dissolved oxygen samples were fixed with manganous sulfate and

alkaline-iodide azide in the field. The Hach DR-EL Kit was used

in analyzing samples for nitrate (cadmium reduction method),

nitrite (diazotization method), and total and ortho phosphates

(StannaVer method). Titration methods were used to determine

levels of total alkalinity, acidity (phenophthalein), free car-

bon dioxide, calcium (EDTA), magnesium (EDTA), and dissolved

oxygen and BOD (azide modification of Winkler method).Ammonia

nitrogen (direct Nesslerization), total iron (1.10 phenanthroline

method), and turbidity (formazine standard) levels were determined

spectrophotometrically. The Millipore membrane filter technique

using m-Endo broth was employed for total coliform colony counts.

Individual zooplankton and phytoplankton were counted using dis-

secting and Nikon phase microscopes, respectively.Thin layer

chromatography was employed for the detection of pesticide residues. Identification of chlorinated hydrocarbons was based on RTDE values of standards run concurrently with samples. Data were tabled, graphed, and analyzed by multiple regression techniques to determine possible correlations between biological and chemical parameters.

The following summary gives the ranges recorded for the various chemical and physical parameters.

Parameter Range

Water temperature 18.0 - 28.0 C

Turbidity 4- 180 JTU

Light penetration (Secchi) 0.38 - 5.49 m

pH 6.68-8.2%,

Acidity 0.0 - 14.4 mg/1 CaCO3

CO2 0.00 - 16.76 mg /1 CaCo3

Total alkalinity 125 - 257 mg /1 CaCO3

Calcium 102 - 210 mg /1 CaCO3

Magnesium 47- 159mg/I CaCO3

Total iron 0.00 - 1.00 mg Fe /1

Ammonia nitrogen 0.00 - 2.43 ppm

Nitrate 15 - 45 ppm NO3

Nitrite 0.20 - 1.68 ppm NO2

Total phosphates 2.8 - 17.2 ppm

Orthophosphates 0.22 - 1.55 ppm

DO 0.5 - 9.0 ppm

BOD 0.0 - 4.5 ppm

16 Phytoplankton and zooplankton counts were low. The only

significant bloom to occur was on July 16th when large numbers of Carteria suddenly appeared. The major phytoplankton identified, were Volvox, Sphaerocytis, Ceratium, Characium, Botrydi-

Asterionella, Pediastrum, Cosmarium, Gloeocystis, and

Cattq:,ia. The major zooplankton identified were Cyclops bicus- pidatus, Bosmina longirostris, B. corregoni, Daphnia vlex,

D. ambigua, D. dubia, D. galeata, and Moina micura. Coliform were present. However, no distinction was made between fecal

and nonfeca]. types. Pesticide residues of chlorinated hydro-

carbons were not detected by the method used. Spots that did

appear on the TLC plates did not correspond with the standard

RTDE values. In general, the water quality of the Red Rock Reservoir

appeared to be satisfactory. Differences were mainly between

depths rather than sites. Chemical constituents for the most part were below harmful limits. Nitrates, nitrites, and phosphates possibly warrant further study, as levels were higher

than might be expected. The low numbers of phytoplankton and

zooplankton may have been a result of the heavy rainfall re-

ceived during June and July and the constant fluctuation of

the conservation pool level. Correlations between biological

and chemical-physical parameters ranged from none to slight.

More biological data were needed. Pesticide residues probab' y were present, but more likely to be in the sediments. The TLC method used needs refinement. Further study groups may want to

17 monitor specific streams or runoff areas entering the lake,.to continue testing for pesticides with emphasis on sediments, and to sample more frequently for zooplankton and phytoplankton.

Reference copy: Central College Libra?y *****************************************************************

Net Primary Productivity and Related Parameters in Perry Reservoir

(Grant no. GY-10776)

Benedictine College Atchison, Kansas 66002

June 4, 1973 - August 10, 1973

Participants:

Jovita M. Anderson* Cora Nessmith

Anita M. Betzen Joseph T. Pajor

Diane M. Engelken Karen L. Sanders

Larry R. Hund Arthur L. Shufflebarger Mark J. Walters

*Student Project Director A. D. Brothers, Faculty Advisor

This SOS project attempted to determine the level of primary productivity in Perry Reservoir, along with related physical,biological, and chemical parameters. Correlation of the results with previous studies on Perry was to be carried out at theend of the summer, following the completion of the water sampling and testing. The project also was intended to be an indication of pollution in selected areas of questionable effluence which were suggested by theArmy Corps manager at Perry. Water samples from each of eight selected sites were col-

18 lected six times throughout the summer. The tests performed' were:

Biological Tests Chemical Tests Physical Tests

Primary Productivity Phosphorus Air & Water Temperature Phytoplankton Nitrates Turbidity Chlorophyll a Nitrites pH Total Coliform C.O.D. Dissolved Oxygen Fecal Conform B.O.D. Total Dissolved Solids Biomass-residue Total Alkalinities Barometric Pressure Cloud Cover Conductivity

All the chemical tests and the biomass-residue test employed procedures taken from Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 13th Edition. The physical tests were performed using standard laboratory instruments. The coliform tests and chlorophyll a determinations were made using regular counting procedures, and the primary productivity level was obtained using a method developed by Steeman-Nielson utilizing14C.

After obtaining the data, the individuals who performed the tests were responsible for correlating with primary productivity and previous studies of Perry Reservoir.

Definite conclusions reached as a result of the study are:

1. No single limiting factor for primary productivity in

Perry Reservoir could be established among the parameters studied.

Rather, it is thought that a combination of these parameters determined the limit.

2. Phytoplankton, chlorophyll a concentrations, and the primary productivity level, were higher in the northern regions of Perry Reservoir, and declined southward towards the dam. In other words, inflow waters affected the organisms in the lake.

19 3. Increase in bacterial populations was in direct pro- portionto increases of rainfall, nitrite, and phosphates, indicating that run-off from the land and from river waters flowing into the lake do have specific effects upon the lake.

4. As a young lake, Perry is quite productive because of the release of nutrients accumulated in the basin prior to im- poundment; as a result, productivity levels are approximately upper mesotrophic However, this state is expected to change in time and proceed to a more fixed state of declined productivity in which more care must be taken to preserve water quality.

5. More extensive tests, including those dealing with turbidity effects, need to be performed to analyse more completely the process of primary productivity at Perry Reservoir.

Reference copy: Libraries of Benedictine College ******************************************************************

Investigation of Environmental Stress of the Cleveland Lagoon

System (Grant no. GY-10785)

Delta State College Cleveland, Mississippi 38732

May 28, 1973 - August 17, 1973

Participants:

Edwin David Albin, Jr.* Lester C. Saucier

Wilkins Winslow Dedwyler Benjamin Rayborn Seyfar

Curtis Edward Kersh Faye Spradley

James McWhorter Bettye Sue Tubertini

Michael David St. John James Dexter Walcott

*Student Project Director

20 Henry E. Outlaw, Faculty Advisor

This study was designed to investigate the chemical and biological parameters of the Cleveland lagoon system and their impact on the Sunflower River. In this project, emphasis was placed on working toward a common goal.by cooperation between the City of

Cleveland and Delta State College students. A majority of our procedures was obtained from Standard Methods. Before we employed any alternate procedure, research material on the test was studied and the advice of Clark, Dietz, and Associates, Inc., an environmental firm in Jackson, Mississippi, was obtained.Both biological and chemicai samples were taken in the morning between the hours of

8:30 and 10:30 a.m. During the operation of sample collection, parameters, such as water temperature, air temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen, were measured on location.

Those tests which required fixed laboratory equipment were

initiated on the return of the samples. Usually, this laboratory analysis began around 10:45 a.m. and terminated at 4:30 p.m.

These tests were conducted on a daily basis which allowed every participant to receive a first-hand working knowledge of every

facet in the study.

The findings indicate a valid reduction of biochemical

constituents in the range of 60 to 85 percent. The chemical

reduction varies among the different parameters. Examples of

these are: ammonia nitrogen, 80 to 90%, nitrates, 50 to 60%,

specific conductance, 15 to 25 %, phosphate, 10 to 15%. These

findings will be used by the City of Cleveland and Clark, Dietz,

and Associates, Inc., in the designing of the waste treatment

21 plant to be constructed in the near future.

Reference copy: Mississippi Room, Roberts Memorial Library of

Delta State College. ******************************************************************

Concomitant Stud : Sewa a EffluentWater Qualit and ;fie ional

Planning (Grant no. GY-10797)

Central Missouri State University Warrensburg, Missouri 64093

June 4, 1973 - August 14, 1973

Participants:

L. Elaine Aholt David A. Moul

Mary L. Augustine* Linda J. Perrot

Robert F. Dunton Philip M. Pruett

Robert H. Galbraith Nanci M. Tester

Don F. Maltsbarger William D. Thousand

*Student Project Director

John F. Belshe, Faculty Advisor

The objectives of this study were to gather information on

the impact of municipal sewage on selected parameters of water

quality in streams of a three-county region of west Central

Missouri; and to make this information available to those per-

sons who were involved in planning for this region. The inves-

tigation was concentrated on the Show-Me region of Johnson,

Lafayette, and Pettis counties,

To accomplish the stated objectives, the project was sub-

divided into three phases: (1) Data gathering; (2) Data Compi-

lation; (3) Analysis, report preparation, and dissemination.

22 Eight weeks were allotted to date gathering; two weeks to the writing of status reports and report write-up and dissemination of data. Two field teams gathered water samples, ran field tests, took field notes at each collecting station, and took pictures.

The laboratory team completed the analysis of the samples on tests that could not be performed in the field.

The data gathered consisted of two types: (1) field and laboratory, and, (2) information that had been filed with the

Missouri Clean Water Commission.

It was found that there were 24 municipalities, each with over 200 population, which had sewage facilities emptying into the stream systems of this region. The basic plan of organization for the field sampling followed the suggestion of Makenthum and Ingram (1967) and others. Operating under the hypothesis that no difference should exist between samples, points were plotted upstream and downstream from a source of possible pollution. Additional samples were taken downstream from potential points of impact, at the junction of other stream systems, and downstream to the limit of our study area on the Blackwater River.

There were a total of 118 sampling stations and each station was visited twice. Physico-chemical and biological field data were the primary foci of this study.

The monthly-report forms that each municipality were required to file with the Missouri Clean Water Commission were examined for the 24 municipalities. In addition, more complete and detailed records on each municipality's sewage facility were

23 BEST COPY AVAILABLE compiled. Data such as the year the sewage facility began, year revised, the population served, kind of treatment, and permit number were available to us.

Analysis of the data was made by comparisons of upstream- downstream values. These comparisons were categorized into the following subdivisions: upstream-downstream values for each municipality; u-d values associated with a particular watershed; u-d values related to each county; and u-d values for the total

Blackwater River Basin within the area.

Data were plotted in graphs and grouped into tables for each parameter of each subdivision listed above. Dissemination and presentation of our findings took place on August 14, 1973, at which time we held a public meeting for all interested persons.

Special invitations were sent to the following:

Missouri Clean Water Commission Missouri Division of Health Missouri Water Resources Board Show-Me Regional Planning Commission County judges of Johnson, Lafayette, and Pettis counties Region-Seven Office of the Environmental Protection Agency Mayors and/or City Councils of the 24 municipalities Environmental Education Commission of the State of Missouri Missouri Department of Conservation

In addition, news releases were submitted to each of the newspapers serving the municipalities.

After the examination of data from each municipality, county, watershed, and the total Blackwater River Basin, it was found that unusually high values for phosphates were found in these stream systems. This increases the growth rate of algae and aquatic fauna which, in turn, increases the oxygen demand on a stream

24 system. Low values for dissolved oxygen (<4 ppm)were found downstream from" many of the municipal plants and in slow-moving waters. Bacterial counts were significant when compared with

Federal accepted criteria, with high values greaterthan 2 billion/100 ml. These counts were high both upstream and downstream from an effluent, but a significant difference did existbetween these stations.

It was found that municipalitieswere definitely having an impact on these stream systemsas a result of the sewage affluent entering the streams. Improvements could be made in the existing sewage treatment plants. In addition, stronger enforcement of the operation of sewage facilities and of theaccuracy of report form completion is necessary. Much improvement must be made on these systems and the river streams before surface watercan be utilized for domestic purposes on a large scale.

A copy of the report was given to eachperson attending the meeting and a copy was mailed to each city or county unit not represented.

Reference copy: Library of Central Missouri State University. ***************************************************************

The Cocheco River: Its Composition and Effect on the Community

(Grant no. GY-10783)

University of New Hampshire Durham, New Hampshire 03824

June 4, 1973 - August 24, 1973

25 Participants:

Steven B. Carroll Thomas A. Thayer*

Gary J. Fagan Henry J. Valentine

Robert L. Jesse Richard T. Williams

*Student Project Director

Non-Stipend Participants:

Frank A. Byron Stanley R. Mackey

John St. Andre

James F. Haney, Faculty Advisor

The Cocheco River, the focus of the study, was investigated with a number of primary objectives in mind:

1. Determination of the chemical, physical and bacteriological parameters of the stream.

2. Observation of the fluctuations of these parameters, both in space and time.

3. Location of those sources responsible for major changes in stream composition along its length.

4. Investigation of potential consequences of the various stream constituents.

5. Determination of thevalue of the stream to the community, includingfuture possibilities.

6. Determination of theeffects which the community has on the stream.

7. Communication of our findings to those groups or persons involved with or interested inthe Cocheco.

The Cocheco River was a good choice for study becauseof

the very small amount of work previously done on it. This in-

vestigation provided good data upon which further research can

be based.

In order to investigate those parameters involved,16

26 sample stations were established along the freshwater portion of the river. According to the importance of their location, these stations were sampled either once or twice weekly. Those tests performed included the following:

Chemical Tests:

Detergents Specific Conductivity Dissolved Oxygen Biochemical Oxygen Demand Chemical Oxygen Demand Sulfates Chlorides Calcium Hardness Alkalinity Orthophosphates Total Phosphates Ammonia Nitrogen Total Nitrogen Total Solids Dissolved Solids

Physical Tests

Depth Turbidity Air Temperature Water Temperature Flow Rate

Microbiological Tests

Coliforms Fecal Coliforms Fecal Streptococci

In addition, 24-hour checks were performed on three occasions,

involving 9 sample stations. These were made to monitor diurnal

fluctuations. Data were stored in an IBM 360 computer and analyzed

statistically at the completion of the project. Contact with the community was maintained continually through a number of meetings with Town officials, State and County environmental agencies, and

27 concerned citizen groups. Town records and publications were

also utilized.

Water quality was determined to be extremely poor through-

out most of the stream length, municipal sewage being the prin-

cipal cause. At this time, there is no significant sewage

treatment facility in operation. As a result, municipal wastes

are being dumped directly into the Cocheco. As indicated by the

levels of bacteria, serious public health problems could result.

Chemical levels, as shown by our data, also denote a high degree

of pollution. Direct industrial irlputs were found to be of only

secondary importance. It should be noted, however, that most of

the industry in the area was connected to the municipal lines

and, thus, contributes to this source. (Over the weekend of

7/20/73-7/22/73, an extensive fish-kill occurred. It is suspected that an industrial source could have been responsible.)

Because of these sources, significant longitudinal fluctuations

were observed for chemical, physical, and microbiological con-

stituents. Water quality was shown to be consistently poor

below sewage inputs and population centers, but exhibited limited

self-purification between these points. Physical parameters

demonstrated obvious fluctuations; however, correlations with

chemical factors are not yet complote. Temporal fluctuations

were also found to be significant.

Population increases for those towns along the river ranged

from 9.0% to 23.0% between 1960 and 1970. This increased popu-

lation could, without proper planning, add to already existing

28 problems. Because of Environmental Protection Agency requirements, Farmington, Rochester and Dover must have, by 1977, sewage facilities capable of performing secondary treatment.

This would be the most important step toward improving the water quality of the Cocheco River. Once this is done, the

sand and gravel composition of the stream bed will enhance

self-purification. Present concern for water quality in this region has initiated plans for increased sewage abatement,

formation of recreation areas, and the designation of. certain

lands as natural areas.

Reference copy: University of New Hampshire Library ******************************************************************

A Study of the Biology, Ecology, and Economics of Hypnea musciformis (Wulfen) Lamouroux (Rhodophyta: Gigartinales)

(Grant no. GY-10819)

University of South Florida St. Petersburg, Florida 33701

June 8, 1973- September 20, 1973

Participants:

Robert J. Casanas Mirza A.H. Kizilbash

Dennis L. Foster Mark D. Moffler*

Rocco P. Galletta William P. White

Mary E. Hughes Michael D. Young *Student Project Director

Non-Stipend Participant:

Debbie Small

Harold J. Humm, Faculty Advisor

29 A study of the biology, ecology, extraction and economics of the marine red algae, Hypnea musciformis (Wulfen) Lamouroux was undertaken at the University of South Florida Marine Science

Institute in St. Petersburg, Florida. The objective of this research was to find ways of .utilizing domestic waste products

(secondary-treated sewage effluent) in a productive manner so that it need not be a source of pollution for Tampa Bay. Hvpnea musciformis grows well in these polluted waters and has a mean increase in biomass of 20% per day. Contained within the cell walls of Hvpnea musciformis, and other red algae are polysac- charides which can be extracted and processed to yield carrageenin, a substance which has broad uses as emulsifiers, stabilizers, and controllers of flavor, moisture, texture, and appearance in the food industry, especially the dairy industry. The demand for carrageenin far exceeds its availability and large scale mariculture should prove very profitable.

Since little research has been conducted on Hypnea musciformis, our program followed two main directions. The first, a study of the biology and ecology of Hvpnea included examinations of the natural distribution, grazing, in situ growth rates in relation to physico-chemical parameters, field culture using a large circulating sea water system, and optimal growth rates using controlled laboratory culture techniques. The second part of the work was the extraction and analysis of carrageenin from Hall musciformis. Two additional studies were also completed: economics of the algae industry, and design of large scale culture

systems.

30 This research has shown that quantification of actual grazing by vertebrates and invertebrates at experimental sites was unfruitful. Hypnea plants were placed in monofilament net bags and compared with unprotected Hypnea plants.Hypnea was able to overcome the small grazing effect (25%) and, a significant yield was still recognized (39% increase in biomass).

At the experimental field sites, Hypnea fragments were placed on square algae racks and growth rates were determined.

From August 7, 1973 to August 10, 1973, Hypnea showed an in -. crease of 210% over initial weight. In the following three- day period, however, only a 60% increase over the first period was realized. In the third three day period growth tapered off further and, in some cases, weight values decreased, possibly due to grazing. The nutrient levels measured by a Technicon II

Auto Analyzer remained uniform, with means of 0.0007, 0.0087,

0.036, 1.26 mg/liter for NO2, NO3, NH3, PO4, respectively. Tem- peratures ranged from28°C to 30°C for the study period. Van- dalism repeatedly interrupted experiments, such that long-term data for single Hypnea plants was unobtainable.

The most promising results were obtained from the constant circulating sea water system. Detached Hypnea plants were tagged and placed in a sea water system and constantly tumbled by direct pumping of Bay sea water. Percent increase from initial weight ranged from 463% to 1505% for a ten-day period. Nutrients remained uniform with means of 0.0022, 0.0083, 0.076 mg/liter for

NO2, NO3, and NH3, respectively. Temperatures ranged from 28°C

31 to 30°C. Comparison of nutrient data and growth data for static

stations and the circulating system indicates that the nutrient

levels are similar, but growth is much greater in the circulating

system, indicating that circulation aids growth significantly.

Laboratory investigation followed two lines of experimenta-

tion: (1) photoperiod, light intensity and nutrients, and (2)

temperature. Detached Hvpnea musciformis plants were cultivated

in tanks supplied with both flowing Tampa Bay sea water and arti-

ficial sea water (Instant Ocean Mix). Temperatures for both sys-

tems ranged from 23°C to 26°C. Growth was measured twice weekly

and weights were recorded as mean percent increase. Maximum

weight increases were obtained for Bay water plants under a 12:T2

photoperiod at a mean illumination of 625 foot-candles.A 16:r

photoperiod was also effective in promoting rapid growth at a

200 foot-candle intensity.

Temperature studies show that the growth of Hvpnea is

directly related to temperature. Optimal growth occurred at 28°C

with significantly poorer growth at 18°C and33°C. These growth

rate results are extremely important when looking at the economic

potential of Hvpnea on a yearly basis. Possible channeling of

thermal discharges from power stations into Hypnea farms would

make the year-round cultivation of jivpnea feasible.

The second major phase of this study was the extraction

and analysis of carrageenin from Hvpnea musciformis. Fresh

Hvpnea plants were washed, dried and k-carrageenin, a struc-

tural polysaccharide, was extracted by autoclaving for 15

32 minutes at 17 pounds pressure.

The gel contents were extracted from Hypnea in the early part of July and at the end of August. A comparison was made with respect to nutrient levels, salinity, and time of harvest.

The early July samples had a significantly greater yield, 266 mg polysaccharide/g dry weight, than did the late August extraction

(152 mg polysaccharide/g dry weight). The physical and chemical parameters for the collection times were not significantly different.

Based on the data derived from this study, it appears that the mariculture, of i&alea is both feasible and desirable. It is the participants' opinion that, by the employment of a circulating sea water system, coupled with the ambient levels of nutrients in Tampa Bay and the channeling of thermal effluent, a profit could be realized from the mariculture of Hypnea musciformis. It is also suggested that further research is needed and should be performed to substantiate this study's limited results before a mariculture farm is contemplated.

Reference copy: University of South Florida Library *****************************************************************

Biosystem Character of the Pigeon River in the Primary Stage of

Recovery (Grant no. GY-10780) University of North Carolina at Asheville Asheville, North Carolina 28804

May 20, 1973 - August 12, 1973

Participants:

Paul Bickford Charles G. James, Jr.

33 Lane Buckner Lisa Johnston

David M. Cody James O. Scott, Jr.*

Dwain Godfrey Gene Spears

Otto M. Tysland

*Student Project Director

Non-Stipend Participant:

Thomas P. Graham

John Christian Bernhardt, Faculty Advisor

The investigation was conducted to determine the characteristics of the Pigeon River, located in Western North Carolina.

The study group, consisting of five biologists and five chemists,

sought an evaluation of the pollution controls now existing on the

river and a determination of whether further improvements or re-

covery was possible.

A 30-mile section of the river from its headwaters to Walters

Lake was studied. This section was subdivided into areas for sam-

pling and monitoring. The river has two main parts. The upper

headwaters, with their origin in the Pisgah National Forest, are

"non-polluted" and are in a natural state. The only pollution

in the segment from the National Forest to the town of Canton

comes from small farms during rain runoffs. Thus, this area

became our control and served as an indication of the aquatic

existence which the river could have under ideal conditions.

The "character" of this section was used for comparison with

that of the lower section.

The second section begins at the town of Canton and ends at

34 Walters Lake. The Champion Paper Company is located in Canton,

North Carolina, and is the major source of chemical pollution

of the Pigeon River. It has been documented that before the

Champion plant put water pollution abatement equipment into

operation, circa 1962, the river was a "dead river." Until 1970,

the year during which secondary water treatment equipment was

placed in operation, there were periods when, because of very

low dissolved oxygen and large pH fluctuations, no life other

than bacteria could have existed in the water. After the in-

stallation of this equipment, the river was left to recover from

its dead state. It was assumed that it had recovered, since there

were reports of fish some distance below the present effluent, but

no documented evidence of this recovery existed. Thus, it was our

goal to establish characteristics of the river at this point in its

history. Sampling at the various sites below the town of Canton enabled

us to postulate the characteristics versuskilometer flow. The sampling of streams and creeks feeding the system was conducted

for indications of possible life sources. The following chemical

tests were conducted at various times during the sampling period

or were monitored on a steady basis: acidity, alkalinity, am-

monia, chemical oxygen deLand, chloride, dissolved oxygen, re-

sidual chlorine, lignins, nitrates, phosphate (total andortho),

pH, settlable solids, sulfate, sulfide, temperature and turbidity.

These values were significant to the river's characteristics,

arising from the paper plant effluent, and serving as back-up

35 information for the biological data. The biological tests concentrated mainly on species identification, species diversity, and the effects of pollution in relation to the microenviron- ment.

Our group has shown that fish have moved into the waters below the effluent. Over 30 species were found in the 30-mile sampling area. The species diversity is high for fish and macroinvertebrates above Canton, then both decline at the effluent, and then climb with distance. There were two slight momentary drops in this climb, both of which were accounted for.

At the last sampled station, species diversity had not attained the level of the upstream area. The microbiological study showed very low colony counts upstream, a rise at Canton, and the highest values below the Waynesville community. The majority of the chemical tests had their highest values at Canton and lowest values on the east fork of the Pigeon River. In a number of cases,, a second increase (but one with values less than those at Canton) was found below the Waynesville community.

The fish and macroinvertebrate studies jointly indicate that the recovery of the river has stopped and, under present conditions, is "stuck" in a state of radical contrast to its non- polluted counterpart.

The first factor for future recovery is the expedient installation of a secondary treatment facility for the Waynesville sewage treatment plant. It is our understanding that this part of the plant is in the bidding stage.

36 The second area for improvement is the most important, yet most difficult to accomplish. The pollution abatement equipment at the Champion Paper plant complies with, and often exceeds,

Federal regulations and standards; however, such nonregulated pollutants as color, temperature, and turbidity are at levels intolerable for life to exist at prepollution conditions. These three factors (temperature, color and turbidity) together will prevent any future recovery and are, therefore, the major disrupting factors in the water system. These two areas of improvement will be of the greatest benefit for any future recovery of the water system to its non-polluted state.

Reference copy: Library of the University of North Carolina at

Asheville ******************************************************************

A Comprehensive Ecological Study of Lake Shetek. A Model Lake

(Grant no. GY-10778)

Southwest Minnesota State College Marshall, Minnesota 56258

June 6, 1973 - August 17, 1973

Participants:

Janis Andrews Bruce Mattson

Cathy B. DeVos* Armand Radke

Bradley Dirckx Carol Stassen

Michael Heiling Sue Van Overbeke

Anne Klinkner Donald Zieske

Michael Zshunke

*Student Project Director

37 Alan J. Homes, Faculty Advisor

Lake Shetek, one of the largest lakes in southwestern

Minnesota, offers one of the finest outdoor recreational facilities in the region. Because of its shallow nature and heavy recreational use, Lake Shetek is highly susceptible to pollution, as evidenced by the extent of eutrophication.

The intent of this project was to evaluate water quality, determine specific sources of pollution, and suggest possible methods for lake improvement. To achieve these objectives, an

interdisciplinary approach was adopted. Three areas of study were selected: (1) Water quality survey, (2) Geological survey,

(3) Pesticide analysis survey.

Water samples were collected and analyzed on a weekly basis

from 52 representative sites in the lake proper and in the sur-

rounding watershed region. In addition to this sampling pro-

gram, two other categories of water samples were collected ai

analyzed. Tests were made on well water from farms and cabins

adjacent to Lake Shetek and on water collected in areas where

actual or potential pollution problems were observed.

Samples were analyzed for the following biological, chemi-

cal, and physical parameters. (Methods used in the various

analyses paralleled procedures outlined in Standard Methods for

the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 12th Edition, 1965.)

I. Biological

1. Total Coliform

2. Fecal Coliform

3. Enteric Pathogens

38 II. Chemical

1. Nitrate, Nitrogen 6. Dissolved Oxygen

2. Orthophosphate 7. Biochemical Oxygen Demand

3. Hardness 8. Ammonia, Nitrogen

4. Alkalinity 9. pH

5. Carbon Dioxide

III. Physical

1. Temperature 5. Dissolved Solids

2. Turbidity 6. Suspended Solids

3. Transparency 7. Total Solids

4. Color

An examination of the biological data indicates that the coliform values were excessively high at several of the sample sites. Fifteen percent of the regular sample sites exhibited average total coliform levels in excess of 10,000 MPN/100 ml, indicative of heavy pollution that definitely poses a serious public health problem. Forty-four percent of the regular sample sites had coliform levels greater than 1000 MPN/100 ml, which is the maximum level allowable for swimming purposes. All public swimming areaswere within acceptable coliform levels; however, several private swimming areas exceeded recommended levels.

Coliform levels were shown to be high at various points in the lake, with levels in the lower lake being significantly above those in the upper lake. High values in the lower lake were due primarily to water entering by three inlet streams.

39 Data from sample sites 13, 20, and 25 show average coliform counts

of 75,073 MPN/100 ml, 39,260 MPN /l00 ml, and 71,499 MPN /l00 ml,

respectively. Coliform values in these three inlets were highest

during the spring runoff period and after periods of heavy rainfall.

Two sources of observed coliform organisms were runoff from animal wastes associated with agricultural activities and from sewageana septic systems discharging into inlet waters.

Coliform values in the upper lake were attributed to the

major inlet, which enters the lake on the northeast shore and

serves as a principal source of water. The average total coli-

form level at Site 1 in the inlet was 7,329 MPN /l00 ml. Several

cattle-raising operations in this region contributed to the ob-

served values.

In regions of the lake having an extensive lake shore develop-

ment, increases in coliform were observed; however, these increases

were generally small in magnitude and the exact sources of the

contamination were not identified.

Sites exhibiting high total coliform levels were analyzed

for fecal coliform group organisms and for the presence of poten-

tial pathogens. Pathogenic organisms, including members of the

Salmonella group, were isolated from several sample sites, pri-

marily in the inlet regions.

The levels of orthophosphate were high at all sites tested.

As was the case with coliform levels, the amount of phosphate

observed was significantly higher in the lower lake. Values

obtained in the lower lake ranged between 0.5 to 0.8 ppm,

40 whereas upper lake values were generally between 0.3 to 0.4 ppm.

This difference was due to the high amounts of phosphate in the

three inlets entering the lower lake. The primary source of the

observed phosphate would appear to be from fecal waste contamina-

tion, since a close correlation between colifonn and phosphate

levels was detected.

Nitrate, nitrogen levels were also high, although more vari-

able than the orthophosphate levels. Nitrate levels within the

lake itself generally ran aed 'between 0.5 to 7.4 ppm, with several

sites exceeding 2.0 ppm nitrate, nitrogen. High levels of nitrate,

nitrogen were caused by tile and drainage systems discharging into

inlet waters. The levels of nitrate, nitrogen and orthophosphate resulted

in the excessive growth of blue-green algae. The presence of

algae was reflected in the elevation of turbidity and suspended

solids values as the summer progressed. In addition to being un-

desirable esthetically and in enhancing sedimentation problems,

the heavy growth of algae will probably lead to serious fish

kills in the coming winter months.

Recommendations for improvement of water quality conditions

in Lake Shetek are being investigated with the appropriate local,

State, and Federal agencies. Recommendations and suggestions

include: elimination of runoff contamination in inlets and in the lake proper, construction of feedlot waste holding systems,

establishmqt of nutrieat trap areas ca the lake inlets, estab-

lishment of green belts along inlets and along lakeshore, and the restriction of direct cattle access to the lake and inlet waters.

The intent of the geological survey was to investigate the current geological conditions in and around Lake Shetek. Efforts were concentrated in two areas: (1) construction ofa topographic map of the lake bottom; (2) resistivity mapping of ground water channels in the lakeregion.

The construction of the contour map of the lake bottomwas accomplished by a plane table triangulation technique. Approxi- mately 640 data points were used in constructingmaps of the lake bottom. The total surface area of the upper and lowerpor- tions of the lake are 1,560 acres and 1,500 acres, respectively.

The contour maps indicate 'that approximately 40% of the lake has a depth of 6 feet or less, with the remaining 60% between 6 to 10 feet. The deepest part of the lake was observed in the center of the upper lake where on 11-foot depthwas recorded.

Ground water mapping was accomplished by means of electrical resisitivity measurements. This technique enables one to identify sand and gravel layers, which are the principle routes for underground water flow. Results indicated that Lake Shetek is located in the center of a major ground water channel running northwest to southeast. Sand and gravel deposits are especially predominant near the lake outlet, which may allow a substantial underground flow of lake water. Although the significance and extent of underground flow in Lake Shetek is difficult to evaluate at present, information concerning the location of these deposits is of great importance to future residential andcommercial development, because of potential pollutionproblems associated with underground water flow. The pesticide analysis laboratory was establishedto analyze water samples for the followingchlorinated pesticides:

1. Aldrin 6. Heptachlor epoxide

2. DDD 7. Kelthane

3. o,p-DDT 8. Lindane

4. p,p-DDT 9. Methoxychlor

5. Dieldrin Procedures for analyses were adopted from methodsoutlined by the Environmental Protection Agency. Electron capture gas chromatography and thin layer chromatographytechniques were used to confirm the presence ofspecific pesticides. Fifty different sites within Lake Shetek wereanalyzed for

the presence of pesticides. Findings indicate that 10% of the

sites sampled contained confirmable amountsof chlorinated

pesticides. The most frequently observed pesticide wasDDT, found at

four of the sample sites. Detectable concentrations of DDT

were observed at twosites in the upper lake along the north-

west shore. The highest concentrations of DDT werefound in the lower lake at Site F(1.1 ppb) near Lake Shetek State Park,

and Site 18 (.8 ppb) at the PublicAccess near the southwest

corner of the lake. The water samples in this study were found tobe relatively

43 free of chlorinated pesticides. However, this does not negate the possibility that significant concentrations ofchlorinated pesticides exist in fish, aquatic organisms, andbottom sediments.

Reference copy: Southwest Minnesota State College Library ******************************************************************

Impact of Argo Tunnel Acid Mine Drainage and MineTailings and Abatement Procedures (Grant no. GY-10798)

Colorado School cf Mines Golden, Colorado 80401

June 25, 1973- August 31, 1973

Participants:

William M. Alley E. Thomas Cavanaugh

Douglas L. Beahm Wayne L. Gladfelter

J. Michael Boyles* Roman Z. Pyrih

Douglas L. Cain Celia J. Rising *Student Project Director

Ronald W. Klusman, Faculty Advisor

The purposes of this studywere to evaluate the impact of the Argo tunnel acid mine drainage and the associatedmine tailings on the water quality of Clear Creek andto experiment with possible abatement procedures. The study area is located in Idaho Springs, Colorado.

All chemical analyses, except Na, As, Seand Cr, were performed on a Perkin-Elmer 303 Atomic AbsorptionSpectrophotometer.

Sodium was determined by a flame photometricmethod, and As, Se, and Cr were analyzed colorimetrivally.

44 The Argo tunnel drains about 27 abandoned mines in the

Central City-Idaho Springs Mining district at an average flow of 1.2 cfs. The following average concentrations were detected over the summer of 1973 in the Argo drainage: Fe, 340 ppm; Mn,

160 ppm; Zn, 75 ppm; Cu, 13 ppm; Pb, 110 ppb; Cd, 320 ppb; As,

420 ppb; SO4, 2700 ppm; pH, 2.7.

The impact study was first approached by performing a laboratory study of pH dependence on heavy metal behavior, and interactions of heavy metals. The study indicated that Argo's major heavy metals precipitate in the following order: Fe (pH

2.5-4), Cu (pH 4-6), Zn and Cd (pH 5-7.5), and Mn (pH 6.2-8).

It was also determined that Fe, and to a lesser extent, Mn, could cause Zn and Cd, and especially Cu, to precipitate at lower pHs than in the absence of Fe or Mn.

The surface waters of Clear Creek in the Argo area were twice extensively sampled, using a grid system of sample locations, and weekly monitoring of Clear Creek was conducted at 6 sites during the summer. The first grid sampling took place at a creek flow of 850 cfs and a flow in the Argo drainage of about 1.2 cfs. The input of heavy metals from the Argo drainage roughly doubled the amount of total Fe, dissolved Mri, and dissolved Zn in Clear Creek. Concentrations of total Fe and dissolved Mn were in excess of the USPHS drinking water standards downstream from the Argo drainage. During the second grid sampling, the Clear Creek flow had decreased to about 225 cfs, while the Argo flow ,,emained roughly constant, resulting

45 in a greatly increased effect on Clear Creek. An examination of flow data indicated that, during 60% of the year, the flow of Clear Creek at Idaho Springs is less than 100 cfs, and 40% of the time, less than 50 cfs. The impact of the Argo drainage on Clear Creek, at these lower flows, is projected to rise ex- ponentially, giving rise to the following expected total concentrations in the stream during 40% of the year: Fe> 7 ppm; Mn

>3 ppm; Zn> 2 ppm; Cu) 300 ppb, Cdr 10 ppb, and As> 10 ppb.

Weekly monitoring of Clear Creek gave indications that the concentrations of heavy metals in the Argo drainage tend to decrease during the time of low flow in Clear Creek. The heavy metal concentrations in the creek upstream from the Argo drainage tended to rise during lower flow, counterbalancing the decreased concentrations in the Argo drainage, to some degree.

Monitoring of Clear Creek also showed the increased impact of the Argo drainage at lower flow.

The interaction of the stream and the coatings on the rocks in the stream bed was investigated. The coatings were found to be composed primarily of Fe, which rapidly precipitates as Argo water enters the creek. Also, large amounts of Pb and

As, which are present in low concentrations in the Argo drainage, were detected in the rock coatings. Cu was also found in large quantities in the rock coatings, but Mn and Zn were notably depleted in the rock coatings near the Argo drainage.

Trends were seen in the composition of the bottom sediments with distance from the Argo drainage and thus in the pH, which

46 are in agreement with what wouldbe expected from the laboratory study of heavy metal behavior.

Due to technical problems, subsurface and rainwater samples were not obtained directly, so two modeltailings piles were constructed, one with mine and one with mill tailings. Samples of rainwater running over and through these piles were collected and analyzed. The mill tailings waters generally showed greater concentrations of heavy metals than the mine tailings water.

The mine tailings do not usually appear to be a large source of heavy metals flowing into the creek. During heavy rains, however, heavy metals from the tailings may be highly deleterious to the water quality of Clear Creek.

Bacteriological studies included the monitoring of Clear

Creek and its tributaries, and attempting to determine the effect of pH,Cu+2, Zn+2, Fe+2, and Mn+2 on Escherichia coll. The Argo drainage lowered the bacterial count in Clear Creek for a short distance, but no permanent effect was noted. The idea that the

Argo drainage might brxe the effect of counteracting human wastes

emptied into the stream is not plausible in light of our results.

The effects of pH, Cu+2,Zn+2, Fe+2, and Mn+2 on E. coli were

inconclusive. The second phase of the project included experimenting with

possible abatement procedures. Soda ash, lime, limestone and

fly ash were investigated as neutralizing agents. All, except

limestone, were found to be effective. The large amounts of fly

ash necessary (10 wt. percent) eliminated it as a practical neu-

tralizing agent. About half as much lime (1.05 gm/liter) as soda

47 ash was necessary to neutralize Argo water to pH 9.The reaction rates of soda ash and lime with Argo water were similar. Since lime costs less than half as much as soda ash, lime was investigated further. It was determined that if Cu and Zn could be recovered and sold as by-products of neutralization, it may be profitable to neutralize Argo water. Manganese also has economic potential if recovered in relatively pure form. Further investigation of profitably neutralizing Argo water is strongly urged.

Proteinaceous substances (wool, chicken feathers, and human hair) were examined as heavy metal scavengers and found to be ineffective.

Reference copy: Arthur Lake Library, Colorado School of Mines ******************************************************************

WaterCivalibheUDer Iowa River Watershed(Grant no. GY-10742)

Luther College Decorah, Iowa 52101

May 23, 1973- August16, 1973

Participants:

Craig Cornelius Mike Osterholm

Dirk Craft Marilyn Peitso

Alan Hedstrom Susie Roehlk

Jim Hoff Jerry Rud

Marke Klemme* Judy Scherpelz

Dean Lass Kevin Sjostrum

*Student Project Director

James W. Eckblad, Faculty Advisor

48 Thirty sites in the Upper Iowa River watershed were sampled periodically; measurements were made of water chemistry, coliform bacteria, land use, and fish, macroinvertebrate, and algal populations. Most of the sampling sites were located in five sub- basins: Canoe, Ten Mile, Bear, French, and Silver Creeks. In addition, sites on the Upper Iowa River, above and below cream- ery effluent, and above and below the Decorah sewage treatment plant effluent were sampled, as well as sites above and below the

Upper Iowa's entry into the Mississippi River.

The land use survey indicates that Canoe and Ten Mile Creeks have more cultivated cropland than Silver and French Creeks.

Sixty percent of the Canoe and Ten Mile Creek basins was cultivated cropland, while 38% of the Silver and French Creek basins was in crops. Canoe and Ten Mile Creek basins contained more level land, suitable for farming, than French and Silver Creeks. Fifty- four percent of the land in Silver and French Creeks was devoted to pasture, while 29% of Ten Mile and Canoe Creek land was in pasture. These differences in land use affect the water quality of the sub-basins, as shown below.

Chemical analyses included alkalinity, ammonia-nitrogen, carbon dioxide, chemical oxygen demand, chloride, dissolved oxygen, nitrate-nitrogen, nitrite-nitrogen, orthophosphate, pH, specific conductance, filterable and nonfilterable solids, sulfate, water temperature, and turbidity. Dissolved oxygen levels dropped noticeably in the lower portion of the river, where the stream bed has been straightened and channelized. Phosphate

49 levels were elevated in the channelized portion of the river.

Dissolved oxygen levels were higher in French, Silver, and Canoe

Creeks than in Ten Mile and Bear Creeks. All dissolved oxygen levels in the basin were well above the four mg/1 minimum for

fish populations. Nitrate-nitrogen and orthophosphate levels were lower in Silver and French Creeks than in TenMile, Bear,

and Canoe Creeks. These values may be due to the more limited use of fertilizers and the lesser amount ofcultivated cropland

in the Silver and French basins.

Coliform bacteria analysis was made using membrane filter

technique and differential plating for total coliforms, fecal

coliforms, and fecal streptococci. Geildreich has stated that

fecal coliforms should not exceed 200 counts per 100 ml for

primary contact recreational water. Fecal coliform counts ranged from the unusual low of 376 per 100 ml in the upper re-

gions of the Upper Iowa to 13,600 near the mouth.Common fecal

coliform levels were in the 900-2000 counts per 100 ml range.

Total coliforms were an order of magnitude higher in the more

heavily-farmed basin of Canoe Creek than in Silver and French

Creeks. Fecal coliform/fecal streptococci ratios of greater

than four have been used to indicate human waste. The only

FC/FS ratio over four was a value of 4.2 found just below the

Decorah waste treatment effluent. High coliform counts in the rest of the river basin could be attributed to a combination of

human and animal waste. Sixty-three genera of algae, representing six orders, were

50 found throughout the river basin. There were eleven genera in the phylum Chrysophyta found at nearly every site.' Five genera of Chlorophyta and two genera of Cyanophyta were also very wide- spread.

The most common orders of the 113 types (genus or family) of macroinvertebrates found in the basin were Ephemeroptera,

Trichoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera. Simuliidae, Chironomidae, Ba, Stenonema, Cheumatopsyche, and Hydropsyche were present at nearly every site.

The two main families to which the fish specimens belonged were Percidae and Cyprinidae. The more common fish found were the Central Johnny Darter, Striped Fantail Darter, Northern Com- mon Shiner, Long-nosed Dace, and Black-nosed Dace.

Inferences about macroinvertebrate, phytoplankton, periphyton, and fish populations were made using cluster analysis and total mean diversity. Dendograms of cluster analysis, which were constructed using Jaccard coefficients of association, showed

similarities within the Silver and French Creek basins for macro-

invertebrates, phytoplankton, and periphyton. The mean diversity

index for macroinvertebrates increased slightly with increasing

stream order.

Reference copy: Luther College Library ******************************************************************

The Water Quality of the Souris River Basin, North Dakota

(Grant no. GY-10770)

Minot State College Minot, North Dakota 58701

51 June 4 1973 - August 24, 1973

Participants:

Thomas Anderson James Duerre

Daniel Bauer Kenneth Haarstad

Richard Campbell, Jr. Kyle Hanson

Paulette A. Carter* Glenn Leidahl

Davis S. Christmore Margaret Montgomery

John A. Davis, Jr. Thomas Trana

*Student Project Director

John A. Ward, Faculty Advisor

Thirty-seven sites along the United States' portion of the

Souris River Basin were sampled over an 11-week period.Thirty- four of these sites were visited on a weekly basis and three visited biweekly for a 24-hour interval. All water used for analysis was obtained as grab samples taken below the water surface. Field analyses included air and water temperatures, total alkalinity, phenolphthalein alkalinity or acidity, pH, and sulfite. The other analyses, dissolved oxygen, nitrate, nitrite, orthophosphate, total phosphate, sulfate, chloridt,

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), total dissolved solids, conductivity, fecal and total coliform counts, chlorophyll content, several metal ion concentrations, and pesticide extractions, were performed in the laboratory,

Procedures for total alkalinity, phenolphthalein alkalinity and acidity, sulfite, dissolved oxygen, sulfate, chloride, total dissolved solids, and fecal and total coliform count were taken from Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and

52 Wastes. Pesticide extraction procedures came from the North

Dakota State Laboratory who agreed to run the extractions on

their equipment. BOD and conductivity were measured using

Hach instrumentation. Chlorophyll procedures were taken from

recent literature on productivity. Procedures for ortho- and

total phosphates, nitrate and nitrite were taken from EPA's

Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes. Metal con-

centrations were determined using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy.

Information was punched on cards and transferred to a disk, using

an 1130 IBM computing system.

Monthly averages indicated water quality violations for total

dissolved solids and sulfates over wide reaches of the river, as

well as some dissolved oxygen and bacteria deficits. Some metal

concentrations were also in violation of Federal water quality

standards.

Weekly samples and monthly averages showed distinct patterns

of concentration, indicating the possible value of the shallow

wildlife refuge impoundments as settling points for inorganic

nutrients.

Sulfate and total dissolved solids were much higher than

values reported by a 1969 water quality survey. This earlier

survey, taken during above normal streamflow conditions, suggested

that higher sulfate and total dissolved solids would be encountered

in low streamfiow conditions. Nitrate and phosphate levels were

nearly the same.

Calcium, magnesium, and sodium are the predominant metals in

53 the water system, but the system also has high iron and manganese concentrations. Strontium, zinc, copper, lead, mercury, and cadium were also detected.

As the summer progressed, several of the shallow refuge impoundments became the sites of intense algal blooms. Algae identified in the blooms included aphanizomenon, microcystis, and andbena. Bloom areas had high BODs. During eal y stages of the blooms, oxygen levels were high but, as the blooms progressed, oxygen levels fell off to less than two milligrams per liter. Water flowing out of the bloom areas also exhibited low dissolved oxygen levels.

The primary use of the river system now is waterfowl production. The water quality is adequate for this use. The Souris

River also serves for recreational activities, as a municipal water supply, and as an irrigation water source. The Souris

River is an adequate irrigation source, but some water quality parameters are approaching threshhold limits. In low flow periods, use as a water supply or for recreation must be considered marginal. Algal blooms and high iron and manganese levels cause odor and taste problems. High sulfate levels also impart an undesirable taste and can produce a laxative effect.

The importance of having basic water quality information increases as plans for water development in the area are made.

Three projects are currently planned for this area. These include the channelization of the Souris River through the city

54 of Minot, construction of a dam at Burlington, North Dakota

(for flood control for the city of Minot), and the Garrison

Diversion irrigation project. Prior to this investigation, the only information on the river was the study done in 1969 and U.S. Geological Survey tests made once a month at six points throughout the basin.

Reference copy: Memorial Library, Minot State College ******************************************************************

The Chemical Basis of Interaction between Aquatic Bacteria and

Phvtoplankton (Grant no. GY-10796)

Illinois Institute of Technology Chicago, Illinois 60616

May 28, 1973 - August 17, 1973

Participants:

Jerry M. Chiu Jeffrey E. Jensen

Steven Enger Lawrence Kopta

Charles N. Haas* John Kung

Richard P. Hardy Janet McDermott

*Student Project Director

Paul Fanta, Faculty Advisor

The objectives of this study were to culture aquatic bac-

teria, to isolate organic products produced by the bacteria, to

characterize their effects on an algal system, and to assay the

pure compounds on algal systems, if possible.

The problem was approached through the isolation of 14 strains

of bacteria from Lake Michigan waters. These bacteria were char-

acterized as 5 strains of Pseudomonas, 2 strains of Xanthomona,

55 2 strains of Flavobacterium, 3 strains of Achromobacter, 1 strain of the yeast, Rhodotorula, and 1 strain of an unidentified white filamentous mold forming subsurface colonies and black spores.

The organisms were grown in mass culture, and separated from the spent media by filtration. The medium was subject to solvent extraction after lyophilization, spot testing, and thin-layer chromatography of positive fractions. Gas chromatographic analysis revealed no significant compounds in the non-polar solvents used.

The thin-layer chromatography of unlabeled media revealed no compounds not present in the control fraction; thus, it was

suspected that amino acids were being produced.Cultures were grown in the presence of C-14 labeled glucose and then subjected

to thin-layer chromatography. Proline was detected in one strain

of Xanthomonas, and four other amino acids were identified as possible compounds: arginine, aspartic acid, serine and threonine.

The medium was also concentrated by rotary evaporation and

subjected to gel filtration through Sephadex G-15.Most bacteria exhibited bioassay activity. Bioassays were conducted on unialgal cultures of Asterionella formosa and axenic cultures of Synedra delicatissema var. anguastissima, two diatoms from Lake Michigan. 14 The technique used was the HC 0 assay of photosynthesis. 3 In general, Asterionella appeared to be more capable of

stimulation than Synedra, as reflected in the comparision between runs of the same fractions. Some bacterial fractions exhibited activity (predominantly inhibition) in the void volumes (molecular

56 weight greater than the gel exclusion limit, 1500 daltons). In

other bacteria, peaks of inhibition or stimulation were noted at varying elution volumes. pH is ruled out as a causal agent, since

fractions were eluted with 3 millimolar Bicine-HC1 buffer at pH

7.8.

A bioassay was made, using Asterionella and 1-alpha-proline,

a suspect agent, to concentrations as low as 16 micrograms/liter.

It was determined that proline concentrations less than 1.67 g/1

effected highly significant stimulation (up to 150%) of photo-

synthesis.

It is suggested that further studies of three types be under-

taken in this area. The first would be additional bioassays of

suspect compounds, particularly, the amino acids. The second would include additional searches, using methodology developed here (especially radiochromatography), to elicit further classes

of compounds that may have possible algal activity, especially higher molecular weight substances. The third type of study would be to determine what environmental conditions would affect

the production of algal-active agents by bacteria.

Reference copy: Department of Chemistry, Illinois Institute of

Technology ******************************************************************

Pollution Studies of the Cuyahoga. Chagrin, and Grand Rivers Using

c.F....._2L,luulaumegpjs:._...brosoopyNon..Disersive) (Grant no. GY-10745)

Hiram College Hiram, Ohio 44234

June 4, 1973 - August 24, 1973

57 Participants:

Michael C. Cheiky* Millicent L. Martin-Shultz

Robert J. Futato Christopher L. McAtee

Steven P. Futato James R. Millette

Patricia H. Lawrence Mark W. Spong

Kenneth G. Martin-Shultz Joseph A. Vrba

*Student Project Director

Non-Stipend Participants:

Jonathan T. Bell Charity S. Cheiky

Lawrence C. Becker, Faculty Advisor

This project used non-dispersive x-ray fluorescence spec-

troscopy (XFS) to monitor the Cuyahoga, Chagrin, and Grand Rivers,

their tributaries, and municipal water supplies in the area. The

technique is useful for determining the composition of substances

in concentrations as low as parts per million or less for all

elements heavier than sodium.

The goals of this project were: 1) to determine the elemen-

tal composition of foreign matter in the water at several loca-

tions in the Three Rivers area, and to monitor changes in

composition comprehensively from June to August;.2) to identify

the sources of these elements (natural mineral deposits, agri-

cultural activities, industrial pollution, etc.); 3) to examine

the water for potentially hazardous concentrations of toxic ele-

ments (mercury, cadmium, lead, arsenic, selenium, etc.).

---2.-...--MNorl-idis"sive3iceSPectr°sc°C-ray When any material is irradiated with "white" or continuous

58 x-rays having a range of energies from one to 20KEv. (12 to

.5A), the material will absorb some of this radiation andre- radiate it. This re-radiated energy, or fluorescence, occurs at only distinct energies or wavelengths corresponding to energy levels prev)nt in the atoms. In the x-ray energy range, most electrons have only one or two transitions or energy levels, so the fluorescence spectrum produced by a material of even several elements will be fairly simple. With the proper detector and electronic equipment, each element's fluorescence will be indicated as a "peak" on a graph or display. The energy location of the peak identifies the element which produced it, and the height of the peak (the intensity of the fluorescent radiation) determines the concentration of the element present.

The group developed a complete x-ray fluorescence spectrometer system during the course of the project. The spectrometer can handle up to 20 samples at a time, completely automatically.

The spectrometer can detect and measure the concentration of the elements present in a one-liter water sample at a sensitivity of 100 parts per billion (.1 milligrams/liter) for all elements from uranium to calcium in just eight minutes. Determinations can be made down to silicon at reduced sensitivity, and the

sensitivity for all elements can be improved by a longer running time.

Procedure

The group used x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, atomic absorption spectroscopy (for light elements), and some suroplementary

59 measurements in the laboratory and in the field, such as dissolved oxygen, turbidity, temperature, conductivity, and pH, to study the water of the area.All municipal water supplies were sampled twice, in June and in August. Comprehensive sampling of the three major rivers was carried out monthly during June, July, and August. Some special studies of particularly interesting areas and of the rocks and till of the area were carried out.

Findings

XFS - The group developed x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy as a powerful analytical toolfor water quality control. No other technique can detect so many elements in so short a time.

In addition, the ability to automate the analysis provides a very large sample throughout, since analysis can 'bedone easily on a 24-hour a day basis. Municipal Supplies - Although there were many cases of municipal water supplies being slightly below the recommended quality standards for one or two categories, no serious health hazards were discovered for city water supplies. Some private wells in smaller communities may, in fact, be serious health hazards. This group includes wells in Cheqterland (1.9 grams dissolvedsolids),

Boston Heights (2.1 grams dissolved olids), Thompson (1.7 grams dissolved solids, 5ppm Zn), and others.

A large-scale implementation of XFS by State agencies could provide an annual analysis of private wells at a cost of a few cents. This analysis would be valuable in locating mineral dew

6C posits, as well as in determining potential health hazards.

Rivers

Most of the elements present in the river system of this area can be attributed to the natural rock and till of the area.

Some large concentrations of zinc were found early in the summer in several areas. This finding was probably due to agricultural activities, since several insecticides popular in this area contain huge amounts of zinc. Other exceptions to the natural elemental composition of the rivers are noted in the commentary on each river section below.

Grand River -

A) North-South Section- flows through agricultural area.

Has moderate amounts of Cl, Cr, small amounts of Na, Mg, K, and trace amounts of Ti, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Br, and Sr. B) East-West

Section - shows generally lower concentrations of everything found in A, even though tributaries are from populated areas.

This can be attributed to the geologic changes from the North-

South section. C) The river in Painesville becomes highly polluted from industrial activities. Total dissolved matter averaged 6g/1 last summer. On different dates Na, Cl, and Ca were found in excess of 1000 ppm! alfrin River -

D) The Chagrin River runs through a lightly-populated suburban area. A large portion of the river frontage is part of the Cleveland Metropolitan Park. The river is generally the cleanest in the study area.

61 Cuyahoga River -

E) The upper Cuyahoga has higher elemental concentrations than does the North-South section of the Grand River even though it has the same geologic and geographic configurations. This may be due to the reservoirs on the river which allow a large water- to-rock interface. Near and in Akron, traces of As, Mo, Cr, and

Cd have been found in the river. F) The "Little Cuyahoga" in

Akron is generally two to three times as polluted as the main branch. G) Lower Cuyahoga from Akron to Cleveland - is in a heavy industrial area and is highly polluted.

Reference copy: Hiram College Library ***k*************************************************************

Anal tical As ects of Clams and their Habitat Relevant to Nutrition and Pollution (Grant no. GY-10779)

St. Mary's Dominican College New Orleans, Louisiana 70118

May 28, 1973 7 August 3, 1973

Participants: Wayne Breen Buena Hithe

June Casteix Collins Lanier

Eileen Fayard Susan nnouso

John Gavin Martha Najolia*

Patricia Pizzuto

*Student Project Director

Sr. M. Elizabeth Englert, Faculty Advisor

The aim of this project was to determine the nutritional value of Rangia cuneata clams as an indication of its value to possible consumers, and to ascertain the types of pollutants in

62 Lake PontcharLvain clam -bed areas. The opening of the Bonnet

Carre Spillway prior to the start of our project provided us with an added interest, for during the course of the project the spillway was closed and we were able to observe the resul- tant changes.

To determine the nutritional value of Rangia cuneata, the percent protein and the amino acid constituents were assayed.

The classic Kjeldahl procedure was used for the protein analysis.

Three determinations were made for each collection of clams; these results were averaged and recorded. Ascending chromatography, using a saturated phenolic solvent, descending chromatography, employing a butanol-acetic acid-water solvent, and thin layer chromatography, using a cellulose acetate support media, were utilized to identify the amino acid constituents of clam meat.

Known standards of amino acids were run with each unknown set, and the Rf (distance from the start of the solvent to the mid- point of each spot, divided by the distance of the solvent front) of each spot calculated. Comparison of the known standard Rfs to the unknown spots enabled us to arrive at our conclusions.

Furthermore,a nutritional study, involving 15 ACl/Tex male rats divided into five different experimental diet groups, was performed.

To ascertain the pollutants in Lake Ponchartrain and sur...... ,...... rounding waterways, various chemical and bacteriological studies were made. Included in the chemical analysis were water studies, utilizing the LaMotte test kits (Model AM-22, Water Pollution

63 Outfit) and standard laboratory tests, pesticide assay (following the procedures outlined in the Pesticide Analytical Manual of the

U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare), and trace metal analysis of clam and soil samples by atomic absorption spectroscopy using a Varian Techtron AA-5. Bacterial analysis was undertaken in accordance with Standard Methods.

Sediment analysis is an important aspect of the study of the habitat of Rangia cuneata since these animals are filter feeders which nourish themselves while resting on the bottom of the waterways. In analyzing sediment, three chemical parameters were investigated, i.e., pH, percent organic matter, and percent silica.

Sampling was done in Lake Ponchartrain primarily, with some sampling also in Lake Maurepas and Lake Borgne.While collecting clams, water and sediment samples were obtained in polyethylene bottles and returned to the laboratory for analysis.

Data were collected at the end of each sampling period and processed prior to the second collection from that series of locales. This alluwed sufficient time to calculate and record results that could then be used for comparison with the second set of values from that locale. Each site was sampled at two-week intervals for a total of three collections. Only one determination for pesticide and trace metal analysis was conducted because of the lengthy nature of these procedures.

Rangia cuneata clams contain a relatively high percentage of protein (22.0%, dry basis) and a great many of the essential amino

64 acids such as leucine, lysine, methionine, phenlyalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine. Rats fed the clam diet

showed a sufficient but not optimal growth when compared with control rats. The average weight gain for each group

of rats was as follows: The casein-fed rats gained 13 g;

the smaller rats fed clams gained 30.3 g; the rats fed clams

plus estimated missing amino acids gained 26.3 g; the control

rats fed food pellets gained 46.3 g; and 'he larger rats fed

clams gained 14.5 g.

Evaluation of our water analyses was carried out in cor-

relation with random values obtained from the U. S. Corps of

Engineers. Thus, we were able to follow the changes in Lake

Ponchartrain subsequent to the closure of the Bonnet Carre

Spillway by comparing our data to information on the lake ob-

tained prior to the opening of the spillway. The chloride con-

centration, initially quite low because of the presence of low-

salinity Mississippi River water, rose significantly over the

test period. To cite one example, the chloride rose from 68 ppm

to 755 ppm from June 4th to July 16th for L-5. Ammonia-nitrogen,

nitrate-nitrogen, and alkalinity, which were initially high in

comparison with data for the normal lake status, dropped, as

did the total suspended solids.

With respect to pesticide, trace metal and bacterial analyses,

general conclusions are difficult because of the wide range of

values obtained. The heaviest pesticide contamination was noted

at C-5 (the Tchefuncta River) where Dieldrin, Arochlor 1254,

65 Chlordane, DDE, and DDD were found; no detectable pesticides were noted at C-4 (the Tangipahoa River) and C-7 .(Lake Borgne, southeast). Aluminum and iron were heavy soil contaminants with values from 21650 to 68440 ppm for aluminum and 5220 to

31000 ppm for iron. Mercury was found to be present in concentrations ranging from 133 to 1590ppm. Zinc, iron, copper and aluminum were present in the clam and oyster samples in fairly high concentrations. The estimated MPN of coliform covered a wide range. In general, the count seemed to increase from the group B series to the group C for water and sediment analyses, but to decrease for meat analysis.

Sediment analysis revealed that, in general, the clam-bed a-eas contained a low percentage of organic matter, from 0.57% to 17.77%, with one location being 30.67%; the percentage of

silica was high, from 67.09% to 99.35%.

Reference copy: The John XXIII Memorial Library, St. Mary's

Dominican College ******************************************************************

Evaluation of Algal Productivity in Green Lake, Wisconsin with gicamayaplaiama (Grant no. GY-10749)

Ripon College Ripon, Wisconsin 54971

May 21, 1973- kigust 10, 1973

Participants:

Earl Gubbins Michael Mizen

Dorothy Jaeger Alan Nakagawa

James Litton* Christopher Smith

Patricia Marinac Michael Snyder *Student Project Director 66 Non-Stipend Participants:

Kim Kobriger Martha Milikowski

William Bowen, Faculty Advisor

Green Lake, the deepest lake in Wisconsin (70 m), has experienced many signs of cultural eutrophication within the past

ten years. The primary deleterious effect is the enhanced algal productivity and the subsequent sporadic algal blooms. A sys-

tematic survey of the biological, chemical, and physical lake

parameters during the period from June 1, 1972 to May, 1973

established baseline water quality data. To assess the complex

influence of the many individual factors on algal growth, a

complex analysis was used. The Provisional Algal Assay Proce-

dures (1969) and their subsequent modifications were utilized.

The three fundamentally different test procedures were:

1) Bottle Test: Candidate/test algae are added to the

sample in the laboratory and growth is determined.

2) Continuous, Flow Chemostat Test: Candidate test algae

are added to a continuous-sample flow system. An at-

tempt is made to keep the environment constant, and

the objective is to develop a steady state of algal

production. The test result is a growth rate.

3) In Situ Test: Part of the water body is isolated and

incubated in place within a transparent container.

The test result is an instantaneous growth rate for

the confined portion of the body of water.

In addition, the phytoplankton population was qualitatively and

quantitatively enumerated, using the membrane filter technique.

67 Physical and chemical measurements of gross water samples were also made, using Standard Methods. These selected techniques then allowed a determination of:

1) the levels to which nutrients in Green Lake must be

reduced to limit growth to an acceptable level;

2) what the critical nutrients are that limit growth

in Green Lake; and

3) what nutrients are available in the absence of algal

toxicants.

Phytoplankton analysis showed green algae dominating the

June collections, with blue-green algae replacing the green as

the predominant form in the latter part of the summer. Cosmarium,

Pediastrum, Scenedesmus, Staurastrum, and Fragilaria were present

throughout the summer in relatively stable amounts. The blue-

green algae, Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, and Gleotrichia, replaced

the green algae in late July and early August. Blooms of Anabaena

and Scenedesmus were noted in the twelve-week project period.

Bottle test results showed the response of the test alga,

Selenastrum capricornutum (Printz) to variations in P and N

species concentration. Inoculum from the Ripon Sewage Plants

produced the greatest increase in algal biomass in all bottle

bioassays (maximum standing crop = 461 mg/1). Silver Creek

samples were third highest with 248.5 mg/1; and N,P, Fe spiked

yielded 253.3 mg/l. N spikes of natural water samples produced

increased biomass production (MSC = 161.55 mg/1), while P spikes

did result in an appreciable increase (MSC = 10.8 mg/1). Micro-

68 nutrients were shown not to be limiting for Green Lake algal growth.

Continuous culture (chemostat) data were not kinetically

analyzed owing to insufficient runs at different hydraulic

residence times. Visual inspection of the data does indicate

a sustained high biomass production with Ripon Sewage Plant

effluent and the low level response of lake water samples.

The in-situ carbon-14 uptake study demonstrated two dis-

tinctly different rates of productivity at two points on Green

Lake. One meter measurements at Stations 6 (Quimby Cove) and

9 (Sliding Rocks) ranged from 0.890-.373 mgC/m3/hr and from

2.736-6.377 mgC/m3/hr respectively. The difference in rates

was related to recent soil-disturbing/dredging operations in

one area.

Statistical correlation analysis of all water chemistry

and phytoplankton data collected indicated that PO4-P and

total N concentration increases/decreases occur simultaneously.

A set of recommendations to control N and P input to Green Lake

were prepared.

Reference copy: Lane Library, Ripon College ******************************************************************

Chemical Mass Balances in Estuaries (Grant no. GY-10771)

Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139

June 4, 1973 - August 24, 1973

69 Participants:

John Caesar William McDowell

Andy Cahn Amy Ng*

Robert Collier Kenneth Schwartz

Ted Dengler Stewart Silling

Bruce Hymanson Robert Stallard

Gerry. Matisoff Raymond Van Houtte

Joseph Yeboah

*Student Project Director

John M. Edmond, Faculty Advisor

The project proposed to study the chemical mass balances within estuarine systems by following the courses of various chemical species through the system and identifying their major sources and sinks. Silicates, organic carbon, nitrites, phosphates, major cations, and trace elements were analyzed in samples from different sections of the estuarine environment. The

Merrimack River was the center of our efforts, with samples collected on eight different occasions over the summer and twice since that time. Also, three sets of samples were collected from the Parker Estuary, two from the Connecticut River Estuary, and one each from the Mousam, Kennebunk, Saco, and Royal Rivers in Maine. Sampling was done from a Boston Whaler stationed in the Merrimack and from a zodiac inflatable raft. Samples of water were usually taken from the surface, collected in plastic bottles for the determination of salinity, major cations, and silica, and in glass bottles stored on ice for determination of

70 nutrients. Special samples are discussed when the data are presented.

The general method of interpreting each set of data was to compare it with its corresponding salinity data. If any processes occurring within the estuary are changing the concentration of certain species, then this change should be seen in a plot of the species concentration vs. salinity. If simple mixing between the river and ocean endmembers is occurring, the data should fall on a straight line between those endpoints. Otherwise; in the case of removal, the endmembers will be connected by a concave curve.

All of the major cations and chloride were found to be conservative as functions of salinity. Analyses were done by atomic adsorption spectroscopy.

Silicates, analyzed by a colorimetric technique, were, in nearly all cases, found to be conservative. One postulated mechanism of removal, uptake as a nutrient byidiatoms, was tested by the determination of diatoms in the samples. In all cases, it was found that the diatom populations were too small to expect any visible removal (and, indeed, none was found).

Iron was analyzed and showed definite removal.Mechanisms are unclear, but a change in its oxidation state as it moves into seawater seems possible.

It samples were collected and showed signs of the loss of trace elements, as the sediment was increasingly exposed to the marine environment. A simple equilibrium model is postulated.

71 Several biological samples were collected, including: organic carbon determinations; colorimetric determinations of phosphate and nitrite; and trace element analyses for plankton and blue mussel bodies.No conclusive results were obtained because of sampling and analysis difficulties and because of apparent complexities of the system.

There were many difficulties in modeling and sampling the estuarine system. A simple model to identify conservative processes is presented.

Reference copy: Lindgren Library, Massachusetts Institute of

Technology ******************************************************************

A Study of the Biogeocoenosis of Two Merging Rivers the Sheyenne

River and the Red River of the North (Grant no. GY-10795)

North Dakota State University Fargo, North Dakota 58102

June 1, 1973 - August 24, 1973

Participants:

Patricia Colberg Carol Olson

Wayne Christensen Steven Olson

Kay Heilman Carl Reed

Toby Mapes Warren Schubert

Roger Mehrer Corinne Scofield

J. Oak Noell Albert Spalding*

*Student Project Director

Robert Koob, Faculty Advisor

72 The goal of the project was to investigate, from an interdisciplinary prospective, the ecosystems of two merging rivers.

The rivers were the Red River of the North and the Sheyenne River.

Both are north-flowing rivers. The research team was divided into four chemists, four biologists and four bacteriologists.

The intent of the team was to both monitor pollutant levels, as well as monitoring ecosystem interrelationships. The following parameters were monitored: biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, pH, nitrates, sulfates, mercury, trace metals, ammonia, phosphates, clarity, water temperature, total aerobic hetero- trophic bacteria, fecal coliforms, Enterococci, Salmonella,

Shigella, zocplankton, and phytoplankton.

Nine sample stations were used, five on the Red River and four on the Sheyenne River. Many random samples were also taken. Approximately 45-mile segments were covered on each river.

Procedures for the chemical analysis were taken primarily from those outlined in Standard Methods, but a new method for trace metals was used. It involved extraction from water samples by the use of a che.ating agent, sodium diethyldithiocarbamate, in an organic phase iso-amyl alcohol. Phytoplankton isolation involved the use of settling chambers (anOffshoot ofa method derived by Lund and Evans) . Diatoms were cleared for observation by incineration (Patrick and Reimer method) and by the use of concentrated nitric acid (new method). Zooplankton investigation of rotifers, crustacea and protozoans was accomplished by the con-

centration of water samples through filtration, followed by observation of a known quantity of aliquot.Bacterial studies followed

73 Standard Methods, but went much further. Intensive tests, as

recommended by the U.S. Public Health Service, were run.

The standard for biochemical oxygen demand, as established

by the U.S. Public Health Service, is 25mg/1. On the' average,

no sample stations exceeded this value during the research period.

However, random sampling included the Fargo Sewage Treatment out-

fall. It was found to exceed 50mg/1. The State Health Department

was notified and Fargo is presently undertaking plans for building

tertiary treatment facilities. BOD maximums corresponded to total

aerobic bacterial maximums. Nitrate maximums corresponded to

total coliform maximums. It was found that the Fargo Sewage

Treatment effluent was tremendously high in nitrates. Trace metals

were at negligible levels, well within he Environmental Protection

Agency's standards. The highest ammonia values existed north of

the Fargo-Moorhead metropolitan area on the Red River. An inverse

relationship was exhibited between nitrate and ammonia. Total

bacterial aerobic counts ranged much lower in the Red River than

in the Sheyenne River. A common occurrence was the increase of

total aerobic counts after rainfall. All stations on the Sheyenne

River consistently exceeded both State and Federal standards for

total and fecal coliforms and some sites on the Red exceeded them,

also. The fecal coliform/fecal streptococci ratio was useful in

pinpointing sources of animal fecal contamination and human fecal

contamination. The station nearest the Fargo Sewage outfall in-

dicated human fecal contamination, whereas the stations nearest

feedlots and near a North Dakota State Stockyards suggested ani-

74 mal fecal contamination. Partially as a result of these values, two feedlots will be forced to move back from the river bank; a permit allowing a stockyard effluent to be dumped into the river was revoked. Zooplankton analysis revealed that for every bacterial maximum there were Cladoceran maximums. (Cladocerans are filter feeders known to consume many bacteria.) Salmonella sp. was isolated from all stations and Shigella sp. was isolated

from the sites north of the Fargo-Moorhead metropolitan area.

Fifty-one different genera of phytoplankton were identified.

The predominant genera were: Stephanodiscus, Melosira, Nitschia,

Scenedesmus and Ankistrodesmus. These were found to be highly

tolerant to large organic loads in water; both rivers have high

organic loads. Average phytoplankton was found to be about four

times higher in the Sheyenne than in the Red. Diatom species

abundance was found to exhibit a shock reaction from the metro-

politan area. New genera became dominant and dominant genera

became insignificant, as water flowed through the Fargo-Moorhead

metropolis. Zooplankton was found to be extremely high in the

Red River and amazingly low in the Sheyenne. Zooplankton and

phytoplankton in both rivers exhibited a numerical decrease as

water flowed northward..

Reference copy: North Dakota State University Library ******************************************************************

Factors Governin the Dissolved Ox en Contet of the Waters of

aatcauntaiiiorlaa (Grant no. GY- .10753) University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida 33124

75 June 11, 1973 - August 20, 1973

Partioipants:

Wayne Adams Mike Graham

Robin Bechtel Ron Kawiecki

Vicki Beursken James King

Thomas Castater* Pam Krauss

Valerie Fatigati Margaret Lee

Stan Locker

*Student Project Director

Curtis R. Ham, Faculty Advisor

Dade County, Florida, presents a wide variety of problems

in water quality management. To the West lies the freshwater

Everglades, to the North, Lake Okeechobee, and to the East, the

Atlantic Ocean. Since the early 1900's, canals have been con-

structed for drainage and flood control purposes from the

Everglades and Lake Okeechobee towards the ocean. Many of these canals are periodically beset with problems of fish kills and clogging plant growth.

Two previous SOS studies at the University of Miami have dealt directly with fish kills, concentrating primarily on nutAent levels in the canals. This year a more biological approach to canal water quality, with more emphasis on local aquatic plant communities, was undertaken. Special emphasis was devoted to the introduced submergent aquatic plant, Ham, drilla verticillata, to determine its growth rate under various conditions and its balance of photosynthesis and res-

76 piration. The unifying theme for the project was to be the construction of a dissolved oxygen budget in the canals.

Three diurnal samplings at each of eight representative

Dade canal sites during the summer months provided data for the establishment of a typical dissolved oxygen curve for each site. No significant correlations were found between dissolved oxygen and any of the major dissolved nutrients, such as phosphate or nitrate. Similarly, correlations between BOD and chlorophyll content of the water with DO were not strongly established during the diurnal studies. This was due partly to the fact that both BOD and chlorophyll levels were lower than values previously reported. There was, however, an apparent inverse correlation between BOD and levels of conform organisms.

Coliform bacteria were monitored at all sites during the overnight studies. This was done for two reasons. First, as an indication of water quality in relation to human standards, and second, as a method of tracing a pollution input to the canal systems. The latter phase also entailed the indicator of the fecal coliform to fecal streptococci ratio which may pinpoint human or nonhuman bacterial inputs. These analyses showed that the urban sites were often over the accepted safe swimming level of 1000 per 100 ml sample (MPN) and that most of these elevated coliform levels were primarily of human origin.

There was also a strong positive correlation between rainfall and canal coliform levels indicating major stormwater runoff. It had

77 been previously theorized that there may be correlations between conforms and certain nutrients in the water, the two possibly having entered the system through similar means. This relation-

ship was not established. Biochemical oxygen demand levels were monitored during the

diurnal samplings to determine losses from the dissolved oxygen

budget for this source. Average levels were low, about 2-3 ppm.

There were only slight differences between the urban and rural

sites. Some doubt existed about the accuracy of the method used.

Surface water chlorophyll analyses showed interesting, though

not surprising, trends. The range of values was from 2 to 84 mg

per cubic meter, with an overallaverage'at about 10 mg/m3 for

chlorophyll-a. Several instances of management efforts to control

burgeoning plant growths were witnessed and are seen as the chief

agents in preventing development of mature aquatic plant communities.

Growth rates of Hydrilla at most of the sites were measured

by means of artificial planting experiments at varying depths.

The average value obtained was about 8 mg per plant (dry weight)

per day. Variations between sites seem to be attributable more

to differences in transmittal of sunlight than to differences in

any of the other parameters studied. Experiments to determine

the growth rate of Hydrilla in the laboratory under defined

nutrient conditions were largely unsuccessful because of poor

experimental nutrient control and the difficulty of obtaining

nutrient-starved cuttings for planting. An additional compli-

78 cation was the extremely low level of nutrients which Hydrilla seems to require for rapid growth.

Data for each of the subproj:'ts were brought together in the description of the local canal dissolved oxygen budget. Al- though more work is required, procedures for maintenance of the most desirable aquatic environments are suggested.

Reference copy: Library, University of Miami ******************************************************************

Study of Mercury and Heavy Metal Pollutants in the Jordan Creek

Drainage (Grant no. GY-10816)

University of Idaho Moscow, Idaho 83843

May 21, 1973 - August 6, 1973

Participants:

Ann Cochrane Mike Lucky

Red Farlee Dorothy Ugstad

X14't Greenfield Paul Ugstad

Steve Hill* Larry Wickham

Bill Hudson Dennis Williams

*Student Project Director

George Williams, Faculty Advisor

From the 1860's to the 1930's, the Jordan creek drainage, which lies approximately 60 miles south of Boise, Idaho, was the location of a major gold and silver mining district. From the conclusions of a study by the Idaho Fish and Gagne Department on mercury contamination in fish, it is believed that this area was

79 the source of mercury and other heavy metal deposits. These metals, particularly mercury, propose a potential threat to the human health and recreational resources of Owyhee and Antelope Reservoirs which lie on this creek. A student team from the University of Idaho and Boise State

College conducted an extensive study on the section of Jordan Creek which lies within the Silver City mining district. The team sought to locate the sources of mercury and other heavy metal deposits.

The group worked for 11 weeks during the summer of 1973, sampling plants, water, sediments, micro-invertebrates, fish and small terrestrial vertebrates, in an attempt to trace the mercury through the food chain. These samples were analyzed by atomic absorption

spectrophotometry.

The results of this study provide valuable information on the

sources and locations of mercury and other heavy metals in the

Jordan Creek Drainage. They also show the concentrations of mercury

the game fish of the area, which is an immediate danger to man.

Reference copy: University of Idaho Library **********4****N**************************************************

Toxic Chromium in Natural Waters - An Interdisciplinam.Approach

(Grant no. GY-10763) State University of New York at Binghamton Binghamton, New York 13901

June 11, 1973 - August 31, 1973

Participants:

Lynne A. Gaynes Steven E. Ohl

80 Joyce W. Lin James F. Pankow*

Daniel P. Leta Kathleen P. Schmidt

James I. Mangi Wilfred Po-Sum Shum Paul M. Turner

*Student Project Director

Gilbert E. Janauer, Faculty Advisor

Fundamental to the understanding of the behavior of Cr species

in the aquatic environment is the possession anduse of accurate

analytical methodologies capable of selectively determining dif-

ferent Cr species when rl.esent at trace levels in the natural

waters. Several such methods have been developed. Among them is a method for the preconcentration of sub-ppb to ppb levels of

Cr(VI) fromaqueous solutions. In this method, filtered water

samples are acidified to pH 6, and passed through an anion-exchange

resin bed (AG -1X4, 100-200 mesh, Cl- form) in an ascending flow

so that the chromate is adsorbed in a narrow zone at the lower end

of the resin bed. The elution is effected quickly by small volumes

of acidic reductant solution which react with Cr04 on the columns to

form Cr(III) during the very elution step, thus producing very high

'concentration factors. When employing a Perkin-Elmer (P.E.) 303

flame A.A. (or any othersimilar A.A.), this method makes poaiible

the determination of 0.5ppb with a precision of ±20% or better:*

In addition two differential analytical methods capable of

distinguishing between different Cr species were developed. Of

these two* Differential Method II was better. This method can be

performed on a water sample as follows: 1) filter the sample,

81 preferably through 0.45m membrane filters; 2) adjust pH to6;

3) divide water sample into three equal portionsZ1 liter each;

4) pass one portion through an anion exchange resin bed (AG - 1X4), and pass a second portion through a cation exchange resinbed

(AG-50WX4); 5) the volumes of these two effluents as well as that of the third portion are reduced slowly by evaporation. Analysis of the remaining (ov10 ml) volumes is then carried out. By alge- braic manipulation, the amount of cationic (trivalent), anionic

(hexavalent), and nonionic Cr present in the original sample can be determined. Using a P.E. 303 flame A.A., precision of+20%

for the Cr(III) and Cr(VI) analyses can be expected atlevels of

S.0.5 ppb. The precision of the "nonionic" Cr analyses depends

upon the precision of theCr(III) and Cr(VI) analyses. Labora- tory experiments carried with natural water samples and a radio-

act ve Cr isotope indicated that a sample pHofA-6 was, indeed,

called for when employing Differential Method II, andprobably

also when using other methodologies. Using Differential Method II, analyses forCr(III), and

Cr(VI), and nonionic Cr were carried out on river water samples

from the Upper Susquehanna River Basin. Almost all samples re-

vealed low (0.5 - 2.0 ppb) concentrations ofCr(III), with gen-

erally lesser amounts of nonionic Cr. The concentration of Cr(VI)

however, seemed much more site-dependent. As could be expected,

the highest concentrations ofCr(VI) (a 2.5 ppb) were observed immediately below the sewage outfalls of the Triple Cities

(Binghamton, Johnson City, Endicott). Samples taken from a site

82 80 km below the Triple Cities area revealed low concentrations

of Cr(VI) (Ad 0.1 ppb), typical of the samples taken upstream of

the Triple Cities area.

Geologically-oriented investigations revealed that this de-

crease was due to the dilution brought about by a much increased

discharge at this downstream site. An additional decrease in the

Cr(VI) concentration at this downstreamsite could also have been brought about through the adsorption of Cr (at least originally

present as Cr(VI) ) on sediment particles, as the Cr content of

sediment samples taken from the Susquehanna River directly down-

stream of the Triple Cities area contained considerably higher

(2. 130 ppm) Cr, when compared with samplestaken from rivers up-

stream of the general Binghamton area (N 30 ppm). (Sedimentation of sewage sludge particles high in Cr, however, could also account

for the high Cr concentrations in the sediments taken from below

the Triple Cities.)

Attempts at correlating the Cr speciation with such factors

as D.O., B.O.D., etc. failed due to the relative constancy of

these latter parameters vis a vis the fluctuations observed for

the Cr(III), Cr(VI), and nonionic Cr concentrations in the waters

analyzed.

Our attempts to correlate the Cr concentrations in algae with average river water concentrations were severely hampered because of the lack of availability of several of thesame algal

species, at the different river sampling sites. Practically no

algae was found at the site down-stream from the Triple Cities

sewage outfalls.

83 Laboratory studies on the uptake and toxicity ofCr(VI) to algae and duckweeds such as Palmellococcus, Hydrodictyon, Oedo xmium, Lemna, and Spirodela indicate, however, that theCr(VI) levels (4, 2.5 ppb) found at this site could not alone account for a lack of aquatic flora. (Synergisms with other pollutants are, of course,possible.) The high sediment concentrations of Cr, however, may well have discouraged the growth of such benthic algal forms. The laboratory studies also revealed that when cultured in media relatively concentrated in Cr(10 ppm), algal (and to a lesser extent duckweed) species can exhibit very large Cr concentrations () 1000 ppm). Although a distinction between adsorbed

and absorbed Cr would have been very enlightening, timerestric-

tions precluded such investigations. It is probable however, that

a considerable fraction of thesehigh Cr concentrations were pres-

ent in an adsorbed state. A brief series of experiments indicated that dead Exagal2=a cells are capable of removing very large

amounts of Cr(VI) from solution, presumably through some adsorp-

tion mechanism. It is apparent that sewage outfalls in the Triple Cities have

affected both the river water concentration ofCr(VI), as well as

those of the sediments. Recommended further work could include additional analyses of river water, with special emphasis on eluci-

dating the nature of the nonionic Cr found in some water (samples.

A more extensive characterization of the sediment-bound Cr would

also be of great use in tracing the pathways of the Crreleased in

84 the municipal and industrial sewages.

In addition, although a considerable amount of data has been

collected concerning the uptake of and toxicity of Cr(VI) to some

algae and duckweeds, further work might well include investigations

concerning such toxicity and uptake in culture media more closely

approximating river water (in our studies, Bristol's Solution was

used) as well as an investigation concerning the toxicology and Cr-

uptake by aquatic flora grown in contact with Cr-contaminated sedi-

ments.

Reference copy: SUNY/Binghamton Science Library ******************************************************************

Aquatic Quality and Socio-Economic Uses of the San Jacinto River

Watershed (Grant no.GY-10760)

Sam Houston State University Huntsville, Texas 77340

May 14, 1973 - August 3, 1973

Participants:

Darla Crider Doug B. King

Gregory E. Crouch Steven D. Parris

David B. Griffin* Nancy R. Sapke

Stephanie S. Hand Donna Schiller

Richard A. Hilliard Wanda L. Sims

Harold Erle Janssen, Jr. Joe Yelderman, Jr. *Student Project Director

James R. DeShaw, Faculty Advisor

Our project was an interdisciplinary study of the San Jacinto

River Watershed. This is an area of approximately 2,828 square

85 miles lying in Walker, Montgomery, Grimes, Waller, San Jacinto,

Liberty and Harris counties in southeast Texas. The watershed is divided into two main regions: the upper Lake Conroe watershed and the lower Lake Houston watershed.

The research team was divided into four groups: biological,

geophysical, sociological, and chemical-physical.

The biological survey group had two primary objectives. The

first was to make a descriptive survey of the flora and fauna of

the area by means of observations and collections in the field,

and also by citing previously compiled data. The second goal was

to make population estimates of terrestrial tracheophytes, benthic

invertebrates, and plankton, by means of species diversity.

The descriptive survey of the watershed showed the area to be

very diverse in both flora and fauna. The vegetation in this drain-

age basin is predominately altered pine-hardwoodforests, inter-

spersed with belts of open grasslands. The forest areas are

characterized by mature pines with smaller oaks, hickory, sweet

gums, and other hardwoods.

The species diversity per individual, 71, for phytoplankton in

the new Lake Conroe Reservoir indicates that the water is of high

cp?lity. This is according to Wilhm end Dorris 1968, who state

that d values larger than 3 indicate clean waters and values from

1 to 3 indicate moderate pollution. The only values below 3 were

found in the first sample collection in June. All other values

were above 3, with the highest being4.07. The dominate genus of

nhytoplankton in the reservoir was found to be illothrix a.

86 No set pattern of species diversity was observed for benthic organisms in Lake Conroe. The values ranged from a low of 0.64 to a high of 3.46. This can be attributed to the fact that Lake Conroe

is a newly formed reservoir with a heterogeneous bottom, consisting of decaying trees, shrubs, grasses and many other types of vegetation, which would contribute to the concentration of certain bottom organ-

isms in some locations and their absence in many other locations.

The geophysical group was concerned primarily with the present

and changing land use patterns, soil limitations, and the determination of a sedimentation rate for the Lake Conroe reservoir. There

is a definite physical difference between the upper and lower halves

of the lake. The upper lake area is predominately grassland and

clayey blackland soils. The differences are extremely important in

relation to land use patterns and sediment distribution.

The 1990 land use statistics indicate that there will be a 12%

increase in urban land usage and a 28% increase in: residential land usage for the area. These increases will occur mainly in the

southern portion of the watershed where there were 32 residential

developments in June of 1973. When these increases occur, there will be a 12% decrease in open land and a 28% loss of forested land by 1990.

The geophysical group also estimated the sedimentation rate

for the Lake Conroe Reservoir based on present land use. The estimate was that 306 acre feet of sediment would be produced per year.

This would account for approximately 3.5% loss in total storage

capacity by the year 2023. Most of this capacity loss will occur

87 in the upper portion of the lake, where large amounts of sand will be carried into the shallow waters, producing a swampy condition.

The purpose of the sociological research was to survey the attitudes of the people in the developing area of Conroe, Texas in order to draw general conclusions about the effects of urbanization brought about by the close proximity of Houston, Texas and the Lake

Conroe development. Conroe experienced a 30.2% increase in population from 1960 to 1970, and the growth rate is continuing to increase.

A random survey was taken of 1,000 people in the City of Conroe.

Only 20% of the questionnaires were returned, thus we can only present a general analysis. Of the people returning the questionnaire,

74% were happy with the Lake Conroe development, 55% were happy about the growth of Conroe, 88% favored a rapid transit system from Conroe to Houston, and 43% were optimistic about Conroe's future. It was obvious that many people from Conroe utilize Houston facilities for buying clothes, medical facilities, entertainment and cultural events, and for buying large items such as automobiles. Those questioned felt that Conroe needed more of such facilities, along with improved traffic control. The chemical-physical division of this project was concerned with the present and changing aquatic quality of the San Jacinto

River Watershed. Water samples were obtained at critical points throughout the watershed. Eleven samples were collected each of

10 weeks from the upper Lake Conroe area, while 8 samples were collected biweekly from the lower Lake Houston area.

The water samples were divided into two portions, one being

88 used as a sample for individual analysis immediately after gathering. The other was transported in an ice chest to the laboratory and refrigerated at 1° to 3°C until the analyses were performed.

The temperature, flow rate, and dissolved oxygen of the water were determined in the stream before the samples were obtained. The parameters that were determined immediately following the collection include turbidity, nitrite and nitrate levels, pH, chloride, conductance, hardness, iron, sulfate. Parameters that were measured

in the laboratory include bicarbonate, total suspended solids,ammonia nitrogen, orthophosphate, total phosphate, sodium, potassium,

5-day Biochemical Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand, and coliform count.

The water of Lake Conroe is of good quality, with the body of the new lake being of higher quality than the quality of the incoming tributary water. The water quality data from this summer were compared with data collected before the completion of the reservoir by another NSF-SOS project during the summer of 1972. Major improvements in water quality since the formation of the Lake include

the decrease of hardness and sodium by over 50%, the decrease of

chloride, conductance and Biochemical Oxygen Demand by over 40%,

and the increase of dissolved oxygen levels by just under 50%.

In the comparison made between Lake Houston and Lake Conroe,

the major differences in water quality were that the Lake Houston

area water was more turbid, averaging 65.7 Jackson Turbidity Units

to Conroe's 36.5 JTU's. Lake Houston area water was much more

acidic, had higher concentrations of iron, sulfate, and ammonia,

89 and was softer than the water of the Lake Conroe area. Both lakes possess water of generally good quality as indicated by the low mean Biochemical Oxygen Demands of1.64 mg/1 for Lake Conroe and

1.05 mg/1 for Lake Houston.

Reference copy: Sam Houston State University Library. ******************************************************************

Cadmium, Copper, Leadand Zinc: Trace Metal Pollution in an A uatic

Ecosystem (Grant no. GY-10814) Northern Illinois University DeKalb, Illinois 60115

June 4, 1973 - August 24, 1973

Participants:

Richard V. Anderson* Ronald Peterson

Susan A. Castle David Read

James Delaney Mary Lou Tortorello

Dennis R. Johnson William S. Vinikour

Anita Jozefiak David Weber

Rob J. Kleuppell John H. Wrenn

*Student Project Director James Brower, Faculty Advisor

The occurence, accumulation and effects of the tracemetals

cadmium, copper, lead, and zinc in an aquatic ecosystem werestudied

These investigations involved the analysis of field samplesand the

performance of laboratory experiments on the accumulationof trace

metals. The field sampling was conducted at four sites on the Fox River, Waterford Wisconsin, and Algonquin, Elgin,and Geneva, Illino

90 These areas represent respectively: rural and low density agriculture; rural, moderate density recreational; urban industrial; and suburban light industry. Samples of water, sediment, algae, b(nthic invertebrates, and fish were taken at each of these sites.

The algae and invertebrates were identified to genus, prepared for analysis by dry ashing, and dissolving the ash in nitric acid. Sedi- ments were wet ashed with nitric and perchloric acid for four hours.

The water samples were concentrated and the trace metals extracted using APDC-MIBK. These samples were then analysed for concentrations of trace metals on a Varian Techtron Atomic Absorption Spec- trophotometer. Corrections for nonspecific background absorption and proportional matrix effects were made. The chemical composition of the water was determined with a Hach Chemical Company water analysis unit.

The laboratory experiments included an investigation of the effects of varied combinations of the four trace metals on the composition and growth of microecosystems. The effects of combinations of the trace metals on the uptake of the metals in goldfish was also studied. Analysis of trace metals in the fish was the same as that for biological samples collected in the field.

It was found that, within the individual components of the ecosystem, a great deal of variability existed, which depended on the specific sampling site, particular area of the river from which the sample was taken, and in the species of organism being tested.

It was found that the concentration of all four metals decreased with increasing depth in the river bottom sediment, indicating a

91 binding of the trace metals in surface sediments. This trend

could also be the result of a decreasing organic content with

depth since it was found that samples with high organic content

had high levels of trace metals. A second trend was a relation-

ship to sediment type; gravels contained the lowest concentrations,

lead concentrations were highest in the sands, and cadmium concen-

trations were highest in the silts. At Geneva and Elgin, the silt

and sands showed similar concentrations of zinc and copper. The

relative concentrations of trace metals always followed the pattern,

Zn) Pb) Cu) Cd, at all sampling sites. Ranges of mean concentrations

of surface sediments were: Zn 22-142 ug/g; Cu 8-51 ug/g; Pb 7-343

ug/g; and Cd 0.2-11 ujg. The concentration of the trace metals in

the river water was velatively low, well below the Illinois EPA pol-

lution control standards.

The algae sampled at the three sites in Illinois were pre-

dominantly ciaamtam taken from the dam faces. The relative con-

centrations of the trace metals were the same: Zn) Pb) Cu) Cd.

Concentrations from the Wisconsin site were slightly lower for all

metals. The trace metal content of the benthic invertebrates cor-

responded closely to that of the surface sediments. There was some

variation among species of invertebrates, particularly concentra-

tions of Cu and Zn which are used in blood pigments or metaloenzyme

complexes. Crayfish, for example, showed high levels of Cu, due to

the presence of hemocyanin. The concentration of trace metals in

fish was significantly lower than that found in the invertebrates.

Again, there was variation within sampling sites and among species,

92 but relative concentrations were lower than in the sediments, invertebrates, and algae.

Thus the relative concentration of the four metals among the components of the environment were: Sediment> Detritus> Inverte- brates) Algae;) Fish))) Water. The invertebrates seem to act as an environmental block to the accumulation of the trace metals in the higher levels of the food web. This binding of the trace metals appears to occur in exoskeletons. These non-digestible hard body parts showed the highest concentration of metals. There was no evidence of accumulation at downstream sites, the concentration of trace metals being dependent upon local conditions.

The laboratory analysis of microecosystems indicated a relatively depressing effect on growth of Pb with Cd, Pb with Zn, and

Zn with Cd, concentrations at maximum levels allowed by the EPA.

Other combinations enhanced growth or had no effect on the growth after 43 days. Metals which were double the EPA standard concentrations generally showed depressing effects on growth.

Goldfish were exposed to various combinations of the four metals at EPA concentration limits. There was a significant increase in the accumulation of a trace metal in the fish when it was present in solution. The presence of other trace metals enhanced the accumulation. Thus, the general trend was for a syner- gistic effect between the studied metals.

Reference copy: Swan Parson Library, Northern Illinois University ******************************************************************

93 Environmental Effects of Pollution Control Measures by Two Puget

Sound Pacer Mills (Grant no. GY-10751)

University of Washington Seattle, Washington 98195

June 15, 1973 - September 15, 1973

Participants:

Robert Barrick Cyreis C. Schmitt

Michael J. Chrzastowski David A. Serafini

Linda Corgan Terry Simonian

Jay C. Dunlap* Peter Smith

Susan L. Geier Trisha L. Smith

Scott L. Ralston Kristine H. Tommos

*Student Project Director

Non-Stipend Participants:

Denise Healy Robert Oldershaw

David Minter Charlotte Omoto

Susan Taylor

T. Saunders English, Faculty Advisor

For the past 18 years, two sulfite pulp mills bordering on the

Port Gardner area of Puget Sound have been discharging pulping wastes

(chiefly sulfite waste liquor or SWL) into the water at a depth of

100 meters. There has been concern about the possible effects of this effluent on the marine life of the area, so much so that recently the Environmental Protection Agency established newer, more stringent pollution a2latement requirements for the mills. There will be a reduction in effluent over the next few years; however, this reduction will come at great cost to the industries. The aim

94 of this project was to set a biological, chemical, and geological '4,%vd baseline of the area prior to the reduction of effluents so that the environmental impact of these reductions might be more accurately assessed.

The sediment on the shores and in the Port Gardner Basin was studied, since the kind and quality of benthic marine life present is greatly affected by the characteristics of an area. Specifically, the geological objectives were:

1. Description of the regional geology and bathymetry;

2. Description of the physical characteristics of the surface sediments--size, texture, color, odor, bio- genous contributions;

3. Measurement of organic content of the sediments, distribution of volatile solids.

Parameters in water chemistry were studied over the entire basin in order to estimate:

1. The three dimensional and temporal (tidal) variations within the effluent field, as a measure of where marine life might be most affected;

2. The degree of influence of this field upon the distribution of dissolved oxygen;

3. The effects of flushing coincident with a sharply decreased or terminated outflow of pulping wastes, as this would provide insight as to how rapidly the area could purge itself of waste materials.

Lastly, two marine biological communities were heavily sampled to determine the distribution of species in the area. The chemical survey initially noted a maximum effluent concentration at 75 meters.

On this basis, a survey of benthic life above, at, and below this depth along the southern portion of Port Gardner was undertaken.

95 Initial chemical studies also showed the existence of a longshore current in the surface layer along the southern shore. Thus, if any effluent were reaching the highly productive surface waters, the effects would be noted within the upper 20 meters of water along the southern shore. Scuba diving, beach seining, 1/4 m2 quadrat sampling, and crab trapping were all employed in the study area.

Sampling for geological data included the collection of samples from onshore, beach subtidal, and deep water sediments. All samples were collected manually where possible, deep water samples being collected with a 0.1 m2 Van Veen grab. All samples were analyzed for volatile content and random samples were chosen for granulometric analysis.X-ray petrographic analyses of onshore and beach samples were made for comparative studies in determining the source of beach sediments. In the field, data were collected concerning location, elevation or depth of station, color, and odor of sample.

The chemical water sampling program was designed on the assump- tion that sulfite waste liquor concentrations at any location would be highly variable over time, being affected by such factors as river outflow, tide currents, and variations in the rate of effluent outflow. Ten stations for water sampling were chosen over the area and samples were taken at the same six depths at all stations.

Seven cruises (18 days) of ship time were scheduled to include sampling over spring, neap, and mid-tide periods. On each cruise, four of the 10 stations were chosen, either in a trapezoidal pattern over

96 the whole area or in a straight line transect from the diffuser, for repeated sampling at two-hour intervals. Each group of stations would then be sampled repeatedly over a full tide cycle to determine temporal variations in the chemical parameters. Water was analyzed for sulfite waste liquor, dissolved oxygen, in situ

temperature, and salinity. Standard methods were used in all cases.

Over 10,000 samples were collected in this manner over the summer. All SWL and dissolved oxygen data were plotted as concentra-

tion versus time to determine temporal fluctuations. Extreme fluc-

tuations were noted in both parameters; the verification of this will necessitate the continued use of time series studies similar

to this one for future monitoring. Median SWL concentration values

for the summer were plotted to delineate the spatial distribution

of the effluent plume. Plots of SWL concentration versus time were

used for determining the flushing characteristics of the area.

In the deep water benthic survey, replicate Van Veen grabs

were taken at a grid of stations and washed through a 1 mm screen.

A grid of eight transects perpendicular to the shore, each with

three to five stations, was set up to cover the area.Data were

plotted as number of various organisms versus distance along the

shore from diffuser. The subtidal and intertidal work was conducted along 15 short

transects perpendicular to the southern shore. A 1/4 m2 quadrant

was used in conjunction with screening to sample benthic macrofauna

larger than 2 mm. Diving and seining work surveyed those mobile or

rare organisms which would not fall within a1/4 m2 quadrant. Tripli

97 cate crab traps were set at three different depths along three of the transects to determine the size distribution of the commercially important species, Cancer magister. Intertidal work was done at five depths and subtidally at seven depths, replicate surveys being

done in all cases. All data were plotted as number of organisms . versus distance along shore from diffuser.

The distribution of sediment and variation in these parameters reflects unequal sorting by flow and unequal settling rates, along with a relationship to bottom configuration. There is a gradation of sediment size offshore with sorting from the Snohomish River mouth, the major source of sediments for the central basin of Port

Gardner. Shore sediments are a result of degradation of the sur- roundings sediments (as demonstrated by X-ray petrographic analysis) prior to or during transport to the beach, although there is also in situ reworking of sediments by waves and shore currents. The distribution of volatile solids closely reflects the sediment distribution, with the exception of the Everett Harbor area which has an especially large input of volatile solids. Elsewhere, the mean sediment size is inversely proportional to the volatile content, although this relationship is further modified by the velocity of water flow over the sediments and the configuration of the submarine floor.

Generally though, the volatile content increases with distance from shore, reaching a maximum in the fine poorly washed sediments of the central basin.

Plots of chemical data showed the existence of a bi-layer circulation system in the basin when dense salt water moves north and

98 underlies fresh water from a nearby river which moves southwest.

Water circulation in each layer, thus, behaves relatively indepen- dently of that in the other, which results in a complex circulation pattern for the basin. This bi-layer oystem also allows for little verticle mixing so that effluents introduced into the deep layer are not likely to reach the surface in high concentrations. Cir- culation is also less in the deep layer so there is a constant maximum concentration of effluent at about 75 meters. The median value of effluent concentration in this layer is about 25 times background

(122 ppm vs 5 ppm background). A definite and inverse relationship between SWL and dissolved oxygen was demonstrated in the deeper waters, although it is not known whether the resulting low oxygen concentrations affect the marine life there. Extended time series

studies over a Fourth of July mill closure showed a large decrease

in ambient effluent concentrations in the deep layer when the source

of effluent was shut off. It is expected,' then, that the deep ef-

fluent concentration maximum will rapidly dissipate if and when ef-

fluent disposal into the water is stopped. It is impossible to say, however, whether concentrations will immediately return to natural

levels or remain at a slightly higher than normal concentration for

an extended period of time while sediments are purged.

Biological sampling revealed a great deal of patchiness in both

communities. The benthic survey showed that crustaceans and molluscs

comprised the bulk of the total invertebrates of shallow depths

(30 m- 50m), dominance being shared with polychLete worms at

intermediate (75 m) and deep (100 m) stations. Generally, there is

99 no trend in abundance of life forms moving away from the effluent source. Increases and decreases in numbers of species are probably more related to sediment characteristics than anything else.

Intertidally, crustacean abundance could not be related to distances from the diffuser. Molluscs and polychaete worms both show nonuniform distributions with depth and distance, probably due to sediment parameters and amount of exposure. Subtidal organisms show a general trend for high concentrations half-way down the beach, dropping off both near to and far from the effluent source at the diffwer. Seining data showed two trends where fish were either present near the diffuser and not present far from it or vice-versa.

A definite correlation between stream inlets and number of organisms caught was established for some species of salmon. Crab trapping showed a general trend of increasing numbers with distance from the diffuser and also increasing numbers with depth going away from the diffuser. Many factors including changes in water quality or sediment parameters could be the cause of this trend.

Reference copy: Fisheries-Oceanography Library, University of

Washington ******************************************************************

Studof Colonization and Develo ment of Corals on an Artificial

Reef Substrate (Grant no. GY-10773)

University of Hawaii Honolulu, Hawaii 96822

June 1, 1973 - August 24, 1973

100 Participants:

Janice Auyong Clesson Kawasaki

Lytha Conquest John Min

John Ford Carla S. Miyamoto*

Glenn Higashi Donna Noborikawa

Kathleen Hoff Francis Oishi

Tom Iwai, Jr. Reid Withrow

*Student Project Director

Non-Stipend Participant:

Ralph Yamada

S. Arthur Reed, Faculty Advisor

The study described here was a biological survey and experimental investigation of the car body artificial reef area one mile south of Pokai Bay, Oahu, Hawaii. Four study stations were used. These included two stations within the artificial reef area and two (for comparison) outside the artificial reef area. The specific biotic interrelationships studied were: 1) the algae/coral competition for available substrate; and 2) the grazing of algae by the recruited herbivorous fish population and its effect on the colonization and development of corals. Quantitative measurements and observations were taken for algal, coral and fish populations. Selected physical and chemical parameters were examined to determine their influences on the biotic components studied. Experiments were conducted with wire mesh cages to eliminate fish grazing on the artificial and natural substrates.

The results of the study indicate that, on the natural calcareous substrate, the algae/coral interrelationship is not noticeably affected

101 by the recruitment of herbivorous fishes. No significant differences were found in the standing crops of coral andalgae at stations within and outside of the artificial reef area. This may be due to: 1) the lack of recruited fish grazing on the dominant algal species which covers a larger percentage of substrate suitable

for coral colonization; and 2) the limited presence of such suitable

substrate.

On the artificial substrate, the experiment in which herbivore

grazing had been eliminated, demonstrate that the recruited fish

population may be a factor in the colonization and development of

corals. It must be noted that the algal succession on the artificial

substrate at the time of study had not reached climax community. The

algae at the time were primarily of filamentous forms. With these

filamentous forms as preferred dietary items of the herbivorous

fishes, as indicated in a dietary survey conducted, grazing may

reduce algal dominance on the substrate providing a more favorable

condition for coral colonization. Because of the unstableness of

the car bodies over a long period of time (because of erosion and

corrosion by sea water) it cannot be expected that the settled

corals will reach maturity.

Reference copy: Ocean Science Information Center, Hamilton Library,

University of Hawaii ***************************************************************

102 Caretta caretta on Kiawah Island, South Carolina: Offspring

Increases, Population and Predation Studies (Grant no. GY-10818) University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina 29208

May 22, 1973- August 15, 1973

Participants:

J. Wyman Frampton W. McLeod Rhodes

Gene Furchgott J. Heyward Robinson

Thomas W. McKee 0. Rhett Talbert, Jr.* *Student Project Director

John M. Dean, Faculty Advisor

The objective of the present.study was to assess the value of the Kiawah Rookery for marine turtles in terms of nesting density, population of female adult Loggerheads, predation, and to monitor various environmental parameters affecting the status of this rookery. The relevant data were collected and recorded on nightly beach patrols throughout the nesting season. As nesting activity tapered off, the data were assimilated and analyzed by the members of the project staff. A list of the most crucial information on each tagged adult female was then sent to the University of Georgia, where it was incorporated into a computer record which is updated on an annual basis; this combined Kiawah data with that of the Uni- versity of Florida, from which a tagging study encompassing the

Southeast United States and the Gulf Coast is monitored.

The Kiawah tagging study tallied 61 adult females, representing some 80% of the 1973 population of nesting Loggerheads; the total number of nests was 192, compared to 197 in 1972. Over the next decade, if the tagging study is permitted to continue with the

103 system described above, we expect to tally some 200 to 300 adult females utilizing the Kiawah Rookery.

Because developmental pressures on the South Carolina Coast have decreased the number of native rookeries accessible to the

Loggerheads, and have also concentrated nest predators on the remaining undisturbed islands, predation of nests and hatchlings on

Kiawah has skyrocketed above the 90% mark. In addition, the number of adult and adolescent female Loggerheads drowned accidentally in offshore Kiawah waters during the nesting season is on a dramatic increase, to the extent that the annual hatchling crop is no longer sufficient to offset even this singular drain on the faltering adult population. For this reason, the present study initiated a hatchery system for Loggerhead nests in the hope of effecting a dramatic increase in the hatchling crop at Kiawah. The project staff transplanted 50 nests into protective pens, and these nests were monitored throughout the incubation period. The mean hatch rate was 80.58 %; a hatchling crop of 4,990 was yielded. In a separate pen, 11 nests were transplanted between 5 and 50 days after the date of ovi- position, in an effort to obtain more accurate and reliable data

on embryonic sensitivity during the incubation period.Mean hatch

rate among these 11 nests was 64%, with a yield of 757 hatchlings.

With a total of 5,747 hatchlings from this hatchery, and some 2,800

hatchlings produced from control and singularly protected wild nests

on the beach, we were only able to offset themortality rate among

adult and adolescent females during the 1973 season. If this mor-

tality rate continues to increase on an annual basis, the hatchery

104 system will have to be expanded and made more efficient.

Emergences of nesting Loggerheads were analyzed with respect to time and tide levels in hopes of effecting a greater efficiency in beach patrols. These data indicate that the most intense nesting

activity occurs on nights with a high tide before 2:00 a.m. EST.

An analysis of emergent data throughout the nesting season confirmed

our 1972 suspicions that group nesting is a phenomenon which does

occur on Kiawah, and this information should be of use in future

studies. Analyses of meteorological and beach topographical data

indicate that nesting activity is not affected significantly by meteorological phenomena, and that topographical cues to nesting

adults are essentially overriden by human habitation of, and pres-

ence on, nesting beaches.

In addition to the biological field work conducted on Kiawah

in 1973, an ecological documentary was assembled in the form of a

black and white 16 mm film, with sound, which can be obtained for

private or group showings through the Baruch Institute of the Uni-

versity of South Carolina.The film is a record of the project

activity, and it describes the plight of Car, etta caretta on Kiawah

and other South Atlantic rookeries. As an educational tool, this

is the most immediately important product of the 1973 research.

If the present study is to benefit the Loggerhead population

at Kiawah, it must be continued for a period of at least a decade;

its success, therefore, depends on the Baruch Institute's future

access to the Kiawah Rookery.

Reference copy: P. Se C. Science Library, University of South

Carolina ***************************************************************

105 Section II.

Health-Related and Basic Studies

Papers from the University of Georgia, University of Wisconsin at Madison (2), Hope College, William Marsh Rice University (2),

Niagara University, Seton Hall University, University of Oregon,

Manchester College, Benedict College, Massachusetts Institute of

Technology, Southwestern State College, Texas A&I University,

Arkansas State University, Yale University, Morehead State Uni- versity, Northern State College, Vanderbilt University, Purdue

University, University of Maryland, Reed College (2), University of Pennsylvania, and The Johns Hopkins University.

106 Identification of Man-Made Reservoirs for Human Patho ens in the Hyman Environment (Grant no. GY-10802)

University of Georgia Athens, Georgia 30602

June 11, 1973 - August 31, 1973

Participants:

Charles A. Chambers Hilary K. Harris

Richard N. Ernest Richard D. Klein

Linda C. Fried Howard S. McCullough

Sue U. Glover David R. Rumph*

*Student Project Director

Gene E. Michaels, Faculty Advisor

Human bacterial and fungal pathogens were isolated from ornamental planters in two suburban shopping malls, a children's day care center and the University of Georgia campus during a three-month period. Human contact at all test sites was also monitored.

Soil samples were collected in sterile plastic bags, using stainless steel spoons; these samples were tested in the following manner:

Fungal: Soil was first owIrlaid with sterile hair according to the hair-baiting technique for dermatophytes. Soil dilutions were made and inoculated on Sabouraud's dextrose and Rose Bengal with .015% streptomycin. Isolation of other fungi was accomplished with these two media.

Bacterial: Soil dilutions were inoculated on nutrient agar,

Streptosel, blood agar, and tellurite glycine base agar.

107 Resulting cultures were stained by the Gram method and sub- cultured on nutrient agar slants and brain-heart infision broth.

Identification of the genera was made by the use of fermentation tests (dextrose, saccharose, mannose, lactose), motility, hydrogen sulfide, indole, liquefaction, citrate, methyl red, Voges-

Proskauer, and catalase tests.

Fro:'i the sample areas, common soil organisms and human pathogens were isolated. Bacterial pathogens consisted of:

Staphylococcus

Streptococcus spp.

Micrococcus spp.

Pseudomonas

Neisseria spp.

Enterobacter spp. Salmonella mt

Escherichia coli

Fungal pathogens consisted of:

Microsporum spp. Trichophy.tonrr spp. Epidermophyton spp.

Asperjillus spp.

Penicillium app.

Phialophora spp.

222/1212122ELUMERa Cladosporium.up.

108 Experimental Planters

Planter number Latgnulah 1 pine bark nuggets

2 control

3 pine bark chips

4 morr

5 mull

6 unmulched*

7 pea gravel*

8 peat moss

9 pea gravel

* These planters contained peat moss :tsLi planting base.

Rank of Inhibition*

HIGHEST FUNGAL BACTERIAL YEAST INHIBITION COLONIES COLONIES COLONIES

2 2 2 7 6 7 6 7 3 9 9 5 8 5 6 5 8 4 4 4 9 LOWEST 3 3 8 INHIBITION 1 1 1

* Numbers indicate the number of the experimental plant4rs.

Soil constitutes a natural environment fox' microorganisms pathogenic for man. The soil in ornamental planters (of the type found in shopping malls) also contain microorganisms whichmay be inimical to man. Through random observation of isolated planters

109 located in congested shopping malls, a 12.4% contact rate with planters was found. Therefore, if bacteria or fungi are present

in these planters, a reservoir of contamination and a possible mode of transmission of disease has been established.The pres-

ence of those bacteria and fungi wasconfirmed in this study. As

stated by Gray, in a list of bacteria indigenous to soil, Strep

tococcus and Staphylococcus are not natural inhabitants of soil.

However, these organisms were found in this study.

It can be concluded that it would be possible for shoppers

and others to inoculate themselves with microbes when touching a

planter. By the use of experimental planters, it was found that the best means of controlling pathogenic organisms in theplanters

was the removal of mulch from the soil. Alternate planters were

also designed to minimize the contact rate. These designs, if

used would control the spread of disease. It is recommended

that inanimate objects- chairs, benches and the surfaces of the

planters--be sprayed with a disinfectant to minimize the possibil-

ity of human contamination.

Referenc,- copy: Science Library, University of Georgia ******************************************************************

Devalo ment of a Device to Accelerate Communication in Mute

)yLii.p.p...... caedChi__.1drenSeverelHax (Grant no. GY-10746)

University of Wisconsin at Madison Madison, Wisconsin 53706

May 27, 1973 - August 22, 1973

110 Participants:

Warren Brown Claudia Schneibel

David Church Cindi Seuser

Caron Harris Mark Spielman

Thomas MacDonald Cheryl Thornsen

Robert Norton Gregg Vanderheiden*

Andrew Volk

*Student Project Director

Non-Stipend Participant:

Gerald Raitzer

C. Daniel Geisler, Faculty Advisor

This report presents a condensation of the results of the research efforts of the Cerebral Palsy Communication Group during the summer of 1973. During this time the group conducted the initial research and development of a new aid, the Wordmaster, whose purpose is to accelerate communication for non-vocal, physically-handicapped children who are presently usinga communication aid which includes some form of printout. The acceleration of communication is to be realized by providing the child witha limited set of words which would be printed out automatically when he selected them. Thus, the child would be able to communicate in a word-by-word ftishioa as in normal speech instead o-f- -h-a-v-i-n-g

-t-o- -s-p-e-1-1- -o-u-t- -1-e-t-t-e-r- -b-y-

-l-e-t-t-e-r-, -w-h-i-c-h- -i-s- -a- -s-l-o-w- -a-n-d- t-e-d-i-o-u-s-

-p-r-o-c-e-s-s-,

The research accomplished is categorized by three problem

111 areas: a) those problems that arise from trying to base an entire communication system on a very limited wordset (64-128 words); b) the problems involved in drawing up a simple, straightforward scheme for the children to reference and specify the proper word for printout; and c) the design, testing, and perfection of a device to accomplish the task.

The Wordmaster device was designed in modular form so that it could be adapted for use with any device using standard ASCII code. For the summer research, the Wordmaster was developed to work with the Auto-Com, a communication aid developed earlier by the Cerebral Palsy Communication Group.

The results of the summer program were:

1) Specification of 2 Wordmasters

Upon investigating the needs and uses that the Wordmaster would fulfill, it was found that they fell into two broad types of communication. It was also determined that these needs could best be handled by two different Wordmasters, each designed to handle

one of the two types of communication. The Portable Wordmaster

(PWM) would be designed to fulfill the everyday conversational

needs of the person, while the Stationary Wordmaster(SWM) would be planned for more comprehensive communication, such as papers,

letters, and other work which would normally be written.

2) Computer Modelin: of the Wordmasters

Both versions of the Wordmaster were modeled on a PDP-ll

mini-computer. They were designed in such a way that the PDP-11

functioned exactly as the Wordmasters would when completed. These

112 models were then used to study both the operational characteristics of the Wordmasters and, later, to test the various forms of the vocabulary as it was being developed.

3) Designs for Both Wordmasters

Complete logic designs were made for both the Portable and Stationary Wmdmasters. These designs were based upon the features determined from the col puter models.

4) Construction ofa Prototype of the Portable Wordmaster

Based upon our projections for the uses of the two Word- master models, it was decided that the Portable Wordmasterwas more fundamental and fulfilled a more essential furketion than the Stationary Wordmaster. The Portable Wordmaster was, therefore, given priority and the remainder of the summwr .iffortwas directed toward developing a working prototype of it. This prototype was completed and installed in a specially modLfied

Auto-Com. Hereafter, the total assembly will be referred to as the Portable Wordmaster/Auto-Com (PWM/AC).

The PWM/AC was completed during thesummer program but final debugging was not completed until the 1973-74 schoolyear.

The system t:.; now fully functional.

5) Development of a Limited Word Vocabulary System

While the engineering section was workingon the design and construction of the Wordmasters, the Communication Research section was investigating the problems associated with thevocabulary. The major result was the 63-word vocabulary-set, along with support materials, such as the dictionary and the

113 surface display organization. The wordset was limited to 63 words by the number of squares on the Auto-Comsurface. Additional words have been provided by using a level system.

6) Recommendations to Expand Function of the PWM/AC

In addition to the design and development of thevocabulary

"cover" set, the team has made recommendations fortechniques and methods to expand the function of the communicationdevi;le. These

suggestions involve modifications for displayand/or usage of

characters appearing on the surface of the board.

7) Evaluation Program for the Final Model

An evaluation program was designed to assessthe Wordmaster/

Auto-Com as a means of communication and as adevice for social and

academic advancemerit. Usage and evaluation of the device will de-

termine its appropriateness, educationalrelevance, and possible

modifications. The results of this project provide bothspecific and secon-

dary benefits to those who suffer fromcommunication handicaps. Immediately, it has made available a device which canaccelerate

communication for non-vocal, physically-handicappedindividuals

who are or will be using printing communicationaids. This ap-

paratus will be evaluated and will bein marketable form by

August 1974. In a much more general vein, the vocabulary re-

search has laid the foundation for thedevelopment of a limited-

word vocabulary system for children that hasapplication far

beyond its use in the Wordmaster or otherelectronic communica-

tion aids. Such a word-set, when finally developed, will have

114 implications for a large variety of individuals with communication handicaps, including the deaf. The research into the development of a communication word-set is continuing.

Reference copy: Memorial Library, University of Wisconsin at Madison

* ** * * * * * * ** 3f********************** ***** *** ************** *********

Nei hborhood-Mental Retardate Interaction Effects During the

Deinstitutionalization Process (Grant no. GY-10748)

Hope College Holland, Michigan 49423

May 14, 1973- August24, 1973

Participants

Deborah Baar Joseph Filonowicz

Paul Bach* Roger Straw

Linda Busse Jan Strong *Student Project Director

Patrick R. Harrison, Faculty Advisor

An accelerated movement of adult mentally-retarded individuals from state institutions and into community-living situations, as well as a gap in the retardation literature describing the day- to-day life style of the retarded, prompted an investigation into five homes organized for the care and "normalization" of mentally- retarded adult males. The house populations ranged from three to ten residents, (ages 19 to 50'). Each home is staffed by a set of house parents. The houses have been in operation for 0 to 6 years (two were established during the study.) To ascertain descriptively what type of behaviors an individual had exhibited

115 while institutionalized, institutional reords were analyzed ex-

haustively and a retrospective Vineland Scale of Social Maturity

was compiled. This scale meafmre was repeated at the end of the three-month study, and again three months after the completion of

the study. Also, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales, which are

characteristically given at the time of institutional release,

were gathered from the subjects'institutional files to compare

with the same scale applied at the end of the study.

Throughout the slAmmer, naturalistic observational techniques

2 were used to record the components of theretardates' life styles.

These included the video-taping, cassette-recording, and super-8

filming of activities in which the retardates were found to be

takIng part at the randomly-selected times the observer was

present. These permanent records were then viewed for characteristic behaviors which the retardates exhibited. This series

of behaviors was compiled into a coding-sheet, which wasthen

used to count each behavior and list the conditions under which

it occured. The second component of the naturhlistic phaoe of the study

was a behavior -cheek sheet compiledfrom two weeks of unrestricted observation, during which time the observers collected exhaustive

descriptions of the behavioral repertoires of each retardate. Two

forms of the checksheet were then compiled.

The first was used by the observers and contained broad

activity and behavioral descriptors likely to be seen during the

four weekly two-to-three hour observation periods. The second

form was used by the houseparents and noted.-pecific behaviors

116 which they might have observed during the day. Thus, the study attempted to catalog, in broad terms, the activities of each of the 27 retardates each day for eight weeks.

To discern the effect each house hadon its neighborhood, the Inhabitants of the nine houses adjacent to each retardate house were unobtrusively polled on their attitudes concerning their neighborhood, their house, old age-organizations,public education, and (quite coincidentally) mental etardation. In this way, the intervieweeswere never aware that the survey had any relationship to the retardate house. Finally, a survey was made of all Couuty mental .Health agencies regarding similar houses they had organized.

With this approach, using standardizedmeasures of intelligence and social adaptation, constructing records of behavior-21 observation by both trained observers and the houseparents, utilizing attitude questionnaires and institutional records, the study attempted to construct a complete picture of the effects the deinstitutionalization process had +on the retardates and their neighborhood.

The changes in Vineland Social Maturity scale,scores indicate that an improvement in social skills was realized (across individuals) from release to the end of the study and, again, three months later. The biggest change in scores occurred for moderately- retarded individuals recently released from the institution. Al- though this group accounted for the largestaverage change, all individuals in this group did not exhibit big changes.)

117 WAIS scores also improved from release-time to theend of the study. Again, the moderately-retarded, recently-released group accounted for this change. Although a statistical analysis was impossible because of the discrepancy betweeninsti- tutions and because of our way of collecting the data,it appears that fewer hospitalizationsand aggressive acts occur outside of the institution, while mail exchange remains un- changed. Given the measurement constraints, this must be considered only tentative. The observational portion of the study yieldshighly complex results which do not easily reduce togeneralizations without the use of multi-variatoarl:Afses, unavailable at the time of writing of this abstract. This much can be said on a tentative basis: several individuals did exhibit a change in thefrequency of several behavior-groups. There was, as the summer progressed, an inoreas ia "behaving"; that is, the frequencies of several categories increased so that the activity level wasgenerally heightened in most houses. Many lower-level retardates show a marked (although not necessarilylarge) frequency of imitative behavior--imitating either the television or other retardates.

A disproportionate amount of time(in some cases more than 50%

of the samples taken) is spent listening toradios, stereos,

tape recorders or watching televiAL01. The behavioral level

seems to increase when thehouseparent is present, and it is anticipated that the presence of the houseparent may proveto

be an elicitor or inhibitor of behavior when amultivariate

analysis is made.

118 The attitude questionnaire gave the most clear-cut and the most useful results. Contrary to expectation, neighborhoods with retardate houses viewed their neighborhood no less favorably

than control neighborhoods (identical save for existence of a

retardate house.) Their views toward the neighborhood as a place

to bring up children and as a financial investment apparently had

no relationship to the presence of the retardate house. They

rarely mentioned the existence of the house, and when they did,

it was more often favorably than unfavorably. Nor were their

reported attitudes toward mental retardation any different than

in control neighborhoods. It should be noted that if any neigh-

borhoods could be said to have "negative" attitudes, it was the

groups in which retardate houses had most recently been established

(although this difference is only marginal) and which had,as yet,

only negligible contact with the house.

Doubtless, the most dramatic change occurred in the occupa-

tions of the retardates. At the beginning of the summer, 17 worked in a sheltered workshop (5 on the farm on which they lived),

5 were competitively employed, 4 went to school and 1 was unem-

ployed. At the end of the summer, 14 worked in a sheltered work-

shop (5 remained on the farm), 9 were competitively employed, 4 went to school and none were unemployed.

While the results of a study carried on for only three months,

observing only 27 non-randomly chosen individuals (withas varied histories as these individuals had), must be regarded as only

tentative, it appears that many, if not all, retarded individuals

119 / benefit from communityliving,with no apparent detriment to

the community's well-being.

Reference copy: Yoeren Public Library, Hope College ******************************************************************

Circadian Variations in the Need and Administration ofAntihis-

tamine (Grant no GY-10762) Rice University Houston, Texas 77001

May 14, 1973 - August 3, 1973

Participants:

Lawrence Bonham Al Milne

Eva K. Carter Victoria Wagoner

Alan Haggard John Williams

Brenda Kouian Charles Zelnick*

*Student Project Director Arnold Eskin, Faculty Advisor

Although daily variations in the response of animals todif-

ferent drugs have long been known, very little isunderstood

about where these variations come from. The antihistamine drug

system was used as a model to investigate the componentrhythms

of the various elements of the system, in anattempt to elucidate

their relationships to the overall rhythm of thesystem. The

model consisted of Compound48/80-releasing histamine, which competitively interacted with an antihistamine(chloropheniramine

maleate) to produce various effects. Different elements of this

sequence were isolated and theirrhythms determined through use

of appropriate controls. The system was studied in laboratory

120 rats which were adapted to a 12-hour light /l2 -hour dark cycle.

Body temperature was chosen as the symptom to be measured. A rectal temperature assay was perfected and used in these studies.

The basal temperature rhythm and the rhythm of response to 48/80 were found. Next, the overall rhythm was found, using this assay.

An attempt was made to isolate the mast cell receptor rhythm for

48/80 by measuring the amount of histamine released bythe 48/80

into the plasma. A double dilution isotope enzyme assay for his-

tamine was used without success for this experiment and foran

experiment to determine the rhythm of the basal histamine present.

Thus, these two rhythms could not be determined. However, the

temperature response rhythm to injected histamine was found using

the temperature assay. Finally, the rhythm of the antihistamine was isolated using the temperature assay. With the major rhythms

established, attention was turned towards investigating the ca-

tabolism of the various drugs in the system. No assay for antihistamine in blood plasma could be devised, so the delayed action

of its effects were investigated. Only one time period was found

in which catabolism did not reduce the drug effects to zero. To measure histamine catabolism,H3-histaminewas injected into the

rats, plasma samples taken and assayed 5 hours later. Data from

this experiment were neither significant nor conclusive.

In summary our efforts were successful in a variety of areas.

A temperature assay for histamine Was perfected, and used to

determine the overall rhythm and the rhythm of the effects of

48/80, histamine, and the antihistamine. A rhythm of the delayed

121 effects of the antihistamine was also found. Integration and inspection of these rhythms has shown that no single factor seems to control the overall rhythm,but, rather, that the component rhythms interact in a complex manner to produce the overall rhythm. The rhythms which were found can be manipulated to predict the mast cell receptor rhythm, which, itself, could not be determined, because of the failure of the enzymatic assay for histamine. Determination of this final rhythm will provide a link between the relative potencies of the two drugs, allowing a determination of the relativeimportance of each component rhythm in describing the overall rhythm. Categorizing drug response rhythms in this fashion willprovide information about how these rhythms interact with each other, thusproviding insight into the mechanisms of drug action within the animal.

Reference copy: Fondren Library, Rice University ******************************************************************

The Effects of Sulfur Dioxide on the RespiratoryCapabilities of

the Laboratory Rat (Grant no. GY-10784) Niagara University Niagara University, New York 14109

June 4, 1973 - August 24, 1973

Participants:

Robert Braun Peter Sciarrino

Donald Harrigan Samuel Sirianni

Ronald Klizek* John Zysk

*Student Project Director

Bryan T. Britten, Faculty Advisor

122 Sulfur dioxide is a common urban pollutant known to cause chronic lung irritations resulting in bronchoconstriction and decreased respiratory volume. Since respiration plays an important role in the regulation of blood pH, sulfur dioxide in

an inordinately high concentration of 5.24 ppm should cause

either an uncompensated or a compensated respiratory acidosis.

This problem can be detected by obtaining pCO2 and pH values with a blood-gas apparatus. Sulfur dioxide is also known to

increase the red blood cell count, hemoglobin concentration

and packed cell volume. These changes were examined.

Prior to the initiation of the toxicological study, two

environmental chambers were constructed of plexiglas. They were

rectangular in design and proved to be quite inexpensive and

versatile. The pollutant gas was introduced into the chambers

via a nalgon tubing dilution system which functioned by using

"bleeds" (constrictions) in the tubing that offered a resistance

to flow. With this method one could readily divert large quanti-

ties of the gas from the experimental chamber, so that the desired

concentration was obtained. Analysis of the actual concentration

of sulfur dioxide in the experimental chamber was made by the wet

chemical method of West and Gaeke. This involved converting the

sulfur dioxide to a disulfitomercurate anion by scrubbing it

through a 0.1 M tetrachloromercurate II solution. This anion can

be detected spectrophotometrically with the addition of acid

bleached-pararosaniline and formaldehyde. Concentrations are de-

termined by comparing the sample to a prepared standard curve

123 which plots absorbancy against disulfitomercurate concentration.

With a proper environment established, 36 Sprague Dawley rats were numbered and weighed. Eighteen were introduced into the control chamber and 18 into the environmental chamber. Air entering each chamber was filtered, and, except for the sulfur dioxide gas entering the experimental chamber, all other conditions were identical.

Every week, 9 rats from each chamber were selected, and 1 ml of blood taken from each by means of a cardiac puncture of the left ventricle. The next week, the remaining 9 rats from each chamber were chosen for sampling. By this method, a weekly progression could be observed. Six tests were performed on the blood: hematocrit, hemoglobin determination, red blood cent count, p02, pCO2 and pH, with a subsequent calculation forHS CO. With these values known, it could be determined easily whether the sulfur dioxide had had any effect on the blood.

After subjecting the data to Student's T Test, no changes in

the blood-gas values or other blood value were found for a

seven-week period at a mean concentration of 5.24 ppm. These

results may be explained by the following: a seven-week period

is not long enough to effect a change; the concentration was not

strong enough; or the rats were too resistant to the gas under

these conditions to induce a change.

Reference copy: Niagara University Library

124 Correlation of Atmos heric Trace Metal Concentrations with Body,

Burdens in Newark, New Jersey (Grant no. GY-10755)

Seton Hall University South Orange, New Jersey 07079

June 6, 1973 - August 26, 1973

Participants:

Gordon Asmuth Gail Meschenik

John Bleski Tobias Samo

Thomas Engelmann* William Sullivan

Richard Martino Janet Szymczak

Steven Vamvakis

*Student Project Director

Roland F. Hirsch, Faculty Advisor

Thel4urpose of this project was to determine if there is a correlation between the concentrations of atmospheric trace metals

(particularly cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc) with body burdens, in the urban Newark, New Jersey area. To carry out this investigation, daily air samples were obtained to establish local distributions and correlations with atmospheric data; blood samples from young children in Newark were analyzed to determine whether a correlation exists between concentrations in the air and in the blood; and a typical diet of an inner-city Newark child was examined to investigate the significance of food consumption on body burdens.

Air samples containing particulate matter from the atmosphere were collected on 8 X 10-inch sheets of filter paper placed in high volume air samplers at five different locations in Newark,

125 and one location each in East Orange, South Orange, Maplewood,

Kearny, and Jersey City. Samples were taken every weekday at each location. Sampling periods were approximately 24 hours for each station. The filter paper was analyzed by means of

X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, using a method developed by

Luke, et al., at Bell Laboratories. This method requires no sample treatment and is nondestructive. Forty-second counts were made on a General Electric XRD - 5 unit at goniometer readings specific for each element. A scintillation counter tube served as the detector. The instrument was calibrated regularly, using multimetal standards. Due to inherent difficulties, cadmium could not be analyzed by this method.

The blood samples were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotmetry, following a method described by Hessel.

Blood samples were treated with a combination of hemolyzing and chelating reagents, followed by the extracting solvent. Each sample was centrifuged and the supernatant aspirated directly into the spectrophotometer. The New Jersey College of Medicine and Dentistry supplied all blood extracts. These extracts were examined for lead and cadmium.

The purpose of the food analysis was to compile an average weekly diet of typical 210.5-year old Newark children and to determine the trace metal concentrations in this diet for further correlation with trace metal body burdens. A diet was prepared from data taken from 54 nutritional questionnaires collected at the Martland Hospital clinic, in conjunction with the lead screen-

126 ing program. The food items contained in the diet were purchased at an inner-city supermarket. The food was prepared and blended with 100 ml. of formaldehyde added to retard spoilage. The food was analyzed, using alow-temperature ashing technique and atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Correlations between ambient trace metal concentrations and daily meteorological data were established using a linear regression analysis program from a computer library.The most significant correlations were found between the ambient metal concentrations and the average daily wind speed. It was concluded that, in most cases, the ambient zinc and nickel concentrations are inversely proportional to the average daily wind speed.

The blood level concentrations were plotted for lead and cadmium on a large map of Newark and vicinity. The goal was to establish a mean concentration value for lead andcadmium around each air sampling station and to compare these valueswith the average ambient trace metal concentrationsfor possible correlations. An analysis of variance indicated, however, that all blood level concentrations were statistically from the same population and means at each station could not bedistinguished.

Reference copy: Sciences Library, Seton Hall University *******************************************************************

The Effecto of Agh-Intensity Noist.and_InjectedTranquilizers on

Social Behavior and Corticosterone Levels in RhesusMonkeys.

(Grant no, GY-10787) University of Wisconsin at Madison Madison, Wisconsin 53706

127 May 29, 1973- August 17, 1973

Participants:

John Cotton Mark Larson

Vicki Hanson John Mikesell

Jean Klann* Paul Rossmeissl

Misao Kusuda Hannah Wu

Peggy Zaks

*Student Project Director

Robert E. Bowman, Faculty Advisor

This experiment was designed to determine some of the effects of tranquilizers on the behavior and on steroids in the blood of rhesus monkeys exposed to noise. The work involved 18 animals, divided into three groups of six each, so that three types of tranquilizers could be studied without inter-drug effect. The design was 6 X 6 Latin square, with the square repeated for the three drugs. Each of the 36 squares represented one combination of noise treatment and drug dosage.

The type of noise, one hour of continuous power tool noise, was chosen as a result of an SOS project on noise pollution at the University of Wisconsin under Perry M. Nealis. This mode

(for this particular length of time)gave the greatest level of blood cortisol--a stress-related index, according to the 1972 study. The tranquilizers were chosen because of their high level of human usage and because they belonged to different tranquilizers groups. Valium (or diazepam) is a member of the benzidiazepine group and is the most often prescribed drug in the United States. '.ri.staril (hydroyzine hydrochloride) is also

128 widely used for the alleviation of anxiety. Stelazine (trifluo-

perazine) is one of the phenothiazines and used in the therapy of

psychoses.

It was found that cortisol levels were significantly affected

in a tranquilizer-noise parameter. For example, with all dosage

levels of Stelazine, the cortisol levels of the no-noise condi-

tion were 13.8 ug % higher than the cortisol levels of the noise

condition. This may indicate an increased responsivity and a

correspondingly less-stressed state of the animals given Stel-

azine in the presence of noise.

Behaviorally, two categories (social play and self play),

were shown to have been significantly affected by thenoise/no-

noise condition with respect to both tranquilizer type and dosage

received. For these two areas, noise appears to increase these

behaviors in the low and high dose conditions for Valium, while

the lack of noise decreases social play and has no effect on

self play. The low dosage of Vistaril used on the monkeys seems

to loosen the inhibition of the animals and, thus, facilitate

social behavior. High dosage, however, depresses all normal be-

havior, as compared to the low dosage behavior; the combination

of noise and low dose Vistaril is behaviorally comparable to

high dosage and no-noise. Stelazine appears to abolish all

normal behavior in both dosage and noise conditions. Unlike

the other two drugs, a low dosage is sufficient, in all cases,

to elicit the behavioral effects. As expected, a drastic in-

crease in disturbance level was found.

129 The last area of noise-related significance concerns passivity. Both Valium and Stelazine showed decreases in the pas- sive behaviors when comparing no-noise conditions to noise conditions. This would support the theory that noise creates an increase in behavioral responsiveness for these two drugs.

On the other hand, there was an increase in general passivity for Vistaril with noise vis a vis no noise, indicating a decrease in behavioral responsivity for this particular drug.

Other behavioral categories showed significant effects with respect to tranquilizer and dose alone and are discussed in the technical report.

Reference copy: Memorial Library, University of Wisconsin at Madison ****************************************4(*************************

Effects of Artificial Pol c themia on Selected Physiological

Res aps to Strenuous Exercise (Grant no. GY-10767)

University of Oregon Eugene, Oregon 79403

June 10, 1973 - September 1, 1973

Participants:

Michael Bray Alexander McNeill

Michael Hahn Russell R. Pate*

James Herman Patricia Rada

Peter Kovach Charlene Sabin

Eleanor Wu

*Student Project Director

Francis Reithel, Faculty Advisor

130 The objectives of this study were to test the following hypotheses: (1) that the reinfusion of red blood cells could act like an ergogenic aid; (2) that there are harmful side- effects to the reinfusion process; and (3) that tissue hypoxia is a cause for the post-exercise increase in plasma lactic de- hydrogenase (PLDH) activity. The methodology involved the induction of polycythemia in albino rats by means of the intra - peritoneal injection of packed red-blood cells obtained from donor rats. Trained and untrained groups of polycythemia and control animals were subjected to either a test of maximal oxygen uptake or a period of submaximal exercise. Maximal oxygen uptake was measured by monitoring oxygen consumption with a flow-through respirometry system while the weighted rat swam to exhaustion in a cylindrical plexiglas chamber. The submaximal exercise consisted of four hours of swimming. Three control groups were maintained for the assessment of changes inthe various parameters in resting animals. Following the exercise test, venous and arterial blood samples were taken from the inferior vena cava and abdominal aorta of the experimental rats. Resting samples were taken from the animals in the three control groups. The arterial blood samples were analyzed for pH, p02, and pCO2 by useof a Radiometer pH/ blood gas analyzer. Spectrophotometric techniques were utilized to assay for 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG), hemoglobin, and

PLDH concentrations. Plasma sodium and potassium concentrations were analyzed with flame photometry. The venous sample was

131 analyzed for only p02.

The significance of the difference between group means for each parameter was computed using one-way analysis of variance.

The Sheffe post-hoc test was applied to data sets which demonstrated significant F-ratios (.05 level of significance).Com- puter techniques were used for these analyses.

The results (see Tables 1 and 2) revealed that intraperitoneal injection of packed red cells did result in statistically significant increases in hemoglobin concentration and in hematocrit readings. That is, the injected groups did become mildly polycythemic. Induction of polycythemia did not significantly effect exercise performance, as reflected by maximal oxygen uptake and work time to exhaustion. Neither were there significant variations in plasma sodium, plasma potassium, 2,3-DPG, pH or PLDH because of polycythemia induction.

As expected, exhaustive exercise did cause significant altera- tions in pH and plasma potassium. Nonsignificant increasesi:in

PLDH due to the exercise were observed.

Weaknesses in the study included: (1) a change in method for the induction of polycythemia after the start of the experimental period; (2) excessive weight gain by the animals prior to testing; and (3) inability to collect blood during the exercise period (thus yielding the blood gas data meaningless).

The first two limitations prevented collection of valuable data from the animals following submaximal exercise. Consequently, no conclusions can be made concerning the causes for the increase

132 BEST COPYAVAILABLE in PLDH activity following exercise.

Wtihin the limitations noted, it was concluded that the data indicate that artificial polycythemia (1) did not significantly effect exercise performance; and (2) did not result in harmful side-effects.

133 Table 1--Blood parameter data: group means and standard deviations Art. Ten. Trained (n=9) GROUP* B1 14.87(g%)(.61) 52.75(1.9) Het(%) (mEq/1) (mEq/1)141.1(4.3) Na 4.600(.36) K 2,3 -DPG (49.3)316.3(M/l) 161.88(51.1)PLDH(IU) 6.893(.15) pH 40.31(5.7) (mm) 112.33(11.2) (/302 ) 80.8(5.8) (mm) Not ReinfusedNot TrainedReinfused (n -8) B2 15.68(.46) 55.00(1.0) 141.2(3.8) 4.537(.43) 425.5(91.2) 176.00(21.2) 7.008(.16) 36.33(8.5) 86.00(9.5) 62.0(9.1) Reinfused (n=11) B4B3 16.02(.66) 56.91(3.4) 140.4(7.5) 4.618(.45) 361.9(60.3) 174.28(42.4) 6.940(.10) (10.9) 34.32 101.63(14.5) 74.6(12.) k.m1-3 Not ReinfusedNot Trained (n=8) Cl 13.53(.37) 52.00(3.3) 138.2(7.4) 4.562(.52) 347.8(27.8) 162.14(33.7) 7.131(.08) (10.2) 41.21 96.20(9.6) 62.8(6.1) Removal Only Control (n=6) C2 14.50(.30) 47.50(2.2) 136.2(2.9) 3.633(.52) 377.8(40.9) (29.8)95.50 7.462(.05) 25.20(6.7) 84.90(4.3) 51.444.3(14.) Remay.8aeinf. Control (n=8) C3 15.68(.71) (3.3)55.50 142.6(2.9) 3.887(.28) 376.3(65.2) 131.33(44.9) 7.425(.04) 43.8531.27(7.2) 85.0574.14(5.6) (3.4) *AllUntouched data AllfromControl data B groups from (n=9) Cwere groups collected were collected after exhaustive with the exercise.animal at rest. 14.21(.85) 47.00(1.7) 137.1(1.9) 4.137(.28) 372.2(27.7) 117.83(35.1) 7.459(.06) (6.6) (12.7) 52.6(6.8) Table 2--Maximal oxygen uptake and work time to exhaustion data: group means and standard deviations

GROUP Work Time Max VO2 (min) (ml/kg/min)

Bl (n=9) 17.11 37.6 Trained (23.77) (7.52) Not Reinfused

B2 (n=8) 16.37 35.7 Not Trained (17.67) (4.13) Reinfused

B3 (n=11) 11.36 38.5 Trained (5.71) (7.09) Reinfused

B4 (n=8) 20.50 32.1 Not Trained (17.65) (3.85) Not Reinfused

Reference copy: University of Oregon Science Library *****************************************************************

135 The Effects of Taurine on Ouabain Induced Arrhythmias

(Grant no. GY-10761)

Manchester College North Manchester, Indiana 46962

May 21, 1973- August 10, 1973

Participants:

Gary W. Lemmon Max R. Olinger

Craig R. McNamara Dennis M. Sollenberger

Greg A. Miller* Don R. Starkey

Keith D. Winters

*Student Project Director

Wilson B. Lutz, Faculty Advisor

The clinical use of digitalis has been reported since 1785.

Today, it is considered the single most useful drug in the treat-

ment of heart failure and arrhythmias. Digitalis is the drug of

choice for various cardiac ailments because of its inotropic and

antiarrhythmetic properties. Its unwise use, however, is widely

associated with digitalis intoxication considered by some to be

of epidemic proportions in the United States.

A wide variety of factors influence the dosage and effective-

ness of digitalis and the occurrence of digitalis toxicity. A

proper dosage for 6 particular patient may be much smaller or

much larger than the "normally" prescribed dosage. However,

since therapeutic and toxic levels are nearly the same, clinical

doses are difficult to determine. Other problems associated with

the use of digitalis include: incorrect dispensing, accumulation

of the drug in the body, and accidental poisoning. It has been

136 estimated that anywhere from seven to 22% of those using digitalis experience toxic effects; such cases appear to be on the increase.

One of the primary indications of toxicity is the occurrence of cardiac arrhythmias. Current procedures for restoring normal cardiac rhythms include administration of propranolol, potassium salt, diphenyl-hydantoin, chelating agents, or simply waiting until the dangerous effects subside. The need for more efficacious antidotes has resulted in extensive investigation of several drugs.

Taurine has shown promising results by establishing normal cardiac rhythms in dogs challenged with toxic levels of ouabain. Interest has been focussed on the use of taurine because of high concentrations found in the heart which could indicate a role in stabili- zing cardiac rhythm. Cardiac glycosides, such as digitalis, are known to cause the efflux of potassium from muscle tissue, although recent experiments do not show a concomitant rise in plasma potassium concentrations. Taurine, or one of its metabolites, may prevent this efflux of potassium and, thus, offer a means of over- coming digitalis intoxication.

To investigate more fully the physiological action of taurine and its suggested role in stablizing cardiac rhythms, a structure- activity relationship study was proposed. It has been suggested that taurine and isethionic acid (ISA) may act as two members of a complex which regulates intracellular potassium concentration in some way by binding potassium ions electrostatically. To test this hypothesis, a variety of compounds were proposed which had altered functional groups, varied carbon skeletons, and fixed

137 stereochemical relationships of the amino and sulfonic acid moieties. Although time did not allow an exhaustive study of this hypothesis, several compounds pertinent to such an investigation were synthesized.

The sulfonamide of taurine (2-aminoethanesulfonamide hydrochloride) was synthesized using an N-phthaloyl protected form of mercaptoethylamine and proceeding by oxidative chlorina- tion of the thiol function, treatment of the sulfonyl chloride with ammonia, and finally, the removal of the phthaloyl group by hydrazinolysis. Three carbon homologues of taurine and ISA were prepared by ammonolysis and hydrolysis oft-propane sultone, followed by a variety of work-up procedures that afforded samples of the calcium, ammonium, and sodium salts of the products. N- acetyl taurine was prepared by reacting taurine with acetic anhydride in a solution of sodium bicarbonate. Treatment of ethylene bromide with sodium sulfite in an alcohol-water solution gave 2- bromoethanesulfonate. An unsuccessful attempt to synthesize N- formyl taurine was made by treating taurine with acetic formic anhydride. Investigations into the synthesizing of compounds with fixed stereochemical relationships of the amino and sulfonic acid groups were made. This could be achieved in a molecule such as a cis- or trans-2-aminocyclopentanesulfonic acid. Six-membered ring structures were used as model compounds because of the availability of starting material.

New Zealand White rabbits of either sex were used as test animals in an attempt to investigate the in vivo effects of taurine

138 on ouabain-induced arrhythmias. Ouabain was chosen because it is the fastest acting digitalis preparation and because toxic affects produced by ouabain are very similar to those produced by other digitalis-like compounds. Animals weighing between 0.95 and 2.75 kilograms were fasted for twelve hours prior to the experiment. Intravenous injections of sodium pentobarbitol (50 mg/kg) were used to anesthesize the animals. Cardiac stability was monitored by continuously ob-

serving an oscilloscopic display of lead II. Permanent records were made of significant portions of theelectrocardiogram by

recording the output on a physiograph. The right femoral vein was exposed for catheterization. Infusions of drugs and with-

drawal of blood samples were both accomplished at this location.

One milliliter blood samples were taken every fifteen minutes

for a period of 90 minutes. A control period of 15 minutes was

allowed after the first sample was taken, followed by a40-

minute infusion. Blood samples were centrifuged and 0.1 ml ali-

quots of serum used for sodium, potassium, and glucose determi-

nations. A Coleman flame photometer was used to determine the

electrolyte concentrations, and the Worthington Biochemical

Glucostat procedure was employed to determine glucose concen-

trations. A series of experiments were conducted in which the follow-

ing substances were administered: saline, ouabain, taurine,

ouabain and taurine (simultaneously), ISA, ouabain and ISA,

ouabain and 2-bromoethanesulfonic acid, ouabain and N-acetyl

taurine, ouabain and mercaptoethylamine, ouabain and EDTA, and

139 glucose. The investigations of ouabain, taurine, and ISA were the most extensive. As expected, rabbits given saline infusions maintained stable electrolyte and glucose concentrations and exhibited no cardiac arrhythmias. Rabbits given taurine or ISA exhibited similar characteristics and showed no toxic effects up to total doses of six millimoles and ten millimoles, respectively.

Administration of ouabain resulted in cardiac arrhythmias characteristic of digitalis toxicity, primarily ventricular ex- trasystoles. Our data, however, does not indicate a consistent trend in electrolyte or glucose fluctuations. Ouabain has been reported to produce hypoglycemia in dogs; however, the only changes observed in rabbits were increased glucose levels. To confirm that the arrhythmias observed were not caused by elevated glucose levels, glucose solutions were infused in concentrations high enough to induce hyperglycemia (serum levels of up to 200 mg%) with no concomitant arrhythmias being observed. It was also observed that a dose given on a weight per kilogram basis did not always produce consistent results. These inconsistencies were thought to be due to changes in environment, especially temperature, different ages or feeding habits, and unexplained individual differences of the animals.The larger animals, kept at lower temperatures, were able to withstand higher doses of ouabain.

When taurine or ISA was administered simultaneously with ouabain, no antiarrhythmetic activity was observed, contrary to results previously reported in dogs. Pretreatment with taurine during the control period, followed by simultaneous administration of ouabain and taurine was also ineffective.The analogues

140 of taurine and ISA mentioned above also failed to exhibit detectable antiarrhythmic activity.

Reference copy: Funderburg Library of Manchester College ******************************************************************

Bone Marrow Transplants as a Possible Treatment for Sickle Coil

Anemia (Grant no. GY-10782)

Benedict College Columbia, South Carolina 29204

June 4, 1973 - August 10, 1973

Participants:

Deborah Anderson Michael Gibson

Earlene Burgess Shirley A- Hudley

Charles Cherry Mary E. Toney

Thelma Egister* Johnnie Williams

*Student Project Director

Mary F. Finlay, Faculty Advisor

Bone marrow transplants were investigated as a possible cure for sickle cell anemia, a genetic, disease affecting the formation of hemoglobin. The drug, "cytoxan" (cyclophosphamide), is known to destroy the bone marrow without immediately killing the animal, thus making possible bone marrow transplants. Since the immune response is destroyed with the destruction of the marrow, animals can accept transplants from genetically different individuals

(allografts). Two different types of experiments were conducted which employed cytoxan. One series involved bone marrow transplants into genetically anemic laborry mice, Mus must, ulus.

The criterion for a successful transfer was a significant increase

141 in the number of red blood cells. In the other series, the transplants were made between outbred deer mice, arommus maniculatus. A hemoglobin variant, which could be observed electrophoretically, was used to indicate whether the bone marrow transplants between Peromyscus were successful.

In order for the transplants to succeed, a dosage of cytoxan had to be determined which would destroy the erythrocytes without killing the animal. For Peromyscus, the dosage had been determined to be 650 mg/kg body weight prior to these experiments.

For the laboratory mice, a dosage study was required.

Transplants were attempted on 64 anemic laboratory mice and

68% survived. Three transplants were completed in Peromyscus and one survived. The survivor was shown, by hemoglobin electrophoresis, to have marrow of the donor types.

Reference copy: Benedict College Library ******************************************************************

Onco enic and Muta enic Effects of N-Nitroso Com ounds on Mammalian

Cells in Vitro (Grant no. GY-10754)

Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139

June 4, 1973 - August 31, 1973

Participants:

Davis Alan Fox* Richard Tizard

Howard L. Liber Michael Weimer

*Student Project Director

William G. Thilly, Faculty Advisor

142 The toxicity, mutagenicity, and oncogenicity of several N- nitroso compounds have been tested in vitro. The test systems

used are in the developmental stage and were chosen for study

because of their potential use as bioassay systems for routine

screening of agents potentially harmful to man. N-nitroso com-

pounds were selected for study because of the potential hazard

to man as a result of the presence of these compounds and/or

their precursors in foodstuffs, particularly meats. Other agents

that are mutagenic and/or carcinogenic for rodent cells in vivo

and in vitro have been used as control substances.

Mutagenicity has been determined by measurement of the rate

of mutation to guanine-analog resistance (possibly hypoxanthine-

guanine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency) in two cell lines:

1) the V-79 adult, male, Chinese hamster (Cricetulus griseus)

lung line, and 2) a human lymphoblast line. The latter line is

unique as it is a human cell line that remains stably diploid in

vitro and is readily mutable. We have optimized growth ard cloning

conditions for these cells and have reduced the duration of a

mutagenicity test to one week. This lymphoblast line is the best

system in existence as a bioassay system for the screening of

agents potentially mutagenic to human cells in vivo.

Oncogenicity has been tested in an embryonic mouse fibro-

blast line (C3H- Cl -8), selected for its high degree of contact

inhibJtion in the untransformed state. Oncogenic transformation

was measured as the rate of the appearance of clones of dense,

piled-up morphology against a confluent monolayer of normal,

143 untransformed cells.

All results are expressed as mutants or transformants divided by percent survivors for a given dose. Percent survival

(cytotoxicity) was measured as plating efficiency at a given dose for all cell lines used.

The ability of N-nitroso compounds to alter chromosomal morphology has been tested in the human lymphoblast cell line.

Results indicate that all cell lines are more sensitive to

MNNG (N-methyl-N-nitroso-N'-nitroguanidine), NMU (N-nitroso-

N-methylurea), and NMUT (N-nitro o-N-methylurethane) than to nitroso-amines. This supports the hypothesis that metabolic activation, probably by the liver, is necessary for full potency of nitroso-amines in vivo, whereas the former three compounds, being more unstable, can spontaneously decompose to their active forms.

Oncogenic transformation cannot be observed earlier than six to eight weeks post-treatment with the mouse C3H line, and is not readily obtainable after treatment with N-nitroso compounds. This system, although suitable for study of oncogenic potential at the cellular level, is unsuitable for screening purposes because of the length of an assay and the systems' questionable range of sensitivity.

This work is continuing in the laboratory of Professor W.G.

Thilly, Department of Nutrition and Food Science, M.I.T.

Reference copy: Library, Massachusetts Institute of Technology ******************************************************************

144 Ph siolo ical Studies and Identification of Active Com onents of the Steam-Volatile Distillate from Salsola kali

(Grant no, GY-10794)

Southwestern State College Weatherford, Oklahoma 73096

May 21, 1973 - August 3, 1973

Participants:

Richard Dill David Oxford

Doug Ethel Danny Reinke

Doug Goeringer James Sauer

Debby Littman Garry Whaley*

Toney Miller Ron Wollmann

*Student Project Director

Allen Lane, Faculty Advisor

Previous investigation by the SOS team (GY-9564, 1972) from

Southwestern State College showed that the steam-volatile substance(s) extracted from the aqueous distillate of the tumbleweed, Salsola kali v. tenuifolia tausch, possesses pesticidal potential. It was further believed that the component(s) responsible for this activity contained an aldehyde group. The purpose of the present investigation was to isolate and identify the active ingredient(s), to document its insecticidal properties, and to determine its physiological effects on plants and animals.

Subsequent study revealed that the three major constituents of the ether extract concentrate obtained from the steam distillate of the tumbleweed are trans-2-hexenal, 54%; trans-2-hexen-

1-o1l 29%; and 8%. The remaining 9% consisted of an

145 unidentified alcohol. The percentage of each component varied according to whether the original distillate had been made from the whole plant, the leaves, or the stem-. The stems were shown to contain almost exclusively the trans-2-hexenal, whereas the leaves contained approximately the same percentage as that of the whole plant. The components, trans-2-hexenal and trans-2- hexen-l-ol, commonly referred to as leaf aldehyde and alcohol, are both common constituents of broad leafplants. The leaf aldehyde has been shown to be the element responsible for the pesticidal toxicity. The other components were essentially in- active.

It was found that commercial trans-2-hexenal exhibited the following physiological effects: (1) Insecticidal toxicity for the common housefly, Musca domestica, is LD50, 2.1 mg/l /300 min.

This value seems to lie between the nicotine LD50 of0.704 mg/1/

200 min, and the xylene LD50 of 9.28 mg/l /400 min. (2) Inhibition

of germination and/or reduction in radicle length ofcucumber seeds

is observed at high concentration(1275-1700 ppm.) (3) In laboratory mice, Mug musculus, no chronic physiological damage wasob-

served; however, death did ensue when highconcentrations (1120

mg/kg) were administered. (4) Bactericidal effects were noted in

selected strains at low concentrations(1, 3, and 7 microliters).

Reference copy: Southwestern .State College Library ******************************************************************

Survey of VEE Virus Occuring in Mammals of the South TexasArea

(Grant no. GY-10786)

146 Texas A&I University Kingsville, Texas 78363

May 28, 1973 - August 20, 1973

Participants:

Gary Cadena Stan Parker*

James Herod Duncan Samo

Pam Kennedy Katherine Seitz

Felix Mestas Tom Urban

Edwin Neas David Ybarra

*Student Project Director

John Carlos Perez, Faculty Advisor

In the summer of 1971, Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis

(VEE) entered Texas by way of Mexico. Extensive VEE vaccination and mosquito abatement programs were initiated in the United States; the number of equine deaths in Texas was limited to around 600.

This present study was initiated to determine whether an endemic infection of VEE had been established in the epidemic's wake.

Hemagglutination-inhibition (HI) tests with VEE virus demonstrated antibodies in a Tadarida bat, Peromyscus mice, Sigmodon cotton rats.

Neotoma rats, Dipodomvs rats, cottontail rabbits, coyotes, purple martins, a racoon, a bobcat, a housecat, a badger, a javelina, a jack rabbit, a cow, and a roadrunner. An endemic infection of VEE was found to be occurring east of Brownsville, Texas, where 16.9% of the rodents tested had positive HI titers. Animals taken from

Hidalgo County (west of Brownsville) averaged 30.5% positive, indicating sylvatic VEE activity there, also.

Participants in this study employed a technique in which ro-

147 BEST COPY AVAILABLE dents could be sampled by cardiac bleeding every 6 hours for up to 17 samples. HI antibody titers were reported to horse owners whose stock had been inoculated with TC-83 vaccine.

Reference copy: Department of Biology, Texas A&I University ******************************************************************

A Process to Prepare Paving Materials from Wood Industry Wastes

(Grant no. GY-10781)

Arkansas State University State University, Arkansas 72467

June 1, 1973 - August 15, 1973

Participants:

Charles R. Akers Jimmy W. Eason

David L. Brown Douglas H. Robinson

ThJmas E. Bryant Edward H. Thompson

Richard D. Delaney John H. Weir Darrel W. Wyatt*

*Student Project Director

Paul D. Gwinup, Faculty Advisor

Arkansas has a large timber industry which produces approxi-

mately 23,000 tons of wood waste each month.This large quantity

of waste is one of Arkansas's major disposal problems. It was felt

that if a proper conversion method could be developed, this large

amount of wood residue could become a new source of certain com-

modities presently in short supply because of dwindling reserves

of energy and raw materials. It was this desire not only to dis- om of these wastes but also to convert theminto useful materials

which prompted this,research.

148 The investigation was conducted in two general areas by an interdisciplinary stident group. One of the concerns was to under- take a biological study of the environmental considerations of open storage and open dumping of the wood waste. This consideration was important because most of Arkansas's wood waste producers simply pile their wastes in huge mounds and abandon them.

Biology students collected data on the bacteria, fungi, and anthropods which inhabit sawdust mounts. It was concluded that these organisms present no real problems for practically any disposal or conversion process which might require open storage.A matter which seemed to be a greater problem was the unsightly appearance of large, abandoned sawdust piles. A plant growth study was made of the possibility of covering these piles with green vegetation. These experiments could not be completed because time limitations did not allow the plants to grow to maturity, but preliminary results were quite promising. One interesting environmental observation was that, in some cases, the water runoff from

large mounds discolored nearby streams and ponds. This observation was made late in the study and no determanation was made about the

actual polluting effect.

Chemistry and physics students studied thermal decomposition,

or pyrolysis, as a disposal technique for sawdust. Many interesting

products are reported as being made from this process, but this re-

search was limited to a study of the heavier fractions of the products.

More specifically, the possibility of producing a paving binder was

considered. A binder-like material was produced, tested, and used

149 in a test patch. Approximately four months later, the test patch is performing well but any other conclusions at this time would be premature.

Reference copy: Arkansas State University Library ******************************************************************

Development and Testing of Improved Methods of Tritium Detection at Atomic Facilities (Grant no. GY-10815)

Yale University New Haven, Connecticut 06520

June 15, 1973 - September 7, 1973

Participants:

J. W. Becker D. E. Eisenbud

S. A. Benner D. B. Hill

R. N. Berler C. Katuska

P. A. Davis E. E. Koslow*

A. L. Simko

*Student Project Director

C. S. Cargill III, Faculty Advisor

The purpose of this study was to develop more sophisticated tritium analysis techniques for monitoring tritium release and dispersion in the environment, and to actually test these and other radiation detection methods, by conducting a general radioecologic

study of environments surrounding two nuclear facilities.

Work on improved sample processing methods for tritium analysis

included the development of a vacuum distillation method not previously reported in the literature. Hydrogen isotope separation was also studied; successful results in experimentsusing elec-

150 trolytic separation led to the routine use of this technique for sample enrichment.

A study of different tritium detection systems by liquid scintillation spectroscopy involved an extensive search for improved solvents, solutes, and wavelength shifters. Our finds include data showing that many experimental solvent systems had lower counting efficiencies and water incorporation than the commercially available solvent cocktail, Aquasol.

Work on developing new approaches for solving two problems associated with counting tritium in aqueous environmental samples is described. The first is an improved method for the incorporation of tritium from environmental water into nonpolar compounds for use as scintillator solvents, and uses organomagnesium reagents. The second is a proposed synthetic method for preparing some new alkyl- substituted phenyloxazoles having potential use as secondary fluorescent compounds in scintillation cocktails when high sensitivities to tritium are desired. Work on these compounds is still in progress.

A complex series of processing steps and counting procedures for low levels of tritium was developed during the project and submitted for publication in The International Journal of Applied

Radiation and Isotopes. These techniques were used for the study of radiation in the local environment of two nuclear sites.

The two sites studied by the Yale group were the Yankee Atomic

Power Plant in Rowe, Massachusetts and the site of the Dresden nuclear reactors I, II, and III in Morris, Illinois. This same site is the location of the Midwest Fuel Reprocessing Plant, now in operation.

151 The Rowe, Massachusetts site was studied in great depth.

Rainwater samples were collected and analyzed for tritium and hard beta emitters. Results were negative in all samples.

Groundwater from 52 sites was also collected from sampling wells and was tested by liquid scintillation beta particle spectroscopy.

Results of this work indicated a general absence of tritium but revealed definite evidence of high-energy beta particle activity, later identified by analysis of half life, beta particle endpoint energy, and specialized radiological techniques as coming from radium-224 and daughters. Calculations show that radium levels might be higher than the Title 10 Part 20 guidelines for public exposure to radiation. This has not been confirmed by the U. S.

Atomic Energy Commission as of the date of this report. However, these high radium levels undoubtedly arise naturally from the area's highly metamorphized bedrock which is rich in thorium and, therefore, there is probably little that can be done to reduce the population's exposure to soluble radium which enters the well water.

Tritium studies of the Rowe, Massachusetts area showed a widely varied concentration of tritium in plant life.The cause of this variation appears to be due in part to different levels of ambient tritium being present at the various sites, but also might be due to the differences of tritium uptake by different species.

River sediment radioactivity in the Deerfield River in

Massachusetts exhibited little evidence of increased activity due

to low-level releases from the Yankee Atomic Power Plant. The reading of abnormally high levels of thorium-232 in the sediment constitutes additional evidence that, indeed, it is Ra-224 (a daughter of thorium-232) being detected in groundwater.

Much of the da*ca obtained from the Morris, Illinois site have not been fully analyzed as of the writing of this report.

River sediment analysis by scintillation gamma-ray spectroscopy has demonstrated the existence of only background levels above and below the qtte of the Dresden power stations. Groundwater samples have shown no traces of tritium or other sources of extraneous radioactivity, and rainwater analysis has, similarly, shown no radiation content above natural background.

Data concerning tritium in plant life are still being processed, and analysis of the available results is not feasible. One finding, however, is that the levels are almost uniformly lower than those registered in the forest environment of Rowe, Massachusetts. The plants in the grasslands environment either incorporate less tritium or, more likely, the ambient levels of tritium are lower and, hence, the equilibrium uptake levels in the local plant life are correspondingly lower.

Since the Mid-West Fuel Reprocessing Plant will be one of the largest (if not the largest) donor of man-made tritium to the environment, the knowledge of natural tritium levels in the local environment will be extremely useful as a pre-operational background study against which to compare tritium monitoring after the plant has begun operation.

Reference copy: Kline Biology Tower Science Library of Yale

University ******************************************************************

153 DetectinAflatoxin-ProducinStrains of As er illus flavus in

Soil and Corn Samples (Grant no. GY-108l3)

Morehead State University Morehead, Kentucky 40351

April 1, 1973 - July 27, 1973

Participants:

Connie Harris Baker* Charles Johnson

Randall Baker Jan McCorkle

Susan Heim Kenneth Watkins

*Student Project Director

Tedd Pass II, Faculty Advisor

The objectives of phase I of this study were to detect and

isolate Aspergillus flavus from samples of soil found in corn fields

crib corn, and silage from selected counties in Eastern and Western

Kentucky. Those counties included were Rowan, Fleming, Carter,

Trigg, and Christian.Samples from these counties were collected

between May 14 and May 31, 1973.

The samples (97) were collected at random locations in corn-

fields at depths between 0 and 4 inches. They were then labeled,

stored (0-10°C), and later assayed on a modified Bell and Crawford

medium composed of peptone, glucose, chlorotetracycline, HC1,

streptomucin sulfate, and mineral salts (KH2PO4 monobasic and

MgSO4. 7H20), supplemented with 3% NaC1 plus 2 ppm Botran(2.6-

dichloro-4-nitroaniline). The samples were plated into the above media using the di-

lution plate count technique. Ten grams (dry wt.) of soil were

plated at10-1 and 10-2 dilutions. A one-million aliquot of each

154 dilution was placed on each plate of the selective media.

A. flavus was found in the soil samples collected from the following counties:

a Rowan (0-16.7) b Fleming (0-5.97) Carter (0-4.2) Trigg (1.3-43.6)* e Christian (1.6-258.0)*

The figures listed after each county represent the population range (propagules/gram of air dry soil) detected in each county surveyed. A. flavus was also detected in 13 out of 17 cribcorn samples as in 8 out of 10 silage samples.

In phase II, selected strains of Aspergillus flavus, originally isolated from soil, cribcorn, and silage using the modified

Bell and Crawford technique, were maintained on YES agar slants

(20% sucrose, 2% yeast extract, and 2% agar). At various intervals, the isolates were transferred to YES broth to determine the capability of each strain to produce aflatoxins B1 and G1. N. D. Davis,

U. L. Diener and D. W. Eldridge have shown that maximum yields of

B1 and G1 by Aspergillus flavus may be obtained by using the YES broth. Transfers were made to 100 milliliters of YES broth in one liter Erlenmeyer flasks and allowed to incubate 6-8 days at 250C before extractions were made.

Of the 130 isolates of A. flavus that were obtained from soil, cribcorn, and silage samples, in different corn fields in Trigg,

Christian, Fleming, and Rowan counties, 43 were transferred to the

*It appears that Christian mu Trigg county soils may be considered as high risk areas.

155 YES broth. Toxins were extracted from 35 of these cultures by the procedure described by Pons, Cucullu, Lee, Robertson, Franz, and

Goldblatt in Determination of Aflatoxins 'Agricultural Products:

Use of Agueous Acetone for Extraction. All extracts yielded fluorescent compounds when excited by ultraviolet light.

The same extraction procedure was used on 23 50-gram(dry wt.) samples of corn grain (16) and silage (7) from the above mentioned counties. Six corn samples contained aflatoxins, while two si1.ge samples contained detectable amounts of aflatoxins.

Residual pigmentation which might influence the TLC results was removed with diethyl ether in a chromatographic column.

Visual comparisons of standard toxin (obtained from Dr. Leo

Goldblatt) of known dilutions, with sample extraction on TLC plates, were made to determine amounts of fluorescentcompounds present in

the extracts. The toxicity of the fluorescent compounds extracted was determined by a ducklingbioassay.

In phase III, a standard duckling bioassay was conductedin

an attempt to determine the toxicitylevels of aflatoxin-producing

strains of A. flavus. Ninety-nine ducklings were employed in this

test, and were divided into eight test groups. Group I, subdivided

into subgroups A, B, C, D, and E, receiveddosages of standard

aflatoxin (B1 and G1, B2 and G2) supplied by Or Leo Goldblatt,

USDA, ARS, New Orleans, Louisiana. The dosage, determined by

.4 ug/kg body weight, LD50, was administered in concentrations

of 13 ug, 9.2 ug, 5.8 ug, and 3.2 ug to subgroups A, B, C,D, and

E, respectively. Group II and III were fed suspect aflatoxin-

156 containing corn and silage. Group IV was to have been dosed with silage extracts, but was dropped from the experiment due to insufficient aflatoxin extract. Group V was dosed with propylene glycol

(PG) to determine if any abnormalities were due to PG. Group VI served as a control group and was fed aflatoxin-free corn.

Group VII received aflatoxin-containing extracts collected from

YES media in which isolates of A. flavus from Christian County,

Kentucky, had been grown. This group was divided into subgroups

A, B, C, D, with dosages (ug/ml) being 1,560 ug, 1,075 ug, 135 ug and 1545 ug, respectively. Group VIII was a control group maintained on corn mash determined as being aflatoxin-free and fed as a diet supplement to the other test birds.

After seven days, the livers were removed, prepared in paraf- fin blocks, sectioned on a microtome, and slides prepared. The slides were stained with eosin and hematoxylin and examined for abnormalities in cell structure. The findings indicate a necrosis of the duckling's liver cells known as lytic necrosis. At the end of seven days, it was seen that several ducklings experienced a loss of weight, appetite, and had become lethargic.

Western Kentucky, which is the main corn-producing area in

Kentucky, had a much higher population of Aspergillus flavus in the soil, cribcorn, and silage samples than that found in Eastern

Kentucky. Cribcorn and silage samples collected from both sections of the state did yield detectable amounts of aflatoxins, however.

Thus, it is quite evident that this fungus is a ubiquitous organism and, therefore, the toxin-production by this fungus is a

157 potential threat to livestock which feeds upon contaminated cribcorn and silage during the winter months.

Reference copy: Library of Morehead State University ******************************************************************

Information Level Studies Related to Venereal Diseases in South

Dakota (Grant no. GY-10808)

Northern State College Aberdeen, South Dakota 57401

June 1, 1973 - August 10, 1973

Participants:

Elaine Arbach Gerald Hardes

Mark Bezenek Robert Isaacson

Jane Clausen Sandra Klein

Perry Haaland* Susan Meidinger

Delbert Haskell Kim Reed

Carol Schaffner

*Student Project Director

M. R. Karim, Faculty Advisor

The purpose of this project was to gather information to be used by the State Department of Health and the Indian Health Ser- vice in South Dakota for an evaluation of their current programs and for suggesting educational programs which might help meet current needs. The project was also intended to guide the formulation of planned programs for venereal disease education at the host institution with special emphasis on the preparation of teachers in this subject.

The survey design incorporated a multi-stage sampling system

158 with several stratifications. The plan involved a simple random sampling procedure with replacement in selecting counties from several geographic and population categories within the State.

Systematic random sampling was employed for the selection of names in the final stage.

In each of the counties which were selected at the first sampling stage, the population was divided between rural and urban areas. Within these two categories, the population was spilt into a 15-19 year-old age group and a 20 and older age group. It was after this stage that names were actually drawn.

Several sampling frames were used. In selecting names for the former age group, school census information was used. This provided a complete listing of all persons of this age in each county. For the latter group, three sampling frames were used: county personal property lists, voter registration lists, and city or county directories.

The survey used a target of 2.43% of the population in each area to be interviewed. An extra pool of names was drawn in each county as replacements for those who had moved, died, or could not be located. The interviews were conducted in person, using a questionnaire and pre-coded response sheet. This information was then transferred to punch cards and processed by computer.

The project planned to interview 3,935 people in South Dakota.

Of this number, 3601 people were located by interviewers and 3194 interviews completed. More women than men refused to participate in the survey. Most who refused to participate were also over

159 40 years old. People who refused to participate also tended to

live in poorer housing. Four scales were used to reduce the data for analytical pur-

poses. The scales were based on answers to questions concerning gonorrhea, syphilis, general knowledge, and a composite score of

the means of the other scales. To compare the awareness and

educational levels of different groups, the possible scores were

grouped into low awareness, average awareness, and high awareness

for the scales. These categories do not indicate the actual aware-

ness per se, but are used forcomparative purposes.

Scores on the scales indicating awareness of the different

aspects tended to increase with educational level; people between

the ages of 20 and 35 also tended to be more aware thanpeople in

other categories. People who said that they were most likely to

get information about venereal disease from friendsand the radio

tended to do poorly on the scales, and people who listed school

programs and magazines tended to scorehigher.

The following tables show the percentage in each of the

categories who scored in the high awareness level for the gonor-

rhea, syphilis, and general information scales.

EDUCATIONAL LEVELCompleted Some Completed Grades 0-8 9-12 High Sch. Colle e pollee_ Graduate gonorrhea) 5% 9 13 1 20 syphilis) 6 7 15 20 30 36 general) 3 9 13 22 29 46

160 AGE 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-50 60+

(gonorrhea)

49% 61 57 57 52 54 49 42 26

(syphilis)

13 21 20 16 19 19 17 14 10

(general)

1 2 2 2 1 1 ONO AM MI. ONO

SOURCE OF INFORMATION

FriendsNewspapersRadio T.V. SchoolPamphletsMagazines 0th

gonorrhea)

7 12 6 13 15 13 16 18

syphilis)

8 18 13 10 19 16 17 18

general)

4 12 8 11 20 17 . 18. 19

Other analyses indicated that veterans did significantly

better than non-veterans on the survey. Approximately 37% of the

persons surveyed had had a sex education classof some type; these

individuals did better than those who had not had a class. It was

also shown that men living in positively-rated housing tended to

do best on the survey, with women in positively-ranked housing

and men in negatively-ranked housing closely behind; women in

negatively-rated housing tended to do worst. These last results,

161 concerning housing, used a non-standard analysis approach and so should be regarded with some caution.

Further work is being done to determine the nature of the distribution of scores for the scales and the best statistical approach to be used in future analysis.

Reference copy: Northern State College Library ******************************************************************

A Correlation of Toxicity with Heavy Metal Accumulation in Tissue, using Proton Induced X-Ray Emission Spectroscopy

(Grant no. GY-10772)

William Marsh Rice University Houston, Texas 77001

May 29, 1973 - August 10, 1973

Participants:

Marie E. Alexander Blinda E. McClelland

William B. Allison Duane C. Marks*

Edward K. Biegert Arthur F. Monzingo

Charles J. Billington A. L. Smith

Roger L. Harris R. Scott Thurston

Janice K. Jones Charles A. Wingate *Student Project Director

Brian R. Hammond, Faculty Advisor

An attempt was made to correlate the tissue accumulation of heavy metals with a lethal toxic response in three aquatic species.

This correlation, if demonstrated, could be used to generatea relative susceptibility index for the tested organisms. In addition, the feasibility of determining tissue concentrations of

162 heavy metals, using proton-induced X-ray emission spectroscropy, was examined.

Biological data on toxicity were generated for three organisms; rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri), fathead minnows (Pimephales am: melas), and brown shrimp (Penaeus s2.). These organisms were exposed to various aqueous concentrations of lead, mercury, copper, zinc, and a bimetallic zinc:copper mixture in a ratio of 6:1.

Each of these five metal groups were used in aqueous concentrations of 10, 1,.1 and .01 ppm. In addition, each metal concentration combination was examined at two temperature ranges: one range being near the species optimum, and the other producing temperature stress.

Each test was run for 96 hours under controlled conditions.

Temperature, pH, and metal concentration were checked periodically.

Test containers were examined at least hourly for mortalities.

Upon death, the organism was extracted from the test container, the survival time noted, and the animal weighed. The organism was then prepared for heavy metal analysis using anultrasonic probe, and was doped lieth the analytical standard. Survival

times were calculated for all aquatic forms and were subjected

to analysis to determine average and mean values.

Physical methods involved the use of the Rice University

Van de Graaf accelerator. The technique used was proton-induced

X-ray emission spectroscropy. With this method, it is possible

to determine the concentration of all elements in a specific

sample with an atomic number greater than twenty. The feasibility

163 of the application of this technique to tissue sampling was under

study. To make this determination, reproducibility studies were made on biological samples and on seawater.

In addition, the spectroscropy technique was used to analyze

the tissue samples from the toxicity determinations. Each tissue

sample was refrigerated in glass scintillation bottles until tar-

get preparation. Each target was then subjected to the proton-

beam and the emitted X-rays analyzed with the aid of a computer.

These analyses gave the data on the concentration of each metal

in the tissue.

Results for the reproducibility of the spectroscropy tech-

nique show that the technique is valid. Tissue samples can be

analyzed at the 1 ppm level with an accuracy of +15%. In ad-

dition, the technique analyzes simultaneously for all heavy metals.

The toxicity analyses failed to show the hypothesized cor-

relation between lethal dose of toxic metal and the accumulation

of that toxin in the tissues.

It was concluded that X-ray emission spectroscopy was a

useful and powerful tool for tissue analysis. However, more

knowledge of the specific mode of toxic action is needed before

any conclusions can be made concerning the toxic role of organic

toxic accumulation.

Reference copy: William Marsh Rice University Library ******************************************************************

Bromolipids in Foodstuffs (Grant no. GY-10807)

Vanderbilt University Nashville, Tennessee 37203

164 May 15, 1973 - August 9, 1973

Participants:

Mike Bowen Robert Siegel

Pam Freeman* Deborah Smith

Randall Howard Richard Todd

Richard Mclendon Sue Vester

Daniel Pharr Bill Welch

*Student Project Director

Sidney Fleisher, Faculty Advisor

Brominated vegetable oils are synthetic food additives found in some fruit-flavored soft drinks, added to keep flavoring oils in suspension. These studies were undertaken to evaluate the fate of these substances in the body. Brominated vegetable oils are produced by the addition of molecular bromine to a soluticdiz of vegetable oil, resulting in the bromination across double bonds of unsaturated fatty acids.

To detect the occurrence of brominated vegetable oil and to measure the amount of the compound infoodstuffs, a highly sensi-

tive assay utilizing gas chromatography, coupled withelectron

capture detection, was developed in our laboratory. This material

is a mixture of triglycerides with long-chain fatty acids and their

brominated derivatives. The predominant species are 9,10-dibromos-

tearic acid and 9,10,12,13-tetrabromostearic acid, thebromination products of oleic acid and linoleic acid.

Quantitative ether extracts of 34 soft drinks available in

the markets of Nashville were analyzed for bromolipids. Thirteen

165 of these products were found to contain bromolipids in a concentration of about 15 p.p.m., the upper limit permitted by the United

States Food and Drug Administration. Only four of the 13 listed bromolipids on their labels.

Adult male Wistar rats (200-250 grams) were allowed to feed ad libitum and supplemented with daily doses of brominated vegetable oil administered with a stomach tube. There were three

groups of rat: 1) a control group receiving onlypure cottonseed

oil, 1200 mg/kg body weight; 2) a group receiving brominated cot-

tonseed oil, 400 mg/kg body weight; and 3) a group receiving brominated cottonseed oil, 1200 mg/kg body weight. The livers

of the rats were studied histologically after 15 days, Sudan 11 was used to stain for lipid droplets and the sections were ex-

amined by light microscopy. Only small-sized lipid droplets are

observable in the sections of liver from control rats and those

fed the lower dosage of bromolipids. The livers of rats receiving

the higher dosage of bromolipids is distinctly abnormal, with many

large lipid droplets observable. These histological observations

are in agreement with Munro et al. (Food and Cosmetic Toxicology

2, 25, 1969).

We also prepared purified cell fractions from the livers and

studied the accumulation of bromolipids in mitochondria and micro-

somes. Fatty acid oxidation occurs exclusively in the mito-

chondria. The accumulation of bromolipids in mitochondria and

microsomes of rats continuously fed bromolipids makes it clear

that bromolipids are incorporated into these membranous fractions

166 of the liver to the extent of six to nine percent.

In view of this compound's possible toxic effect, it was important to find out if brominated fatty acids were being cleared from the membranes or if accumulation was occurring. Young rats were given a single dose of isotopically-labelled stearic or oleic acid together with dibromostearic acid. The rate of turnover of these fatty acids from the phospholipic fraction of the membrane was measured by gas chromatography and scintillation counting.

In this way, the turnover of dibromostearic acid and a natural fatty acid could be followed in the same animal. The half-life of 9, l0- dibromostearic acid is comparable to the half-life of oleic and stearic acids; both average close to 2 days.

To characterize the purity of the mitochondrial and micro- somal preparations, the specific activities of certain marker enzymes were assayed. The enzymes were DPNH-cytochrome c reductase, rotenone-insensitive DPNH-cytochrome c reductase, and succinate-cytochrome c reductase. The activity rates of these enzymes are well characterized with respect to the subcellular components, and can give a good indication of contamination by other subcellular organelles. However, following the rates of these enzymes with respect to bromolipid consumption became the significant part of the experiment.

A large decreasei.Y. the enzymatic activity of all three enzymes was observed in both the low dosage and high dosage continuous feeding rats. It must be pointed out that the control rats fed pure cottonseed oil exhibited the same sort of

167 enzymaLic behavior. Following the specific activity of these marker enzymes in the turnover experiment proved even more fas- cinating. The rates dropped initially. By the fourth day, they had started to recover, regaining most, if not all, their normal function by 14 days. These data imply that one of the compounds fed has an inhibitory effect on these oxidative enzymes, and that with discontinued use, the normal activity recovers with time.

The next phase of our studies deals with the effect of brominated fatty acids on specific enzymes systems. Stearic

acid, a normal fatty acid, is oxidized by isolated liver mito-

chondria. In contrast, brominated fatty acids are not metabo-

lized. Further, the oxidation of the normal fatty acid by the mitochondria is inhibited by high concentrations of brominated

fatty acids. Another fate of stearic acid is that it can be desaturated

to form oleic acid by microsomes. This desaturase system is an

essential step in the biosynthesis of oleic acid in selectively

removing hydrogens from the 9,10 positions to yield oleate. The

straightforward results of this experiment show that 9,10-dibro-

mostearic acid is not utilized as a substrate for the desaturase

system, nor does it inhibit the desaturation of stearic acid.

Because of the inadequacy of previously compiled information

on soft drink consumption, a survey of metropolitanNashville was

carried out to identify consumers of brominated vegetable oil-

containing drinks and to ascertain the amount consumed. Data

168 BEST COPY AVAILABLE were compiled by sex, income, race, and age with the use of a

computer program. BromoliOid-containing soft drinks make up

4% of the total soft drink6 sold, with the average consumer

ingesting about 13-20 mg of bromolipid per week. An indivi-

dual drinking the contents of four-12 ounce bottles would con-

sume as much as 20 mg brominated vegetable per day (140 mg/week).

Reference copy: Vanderbilt University Library ****************************************************************** ao-0=2.112r1 of the Transfer and Accumulation of Cadmium in

Biological Systems (Grant no. GY-10806)

Purdue University Lafayette, Indiana 47907

May 14, 1973 - July 27, 1973

Participants:

Laura Ann Arnold Cynthia Lee Kessler

Donna Louise Earley Julie Ann Mikula

Mary Roxanne Eve Kenneth Duane Morse

Dan R. Fisher Alice Marie Perry

Claude William Frymark William McBryan Speer

Earl Newell Griffith III* Barbara Towner Alice Weissmann

*Student Project Director

John E. Christian, Faculty Advisor

Cadmium is a toxic, heavy metal, similar to -Inc in its

atomic size and valence, owing its toxic properties principally

to its behavior as an antimetabolite of zinc, competing with zinc

for protein binding sites. Cadmium has 3000 times the affinity

169 for proteins that zinc has and irreversibly binds to them, in- activating important enzymes which require zinc for their activity.

Cadmium can enter the body from the air (by way of the lunu, causing damage to the lungs, as in emphysema) and from food and water (absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract along with other metals, mainly from fool, causing kidney and liver damage).

Pathologic conditions caused by cadmium include itai-itai disease (a severe degenerative bone disease causing soft, brittle bones), kidney disease, and shortened life span. Cadmium has also been implicated in hypertension, cancer, spontaneous abortions and heart disease.

Cadmium enters t%a air from metal refining and smelting operations, particularly from zinc purification, but also from the burning of soft coal in which cadmium is a trace contaminant, and from steel manufacturing operations.

Cadium gets into water by being washed out of the air by rain, by the dumping of cadmium electroplating solutions into streams, and from agriculture runoff from fields treated with cadmium- containing fertilizers (phosphate and superphosphate) and fungi- cides.

Cadmium enters food by being transferred from one level of the food chain to the next. Plants take up the cadmium from water and concentrate it in their tissues. These plants are eaten by animals and absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract. The animals are then used as a food source by man who receives the accumulated

170 cadmium. Food has been found to be the greatest source of cadmium for man.

We investigated cadmium uptake and transfer from each level of an aquatic food chain to the next with the use of a radiotracer 115m technique. The radionuclide Cd was introduced into water in which Chlorella a. (a single cellular green algae) was growing.

The uptake of the cadmium by algae was found to be 61.9%, with a concentration factor on a gram to gram comparison of 184.3over the water level of cadmium. From the algae to the first consumers

(tadpoles and river clams), the uptake was found to be 0.70% of the amount of cadmium originally in the water or a concentration of

6.27 times as much per gram as in the water originally. The tadpoles and river clams were then fed to secondary consumers (fish and crayfish). The largest transfer occurred in crayfish fed clam meat which occasioned an overall transfer of 0.02% of the cadmium initially present in the water into the secondary consumer. Al- though this transfer percent is very low, it is still greater than would be found in animals that ate food which had not been exposed to the cadmium. Zinc was studied in a similar fashion, giving the same 0.02% transfer from the water to the secondary consumers.

The interaction of zinc was studied using a molar ratio of 2.480M cadmium: 1M zinc. The uptake of the cadmium and of the zinc was greatly increased in the algae but the overall transfer to the

secondary consumers was the same.

The distribution of cadmium in the body was examined, using

the rat as an animal model. We attempted to determine whether the distribution of cadmium among the liver, kidney, pancreas, spleen, stomach, small intestines, caecum, heart and lung differed (with length of time) from the intraperitoneal injection of the cadmium to the time of sacrifice. The sacrifice times chosen were 6, 12,

24, 36, 48 or 72 hours after administration. The greatest con- centrators of cadmium were the liver, kidney, pancreas, and spleen, in that order. The concentration of cadmium in these organs did not change with time and had the same levels of cadmium at 6 hours as at 72 hours.

We studied the effect of the dose of cadmium given and found that with increasing dose (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5 mg/kg cadmium) the liver showed a decreasing uptake with increasing dose, while the other organs remained the same except for the lung which increased its uptake with increasing dose.

The liver makes a specific protein in response to cadmium, metallothionine, which can strongly bind cadmium and prevent its toxic effects. In both of the above studios, we could detect the presence of this protein and measure the amount produced with time and with different doses. We examined the effect of this protein on the distribution of cadmium in the rat by inhibiting protein synthesis with cycloheximide (which inhibits protein synthesis) and actinomycin-D (which binds to the DNA and prevents the production of RNA which is necessary for the production of protein). We found that cycloheximide prevented the synthesis of metallothionine, while actinomycin-D did not. The organ distribution was altered in the amount of cadmium taken up by the various organs studied, but

172 that the rank of the organ (in its ability to concentrate the cadmium) did not change and remained as liver, kidney,pancreas and spleen in decreasing order of organ concentration. We have purified and quantified the amount of metallothionine produced with varying dose and time and have detected its production as

early as 6 hours after exposure to cadmium.

The cadmium levels in children's teeth in areas with known cadmium exposure and from areas having little cadmium exposure were compared. Less than 0.05 ppm in children's teeth (the limit

of detection of our equipment) were found.

We studied the uptake of cadmium from soil by earthworms and

found that the worms will concentrate the cadmium above the level

found in the soil. These worm levels vary directly with the soil

level of cadmium. Earthworms collected at various distances from

a source of cadmium emission were investigated; the levels in

earthworms seem to decrease with increasing distance from the

source.

Reference copy: Library, School of Pharmacy, Purdue University ******************************************************************

Biochemical and Cytogenetic Effects of Pesticides on Human Cells

in Vitro (Grant no. GY-10765)

University of Maryland College Park, Maryland 20742

May 27, 1973 - August 19, 1973

Participants

Wendy Bersbach Judy 0. Lee

Ruth 1. Cohen Lynn Rossmeissel

173 Eileen E. Kane Kurt W. Seland

Deborah R. Kline Lindsay A. Smith

David P. Via*

*Student Project Director

F. M. Hetrick, Faculty Advisor

Two carbamate pesticides, ziram (zinc dimethyldithiocarbamate) and carbaryl (1-napthyl-N-methylcarbamate) ,and one organophosphorous pesticide, DDVP (phosphoric acid 2,2 dichlorovinyl dimethylester) were examined for their toxic and mutagenic effects on human cells in culture. Low passage human embryonic lung cells, a serial line of foreskin fibroblasts, and a human lymphoblastoid line (RPMI 1788)

determinations demonstrated that ziram was the were utilized. TD50 most toxic compound (by a factor of 100), followed in order by DDVP and carbaryl. Growth curves also reflected this differential toxicity for ziram. The lymphoblastoid line proved to be approximately

five'timesmore sensitive to ziram than the fibroblastic cultures. The mutagenic potential of the compounds was examined using the in-

cidence of induction of chromosome abnormalities as an index of mutagenicity. Carbaryl did not induce abnormalities and only one

case of an abnormality was noted with DDVP. Ziram at .5 ug /mi re-

sulted in a 6% incidence of endoreduplication and in one case, a

symmetrical non-homologous translocation.Metnyl methanesulfonate,

employed as a positive control, caused both breaks and rearrange-

ments (symmetrical homologous and non-homologous). Inhibition of

DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis by ziram was monitored by following

the incorporation of appropriate tritiated precursors into TCA pre-

174 cipitable material. Severe inhibition of the synthesis of all three macromolecular components was observed in lung and skin cells ata level of .5 ug/ml and in lymphocytes at a level of .1 ug/ml; inhibition was 80%-90% at these levels.

Reference copy: University of Maryland Library ******************************************************************

Mutagenic Effects of Food Additives and Their Metabolites, using

Host-Mediated Assay (Grant no. GY-10774)

Reed College Portland, Oregon 97202

May 28, 1973- August 17, 1973

Participants:

John Hewitt Sue Martin

George B. Lane* Steven C. Schlitt

Mary M. Martin Barbara A. Triplett *Student Project Director

Peter J. Russell, Faculty Advisor

The objectives of this project were to determine the mutagenic effects of various food additives and/or their unspecified metabolites on eukaryotic cells, using a host-mediated assay. Suspensions of the vegetative conidia of Neurospora crassa were either directly exposed to the additives or placed in diffusion chambers and im- planted in the peritoneal cavity of rats on controlled diets containing rpecified concentrations of additives.Mutation frequencies are scored on colonies of an induced Neurospora heterokaryon as forward mutation in the ad-3 region (comprising one to two loci).

The chemicals tested were sodium benzoate, polysorbate 80, butylated

175 hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), caffeine, monosodium gltamate, vanillin, calcium propionate, and sodium nitrite. Certain of these additives were chosen for radiochemical experiments to determine, in the host-mediated assay, whether they

reached the peritoneal cavity in appreciable amounts, and to dis-

cover whether they or their metabolites accumulated inspecific

organs. The host-mediated assay was shown to be capable of detecting

the effect of microbial mutagens in compounds which remain, or

become physiologically active, after administration to and metabo-

lism by a mammalian host. All of the food additives tested in vivo

and most tested in vitro caused a much higher rate of mutation than

that found in controls. In a few cases the death rate of the in vitro

treatment obscured meaningful mutation frequencies.All additives

caused a much higher mutation rate than did the controls in vivo.

Such an assay, however, does not implicato $hel,,specific deleterious

agent within the host. The evidence obtained, on the simplest level, is merely an indication of the effect of a substance or its metabolic

and/or anabolic products.

Reference copy: c/o Peter J. Russell, Reed College *******************************************************************

Functions of Prostaglandins in ReproductionParturition and

Infertility (Grant no. GY-10793) University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 39104

May 28, 1973 - August 17, 1973

176 Participants:

Peter Caploe Donald Marazzo

Peggy Jo Duffy Lynn Dee Selemon

Virginia Mintz Joseph Sokoloski*

*Student Project Director

Edward E. Wallach, Faculty Advisor

The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of prostaglandin F2a; (PGF2,4 ) in the process of parturition in the

rat. Since PGF is known to have luteolytic properties, our 2A experiments were designed to determine whether the physiological:

role of PGF is to function as a "luteolysin" at term. We ob- 2, served that:

1) Treatment of both intact and hypophysectomized rats in

late pregnancy (days 20 and 21) with PGF2w results in a rapid

fall in plasma progesterone concentrations, determined by radio-

immunoassay, and premature delivery of the conceptuses. Adminis-

tration of the synthetic progestin, Depoproveria, did not prevent

the prostaglandin-induced fall in progesterone levels, but pre-

mature delivery was adverted. Thus, ?GF2C treatment appears to

cause prematurity by reducing blood progesterone levels.

2) Indomethacin, a potent inhibitor of prostaglandin bio-

synthesis, delayed the onset of parturition by 20 hours when

administered to rats starting on day 19 of gestation. However,

animals receiving both indomethacin and PGF20c delivered at the

same time as the contrcl animals.

3) Treatment of both intact and hypophysectomized rats in

177 late pregnancy with indomethacin delayed the fall in plasma progesterone levels which normally occurs between days 20 and 23 of pregnancy. Concomitant PGF2C treatment caused progestin levels to fall at the same rate as in control animals.

4) Administration of a specific antiserum to PGFa4 to rats in late pregnancy delayed the onset of delivery, but injections of rabbit anti-goat serum had no effect on the time of parturition.

Since the corpora lutea appear to be the major source of progesterone during pregnancy in the rat, PGF24 seems to affect the progesterone-producing capacity of these structures. We conclude that one of the physiological roles of PGF20: is to induce luteolysis and thereby cause a fall in progesterone levels which then leads to parturition. The action of PGF2,4 does not appear to be mediated by the hypothalmus or pituitary, since PGF24: induced premature delivery in both intact and hypophysectomized animals, and indomethacin caused a delay in the onset of parturition in both intact and hypophysectomized rats.

Reference copy: c/o Dr. J. F. Strauss, Department of Reproductive

Biology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine ******************************************************************

A Study of Transmission of Selenium Across the Placental Membrane

(Grant no. GY-10743)

Reed College Portland, Oregon 97202

May 21, 1973 - August 10, 1973

Participants:

John Coleridge Sean Hawley

178 Jeffrey Cozzens* Kenneth Jacobson

Mary Freeman Robert Levinson Roger Perlmutter

*Student Project Director.

Non-Stipend Participants:

Caries de la Huerga Deborah Hankins

Arthur F. Scott, Faculty Advisor

Selenium (atomic number 34, atomic weight 79)occurs naturally in the earth's crust at a concentration of 0.09 micrograms/gram and is found in many mineral deposits in the arid and semi-arid

Midwestern United States. It is also found in high concentrations in fossil fuels (8 µg /g) and in volcanic rock (120 1,1/4g/g).

Selenium is used heavily in industry in the United States for the manufacture of glass, pigments and electrical equipment. It is estimated that nine hundred tons of selenium is released annually into the atmosphere (David, 1972). Although essential for life in trace amounts, selenium is very toxic in concentrations ofiag/g

(Rosenfeld and Beath, 1964). Because of the recent work showing that methyl and ethyl mercury can be transported across the placental membrane and concentrated by the fetus, causing severe birth defects, we attempted to study the transmission of selenium across

tho . the placenta.

Rats were used in this study because of the similarity between the rat and the human placenta and because of the relatively low animal cost.

The air above Portland, Oregon was sampled for selenium, but

179 this part of the project had to be abandoned because of equipment failure.

Selenium was detected by neutron activation analysis, using the Reed College Nuclear Reactor Facility, and gamma-ray spectroscopy, using a lithium drifted germanium detector -Ge(Li)- coupled to a 4096 multichannel analyzer and computer analysis. Rats were injected with selenium and allowed to inhale selenium.

Selenium was not detected with any consistency in each individual rat. Only 28.3% of the pups from the mothers who had received injected selenium had detectable amounts of selenium. This is a greater number than those for the rats that inhaled selenium(36%) and for the control rats (54.5%). Liver samples from the mothers had an even smaller frequency of detectable selenium(24.3%), but selenium was found in 80.5% of kidney samples.

The concentration of selenium in the pups where selenium was determined did not significantly differ, whether the mothers were injected with selenium (0.12 ± 0.050 mg/g), inhaled selenium

(0.78 ± 0.022g/g), or were controls (0.071± 0.0251.g /g) because of the large standard deviation. The value for the average content of selenium in the livers

of the injected rats (2.0 1.5 µg /g) does seem to be greater

than the average of the control livers(0.059p.g/g). However,

the large fluctuations in standard deviation of the first value

and the uncertainty due to the small sample size of the latter

value makes this observation rather tenuous.

The value for the average content of selenium in the kidneys

180 BEST COPY AVAILABLE of the injected rats (16.68 ± 3.09pg/g) is the best value obtained.

This, which is significantly greater than the control value

(4.4p.g/g), is the best indication of response in this experiment.

The method was checked with a sample of NBS Bovine Liver containing a certified amount of selenium. Problems with the method of of analysis gave a sample size that was too small, and about at the limit of detection for the particular method used.

The data do indicate, however, that selenium probably does not cross the placental membrane to any great extent. However, even if it clid and we could not detect it, selenium certainly is not concentrated in the fetus to the extent that it is concentrated in the liver or kidney.

Reference copy: Chemistry Departmental Office, Reed CcUege ******************************************************************

Soluble Dithizones as Antidotes for Heavy Metal Poisoning in Test

Animals (Grant no. GY-10768)

The Johns Hopkins University Baltimore, Maryland 21218

June 5, 1973 - August 26, 1973

Participants:

Glenn Wing Chong James Richard Kunec

Ruth Leanna Hillelson* John Michael Parry

William John Shibe III

(N. B. A complete list of participants is not available)

*Student Project Director

Alsoph Corwin, Faculty Advisor

181 Cadmium is highly poisonous, grossly under-investigated as an environmental contaminant, but widely dispersed. As a natural component of soils and water, it is present only in very low concentrations, but its industrial uses are expanding tremendously. In 1957,

Scandanavian toxicologists declared emphatically that cadmium probably has more lethal possibilities than any other metal, an assessment which appears to have been largely ignored in terms of the potential public health hazards.

One very important aspect of cadmium is its potent role in the production of hypertension, and hence, its importance to cardiac disease. Schroeder (1969) showed that, in experimental animals,

there is a relationship between cadmium-induced hypertension and

its reduction by the administration of a zinc-chelating agent; it was from this evidence that our plans to explore zincdithizonates

as antidotes against cadmium toxicity. The protocol for this study called for the treating of random-

bred mice, made hypertensive with cadmium, withlipid and water-

soluble derivatives of dithizone, administered thriough various

routes (e.g., oral, intraperitoneal). Other heavy metal toxicities

were also examined. ******************************************************************

182 Section III.

General Environmental Studies

Papers from the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology,

Mercyhurst College, Michigan State University, Amherst College,

MacMurray College, Swarthmore College, Virginia Polytechnic Ins-

titute and State University, University of Illinois at Urbana,

Providence College, University of Michigan, New Hampshire College,

Manhattan College, Bethany College, University of California at

San Diego (2), University of Montana, University of Southern Mis-

sissippi, University of Nebraska, University of Hawaii, University

of Wisconsin at Stevens Point, Beaver College, Sonoma State College,

Auburn University, San Diego State University, University of Arizona,

and Western Washington State College.

183 SeedinTrials and Soil Analysis in the Midway Watershed Area

(Grant no. GY-10789) New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology Socorro, New Mexico 87801

June 1, 1973 - August 22, 1973

Participants:

Mohammed Bode Steven Johansen*

Donald Burns Marc Krug

Steven Dixon Thomas Muller

Jerry Scott

*Student Project Director

Clay T. Smith, Faculty Advisor

The Midway Watershed Area is five miles north of Socorro,

New Mexico, on the west side of the Rio GrandeValley. Eleva- tions range from 7200 feet in the Lemitar Mountains to4700 feet in the Rio Grande Valley. Vegetation is predominantly creosotebush (Larrea tridentata) and annual desert weeds. Small, intense thundershowers, common to the area, often produce excessive runoff and flood damage. The grass species present will not support a healthy grazing industry. Muller, et al. (1972, SOS Grant GY-9688) selected and fenced two study areas in the watershed. Site One is in a grass-shrub area, and Site Two is increosotebush. Sites were divided into test plots, each fifty-feet square. Plots were selected from each site, cleared of vegetation, reseeded, and mulched with either bark chips, fly ash, or straw. Some plots were also protected with a rodent fence of window screening stretchedaround

184 their perimeters.

An additional two test sites were constructed by this year's project. Site One Prime is immediately adjacent to Site One, and

Site Three is in a creosotebush/non-creosotebush transitionzone. All of this year's plots were protected from rodents by fencing.

Sewage sludge, fly ash, straw, and combinations of two of these were applied to selected, cleared plots. Cleared plots were also reseeded with grasses and clover.

Selected plots from all sites were analyzed chemically for major plant nutrients, common cations, and common anions. It was discovered last year that Site Two has seven times the calcium ion concentration as Site One. There were no significant changes in the soil chemistry of plots mulched last year. Sev- eral creosotebush and non-creosotebush areas in the watershed were also analyzed. Most creosotebush areas in the watershed area showed higher calcium concentrations, but this was not always true.

Microbial studies made of last year's test plots revealed that mulched plots, especially straw plots, had higher microbial activities. It was also shown that mulching may reduce deni- trification rates.

Of the mulches and treatments used this year, greenhouse studies indicated that treated sewage sludge has the most potential as a mulch. Rodent studies were conducted which suggest that non-creosotebush areas have higher rodent populations.

One year after seeding, vegetation remains sparse on Site Two.

185 Alkali Sacaton and Boer Lovegrass are the seeded species which did best, but they are not very abundant.

Site One plots responded well to seeding, and are develop-

ing a moderate cover of Threeawns (Aristida sp.), Fluffgrass

(Tridens pulchellus), and Plaintain (Plantago purshi).Grama

grasses (Bouteloua 12.) and Sand Dropseed(Slombolus crvtandrus)

are also present. Plots which were protected from rodents had

roughly 25% more cover than unprotected plots at the end of this

year's growing season. Fly ash plots did better than other plots

after a dry spring. However, all mulched plots fared the same

after a long autumn dry spell. All mulched plots finished the

season with roughly 20% more cover than unmulched plots.

The value of mulches appears to be their ability to reduce

surface temperature and increase soil moisture.Creosotebush

distribution also suggests that a controlling factor is soil

moisture and soil temperature. Calcium ion concentrations may

be responsible for the failure of seeding trials on Site Two.

High calcium ion concentrations may influence creosotebush

spread, but are not the controlling factor.

Reference copy: Library of the New Mexico Institute of Mining

and Technology ******************************************************************

The Use of Industrial Wastes as Fertilizer (Grant no. GY-10810) Mercyhurst College Erie, Pennsylvania 16501

June 11, 1973 - August 17, 1973

186 Participants:

Sherry A. Cipolla Michael A. Minadeo*

Philip R. Coniglio Joan T. Popovich

Craig R. Kern James E. Sams

Mary Grace Klescz Lloyd B. Schrecengost *Student Project Director

Edward M. Lignowski, Faculty Advisor

The use of industrial wastes as a substitute for commercial fertilizer was investigated. A composite of three industrial wastes was made: Solution A (HNO ) - a pre-plating, metal clean- 3 ing, rust inhibiting (pacification) treatment used in the metal plating, metal painting and metal coating industries; Solutions

B(H3PO4) and C (K3PO4), both used to etch printed circuitboards in the electronics industry. Each waste had previously been analyzed quantitatively for K, P, and N, as NO2, NO3, and NH3.

They were also analyzed quantitatively for Hg, Sn, and Ni, the only potentially toxic elements found by a complete qualitative cation and anion analysis.

This composite was applied to experimental field plots having snapbean, Phaselous vulgaris (var. Tendergreen), as a test plant, and to greenhouse pots having snapbean and oats, Ave na sativa (var.

Carolee), as test plants.

The yield of bean fruits from the field plots, in lbs/acre

(Table I), the total yield of plants from the greenhouse experiments, and plant tissue analyses for essential elements were used to determine the ability of these wastes to supply the necessary

187 plant nutrients: N, P and K. Statistical analysis, using Duncan's Multiple Range as the

test of significance on all yields, and the results of the tissue

analyses, showed that the wastes did supply the three major plant

nutrients as well as does a commercial fertilizer.

The plant tissue was also analyzed for the three toxic ele-

ments found in the wastes. No nickel or tin was seen in tissue

samples of any experimental treatments.Small amounts (.3 to

.7 ppm) of mercury were found in the plant tissue samples of all

experimental treatments grown at the field test site. The heavy

metal content of the wastes did not have any toxic effect on the

test plants; however, heavy metals will accumulate in the soil

with ecologically-disasterous consequences. The removal of all contaminants from the wastes before their use as fertilizer seems

to be the most promising solution to this problem. The possibility

of profitably recovering the contaminating metals for re-use could

be an additional economic benefit.

A hydroponic study was undertaken to observe nutrient defi-

ciency symptoms when the wastes were used to supply N, P and K.

The plants with solution A as the sole source of nitrogen were

badly stunted but did not exhibit any of the classical nitrogen-

deficiency symptoms. The cause of this stunting was apparently

the slightly higher ion concentration of this treatment.

The general toxicity of the composite was determined by ob-

serving its effect on seedling germination and growth, using

seven types of seeds and various dilutionsof the composite.

188 The soil used in thest. )xperiments was sampled before,

during, and after the plant growth period. The results of

these tests provided a basis for the determination of the

amounts of plant nutrients used and showed that the soil stability was not appreciably changed by the application of the

All data were statistically analyzed, utilizing a computer.

The data prove that industrial wastes can be used as fer-

tilizer and they suggest that the environment, industry, agri-

culture, and consumers would benefit.

Replications Treatments 1 2 3 4 5C4 * Cale. Yield

Commercial b fertilizer 23.7 32.5 25.8 13.0 23.7 a 6451.99

Composite 20.2 28.7 27.1b 32.5 27.1 a 7374.48

Fertilizer & effluent 29.1 25.5 29.0 26.5 27.5 a 7469.51

Control 11.0 14.3 9.75 17.6 13.1 b 3570.61

TABLE I

YIELDS OF BEAN FRUITS FROM INDIVIDUAL FIELD PLOTS AND MEAN YIELDS (lbs) PER TREATMENT AND CALCULATED YIELDS (lbs/acre) ADJUSTINGa TWO FIGURESb TO THE MEAN OF THE THREE OTHER FIGURES IN THOSE TREATMENTS.0

* Those means followed by a common letter are not significantly different at the 5% level using Duncan's Multiple Range Formula.

a PEARCE, S.C., Biological Statistics, McGraw Hill, N.Y., N.Y. 1965 (pp. 105-7)

This was done to correct for low yields due to rodent damage.

Reference copy: Mercyhurst College Learning Resource Center ******************************************************************

189 Forensic Soil Anal sis (Grant no. GY-10803)

Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan 48824

June 11, 1973 - August 31, 1973

Participants:

Rose Ann Augustine Lorrie Piestrak

Nancy Borg Wendy Shaft

Darci Carlson Christine M. Smith

Robert Curtis Lynn Snellman

Jeanne Hewitt Vicki Jean Stygles*

Peter Mellinger Sharon Weeg

*Student Project Director

Non-Stipend Participant:

Nick Rajiak

Wesley D. Bonds, Jr., Faculty Advisor

Physical evidence offers a convincing way of relating a suspect to a crime. The forensic analysis of soil samples for comparison and point-of-origin determinations has not been widely practiced in recent years, because of a lack of research.

This project was undertaken as a means of studying possible new techniques in forensic soil analysis for both the comparison

and point of origin of a soil sample.

The problem was approached from four directions. The Phys-

ical Methods Group examined the problem from the aspect of the physical properties of the soil. They used classical techniques

(color, density gradients) and a new collodial suspension test.

They also tried some relatively new techniques (IR, and X-ray

190 powder diffraction). The Chemical Analysis section made trace

element analysis, utilizing atomic absorbtion and neutron acti-

vation. This group also attempted to compare soil samples by

gas chromatography. The Biological Studies group tried to solve

this particular problem by looking at the soil inhabitants, and

by testing for carbon in the soil, as well as the percentage of

organic matter and the pH of the soil. The Criminal Justice

Group kept the other team members aware of what was happening

in the criminal world. This group also performed the statistical

analysis of the data from the other groups. These data were

transferred to maps, so that visual representations would be

available for quick reference, and so that correlations might

be seen easily.

Several techniques were found to have both statistical and

practical value. Tests were also rated by their sample size

requirements, time involved, and cost per sample. A point-of-

origin test was found by the statistician - a test which, hope-

fully, will provide a fast and reliable method of determining

soil sample origin. Analysis of this test did not occur for

lack of time; ,lowever, in theoretical testing, it appeared to

have promise.

The problems of soil analysis for forensic purposes were

not solved, but it is felt that this study has pointed out the

need for additional research and has demonstrated some methods

which, with refinement, will prove to be of value to the forensic

scientist. Reference copy: Science Research Stacks of the Michigan State University Library

191 Public Service Delivery in Ch12220, Massachusetts (Grant no. GY-10756)

Amherst College Amherst, Massachusetts 01002

June 11, 1973- September 1, 1973

Participants:

Terry Cohn Marty Patton

Joel Hay* Sue Priftiss

Sue Olinger Mike Reid

Peter Palluch Leonard Slosky *Student Project Director

Walter Nicholson, Faculty Advisor

Our study of the City of Chicopee's provision for public goods and services is based on an analysis of the Cityas a

"firm" in the macroeconomic sense. Chicopee is producing a certain mix of public goods and services. For any level of output, it has a production possibility frontier--various alternative production levels for the various goods and services

it might provide. We used analytical techniques from the fields of economics, sociology, political science, urban studies, engineering, and administrative and management theory to answer some of the following questions: 1) Could the City provide the same level of goods and services with less inputs?2) Could the

City provide a 'better' mix of goods and services with the same

inputs?3) Are there alternative municipalrevenue schemes which are more attractive; either from an equity standpoint, or from the point of view of better allocation of resources between the

192 public and private sectors?

To answer the third question, we studied the present municipal revenue structure in Chicopee (property taxation, excise taxation, billing for City utilities, such as water andelec- tricity, and the alternative of user charges). We limited our study to municipal revenues that were controlled locally and so did not examine such programs as revenue sharing, which is exo- genous to local determination of the total municipal revenue.

Since property taxation brings in 62% of the total local revenue, and is totally locally controlled, it was the main subject of analysis. We determined that Chicopee's present property tax billing operation is of dubious legal status. The assessor's habit of recording assessments at 20% to 40% of true market value was probably illegal, inequitable, and arbitrary.At present, a

Chicopee resident can expect to be assessed up to 30% more than his neighbor with an identical piece of property (or 3o% lower).

We could not discover any systematic assessment in favor of certain groups of people, although this would require a tremendous

suriey effort to determine any conclusive patterns. We concluded

that one possible reason for Chicopee's present assessment opera-

tion is that fractional valuation allows them to get more money

from the State in school aid than they otherwise would, but that

this factor would probably be outweighed by a more equitable

taxation system, and a better bond rating which would result

from full valuation property assessments in Chicopee.We did

establish that a number of municipal goods and services might

193 be financed better with "user charges", as is currently done with water and electricity.

Considering the second question--Whether Chicopee could provide "better" services, or a "better" mix of goods and services, we resorted to a public opinion survey of 315 randomly chosen residents of the City. A city does not have the same sort of incentives to satisfy public demand as private enterprise. Elected city officials are supposedly kept in check by the electorate, people are allowed to express their opinion by ballot, and if the residents do not like their City's mix of services, or think taxes are exorbitant, they can cancel their elected officers in favor of ones who espouse more favorable viewpoints. Elections provide a very limited range of choices.

In Chicopee, the voters rarely get a chance to vote on issues as such, but usually just for the candidates who have tied themselves to various viewpoints.

Since voting records are inconclusive in explicitly pointing out demand preferences for public services, we used the survey questionnaire to determine which public goods and services the people were satisfied with and which ones they were not satisfied with. We determined that, on the whole, most respondents were satisfied with most local services, by wide margins. The only exceptions seemed to be servicing and planning of the

Chicopee road network, and the traffic problems it creates, dog control, and pollution abatement. The last of these, pollution abatement, is not usually considered a local public service.

194 Around 90% of the respondents were satisfied with education, police, and fire protection, the three biggest expenditure items in the municipal budget. There seemed to be a fairly strong feeling that too much money was going towards schools, perhaps at the expense of police, fire, and public works. When asked to rank public safety (police ani fire), public works (utilities, roads, sewage and trash disposal), schools, and public health in order of importance, the average respondent ranked them in the following order: #1--public safety, #2--schools, #3--public health, #4--public works.

In answer to the first question--Can Chicopee provide the same level of services with less inputs--we analysed as many departments as our resources would allow. The Departments and programs studied include City Auditor, City Clerk, City Engineer,

City Collector, City Hall Maintenance, City Messenger, City

Treasurer, City Registrar of Voters, Central Purchaser, Fire,

Forestry, Highway, Municipal Solid Waste Disposal, Police,

Data Processing, and Public Health.

Our framework of analysis is derived from methods of rudi- mentary cost-benefit analysis. We attempted to compare the value of what a program was accomplishing with its costs, and as data were quite variable, the conclusiong and degreeof specificity varies considerably from department to department. Hopefully, our results will provide the groundwork for a municipal budget, where program costs are identified and quantified by program, rather' than as a series of departmental line-item totals which

195 have little relevance to specific departmental programs. We identified the various programs which the departments under study were undertaking, attempted to split them up along cost lines where possible, end compared the program costs to program benefits. The cost/benefit comparisons were usually made by looking at the private market value of services similar to the one under study and occasionally, by comparisons with programs in other cities similar to Chicopee.

The following is a summary of some of our program recommendations:

1) City Auditor: Start implementation of programmed budgeting, rather than line-item budgeting.

2) City Clerk: Allow outside analysis of City Clerk operations.

3) City Collector: Introduce computerized collection, billing, and record keeping, appoint City Collector, and/or merge office with Treasurer's Office.

4) City Engineer: Get more qualified personnel, merge with Highway Department into a Public Works Department.

5) City Hall Maintenance: Contract out for City Hall maintenance.

6) City Messenger: Contract out for City Messenger service.

7) City Registrar of Voters: Computerize all Department files.

8) City Treasurer: Contract out for payroll operations, appoint Treasurer.

196 9) Central Purchasing: Expand Department, establish

Central Purchaser of Labor--Personnel Department.

10) Fire Department: More emphasis on preventive fire

protection, more firefighter educational opportunities, more

constructive use of the time spent in station, keep records

of personnel and time allocations.

11) Forestry Department: Keep track of trees planted

and trees cut.

12) Highway Department: Contract out for more municipal

roadwork, merge with City Engineer into a Public Works Depart-

ment.

13) Municipal Waste Disposal: Build College Park--cel-

lulosic yeast digestion recycling plant.

14) Police: Keep records of personnel and time allocations,

stagger cruiser changeovers, contract out for private ambulance

service, computerize files.

15) Public Health: Evaluate program objectives, enforce in-

spection laws, contract out sample testing to private enterprise,

increase environmental personnel, use personnel properly.

Our study examined the current municipal governmental

structure as it relates to program efficiency. Since some

programs are run by commission-headed departments, some by

singled-headed departments, some by commissions without de-

partments, and some by department heads with advisory com-

missions; and since there are a variety of commissions with

only indirect relation to actual policies or programs, we

197 felt it useful to examine the relation between the form of these various organizational structures, and what they were able to ac-

complish. In some cases, we recommended major changes, as with

the Health Department, Library Department, and Cemetery Depart-

ment, but in a number of cases, we did not see any major gain

from reorganization, i.e., in the Police Department, Fire Depart,

ment, Water Department, and Electricity Departmt,;.t.

Some departments were left untouched by our study, including

the huge School Department which utilizes half of Chicopee's ex-

penditures. There is a lot that could be done by City departments

themselves to enhance objective analysis of their operations- -

keeping better records of what they are expending per program in

labor and supplies.

The purpose of the resident preference survey was to identify

the degree of satisfaction of the residents with the local public

services they were receiving. Aside from covering many of the

individual public services with specific questions, one of the

main purposes was to ask some broad questions which would iden-

tify the overall priorities of the people of Chicopee. There

seemed to be clear consensus that the public safety departments,

i.e., Police and Fire, were the most important services. Fifty-

one % of the 315 respondents ranked public safety first, com-

pared to 20% for schools, the next most often picked. Still,

one would not be able to infer from this fact that the City

should expand public safety at the expense of schools and other

services, because certain data, such as program costs, are

198 avoided by this question. Schools receive close to half the municipal budget, and yet our survey would seem to indicate that they are second in priority to the public safety services.

Since the residents of Chicopee are overwhelmingly satisfied with the education, police and fire protection they are receiv-

ing, one would gather that satisfactory public safety is only half as expensive to provide as satisfactory education. The conclusion that Chicopee residents would not like to see an

expanded public safety program at the expense of their schools

is further supported by a question where 37.1% favored the 'pie

diagram' budget which most closely represented Chicopee's actual budget with relatively large school expenditures, whereas only

17.7% favored the "big public safety" diagram.

Although it is possible to say confidently that Public

Safety is widely considered to be the most important of the

locally provided public services, generalizations about the

rankings of the three others listed, and the huge number of

unlisted local services, are quite difficult to establish.

On average (weighting first choice with 4 points, second choice

with 3, etc.) one would conclude that the average respondent's

ranking was: #1) Public safety, #2) Schools, #3) Public health,

#4) Public works.

High rates of approval went to trash pickup, police, fire,

schools, and emergency ambulance service. Relatively few people

thought that the park system, or Library Department needed ex-

pansion, 92% of the respondents wouldn't consider moving to

199 Springfield or Holyoke for lower taxes. This supports the conclusion that residents are satisfied with life in Chicopee and, to a degree, the services they receive. There were a few services which were looked on favorably, but not by large margins.

These included snow removal, which was satisfactory to 58% and unsatisfactory to 41%; condition of streets, which was satisfactory to 63% and unsatisfactory to 35%; and pollution, 35% thought that "present air and water pollution may be hurting their health" compared with 59% who didn't. Seventy-five % of the respondents felt that the traffic police were not helping these problems.

Two conclusions come out of looking at responses to the questions concerning politicians in City Hall: 1) Residents seem, on the whole, either apolitical or apathetic about Chico- pee's politicians; 2) Chicopee residents seem to think that there is a fair amount of corruption in City Hall, although perhaps no more than in any other city or town.

The first statistical conclusion is more important to one of the general themes of our report: that Chicopee would be better off if it appointed a number of its presently-elected City officers, bringing more professionalism and qualified city managementexperi- ence to jobs such as the assessors, the City Collector, the City

Treasurer, and the City Clerk.

In an era where the speed of the decision-making and enac- ting process is becoming more and more vital, the importance of centralized administration increasingly outweighs the checks and balances of the electoral process, at least with respect to the

200 local municipal offices of Assessor, Treasurer, Collector, and

Clerk. Our survey would indicate that the people of Chicopee are not concerned about who is elected to these offices, or at least, not enough to remember their names for more than a year and a half. The City Clerk has been in office. for over thirty years, and yet only 40% of the respondents could accurately name him. The Treasurer was named correctly by 23.4% of the respondents, the Collector, by 30.4%, and any one of the three assessors, by 43.4% of the respondents.

Concerning the "corruption" questions, it is unfortunate, but not too surprising, that residents do not exhibit more confidence in their municipal officials. There is a good possibility that the responses on these questions were affected by the national revelations on Watergate and other political mishaps.

Chicopee residents may be expressing, in part, a disillusion- ment with politicians in general. In any case, it would be wise for City officials to strengthen their daily relationship with the people. According to our survey, 46.3% thought that Chicopee officials "don't listen to people", compared with

39.6% who thought they "did listen to people".

Part of the statistical analysis included an attempt to determine what sorts of people thought what kinds of things on the questionnaire. To determine whether certain demographic characteristics had noticeable effects on responses, we put together contingency tables to check responses of individuals against their age, sex, educational attainment, income, occupa- tion, length of residence in Chicopee, family size, and ethnic

201 or national origin. We tested our contingency tables with

Pearson Chi-squared and Maximum Liklihood Chi-squared tests for row-column independence at 10%, 5%, and 2.5% confidence levels. We also computed the lambda statistic for predictive association.

To summarize the results, at the 5% level of confidence, age had significant effects on peoples' responses to political questions and the questions which asked the names of elected officials. Age affected responses on pollution issues. Older people did not see pollution as much of a problem as younger people. Age was also correlated with how people travel around town and their use of parks. Education related to views on political questions, the pollution questions, and resident satisfaction with public schools. Income affected responses on the police service, political questions, pollution, and additional money for parks. Sex made a difference concerning responses on some pollution questions, some political questions, and transportation around town. Length of residence in Chicopee was associated with significant changes of views on political questions, use of park services and travel around town.

In general, age and income levels seemed to have the broadest effects on peoples responses to the questionnaire. Education affected responses on a number of topics, but not as many as age and income. Sex had surprisingly little effect on responses.

Reference copy: Frost Library, Amherst College ******************************************************************

202 BEST COPY Economic Anal sis of Com etinPublic Utilities in Jacksonville

Illinois (Grant no. GY-10812)

MacMurray College Jacksonville, Illinois 62650

June 4, 1973 - August 10, 1973

Participants:

Katherine Duncan Margaret Moore

Patrick Glithero Jeffrey Wilson

Donald Larson* John Wilson

*Student Project Director

Daniel Salomone, Faculty Advisor

I. Effects of Competition

A. Average Cost Comparison

Two regressions were chosen to represent the average vari-

able cost functions of Illinois Power and City Light and Power.

However, their explained variations are not as high as previous

regressions because certain explanatory variable had to be

omitted because of our inability to predict what their values

would be at increased kilowatt-hour production.The base year

of 1967 was chosen since it was the year for which the regres-

sion equations were most accurate. Average fixed cost was

approximated by the sum of annual depreciation plus annual

interest divided by kilowatt-hours produced.

Four averago total costs were calculated: actual average

total cost to Illinois Power in 1967; projected average total

cost for Illinois Power; actual average total cost to City

Light and Power in 1967; and projected average total cost

203 for City Light and Power. The projected costs were based on the kilowatt-hour load each company would carry if it were to provide Jacksonville's entire demand. Costs were compared on two levels: average total costs and total costs.

Both comparisons yielded similar results. Illinois Power could produce electricity for the entire city at lower cost than the two competing utilities can. On the other hand, due to large, but necessary capital investments, it would be more costly for City Light and Power to serve the entire

city than for the two companies. However, both projected

average total costs were respectively lower than the actual

1967 average total costs, indicating economies of scale in

the production and distribution of electric power.

B. Survey of Jacksonville Electrical Customers

A questionnaire sent to local residential electric cus-

tomers revealed that, while the privately-owned Illinois

Power Company was generally regarded as having superior

service, customers of both utilities had mixed emotions

about selling City Light and Power. A commonly expressed

view held that competition accounted for lower rates and

better service in Jacksonville. While evidence gathered

from other sources suggests that this is not the case, this

view constitutes a social cost to be attributed to monopoly

operation in the city and must be weighed along with other

purely economic factors before a policy is recommended. C. WasteoUmeti-ilarketAnalsi.s The presence of two utilities in the zame service area

204 must inevitably result in a certain amount of duplication of

facilities, especially in areas of distribution, collection,

and administration. Our estimate shows considerable dupli-

cation of resources, both on a fixed asset basis andover- time in duplicated rents and salaries.

Using newspaper accounts and interviews, we also attempted

to piece together the history of competition in Jacksonville,

with special emphasis on the duopolists' price and non-price

competition. It appears that the firms did not collaborate

either on prices or service and that all agreementswere

tacit understandings. Illinois Power was clearly the domi-

nant firm, setting its rates without regard to those of the

City. Some free services were offered by both utilities and

customers were encouraged to "switch" companies.

II. Effects of Regulation

A. The Averch-Johnson Hypothesis

Professors Averch and Johnson have presented the theory

that utilities under rate of return regulation will tend to

use excessive amounts of capital in order to "inflate" their

rate base and, thus, increase the allowed amount of profit.

Since Illinois Power experiences such regulation while City

Power does not, we attempted to test the theory empirically.

We verified, with three statistical tests, that Illinois

Power's capital-labor ratio was, indeed, significantly dif-

ferent and larger than that of City Power.

Also, using regression techniques, we determined a

logarithmic relationship between net income and the C-L ratio

205 for Illinois Power, thus verifying the fact that higher input proportions of capital did increase the utility's net income.

On the other hand, a significant relationship between net income and the C-L ratio for City Light and Power was not found.

The evidence suggests at least a guarded acceptance of the hypothesis.

B. The Tax-Interest Differential

Federal and state tax laws offer distinct operating advantages to municipal utilities, as compared to privately-owned systems which must pay corporate income and other taxes for which the public systems are not liable. Also, since the interest from municipal bonds is exempt from Federal income tax, such bonds can be offered at a lower interest rate. We estimated that the savings from these advantages for the

Jacksonville City Light and Power Department amounted to

$345,861 for the year 1972. This constitutes the tax-interest

"subsidy" enjoyed by the municipal utility. With regression analysis it was determined that the tax rate appeared to have a direct influence on the electric rates charged by Illinois

Power, the privately-owned system in competition with the

City, and may, in fact, account for the difference in the two utilities' rates. The evidence suggests that the lower interest rates on debt paid by the City may also have helped it to undersell Illinois Power, although to a much lesser degree.

Also, using a formula suggested by Wallace and Junk, the first authors to comment on the tax-interest differential, we estimated the production costs of providing peakpower to

Jacksonville with the actual facilities inuse. The evidence suggests strongly that the tax-interest subsidy has

encouraged the City to use inefficient sources ofenergy and, thus, has led to resource misallocation.

Reference copy: MacMurray College Library *****************************************************************

The Determination of Pro ertAssessment Differentials in Metro- politan Philadelphia , - With_Emlasis in Delaware County, Penn- s..thaw.2 (Grant no. GY-10759)

Swarthmore College Swarthmore, Pennsylvania 19081

June 5, 1973 - August 28, 1973

Participants:

Ellen Barry Steven Epstein

R. Stephen Berry Jeffrey Frankel

Bruce Char Amy Gault

Rendell Davis John C. Hilke*

Gerald Epstein Catherine Lutz *Student Project Director

Charles C. Gilbert, Faculty Advisor

The principal goal of the project was to determine the nature and extent of the differentials in residential property taxasses- ments. The main investigation was carried out in Delaware County,

Pennsylvania, using a sample of about 1600 properties whichwere sold between 1970 and 1972. Information, including individual property characteristics, neighborhood variables, sales values

207 and assessments, were gathered both from county records and from local real estate publications. An analysis was conducted using both regular multiple regressions and a two-stage least squares version (which accounted for the simultaneity of assessment and value determination).

Our econometric model explained a moderate portion of the variation with a high degree of certainty. The results showed

systematic assessment variation from the mean assessment value ratio. Variations appeared on the basis of age of building,

date of assessment, number of families in the structure, social

status, racial composition of the neighborhoods number of bed-

rooms (size of house), local government jurisdiction, and other variables. Among the variables which were not significant, the most notable was party registration of the owner. Our variables

covered the range of legitimate variables and the principal hypo-

thetical discrimination variables. The relatively lowR2which

our model found indicates that there is a large random variation

in individual assessments in Delaware County.

In addition to the econometric study, supporting work was

done in economic, political, sociological, legal, and historical

aspects of the assessment process and property taxation in general.

The economic subgroup found substantial theoretical and empirical

justification for radical alteration of the current property tax.

On the basis of regressivity, horizontal inequity, inherent ad-

ministrative difficulties, incompatibility with national economic

goals, and tax base inadequacies, the economics subgroup concluded

208 that the United States should move toward emphasison a land tax and assessments assigned by multiple regression analysis.

The political-sociology group conducted extensive inter- viewing of local officials and reporters involved inassessment. They found extensive political involvement in Delaware County assements and general inconsistency in assessment practices.

Administrative theory was also reviewed in coming to thecon- clusion that assessment should be professionalized and should include vastly improved training ofassessors, state certi- fication of assessors, selection on the basis of merit, and standardized published procedures.

Statutory restrictions on assessment practices, recent litigation, and pending legislation occupied the attention of the legal specialist. Findings from this section were useful in contrasting current practices with proper practices. The research from this section also points toward the need to clarify and simplify administrative requirements and to resolve confusion in judicial standards end grounds for equity.

The history specialist sought to providea perspective on property taxation and assessment, as well as to review historical, moral and scientific justifications for various positionson property taxation. The historian also assumed the responsibility for sketching the development of this project byway of an introduction to the report.

Reference copy: McCabe Library, Swarthmore College ***************************************************************

209 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Lamparison of Interaction Patterns in an 0 en S ace and a

Fixed-Plan School (Grant no. GY-10752) Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg, Virginia 24060

March 14, 1973 - December 31, 1973

Participants:

Kathern Ahern Nancy Daily

Paula Clem* Mirium Gay

Marcia Scantlebury

*Student Project Director Wolfgang F. E. Preiser, Faculty Advisor

The comparative evaluation of educational programs suggests

the testing of the performance of students, most often by stan-

dardized achievement tests. Comparative evaluation of educational

facilities usually tests the performance of the physical environment - light, sound, temperature. The dynamic interaction of the performances of the human and physical resources is rarelyanalyzed.

Evaluation of this interaction in existing educational systems may

provide behavioral and technical information for designcriteria

for schools. An interdisciplinary research team of students from Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University organized anethological

study to investigate some different interactionpatterns which occur

in an open-plan and a traditional, fixed-plan school. The objectives

of the study weret (1) to investigate some interaction patterns

among members of the schoolpopulations; (2) to examine some inter-

action patterns between the school populationand the physical

210 resources; (3) to study the physical systems as background to the educational environment; (4) to organize information to be used in developing design criteria for educational facilities.

Two public elementary schools, matched for educational philosophy, available resources, budget, and demographic description, were selected for the study. One school had a traditional design of self-contained classrooms. The second was an open-plan design. With the cooperation of the participa- ting principals and teachers, remote-controlled videotapere- corders were concealed from the students, and used to observe first and fourth-grade classes for four weeks. Recordings were made simultaneously in the schools, controlled for subject, time of day, and day of week. Data were taken from discrete time sample viewing of the tapes and recorded on standardized observation sheets. Videotape information was supplemented by in- formal interviews, observations, and measures of the physical environmental systems.

The results suggest three general conclusions: (1) the open-plan design appears to facilitate the interaction patterns of the school's philosophy better than the fixed-plan; (2) there is more use made of the available physical resources in the open-plan school; and (3) first-grade and fourth-grade interaction patterns may necessitate different design requirements.

Reference copy: Cowgill Library, College of Architectures

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University *****************************************************************

211 compeuttrzased Community Communications (Grant no. GY-10766) University of Illinois at Urbana Urbana, Illinois 61801

June 11, 1973 - August 24, 1973

Participants:

George Carter* Colleen Martin

Robert Cutler Marian Morgan

Dennis Dombkowski Clifford Morris

Jim Gilfillan Paul Sturm

*Student Project Director

Non-Stipend Participants:

Valencia Breckinridge Debbie Melchi

David Dunlavy Terry Moymont

Linda Heinsen Doreen Mrjenovich

Thomas Lindsey Larry Peterson

Ivette Lopez Thomas Williams Heinz Von Foerster, Faculty Advisor

I. Introduction This project can be classified under two majorheadings.

(A) System development research

(B) Survey research The purpose of the system development research wasto imple-

ment prototypes of programs that utilize thePLATO sydtem as a

computer-based communications medium and define futureapproaches.

The rationale for the survey research was to provideessential

community input into the system development. Following is a

description of the major accomplishments in both areas.

212 II. System Development

(A) bars: As a result of the summer work, two papers have been submitted for publication. "Second Generation Confer- encing Systems" argues that far more attention must be paid to system design goals if these systems are to be utilized by the general public. Four initial criteria are proposed. The paper was prepared for the 1974 National Computer Conference and Ex- position. "Computer-based Community Communications" outlines eight computer-based methodologies for involving the public in the planning process. One of these methods, conferencing, is explored in detail. This paper was submitted to the Annual

Association for Computing Machinery Student Paper Competition.

Both papers were authored by George E. Carter, Student Project

Director.

(B) Programs:

(1) Urban Dynamics -- Jay Forrester's urban model was implemented on PLATO. A citizen may run through the life cycle of an urban area on the terminal.He may also alter the model's parameters by trying out possible solutions to urban ills and observing the effects on the area's social and economic indicators.

(2) Interaction Matrices -- A sixteen-element self- interaction matrix has been implemented on PLATO that allows citizen participation in "New City" planning.

(3) Conferencing -- The "discuss", "confer" and "conference" programs have all been substantially improved. "Discuss"

213 has received extensive use.

(4) Attitude Measurement -- The "perceptions" program administers a questionnaire to each participant. He is then allowed to view the aggregate responses of all participants, permitting "reality testing".

III. Surveil Research

The major tool employed for our survey research was a questionnaire. The universe was the residents of the twin cities of

Champaign and Urbana, Illinois. A randomly-selected sample, con-

sisting of 404 interviews, was obtained from July 9, 1973 through

August 5, 1973. An intensive period of data analysis then followed.

Demographically, our sample was mixed. Nearly 90% of the

sample was white, and 10% black. Females accounted for 58% of the sample, with over a third of our interviewees between the

ages of 18 and 28. Over a quarter of the sample was raised in

asmall city (between 25,000 and 100,000 in population). Addi-

tionally, 60% were natives of the State of Illinois.

Nearly three-fourths of the sample had been educated beyond

the high school level and, of those, fully one-third had completed

more than 4 years of post-high school study. The two largest oc-

cupation groups comprising our sample were white collar profes-

sionals (25%) and students (23%). Moreover, 22% of the sample

reported an income of better than $15,000 during the past year.

As far as the political preference of the sample was con-

cerned, "Independent" was named by 38% of the sample, with "Demo-

crat" being stipulated by 35% and "Republican" by 21%. Further-

214 more, blacks reported lower levels of ircome and educational achievement.

Those interviewed were asked to tellus their frequency of obtaining news through the various media, their media preferences for local news, and their opinion of the credibility, fairness, and completeness of each. They were also asked to respond to two statements concerning forms of communication, and to several statements which expressed differing views of technology.

Measures of the sample's political activity, feelings of political alienation and cynicism, and attitudes toward increased citizen participation in policy making were also sought.

Briefly, we found that our sample, as a whole, exhibited the following attitudes: Television, a visual medium, received more favorable responses than did radio, an audio medium, with newspapers, a printed medium, ranking last. All three media, however, were viewed in a favorable light. Additionally, television was the medium most often employed for the receiving of national news, with newspapers the one most often used for obtaining local news.

The sample reported feeling comfortable with both verbal and written communication. However, of the two, verbal communication projected the more favorable overall attitude. Our sample's attitudes toward technology were mixed, with many being unclear as to the meaning of some of our statements in this area.

Additionally, a relatively high level of political aotivity, and relatively low levels of political cynicism and alienation were

215 found in our sample.

IV. Conclusion

We are convinced of the potential of computer-based communi- oations media for enhancing our quality of life. Future research should be directed at the following concerns:

(1) Developing the graphics capabilities of the PLATO system, particularly in conferencing programs.

(2) Utilizing PLATO's national network capability by encour-

aging users at remote sites to participate in conferences and by

gearing issue programs to national concerns.

(3) Optimizing system performance through human factors

studies.

Reference copy: University of Illinois Library ******************************************************************

The Effect of Government Involvement in Housing onSocial Inter-

action in Communities (Grant no. GY-l0750)

Providence College Providence, Rhode Island 02918

June 24, 1973 - August 28, 1973

Participants:

Maureen Connor Arthur Parise*

Michael Elliott Theresa Schaeffer

William McQuade Marie Shmaruk

Elias Simon

*Student Project Director

Stephen Misovich, Faculty Advisor This study explored a hypothetical relationship between government involvement and its effects upon the social interaction pattern of subsidy recipients. The hypothesized effect was a negative one, i.e., increased government involvement in housing would be associated with a more restricted social interaction pattern.

All respondents in the study were female. Degree of government involvement was defined by a gradient system of government sponsored housing. Type 1 housing (high involvement) consisted of government constructed, monolithic housing projects. Type 2 housing (medium involvement) consisted of government constructed, dispersed housing, and Type 3 housing (low involvement) consisted of privately constructed, but welfare-supported housing units. A two-part questionnaire was utilized to explore the respondent's cognitions and evaluation of her housing situation, as well as her attitudes and behavior vis-a-vis social interaction and neighborhood use. Two separate data collecting techniques were employed. Initially, personal interviews were undertaken. Cir- cumstances subsequently forced us to use mailed questionnaires.

Because of this change of technique and an extremely low response rate, the findings reported must be interpreted with

a good deal of caution. Two major respondent differences were noted among the housing types. Clear differences were discovered between respondents' general attitudes about friendship and social values and their evaluation of the social atmosphere within their

neighborhoods. Secondly, the day-to-day activities (e.g., visits

217 to friends) of each housing type were significantly different.

However, while Type 1 residents, as suggested, exhibited the most restricted pattern of attitudes and behaviors, the relative positions of Types 2 and 3 were the reverse of the hypothetical predictions: Type 2 residents consistently showed less restriction in almost all response categories.

Reference copy: Phillips Memorial Library, Providence College *****************************************************************

Energy Efficient Air Conditioning of Architectural Spaces by Self-

Actuating Devices (Grant no. GY-10788)

University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104

May 7, 1973 - July 31, 1973

Participants:

Wayne L. Appleyard Richard W. MacMath

Robert P. Campbell Candace J. McDonald

Edward J. Kelly, Jr.* John W. Oliver

Mark Kivela Martin S. Smith

*Student Project Director

A. Peters Oppermann, Faculty Advisor

Since non-renewable, energy-powered systems which rely on the continuous supply of fossil fuels are experiencing the effects of an "energy crisis", alternative solar energy-powered systems are becoming economically more competitive, along with being ecologically more desirable. Long-range solutions to this planet's escalating energy requirements and dwindling fossil fuel reserves are inevitable if we can develop sufficient solar energy-powered

218 systems. The situation is best summed up in reflecting on some of the thoughts of R. Buckminister Fuller who once stated that the earth can be likened to a "spaceship" which travels with our solar system within what we know as the universe. Being similar to a spaceship, we live in a self-contained, life-supporting environment which is limited in the quantity ar.d quality in its capabilities to sustain life. Since our non-renewable energy resources are earth-based and thus, inherently limited in nature, and since these fossil fuels were originally developed through the agency of the ultimate non-renewable energy source, our sun,

steps taken to utilize solar energy directly and indirectly in powering solar energy-based systems will prove beneficial.This action may then provide the necessary long-range replacements for

our endangered fossil fuel systems. Solar energy and its many varied forms, as, for example, wind and water energy, are poten-

tially limited in usefulness only by our ingenuity, social commitment, and our rate of response.

Our automated natural cooling system, relying on the evap-

orative cooling of water and designed for the future application

to residential-scale structures, was conceived as part of a total

solar-heating and cooling system. Development of the cooling sys-

tem received the primary emphasis because of time, personnel and

budgetary constraints. Since solar heat collection systems are Presently being marketed commercially and since application of

several of these designs is possible to our natural cooling sys-

tem, a solar heat collection system was relegated to a secondary

219 role in this research endeavor.

The specific efforts of this research group have been directed along the lines of developing methods of harnessing solar energy and natural wind currents to produce useful heating and cooling of residential-scale structures. Since both of these processes need some measure of control to be practically useful, our design resulted in a special "double roof" system for our experimental structure, where the lower roof acts as the primary cooling surface and the upper roof becomes the heat shield for the lower roof and the primary heat collection surface.

Cooling wind studies were also made to establish the optimum orientation of the experimental structures with respect to the best capture of those winds available for the evaporative cooling process.

The control of the cooling process was achieved through the use of bimetallic coils attached, by cable, to movable insulation panels located along the lower perimeter of the sloped double-roof system. These counterweighted panels shift up and down vertically in metal channels through the motion supplied by the bimetallic coils located on the upper roof. These coils curl and uncurl when subjected to solar/air temperature changes because of the physically bonding of two dissimilar metals, one having a high coefficient of thermal expansion and the other having a low coefficient. Housing these coils in glass boxes insures a greater coil response because of the build up of interior air temperaturb and better coil protection from the exterior weather conditions.

Through the use of nylon pulleys and stainless steel wires at-

220 tached to the coils and running down to the respective movable panels, we are able to create an automaticallyactuated cooling

system which "adjusts" the amount and velocity of available natural wind currents passing between the double roof system. Since

the evaporative cooling obtainable has a one-to-one relationship with wind velocity, we found it desirable to explore ways of in-

ducing a greater wind velocity as it was passing between the

double roof system over the lower roof cooling surface. This sur-

face is composed, from the top down, of four inches of water-

saturated sponge, a plastic water barrier, and structural hard-

ware cloth spanning the wooden rafters of the lower roof. By

means of wind tunnel tests, the physical devices used to induce

an increase in the wind velocity were inclined, land berms up,

to the experimental structure which directed the wind upward,

an overhanging roof which acts as an air scoop and a wall-shading

device, a 15° sloped roof for water drainage and air flow charac-

teristics, and a wind-powered and oriented revolving gravity ven-

tilator at the crown of the upper roof for "sucking" the wind

between the double roof system through the base of the ventilator

to the outside. Through this combination of "funneling down" the wind at the intake areas along the lower perimeter of the double

roof system, just above the walls, and a ventilator actuated

"suction" action at the crown of the upper roof, a near doubling

of the initial wind velocity can be achieved as it passes between

the double roof system. This, in turn, will almost double the

evaporative cooling obtainable. Water was pumped from storage

222. containers to the crown of the lower roof for distribution to the sponge and the excess was collected at the lower end and returned to the storage containers. A twelve-volt pump was used, (since this is the only conventional, non-renewable energy- consuming piece of equipment within the experimental structure, a wind generator, upon which construction is almost completed, was chosed as a substitute.)

An additional material used to aid in maintaing a comfortable

interior temperature was improved wall insulation. These employed large urethane foam "building blocks" which interlock and which have hollow cores for the pouring of a structural concrete framework.

Reference copy: Reference Library, College of Architecture and

Design, University of Michigan ******************************************************************

Research into the Buildin of Alorithms to Evaluate Model Cities

Programs (Grant no. GY-10804)

New Hampshire College Manchester, New Hampshire 03104

June 4, 1973 - August 24, 1973

Participants:

Gary Beane Lorrie Grace

Frank Boudreau Bradley Hughes

Margaret Crossin Elisabeth James

Gary Dallero* Richard Lowney

Tom Dionisio Dennis Moore

Robin Dowling Louise Smith

*Student Project Director Non-Stipend Participant:

Richard Hoffman

William Hunzeker, Faculty Advisor

The original objective of this study was to develop, through an interdisciplinary systems analysisof the Model Cities Agency of Manchester, New Hampshire, an evaluative model for social service agencies.Because evaluation of programs or services is merely a small portion of the effort of social agencies, the objective was later expanded to include the planning and budgeting methods needed to support the evaluative techniques developed in the study.

The work was conducted in three overlapping phases. Phase 1 was designed so as to complete anurban situation analysis by in-

vestigating and analyzing the present structure of social service

agencies in Manchester and how it interfaces with the community.

The greatest emphasis was on Manchester's Model Cities Agencyand

its operations. Using facts collected and assumptions made in

Phase 1, a preliminary conceptual model was developed inPhase 2.

The model was tested and the final report written duringPhase 3.

Testing was completed by randomly selecting two current Model

Cities programs and by applying all methods and algorithms estab-

lished in Phase 2. Participants were required to work in two groups(qualitative

and quantitative) as needed throughout the three phases.Matrix

management techniques were used to provide cohesivenessand conimon

direction between the groups.

223 The project was started with lectures in the various disci- plines represented in order to establish an infrastructure of terminology and methodology. Various operations research tools, such as time-series studies, model building, cost-benefit analysis, cost-effectiveness analysis, and variance analysis,were utilized to complete a Planning-Programming and Budgeting System

(PPBS).

Through the urban situation analysis, a long-range PPB

System has been established that will provide socialagency administrators and urban planners with an integrated four-phase system consisting of: 1) Problem Identification- designed to identify, assess, and rate urban problems using relationship matrices and indices, preference theory and utility theory, and social indicators/characteristics; 2) Alternatives Assessment- provides information on how to analyze social agencies and their methods in order to ameliorate problems, as well as the agencies' own alternatives, with such tools as objective and program profiles and organizational function delineation chart; 3) Program

Budgeting- offers methods to select and analyze finamially program alternatives and procedures for forecasting expenditures and possible revenues; and 4) Program Evaluation- utilizes cost analysis methods and underlines specific procedures and criteria for data collection and processing. An appendix is included in the final report illustrating the PPB System as it could be applied. A glossary of terms is appended to prevent confusion for the reader.

224 BEST COPY AVAILABII Interviews with local government officials and social agency directors were conducted to gather data to test the validity of the model and algorithms developed as part of the resulting system. Social data were obtained from City,

State and Federal offices and from the local Model Cities

Agency to test the feasibility of the use of social indicators/ characteristics in the Problem Identification Phase and for in- clusion in the appendix. Program expenditure information was also obtained from Manchester's Model Cities Agency for use in the appendix.

The proposed system has received a favorable response from

Manchester city officials and from the Director of the Model

Cities Agency.

Reference copy: H. A. B. Shapiro Memorial Library, New Hampshire

College *****************************************************************

Application of Modeling and Simulation to Design of Pollution

Control Equimpal (Grant no. GY-10769)

Manhattan College Bronx, New York 10471

May 28, 1973 - August 24, 1975

Participants:

Patrick Byrne* Charles Lo Pinto

Luigi De Francesco James Marino

Lidia Llamas Christopher Murray

Stephen Murtha

*Student Project Director

225 Louis Theodore, Faculty Advisor

This project was concerned with the evaluation of several types of air pollution control equipment. The equipment examined were the gravity settler, venturi scrubber, electrostatic precipitator, and fabric filter. For the gravity settler and the electrostatic precipitator, the effect of varying operating conditions on collection efficiency was studied, while, for the venturi scrubber and fabric filter, their effects on pressure drop was investigated.

The gravity settler was investigated to verify a mathematical model for collection efficiency proposed shortly before the project began. The model makes use of the Monte Carlo technique to assign a size and location to each particle entering the gravity settler. Force balances are made around the particle and its progress through the settler is monitored until it either escapes or is collected. Experimental data were collected on a bench scale gravity settler containing 21 collecting plates.

Polystyrene latex was used to generate a monodispersed aerosol.

Samples of the inlet and exit particulate concentrations were obtained with isokinetic collectors. A microscope was used to count the number of particles in the Anlet and exit samples, and the collection efficiency was based on this. The conditions under which the test was run, gas flow rate, particle loading, etc., were fed into the model and solved on a digital computer and the predicted results compared to those measured. The experimental results were non-reproducible and no specific conclu-

226 sions could be drawn. In general, however, it was agreed that the experimental technique, and not the model, was at fault.

A similar approach was used in the study of the electrostatic precipitator. The proposed model can be used to study the effect of precipitator length, plate-to-plate spacing, electric field strength, particle loading, and velocity profile on collection efficiency. The Monte Carlo technique was used

to assign a size, location, and electrostatic charge to each particle as it enters the precipitator. A force balance was made around each particle and its progress through the precipi-

tator monitored until it is either collected or escapes. The

collection efficiency is based on the mass collected. Construc-

tion of a bench scale model precipitator was begun but has not

yet been completed. The model was compared to collection efficiencies reported in the literature and was in close agree-

ment in all cases. Electrostatic precipitator performance

curves for typical pollutants in severalindustries are pre-

sented. The mathematical model can be used to simulate with a

parallel plate or a tubular precipitator. For all the cases

studied, the collection efficiency of the tubular precipitator

was always higher than that of theparallel-plate precipitator.

The venturi scrubber was investigated to develop a mathe-

matical model describing the pressure drop. The major cause

of the pressure drop through a venturi scrubber is the transfer

of momentum from the gas stream to the injected liquid in the

throat. The equations were developed by selecting a central volume in the venturi scrubber and performing forceand momentum

227 balances around it. The major variables considered were the void fraction, liquid droplet size, gas velocity, liquid veloc-

ity, and venturi configuration. A system of four differential

equations was developed and solved numerically, using the Runge-

Kutta fourth order forward integration method. A relationship has been established between the void fraction at the entrance

to the venturi throat and the liquid-to-gas ratio. Pressure

profiles, as a function of position in the venturi, as well as

overall pressure drops, are presented. In addition to the theo-

retical work, experimental pressure drop data were collected on

a bench scale venturi scrubber. The pressure drops predicted

by the mathematical model agree very well with those obtained

on the bench model. The experimental results compared favorably

with the small amount of data available in the literature.

The investigation of fabric filters began toward the end of

the project. The causes of pressure drop through the filter were

investigated and a preliminary mathematical model proposed. The

model accounts for the pressure drop across the fabric, as well

as the pressure drop across the filter cake. Some of the major

variables considered are the porosity of the fabric and filter

cake, the diameter of the fabric fiber, and the diameter of the

particulates collected. Although the model has not been completed,

specific examples are given to show how the parts may be used.

Reference copy: Grover M. Herman Engineering Library, Manhattan

College ******************************************************************

228 An Analuilof the Effects of Sulfur Dioxide on Lichen Metabolism

(Grant no. GY-10799)

Bethany College Bethany, West Virginia 26032

May 28, 1973 - August 17, 1973

Participants:

Dianne Irene Clisby Richard W. Kriever

Joseph William Dean* Rebecca Midler

Robert Louis Jirak Deborah Lee Miller

William Kolanko Rosaline Anne Schoof

Cathy Lynn Kresan Eric James Zurcher

*Student Project Director

C. Blaine Carpenter, Faculty Advisor

A field survey was used to determine the type and amount of

lichen growth at 36 sites along the Ohio River from Moundsville

to New Manchester, West Virginia, concurrently evaluating the

amount of sulfation for each survey site and 138 additional sites.

The mean percent coverage for the 36 sites was 6.26 with a

standard deviation of 4.69. The following table summarizes the

areas of low lichen coverage and indicates the probable sources

of air pollution affecting them.

Site Number Percent Coverage Source of Pollution

1D 3.05 Toronto Power Plant 10D 1.05 Weirton Steel 13D 1.80 Kopper Coke Plant 15D 2.40 Kopper Coke Plant 19D 2.80 Wellsburg Industries 21D 0.70 Wellsburg Industries 22D 1.70 Wellsburg Industries 24D 0.20 Cardinal Power Plant

229 Site Number Percent Coverage Source of Pollution

29D 0.40 Tiltonsville Industries 32D 2.50 Wheeling Steel 35D 3.70 Wheeling Industries 37D 2.20 Wheeling Industries 39D 5.50 Wheeling Industries 41D 1.61 44D 1.47 46D 2.57 Moundsville Industries 47D 5.39 Moundsville. Industries

After comparing the locations of the sulfation sites with

the known sources of pollution and with the lichen coverage ob-

tained from the survey site, it was concluded that an error was

made in either the construction or analysis of the sulfation

plates.

A controlled study was made of the morphological changes of

various species of lichens and two species of algae, when exposed

to different levels of sulfur dioxide.The development of a bio-

logical indicator for sulfur dioxide was the end result sought,

The lichens used in the exposure experiment showed varying

degrees of sensitivity to sulfur dioxide. The experiment also

indicated which lichens would be best suited for use as indicators

of pollution.

The lichen, Cladonia coniocraea, was found to be a good

demonstrator of pollution in the more polluted regions. Since

the sulfation data proved to be inaccurate, the coverage of

C. coniocraea was related to the total site average of all liChens

found. This site average is a good indication of the quality of

the air. The equation of the regression line was Y = 0.36 + 0.49X,

where Y is the square root of the average percent coverage for

230 C. coniocraea and X is the site coverage. The regression line has a correlation coefficient of 0.9439.

A study of the relationship between the amount of phaeophy-

tin-a produced in an algal cell and the amount of sulfur dioxide

in the atmosphere, using chromatographic and spectral analysis, was a third element of the project.

There was found to be no relationship between the amount of

sulfur dioxide in the air and the amount of phaeophytin-a in the

algal cells.

It is very likely that the phaeophytin-a found in the cells

of the unexposed cultures was produced during the extraction pro-

cess.

A radiochemical investigation of a-hydroxysulfonate inhibitor

(glyoxylate bisulfite) formation in algal cells exposed to various

levels of sulfur dioxide comprised the final area of study.

It was not possible to obtain disintegration counts signifi-

cantly above background counts. It was not feasible to obtain or

carrier free and, therefore, it was possible that produce S3502 the glyoxylate bisulfite was formed but did not contain enough

radioactively-tagged sulfur atoms to be significant, given the

resolution of our counting system.

Reference copy: Bethany College Library *****************************************************************

Pollutants ire San Diego (Grant no. GY-10820)

University of California at San Diego La Jolla, California 92037

June 25, 1973 - September 14, 1973

231 Participants:

Douglas Ballis Mary Marchetti

John Conery Robert Meyer

Anthony Haulk William Montemer

Carolyn Delane Heising* Thomas Moock

Jane Hofmockel Carmen Nevarez

Eric Larson Lynn Peachee

William Maltz Daniel Strickman

Steven Unger

*Student Project Director

Non-Stipend Participants:

Manuel Hernandez Leik Myrabo

James Vanderlaan

Alan M. Schneider, Faculty Advisor

The purpose of this investigation was to complete an in- depth pollution study of Mission Valley which was selected because of its geography (a rectangular valley with contour lines approximately parallel to incoming wind streamlines). It was also selected because of the heavy development in the area which included many large freeways. The County of San Diego does not operate an air monitoring station in the vicinity, so the study provides a badly needed data base for future research efforts.

The pollutants successfully monitored were nitrogen dioxide

(NO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter. Wind, temperature and humidity data were also recorded. In addition, a study of damage to pinto bean plants as a result of air quality

232 and site characteristics was conducted. Time-lapse movies and photographs using different filters and film types were taken to capture the growth of smog-related haze.

Seven-hour samples of NO2 at eight sites were collected for a period of two months. The equipment consisted of monitors built by the group according to specifications found in the Fed- eral Register, Vol. 36, No. 228, November 25, 1971. The analysis technique used was the sodium hydroxide calorimetric method. Am- bient concentrations of carbon monoxide were sought at four sites.

The equipment consisted of portable air pumps calibrated to fill aluminized mylar sample bags in a period of one hour. The bag contents were analyzed on a Beckman infrared analyzer. Particu- late matter was sampled with electrostatic aerosol samplers and high-volume samplers. The data were reduced and analyzed by computer.

Results indicate definite increases in NO and CO levels 2 correlated with distance inland from the ocean. The raw data show a range of between 2 and 35 PPHM for NO2; CO between 2 and

6 PPM, with average values of 3 to 10 PPHM NO2 and 2.2 to 2.9 PPM

CO from the furthest west to furthest east station. Two models were developed to explain this phenomenon, based on "varying- source" and "accumulation" representations. Particulate matter 3 levels over a period of three weeks gave 39pg/mas the average value, low compared to the Secondary Federal Standard of 150 pg/m3over a 24-hour period. Electron microscope pictures of particulates were obtained for relative size determination.

233 Elemental analysis using a. microprobe analyzer showed that zinc, iron ane popper were present in the samples.

The plant damage study showed that PAN and ozone levels, along with site characteristics (including humidity and solar

radiation) were sufficient to cause damage.Bronzing on the underside of the leaves due to PAN and white lesions due to

ozone, were photographed on the plants, and compared with stan-

dards from the Riverside Air Pollution Research Center located

at the University of California at Riverside.The most damaged

site was in Mission Gorge, northeast of Mission Valley.Mission

Bay was the least damaged by ozone, but suffered wilting from

salt spray. All sites, except Howard Johnson, showed PAN damage;

Mission Bay had but one leaf with a waxy underside.

The photographic study was unable to record successfully the

formation of haze on time-lapse film to any marked extent. The

slides, however, did show differences in the accentuation of haze,

according to the filter and film used. Infrared Ektachrome with

no filter gave the best results over otherfilter/film combinations.

The summer of 1973 showed CO, NO2, and PM levels in Mission

Valley comparable to levels recorded in other parts of the county.

Trends for pollution distribution indicated an accumulation or

settling effect which produces higher concentrations inland.

Parallel winds along the major source of pollution, Highway 8,

could account for this accumulation effect. Decreased mean wind

speeds up the valley could account for the settling, or worse

ventilation characteristics, of inland cites. Characteristics

of the air quality were significant enough to cause damage to

234 pinto bean plants.

More work needs to be done to determine long range pollution levels on a continuous basis to establish seasonal, daily and yearly trends. Further investigation into reasons for plant damage as a function of site characteristics should also be pursued.

Reference copy: Science and Engineering Library, University of

California at San Diego ******************************************************************

Missoula Valle Air Pollution Study (Grant no. GY-10811)

University of Montana Missoula, Montana 59801

June 18, 1973 - September 7, 1973

Participants:

Steven Anacker Jackson Sosebee

Christine Anderson* Michael Sully

Robert Hoedel Kelly Tatchell

Bruce McCune Lola Walsh

*Student Project Director

Ronald Erickson, Faculty Advisor

The 1973 Missoula Valley Air Pollution Study consisted of four areas of work. The respiratory disease study, and the hydrogen sulfide and sulphur dioxide determinations were a contin- uation and expansion of earlier work. The carbon monoxide sampling, and lead particulate determination were projects begun during this year's study.

235 An examination of respiratory patient visits to physicians

(May, 1972 through November, 1972) showed correlations between pollution and climatological conditions, and the incidence of respiratory disease; however, it was concluded that a more controlled study of the patients was needed to provide any defini- tive answers.

The investigation of respiratory disease admissions to St.

Patrick's Hospital in Missoula is still in the process of being programmed, and will not be ready for analysis and conclusions for several months.

Hydrogen sulfide and sulphur dioxide monitoring was conducted in and around the Missoula Valley, with over 400 samples collected. The method of West and Gaeke was used for SO anal- 2 ysis, and the modified method of Jacobs, et al. for H2S analysis.

With only a few exceptions, low levels of sulphur dioxide were detected. Hydrogen sulfide concentrations were generally higher, with some samples up to .17 ppm.

Carbon monoxide monitoring was performed with an Ecolyzer from Energetics Science, Inc. Sites representative of the down- town, residential, congested traffic intersection, and free-flowing traffic areas were selected for continuous stationary sampling.

At selected points on a predetermined grid of the city, short- term samples were also obtained. Significant correlations were found between CO levels and the volume of traffic, and CO levels and lead.

Particulate lead and total particulate samples were taken

236 simultaneously at the four primary sites used in the carbon

monoxide study. The samples were gathered witha high-\ulume

air sampler, using glass fiber filters. The analysis was made

according to the USPHS method; significant concentrationsof

lead were found. An atomic absorption spectroscopy method for analysis was also worked out.

Reference copy: University of Montana Library

Computer Studies in Air Pollution(Grant no. GY-10747)

University of California at San Diego La Jolla, California 92037

June 26, 1973- September 18, 1973

Participants:

Scott Anderson Leik Myrabo

Joseph Caporaletti Guy Tribble*

Betsy Moll Tom Webster Mike Zvda

*Student Project Director

Kent R. Wilson, Fauulty Advisor

A statistical model was developed for the predictionof changes in oxidant air quality, asa function of location resulting from the creation of a complex sourceor the implementation of a land use or transportation plan. Geocoded reactive hydrocarbon emission inventories from mobile and stationary sources in Los Angeles and San Diego for 1969 and 1970were used, with wind data and observed oxidant air quality, to calibratea relationship between emissions and air quality. This relationship,

237 applied to San Diego, was then used with a1975 nominal case- geocoded emissions inventory to generate a nominal1975 oxidant

index as a function of position. A new geocoded emissions func-

tion was developed, incorporating thepredicted effects of changed land use, and this, in turn, was used to generate a new1975 oxi-

dant function. The difference between the new and old oxidant functions represents the effect, area, by area,of the change in

land use on air quality. To demonstrate the capabilities of the model, an analysis was made of the effects of a proposedlarge

scale development currently under environmentalreview by the

County of San Diego. Information supplied by the applicant was

used to develop a spatially-distributed emissions sourcefunc-

tion for the project. The resulting predicted change in oxidant

air quality, measured by the number ofadditional hours each year

that the Federal oxidant standard would beexceeded, was displayed

as a function of position over theair basin. Quality change re-

quires only modest amounts of computer time.

In addition, 1970 U. S. Census data and airquality measure-

ments for Los Angeles County were combined toyield a comparison

between average air quality and severalsocio-economic factors.

Air quality measurements were taken inthe form of daily averages

for five pollutants at each of 15 monitoringstations. These

values were interpolated to form a continuous airquality "surface"

over Los Angeles County. The five different pollutant surfaces

were than combined with aweighting scheme developed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory to yield an air quality indexsurface. The

238 surfaces for individual dayswere averaged over the entire year,

resulting in an average air quality index surface.

The socio-economic data, extracted from 1970Census returns,

were aggregated from about 1500 tracts comprisingup to 35 homo-

geneous statistical areas. The average air quality surfacewas

then integrated over each of the 35areas, and compared with the

socio-economic data for thoseareas. Results include relative

quantities of different age, income, and racialbrackets, as well as correlations between air quality and housing value, population

density and income.

Reference copy: Science and Engineering Library, University of California at San Diego

******************************************************************

The Distribution of Pentachlorophenol in the Environmentand its Effects as a Pollutant (Grant no. GY-10809)

University of Southern Mississippi Hattiesburg, Mississippi 39401

June 4, 1973- August 11, 1973

Participants:

F. Allen Byrd Wendell Elliot

Joseph Cliburn, Jr. Gary Gray

John deMond Don Moore* *Student Project Director

Non-Stipend Participants:

Kay Brown Dianne Ladner

Harlon Low

Howard Williams, Faculty Advisor

239 Pentachlorophenol is a popular rood preservative, widely used for telephone poles, fence posts, and other woodproducts.

Its distribution in the environment was studied byexamining soil, water, and stream-bottom sediment from siteswhich are, or have been, exposed to thechemical. The effects of the pollutant, pentachlorophenol, on the environment were studiedthrough standard bioassay techniques (LD50) and field studies conducted at

"penta" treating plants. A microbiological investigation was incorporated into the fi6ld studies to determine what bacteria inhabit the holding pLnds of treating plants. Distribution of pentachlorophenol (PCP) in the State of

Mississippi is perhaps widest through its use in the treating of telephone poles. Soil samples were taken by a core method from a number of poles dating from 1949 to present, andanalyzed for PCP content (mg PCP/5 g soil). PCP was found to move laterally "out" from the treated pole at a faster rate than it14,ached into the soil from the pole; this phenomenonis caused by the specific soil texture of our area which is predominantlyloamy.

samples of water and stream-bottom sediment were taken from three plant sites. At one site where tidal action was present,

PCP levels were higher upstream than down. PCP was found to concentrate in the sediment and return to the waterwhen heavy rains stirred the bottom. Fish kills have become more common after periods of heavy rains in streams nearPCP treating plants.

Perhaps the most noteworthy results attained by the PCP

analysis portion of the project were the successfuladaptations

240 of a procedure, used previouslyonly with wood samples for the

analysis of soil and water samples,and the perfection ofa PCP

purification method for the production ofPCP of 99% purity.

In the laboratory, LD50 valuesfor channel catfishwere set at 0.12 ppm for reagent grade PCP (96% purity)and at approximately

0.14 ppm for commercial grade PCP. These figures represent the

concentration of PCP which is lethal to 50%of the population.

No previous references couldbe found for the two grades of PCP;

the bulk of prior research has been donewith a salt, sodiumpen - tachiorophenate.

Field studies indicateda definite decrease in benthonic and

nektonic forms below PCP plants, exceptwhere tidal actionwas

present in the stream. Sampling was performed witha Peterson

dredge (benthic and sediment samples),seines and dipnets (nektonic), anda sewage water sampler.

Microbiological techniqueswere employed to grow cultures

of bacteria obtained froma plant waste lagoon for identification.

During testing, cultures showed littlereaction to varying PCP

concentrations. By biochemical and staining procedures,the bac-

teria studied were shown to be thegenera, Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes,

and Serratia. The PCP level of the waste lagoonwas 21 ppm, while

cultures showed few effects at 17ppm.

Reference copy: Cook Memorial Library, University ofSouthern Mississippi

*****************************************************************

241 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Pro erties and Utilizationof Small Particulates inCattle Manure

(Grant no. GY-10744) University of Nebraska Lincoln, Nebraska 68508

May 28, 1973 - August 17,1973

Participants:

Russell Buesing Bruce 1. Hiller

Andrew H. C. Chan Kenneth J. Jacobson*

Raymond C. Eliason Christine M. Roberts Thomas W. Taylor

*Student Project Director Peter J. Reilly, FacultyAdvisor

The objective of thisproject was to contribute tothe develop-

ment of a process for theutilization of cattle manure. This pro-

cess is based onthe vibrating screenfiltration of slurried manure, The producing a refeedablesilage-like filter cake and afiltrate. project group's efforts weredirected mainly on thefiltrate frac-

tion--to characterize itin order to suggestpossible methods of

utilization. The University ofNebraska Department ofAgricultural Engine-

ering operates a pilotfacility, a housed feedlot(200 head capacity

equipped to demonstratethe process mentionedabove. Samples of

filtrate were obtained fromthis facility throughout theproject.

Samples of unfiltered slurryand of fresh manure werealso obtained

here. The materials were transportedto the lab in five-gallon car- boys and, if not intendedfor immediate use, they wererefrigerated.

Areas of investigation canbe categorized according towhether

242 they dealt with determining filtrateproperties or with examining a possible method of utilization.More specifically, the former category includes a series of routinechemical analyses on the raw materials, an examination of the viscosityand density of filtrate, and a particle sizedetermination. The latter category includes a field test of fertilizerquality, filtration experiments, sedimentation experiments, examinationof chemical coagulants, fermentation experiments, andfeeding trials.

The chemical analyseswere based on standard methods developed for the determination of wastewater and/or soil samples.

Many of the procedureswere performed (by one of the participants) in a USDA-associated analyticallaboratory run by the University of

Nebraska Department of Agronomy. The following procedureswere performed: % dry matter, nitrogen (Kjeldahl,NH4, and NO3), ash, chemical oxygen demand(COD), pH,conductivity, phosphorus, micronutrients (Na,K,ua,Mg,Fe,Mn,Cu,Zn)and amino acids. Average values for the most important quantitiesare presented in the table below, together with the standarddeviations.

243 Type of Sample Samples*No. of Matter% Dry Protein**% Crude % of the Kj.Nitrogen %Ash** (lb /lb DM) COD Manure***Fresh Analyzed 3 +3.022.0(DM) (Xj.Nx6i) +2.927.7 NH423.1 NOthanlessfor.01% 3 13.2+1.0 +.161.68 SlurryUnfilteredFiltrate 206 +1.0 +.85.97.4 +3.645.0+2.136.4 +4.434.7+4.033.7 allsamples +3.023.1+1.318.4 1.571.52+.05+.12 ***** Collection method is ExceptOn11 respectively.a dryin thematter case basis. of NH4 questionable. nitrogen, for which the analogous numbers are 2,3, and Viscosity and density of the filtratewere determined in order that design calculations couldbe made Density measurements, using a volumetric flask ina constant temperature bath, were made at 00, 22°, and 39° C, and itwas found that the density was, for all practical purposes, the sameas for water. Viscosity, on the other hand, varied considerably from thatof water. It was measured both as a function of temperature (13.5-39°C) and of composition (2.5-10.0% dry matter). Results using a Stormer vis- cometer give values 8-10 times that ofpure water for the normal

(5%) concentration,ca. 30 times higher at 10% dry matter,and

4-6 times higher at the lowerconcentrations (2.5-3.3%), where the viscosity was fairly constant withtemperature.

Particle size distribution of thefiltrate was determined through use of a modified Coultercounter. Particles suspended in an electrolytic solutionare drawn through a tiny aperture.

The resistivity across the apertureis proportional to the volume of the particle. Most particles in the filtratewere found to be within one of three sizeranges. These ranges, along with the percentage of total dry matter which eachcan be expected to

represent: 0-51A (35-40%), 34-50 ,u (24-28%) , 79-96,u (33-40%)

The fertilizer quality comparison betweenfiltrate and the unfiltered slurrywas carried out on 18 10' X 10' test plots which were planted with an early maturing foragecorn. The recommended level of chemical fertilizerwas 150 lbs. nitrogen/acre. Treat- ment rates used were: chemical fertilizer (KNO3)--150 #N/acre; filtrate--150, 450, 900, 1800, and 3600 #N/acre;slurry--800,

245 1600, and 3200 #N/acre. In general, filtrate proved to be a moderately available fertilizer, with ahigh plant uptake of

nitrogen and good yield at 450 and900 #N/acre, but also with

severe salt burning inlow spots and at higher application

rates. On the other hand, unfiltered slurryproved quite in-

nocuous, with only slightNH3 toxicity at 3200 #N /rcre, and no

burning. Yield performance of slurry at all rates wascomparable

to the chemical fertilizer control,and post-harvest soil nitrate

was higher. Use of filtrate as fertilizer can beeffective, but

will require greater caution than useof unfiltered slurry. Also,

high rate land application as a vehiclefor disposing of large

quantities of manure will pertain much moreto the slurry than to

the filtrate. Vacuum filtration experiments were carriedout in the labora-

tory using undiluted, unfiltered manure,and a Buchner funnel

fitted with a 64 mesh stainless steel screen. The manure was

slurried and then run through thefilter, using a vacuum of 100 mm

Filtration rates were measured as a functionof time, and curves

obtained were seen to divide into threedistinct regions. In the

first 20 seconds, the filter resistance wascontrolling, and the

filtration rate was very high, allowing afilter cake about 3mm

in thickness to build up.The next 8 minutes was a transient

period, and after that, the filter cakeresistance became controll-

ing and the filtration rate was verylow. A design calculation,

based on a 10,000 head feedlot and a12-hour operating day, was

made for a rotary drum vacuumfilter with an effective filtration

246 time of 20 seconds, i.e., just in the timeregion where filter cake resistance is not significant. The required filter area would be on the order of 500 ft2, but wouldvary considerably depending on assumptions made. Such a filter would have a capital cost (including mixing tanks, feed tanks, and pumps)of $65,000-125,000. Even the worst conceivable assumptions would cause only a doubling in the upper limit cost. This would still be a relatively small investmentper head capacity.

The apparatus for the sedimentation experimentswas a pyrex column 4" ID x 8' total depth. It was filled with filtrate at the beginning of a run, and sampleswere drawn at selected time intervals through five 2mm capillary tubes which extendedfrom the top of the column down to five evenly spacedtest depths.

The effect of filtrate dilutionwas examined. Filtrate concentrations were: 1.7, 3.4, and 5.6% dry matter. Higher concentrations were not possible as the apparatus could not pullout samples. A group of three runs were made, eachover a one-week period, and for each concentration the percentage reductionin concentration was plotted as a parameter against time anddepth of the sample. This parameter can be graphically integrated with respect to depth at any given time to obtain the percentageof the initial dry matter above a given depth which hadsettled below that point. After 24 hours, therewere 23, 5, and 2% of the solids settled past the 6' depth for the 1.7, 3.4, and 5.6%concentrations, respectively. The 48 hour results-- 33, 8, and 5%.

The 120 hour results-- 34, 15, and 13%. These do not say anything

247 about the compaction of the sediment, however,and the increased settlability of the 1.7% material is offsetby the dilution effect.

Compaction was found in another set of experimentsto be reduced as the filtrate became more dilute. A 4% dry matter filtrate gave 11.7% dry matter in thesediment, while a 5% filtrate gave a

14.0% sediment, both representing about 40% of the totaldry matter.

The experiments noted were a comparison ofchemical coagulants, done by centrifuging the treated filtrate and examiningthe supernatant and sediment fractions obtained. A broad spectrum of chemicals

and commercial coagulants were tried. The best results were ob-

tained using C-5 (a polyelectrolyte madeby Rohm 8( Haas) at the

10% level based on dry filtrate. Compaction of the sediment was

actually less (9.1% compared to13.1%) than for no treatment, but

the proportion of the dry matter which wasin the sediment was

much higher (70% compared to40%). This treatment level would,

however, be too high to be economical inpractical usage.

Fermentation of the filtrate was carried outusing a 5 liter

benchtop fermenter. This was a non-sterile, batch operation,

growing the organisms already present in thefiltrate, and amounted

to little more than an aerationprocedure. Operating conditions

were chosen from commonpractices in the fermentation industry and

were kept generally constantfrom run to run. Eight runs were made, with times varying from 24 to 120 hours. Excessive foaming charac-

terized the fermentation, and a high levelof antifoam was required-

silicon at no less than 5% of the dryfiltrate weight. On a sili-

con-free basis, the fermentation productvaried from the initial

248 filtrate in these respects: 10-15% reduction in total dry matter;

95% reduction in NH4 (more than half of whichwas assimilated into protein corresponding 20% reduction in Kjeldahl nitrogen and increase to about 40% (from 30%) in the organic protein;some NO3 production; 42-53% reduction in COD; digestibilitywas somewhat better. This crude fermentation presents the advantages of improving the feeding value and dewatering characteristics of the filtrate at a relatively low cost because of non-sterility. The major problems are combatting foam and obtaining FDA approval to feed this unidentified myriad of organisms.

The feeding trials were predicated on in vitro measurements using an artificial rumen technique as practiced in the University of Nebraska Department of Animal Science. In v_ itro dry matter disappearance (IVDMD) is an index of digestibility. Results for the filtrate itself were: 72% if wet sample is used, 54-61% for dried samples. IVDMD was also determined for five different feed- stuffs which had been ensiled with either water, filtrate, or chemically treated (NaOH, N4202) filtrate for 14 days. Use of the filtrate, as opposed to water, improved digestibility only in the case of corn cobs. Treating filtrate with NaOH improved IVDMD except for alfalfa hay, but Na202 had little effect.

Three groups of four sheep each were fed isonitrogenously supplemented rations based on ground corn cobs ensiled with I-water,

II-filtrate, III-filtrate 3%NaOH (dry wt). After a 10-day ac- climation period, feces and urine were collected for 5 days. For

I, II, III, in vivo digestibility was 63.7, 65.4, 67.8%; nitrogen

249 digestibility was 69.9, 65.4, 67.8%; and nitrogenretention was

19.5, 18.3, 15.8%. High variations between sheep made it obvious that the number per group was far too small,and the results may not be entirely valid. However, it is apparent that filtrate was utilized by the sheep, and since it allowed reductionby i in the amount of supplemental soybean meal, its use iscertainly attractive from an economic viewpoint.

Reference copy: Love Library, University of Nebraska

******************** ** * ** ** * ** * **** * ** ****** ******.x **** *** *** * ****

The Hana Rain Forest, Project (Grant no. GY-10792) University of Hawaii Honolulu, Hawaii 96822

May 21, 1973 - August 13, 1973

Participants:

Tonnie Casey John Kjargaard*

Heather Fortner Grant Merritt

Betsy Harrison Charlie Whittle

James Jacobi Alvin Yoshinaga

*Student Project Director D. Elmo Hardy, Faculty Advisor

The Hana Rain Forest Project presented theopportunity to

design and conduct what has turned outto be one of the most

significant field ecological researchprojects in the history

of the State of Hawaii. The study area encompassed approximately 22 square miles of rain forest and alpine grassland from4900 feet

to 8900 feet on the northeast slopesof Haleakala Volcano on the

250 island of Maui.

From early June to mid-December, the study involved over 1000 man days of living and working in parts of the Upper Hana and Koolau

Forest Reserves, probably two of the wettest areas in the world with extrapolated annual rainfalls of over 400 inches.Access to the study area was by helicopter only in good weather or by backpacking fourteen miles each way above 7000 feet.

Through the study of epiphytes, mosses, vascular plants, insects, mammals, birds, soils, meteorology, ecology and vegetation ecology, the Hana Rain Forest Project is producing an environmental reference work designed to provide State and Federal agencies, as well as private organizations, with the.information needed to preserve and protect this unique area.

Research was conducted in four major ecosystems. Approximately

300 acres of Deschampsia grassland extends from Haleakala ridge tops at 8000 feet dawn to about 7300 feet. From 7300 to 7100 feet stretches a long narrow band of shrub scrub characterized by Vaccinium and

Rubus tnickets. The dense, wet predominately Metrosideros forest extends four to six miles from here down to the pastures and guava thickets above the Hana Highway. Interspersed throughout the study area from 5000 feet to the middle of the grasslands are Carex bogs underlayed with trecherous lava tubes and populated with beautiful greenswords and Lobelia. In the upper reaches of the forest are

Lakes Wai Anapanapa and Wai Ele'ele. The former is technically only a pond, while the latter is one of Hawaii's two true lakes.

Three recording hygrothermograph stations and 36 rain gauges

25 1 were maintained from early June throughearly December. Rainfall estimates varied from 146 inches at 7000 feet to 438 inches at

5000 feet. The highest recorded rainfall intensity was 17.4 inches in 24 hours. Studies were also done on fog drip and cloud patterns. To date, the bulk of the bryoflora have yet to be classified; however, 13 families, including two very rare mosses, have been worked up. A total of 49 families, including 136 species of vas-

cular plants, 121 of which are native, have been included in a

preliminary checklist of the vascular plants of the Upper Hana and

Koolau forest reserves. Among the specimens as yet unclassified

are about nine new species. The entomological research was designed to provide a general

understanding of the insect fauna and some of its ecological roles.

Considerable work was done on the insects of the East Maui Greens-

word, thought to be extinct until more than 5000 specimens were

found by project members. It was discovered that the larvae of

a tephritid fly was infestingthe apical meristems of nonblooming

greensword plants. The presence of the larvae caused the young

leaves to become sealed together in a conical shape,forming a

shelter over the meristematie tissue on which the larvae feed.

The amount of damage done runs from severe stunting to noapparent

effect at all, and is possibly a function of the extent of blooming

at the time of infestation. The following mammals (all exotic) were in the project study

area: feral pigs, feral goats, feral cats, small Indian mongoose,

252 rats, and the house mouse. The overall limiting factors for

each rodent species are most likely: adverse climatic conditions;

availability of food resources; and interspecies competition for

food and nesting sites. Predators were scarce and their effect

on the rodents was negligible. Goats were found only in the upper

Deschampsia grassland portion of the study area. The places most

drastically affected by the goats are the inside walls of the sum-

mit. Here Sophora tree-shrubs can be found growing only on cliff

faces and other such areas inaccessible to goats. The project has

recommended to the National Park Service that the feral goats

should be totally eliminated from Haleakala by whatever practical

means which does not affect the natural aspects of the native eco-

system. The Service has already taken preliminary action to fence

the entire park and hopes to hire additional personnel for feral

animal control. Feral pigs were found throughout the study area.

The shrubland below Puu Alaea was literally laced with hundreds

of pig trails which increase gully erosion during heavy winter

rains. Based on the data collected this summer, it is evident

that pigs apply a detrimental pressure on certain of the areas

studied. The project will recommend to the Department of Land

and Natural Resources and to the National Park Service that

control measures such as poisoning, chemosterilants, or intensive

hunting should be considered for use in Hawaiian Forests.

The purpose of the soils research was to characterize and

classify the various soil types of the study area with special

emphasis on the bogs. The investigation included a physical

253 description of. the soils sampled and characterization by chemical analysis.

Prior to the Hana Rain Forest Project, the Upper Hana and

Koolau Forest Reserves had not been explored ornithologically.

During the study new methods had to be developed for population counts in this dense forest. Notes were made on bird feeding habits and preferences. Also, significant work was done on the breeding biology of the Maui Creeper about which nothing was previously known. The native bird fauna as a whole was most remarkable in that all but one of the native forest birds ever recorded on Maui were sighted. Undoubtedly one of the most striking achievements of the project was the discovery of a new bird. When codiscoverers Tonnie Casey and James Jacobi first presented drawings of the unidentified bird to professional orni- thologists, it seemed incredible that in 1973 a totally new species existed. The most astonishing aspect is that, prior to this discovery, no new forest bird had been found in Hawaii since before the turn of the century. A technical description of the new bird

is being prepared for publication by Casey and Jacobi with the assistance of Dr. Dean Amadon of the American Museum of Natural

History, the recognized authority on the taxonomy of Hawaiian

Honeycreepers. The bird will be the only known member of a new

genus of the family Drepanididae which is restricted to the

Hawaiian Islands.

The ecological study of the Hana and Koolau Forest Reserves

is far from complete as many lifetimes could be spent observing

254 and analyzing this unique native rain forest,. one of Hawaii's last. We hope however, that our achievements will encourage further research in the area. The final report of the Hana

Rain Forest Project should be published in book form within a year and, as such, is expected to become the major reference work on the (?cology of montane rain forests and bogs in Hawaii.

Reference copy: Hawaiian and Pacific Collections of the

University of Hawaii Libraries ******************************************************************

The Collection and Integration of Land, Water, and Recreation

Data Used in Resource Planning (Grant no. GY-10817)

University of Wisconsin at Stevens Point Stevens Point, Wisconsin 54481

May 28, 1973 - August 17, 1973

Participants:

Steven Bartelt Michael Nichols*

William Foris Kenneth Schrieber

Frank Horn Stanley Skutek

Barbara Kaehler Michael Stapleton

John Lewinski Daniel Wilcox

Ronald Nargang Ronald Zimmerman

*Student Project Director

Bryon H. Shaw, Faculty Advisor

It was the intent of our study to collect data on the water

chemistry and biology, sediment chemistry, soils and vegetation,

and waterfowl use of the areas surrounding the Big Eau Pleine

255 Flowage and Lake DuBay, Wisconsin; and to ascertain the recreational use 02 these water bodies to see whether a correlation existed between these major concentrations of study.

The two water bodies were found to differ quite drastically in their water quality. The Eau Pleine has a nutrient concentration greater than that of Lake DuBay, while Lake DuBay suffered much greater oxygen depletion.

The plankton analysis fc ra both bodies of water to be very productive and could be rated as eutrophic. Eau Pleine was found to have two times the amount of phytoplankton as does DuBay, while the numbers of zooplankton were greater in DuBay than Eau Pleine.

Blue-green algae were the dominant type in both reservoirs. Di- urnal studies of oxygen and CO2 changes support the conclusion that the Big Eau Pleine Reservoir is more highly productive than

Lake DuBay. Quantitative estimations of phytoplankton and zooplankton populations, chlorophyll a, and other productivity measures were made. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed that temperature light penetration, and nutrients (especially nitrogen and phosphorus) were the major factors controlling phytoplankton quantities and successional trends.

The greater phytoplankton population in Eau Pleine was found to be an important factor in maintaining a high surface dissolved oxygen value in this reservoir, while Lake DuBay had a surface dissolved oxygen content of only 0-4ppm.

BOD20 values for Lake DuBay and The Wisconsin River seldom exceeded lOppm. COD values were 5-6 times higher, indicating a

256 different type of loading than the Eau Pleine, which had BOD20 values from 14 .-25ppm and COD values of only 2-3 times this figure.

The Big Eau Pleine Flowage had high surface dissolved oxygen values with steadily declining dissolved oxygen values as the bottom was approached because of decomposition of the plankton; Lake DuBay is characterized by low surface and low subsurface dissolved oxygen values due to lower plankton populations and heavy organic loading of incoming water.

At present, Lake DuBay has sufficient oxygen demand-reaeration conditions that its dissolved oxygen content is below the 5ppm minimum water quality standard. The Eau Pleine Reservoir maintained more than 5ppm dissolved oxygen during the study, but has higher BOD values than DuBay. This would indicate potential oxygen depletion, whenever algae die or when the reservoir is frozen, as is common in other highly eutrophic bodies of water.

In the sediment study of the test areas, it was found that an increase in silt plus clay was associated with anincrease in the percent of carbon. Nitrogen levels in Lake DuBay were higher than the Eau Pleine and were correlated to the percent of carbon

in the sample. Available phosphorus levels were also associated with areas of high organic content and silt plus clay.

The soil mapping portion of the project mapped a total of

9,100 acres. The soils ranged from loessial silt deposits of

variable depth to lusrustrian silts and sands underlain by stra-

tified outwash material. The soil survey encompassed all land

areas within 1/4 mile of the Big Eau Pleine Reservoir.Based on the capabilities of individual soils, we constructed 3 land-use limitations maps. Once completed, these maps revealed that the most serious hindrance to the normal development of the Big Eau

Pleine is the problem of sewage disposal. On-site treatment of human waste by septic systems is not recommended in 44% of the survey area, while the remaining 56% of the land area is marginal for this use. Careful management should allow some limited cottage, commercial and industrial development where these uses demand sewage treatment facilities.

Limitation ratings for low building construction of slight and moderate comprise 89% of the area and 97% for campsites. If some attention is given to site selection, the Big Eau Pleine

.1aservoir and the land area surrounding should become a valuable recreation resource.

Additional information used in placing land suitability for the activities noted above was based on data collected through the vegetation analysis. Detailed cover maps were constructed within 100 feet of the shoreline of both water bodies. These should be of value to planners in utilizing land aesthetics for future development.

Another broad topic covered by the study was the waterfowl survey. Four species of ducks: mallard, blue-winged teal, green- winged teal, and wood duck were using these water bodies. Broods of all except green-winged teal were observed. Mallards make up

68% of the broods, the blue-winged teal 20%, and the wood duck 12%.

Three cover types: 1) cattail- bulrush- sedge;2) cattail bulrush-

258 sedge with emergent grasses; 3) wooded islands were evaluated for waterfowl use.

A total of 500 interviews were taken for the tourist survey at 11 sampling points within the study area, and 84 interviews were taken of residents in the study area. The greatest concentration of tourists occurred on weekends, when campgrounds in the area were crowded, often to capacity. The DuBay area tended to draw visitors from longer distances than the Eau Pleine. Tourists also spent more money in the DuBay area, especially within one mile of the shoreline. The Big Eau Pleine area generally received higher ratings for water recreational quality than the DuBay area.

Persons rating water quality as high tended to give similar ratings for the recreational opportunities in the area.

Reference copy: Library, University of Wisconsin at Stevens Point ******************************************************************

Rat Control: An Interdisciplinary Approach (Grant no. GY-10764)

Beaver College Glenside, Pennsylvania 19038

June 1, 1973 - August 24, 1973

Participants:

Tracy Blumberg Beth Mosley

Martha Chavis* Sandra Ro.dde

Cynthia Cowan Deborah Schwartz

Sandra DaDura Jane Seltzer

Marla DeMesquita Sheila Steinberg

Shelley Heller James Thalheimer

*Student Project Director

259 Joseph Kupferschmidt Barbara Tousley

Laurie Miller Karen Veltz

Lily Yee

William J. Carr, Faculty Advisor

In an effort to control rats by means of chemical rodenticides, much research has been aimed at studying the effect of various toxic additives to the diet of rats. Our experiment was directed along this line of research. Griffith and Farris (1963) state that females who eat food supplemented with doses of vitamin B1 or manganese cannibalize their young. We repeated this study with some modifications to see which of the two compounds was the most effective and at what dose level.

There were six experimental groups and one control group of four females each. All of the experimental groups received a minimum of one of the three concentrations of Vitamin B1 (.07g/days,

.14g/day, .29g/day) or manganese (.07g/day, .14g/day, .29g/day) in the food. The vitamin Bgroups also received a minimum of .07g 1 of B in the water supply. These concentrations were modified 1 from an earlier study by Perla and Sandberg (1939). The control group remained on a normal diet. During the final week of the experiment, autopsies were performed on a portion of the rats.

At that time, stomach, gonads, and adrenal glands were compared for any anatomical changes or aberrations.

The results showed a higher incidence of cannibalization of young with the experimental lactating female rodents on the two highest concentrations of vitamin B1 and manganese in the diet

260 than the control lactating female rats on a normal diet.

Percentage of Cannibalism

Vitamin B Manganese

.07g/day 0% .07g/day 0%

.14g/day 31% .14g/day 28%

.29g/day 21% .29g/day 19%

Control group - 0%. Average nine pups per female rat.

We are continuing with inferential statistical analysis of this data. The autopsies showed stomach aberrations (thin walls, white covering of stomach) and large adrenals on some of the animals in the experimental groups, when compared with the control rats. The research that'has been carried out on effects of high- frequency sounds on rat behavior has opeqed tremendous possibilities for the use of sound as a means of disrupting social organization. High frequency sounds seem to be a form of communication among rats. Meyers (1968) classifies the use of high-frequency sound as a rat control measure under "promising but insufficiently developed techniques." Based on Calhoun's design, the experimenters constructed a colony pen which housed twenty-four wild rats. Tney then set up equipment to monitor the high-frequency sounds (20 to 50 kh) made by the rodents, according to Sales (1972), and Barfield and Geyer

(1972). The wild rats were observed over a three-week period, during which the experimenters correlated social behaviors with

261 the high-frequency sounds emitted by the rats. Social behaviors included aggression, play, and mating behavior. Most of the high- frequency sounds emitted by the animals were from 20 to 26kh.

The experimenters then introduced high-frequency sounds from

50 to 50kh into the colony pen for a period of a week. The introduced sounds were "stationary" or on a "slide" from higher to lower frequencies. The sounds were artificially produced with a Hewlett-Packard oscilloscope. The introduction of high-frequency sounds had a disruptive effect. Fewer rodents were out to be observed by the experimenters than were during the three-week observation period and fewer social interactions took place. When high-frequency sounds (sliding or stationary) were introduced into an area where the rats were out, the animals moved from the area or' exhibited fighting behavior. Autopsies were performed on a number of the rats to examine for stress (adrenals) during the three-week observation period and the week after the high-frequency sounds were introduced into the colony pen. A higher degree of stress was found in the rats from the week after the introduction of high-frequency sounds than the rats from the three-week observation period.

Understanding of rats' individual and collective behavior in a colony, says Davis (1972), is a necessary prerequisite for effective control. The results of his study in Baltimore, where he disrupted the normal social behavior of city rats through the addition of dominant males, led Davis to the conclusion that the addition of dominant male rats to a rat colony disrupts the social

262 behavior of that colony. There are many effective rodenticides, e.g., warfarin, red squill, but the knowledge of the danger of the bait says Lorenz (1966) is transmitted throughout the rat colony, and is passed on from generation to generation. Relating

Meyers' and Lorenz's findings to the results of his Baltimore study,

Davis states that the best strategy for controlling rats is not to introduce one method of control, but to combine several controls at a time. Based on these' findings, this experiment looked at the effect of the rodenticide red squill in a wild rat colony after the colony was stressed and disrupted by the addition of strange rats into the colony.

Three groups of wild rats (a control group, experimental group, and a donor group (strange rats) were housed in colony pens in a semi-natural environment. The experimenters observed the wild rat colonies for three weeks to establish baseline behaviors, e.g., sleeping, eating, fighting, etc. At this point, autopsies were performed on a portion of the rats from the experimental and control colonies to establish a physiological baseline. Strange rats from the donor colony were then added to the experimental colony to induce stress. Twenty-four hours after adding the strange rats and continuing for a one-week period, the experimenters administered a lethal dose of red squill in the food of both the experimental and control co:onies.

All the strange rats introduced into the experimental colony died within a period of three days. Only one of the resident rodents (a pregnant female) of the experimental colony died. Two rats

263 from the control colony died within a period of three days. The autopsies performed on these rats failed to determine whether the rats died primarily from the rodenticide or fighting.

The fourth aspect of the rat control project dealt with community attitudes towards rats. It is our feeling that, in the past, various attempts directed toward the control of rodents have been incomplete. Extermination of rats has been carried out without regard to the question of why the rat populations were originally present and able to maintain their existence in the community; whether it be due to objective causes such as an unlimited food supply and burrow material, or simply subjective causes such as indifference among community citizens.

A survey consisting of demographic measures, internal-external orientation, informational scale, methods of rat control, subjective expected utility (a measure of values and expectations) and an observational checklist was made in two rat-infested communities, one of upward mobility and the other of downward mobility, in Montgomery

County, Pennsylvania. The independent variable involved the behavioral measure as determined by verbal reports, as well as an observational evaluation by the interviewer. The dependent variables were internal-external orientation, information level and subjective expected utility. The experimenters hypothesized that the subjects who tended to use more approved methods of rat control would also be internally oriented, have a higher informational level, and have higher expectancies of a rat problem than the subjects who did not use approved methods of rat control.

264 The results showed the downward mobility community to be more aware of the rat problem and more actively engaged in rat control methods than the upward mobility community.The downward mobility community, though actively involved with the rat problem, was limited in results because of the lack of support or concern from the local government. The subjects also showed a preference for various rat control methods. There were only two methods that the subjects tended to like more than dislike; having rats leave the property and die, and the use of high-frequency sounds. The use of chemicals to induce the mothers to eat their pups resulted in approximately equal responses of like and dislike. Any method leaving the rat dead or alive on the property was disliked. The use of poisons were also disliked due to accidental poisoning of other animals and children.

The results suggest all these experiments as future useful methods of rat control. The results of the experiments also suggest that a combination of rat control methods is by far the best way to deal with the problem.

Reference copy: Beaver College Library ******************************************************************

Land Use Alternatives for Mark Creek West (Grant no. GY-10757)

Sonoma State College at Sonoma Rohnert Park, California 94928

June 4, 1973 - August 12, 1973

Participants:

Robert Appleby Rene Francisco

265 Calvin Ares* Marcia Hamilton

Frank Brunings David Kageyama

Warren Smith

*Student Project Director

Robert Sherman, Faculty Advisor

Mark West Creek was chosen as the study area because it is the last remaining natural waterway in the Santa Rosa Valley. We fel+ that if we could spend enough time studying the Mark West Creek watershed we might be able to better understand how a natural waterway functions, and its importance to the people in the area.With this knowledge we could present alternatives to creek channelization and, perhaps, help preserve Mark West Creek.

The goals of the project were as follows:

1. 20 study the Mark West Creek watershed from the following

perspectives:

a. Biological

b. Planning

c. Economic

d. Educational

2. To discuss our findings with landowners and other interested

parties at a series of public meetings and to answer or re-direct

questions that arise from these meetings.

3. Present our findings in a publication that, hopefully, will be of assistance in future planning decisions made in Sonoma County

and elsewhere.

Our first objective was to become familiar with the varied

266 characteristics of Mark West Creek by surveying the creek,.determining its intrinsic suitability for a range of alternative land uses, photographing the diversecharacteristics of the creek in-

cluding aspects of the biotic community, and taking inventory of

the plant and animal life (aquatic, riparian, andterrestrial).

Distributional data 'Par both the fauna and flora associated with

the Creek form an extended section of our final report. Recorded

are the occurrences of seven different creek "areas" of 25 micro-

scopic plants and animals, and of 49 macroscopic invertebrate and

vertebrate forms.

We talked to residents along the creek, and learned how it

related to the people. To some, the creek was taken for granted with little understanding;: to others, it was "their creek"; but

to most of the residents, Mark West Creek had a personal meaning

to them, its irreplaceable scenic amenities, its abundance of

natural wildlife and the "calls" of the riparian wilderness. During

the third week of our study, we went to Chico to compare the land

use planning of Bidwell Park(a large linear park along Chico Creek),

and how it was financed and maintained. We also obtained informa-

tion on creek management in Sacramento, at the University of

California (Davis), agencies in San Francisco, and various local

agencies. It was found that the local agencies had the most in-

fluence upon the direction of creek development.

When it was discovered that the Sonoma County Water Agency

had been working on plans for building a 300-foot dam in the upper

Mark West Creek above Mark West Springs Lodgeand/or channelizing

267 the lower reaches in the flood plain, our group came to a consensus that the direction of our study be changed.

In conjunction with the Sierra Club, we set up a display at the Sonoma County Fair. We also held public meetings in a local elementary school auditorium with the residents of the Mark West

Creek watershed and made arrangements for personnel from the Sonoma

County Water Agency, Planning Commission, Public Works, North Coast

Water Quality Control Board, State Fish and Game, County Parks and

Recreation, Santa Rosa Planning, etc., to speak atone of three community meetings to inform the people what their agencies are doing, and what we were doing. These meetings were highly successful, with attendance ranging from 75 to 150 people.

Our findings can be summarized, as follows:

1. Mark West Creek is the last remaining natural waterway in the Santa Rosa Valley and as such, it is a unique, valuable and endangered resource.

2. Natural streams represent less than i% of the land area of

Sonoma County, yet they are the most important areas in terms of wildlife and fisheries habitat, and scenic value.

3. Increased social and political awareness is important to

insure continuing survival of this natural waterway.

We have made the following recommendations:

1. Sonoma County should take immediate steps to adopt an ordinance which provides maximum protection and enhancement of natural waterways and requires protection and restoration of

streamside vegetation.

268 2. Governmental agencies with jurisdiction over the stream should coordinate efforts to insure maximum protection and enhancement of natural waterways.

In addition to the results obtained and mentioned in our reports, several other effects of our study should be mentioned:

1. Parts of our study are incorporated into the Staff Report

for the City of Santa Rosa Planning Department in their implementa-

tion of a Northern Open Space Buffer focusing on the preservation

of Mark West Creek (November, 1973).

2. A riparian ordinance with a setback requirement is being

enforced by the County.

3. Our project director, Calvin Ares, is currently a paid

legislative aid for the 3rd District Supervisor and is working

on a riparian ordinance.

4. The residents living along Mark West Creek are informed

about the effects of excessive development and the dam and chan-

nelization proposals and many of these residents are willing to

organize to express their concerns.

5. Our group have given slide show presentations to the Mark

West Elementary School P.T.A., and to the local chapter of the

Sierra Club, and we have acted as naturalist guides to a 6th grade

elementary school classroom field trip on Mark West Creek.

Reference copy: California State College at Sonoma Library and

the Santa Rosa-Sonoma County Public Library. ******************************************************4*y*********

269, BEST COPY AVAILABLE A Consultative Stud of Occusational Safet"L and Health for the

City of Tuskegee, Alabama (Grant no. GY-10777)

Auburn University Auburn, Alabama 36830

June 13, 1973 - August 24, 1973

Participants:

Thomas B. Carr, Jr.* Audie Matthews

Robert L. Cook Charles S. Price

Mark S. Davis Glenn Sillman

Phillip K. Hanson Kenneth D. Weaks

Artis R. Harper Ronald Williams

Marvin L. Wilson

*Student Project Director

Dennis B. Webster, Faculty Advisor

The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970, Public Law

91-596, provides that each employer shall "furnish to each of his

employees employment and a place of employment which are free from

recognized hazards that are causing or likely to cause death or

serious physical harm to his employees." Federal, state, county

and municipal employers are e:cempt from this law and thus not

bound to this statue. However, if the state legislature, upon

approval of the Federal government, passes a law equal or more

stringent than the Federal Occupational Safety and Health regula-

tions, then the state, county and municipal employees are covered

and the employers must comply.to that state's Occupational Safety

and Health standards.

270 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Th purpose of this report is to prepare for Tuskegee municipal government office:s the means to evaluate present operations

and facilities with n)gard to providing safe and healthful working

conditions for municipal employees. Although not forced to comply with Federal OSHA laws, a safety program based upon these established

standards would provide the City of Tuskegee with a reliable and

enviable program. It would also establish a safety organization which could readily be converted into a State-operated and enforced

occupational and safety law.

This report encompasses the Tuskegee, Alabama, municipal em-

ployee operations and working environments observed and documented

by this research group during the summer of 1973. The members of the

teams were from Auburn University and Tuskegee Institute.

Each city department, operation, and building was evaluated

three times, once each by three teams, for the following hazards:

1. Housekeeping

2. Electrical

3. Fire

4. Environmental

5. Operational

6. Vehicle

Each team's report was evaluated and compiled into one final report,

complete with recommendations to correct unsafe situations.

Information used as the basis for recommenoations are taken

primarily from the Codes of Federal Regulations of Federal Occupa-

tional Safety and Health Standards. Other source3 include the

271 National Electrical Code, American National Standard Practice for

Industrial Lighting, and Motor Carrier Safety Regulations.

Following are the conclusions reached by the group and its recommendations:

1. The evidence secured during the course of our research indicated that the need for an effective accident prevention program is significant. All areas observed had at least one or more violations in the six basic hazard areas outlined in the report;

2. While these violations usually did not qualify as an

eminent danger (risk of immediate death), the violations remained

a serious threat to the employees' healthand/or safety;

3. In most instances, housekeeping hazards could be elimi-

nated relatively easily, primarily through pick-up and clean-up

campaigns conducted at regular intervals;

4. Electrical hazards were due primarily to overloaded elec-

trical receptacles, ungrounded wiring systems in buildings, and

broken grounding plugs on electrical cords;

5. The replacement or procurement of sufficient fire ex-

tinguishers of the proper weight and class and the proper mourtiqg

of these extinguishers would eliminate most of the fire hazards.

Marking exits properly and providing obstruction-free exits would

eliminate a great deal of the remaining fire hazards;

6. Protective shielding for welders, improved light intensi-

ties, and various personal safety equipment for all workers would

eliminate most of the environmental hazards., Some machinery guard-

ing by mechanical means is needed, however;

272 7. Periodic training for employees by qualified personnel and the strict enforcement of safe operating practices is primarily needed to eliminate operational hazards;

8. All vehicles in every department needed at least some minor repairs before they could be considered as safe. Every department had vehicle-related hazards that could be quickly

(and relatively inexpensively) remedied;

9. The lack of a suitable accident reporting system greatly hampers the prospect of identifying accident-prone areas within municipal work areas;

10. The basic costs of the recommendations within this report are relatively low for capital outlay.Many of the recommendations may be fulfilled through the use of city personnel. The recommendations that do require some cost are few and the capital outlay is small compared to the increased benefits to both the employees and the city department.

Reference copy: Ralph B. Draughon Library, Auburn University ******************************************4i***********************

Ecological Stability and Persistence of Natural Meadows and Man- made Grasslands in Southern California (Grant no. GY-10791)

San Diego State University San Diego, California 92115

June 11, 1973 - September 1, 1973

Participants:

Dennis Davis Andy Meyer

Tim Gross Darrel Peters

273 Mark Johnson Kathleen Riggan

Paul Kroell Philip J. Riggan*

David Lawhead Royce Riggan, Jr.

*Student Project Director Charles Cooper, Faculty Advisor

Processes affecting the stability and persistence of a

natural meadow and man-made grassland(chaparral to grass type conversion) were measured in order to ascertain the relative

degree of permanence of these systems. Water supplies were found

to be significantly higher at the naturalmeadow because of the

geomorphological features of the area. Native perennial grasses

appear to be restricted to thesemoist environments. Soil nutri-

ent supplies of nitrogen were similar between the systems,but

soil exchangeable potassium was significantly higher andsoil

avL.2able phosphorus was significantly lower at the naturalmeadow.

The former discrepancy is apparently due to water retentionand

added inputs atthe natural meadow, while the latter isprincipally

because of the alluvial nature of the meadow soil and uptakeby the

perennial grass. Herbivore pressure at the natural meadow is com-

pletely absent because of low grass palatibility andlow preference

by the Black-tailed Deer, Odocoileus hemionus,which frequent the

area. Black-tailed Jackrabbits, Lepus californicus, and Brush Rab- bits, Sylvilagus bachmani, exert heavy pressure uponplanted grasses

at the type conversion, due to grasspalatibility and creation of

habitat favorable to expansion of populations. Deer are absent from the area because of the lack of preference for grass as a

274 food source or other advantages in use of the area. Eriogonum fasciculatum (Flat-top Buckwheat) is becoming established at the man-made grassland, yet it is restricted to the edge of the natural meadow due to differing water regimes and the removal of restricting factors upon its growth that are present in the chaparral. The natural meadow is seen to have an environment significantly different from that of a man-made grassland, both in physical and biological attributes. In view of this, it is doubtful that the planted perennial grasses will be able to persist and maintaina viable community.

Reference copy: Malcolm Love Library, San Diego State University ******************************************************************

A Kinetics Study of the Sulfur Species in Smelter Emissions

(Grant no. GY-10801)

University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona 85721

Summer, 1973

Participants:-

Cheryl Aubeny Shawn B. Kendall*

Dennis W. Crowe Peter A. Nick

( N. B. A complete list of participants is not available)

*Student Project Director

J. 0. L. Wendt, Faculty Advisor

The copper industry of Arizona produces one-third of the world's supply of this metal. Because of increasing needs for copper in the electronics and other industries, it would be dis-

275 astrous if the major producers were forced to shut down because of environmental pollution.

Arizona is presently facing this problem. On the one hand, copper is a large economic factor in the support of the State; on the other hand, the principal smelting method uses copper sulfide ores which release large amounts ofsulfur dioxide gas into the atmosphere. This sulfur dioxide emission is the cause of great alarm for many individuals and organizations, both in Arizona and nationally.

The present study, successor to two NSF-SOS-funded projects

at the University of Arizona which examined air pollution, is an

investigation of the reaction kinetics involved in the sulfur

species present in the plume emitted from a copper smelter.

The objectives of the study were directed towards the empirical

determination of concentrations of sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide,

sulfuric acid and particulate sulfates as a function of position

from the source of the emissions (smelter). These data, when combined with meteorological information and time of day, were compared

to the theoretical concentration profile generated by, operational

information from the smelter and the Suttondispersiorimodel. From

these comparisons, and from a kinetic study of thesuthr dioxide

to sulfur trioxide conversion, a mathematical model ofth4 chemical

system has been derived.

* ** * * * * ****** * ******** ** ***.x *** *** ** *** * **** * ** * * * ** * *** ** * * ******

Environmental Impact Statement on Recreational Land Develo ment:

Factual Forecast Study Gro42 (Grant no GY-10790)

276 Western Washington State College Bellingham, Washington 98225

June 11, 1973 - August 31, 1973

Participants:

.Linda Clark Arlene Runkel

George Flawn* Dan Smith

Douglas Logan Barry Wenger

Nancy O'Brien Gary White

*Student Project Director

James R. Newman, Faculty Advisor

At the Federal level, legislation and policy governing land

development have, at best, been vague and disorganized. As one goes

down to the state and local levels, the situation becomes alarmingly

chaotic and irrational. A lack of direction is evident partly be-

cause of the absence of laws, policies and leadership working in

the public interest, and partly because of the ignorance of land

management practices on the part of the citizenry that is respon-

sible for misguiding our energies and efforts into destructive

channels. The lack of communication between developers, govern-

ment agencies, and the public at large has led to confrontations

and hostilities resulting in court actions and closures. The

public is often ignorant of the natural, economic and sociological

impact that development may have on their communAies.

The increasing demand for recreational facilities and housing

has lid to a plethora of poorly planned developments that have had

a devastating effect on our environment at the expense of the sur-

277 rounding community. This has formed a damaging image of recreational developments, making it difficult for even well-planned projects to pass public scrutiny and to gain community acceptance.

Man's environment includes both social and natural processes, which must be evaluated on a common scale. The ecological princi- ples that apply to natural systems may be applied to social systems; and the economic system must place value on preserving the balance of nature. In the long run, the most economical path is also the most sensible ecologically. As the economic and legal machine is refined to include all external costs and benefits, the governing

system will approach an environmentally sound status that keeps the public interest foremost in its priorities.

In this project, a group of eight students with expertise in biology, water quality, geology, engineering, human ecology, environmental planning, and economics studied existing recreational

developments. The objective of the preliminary survey was to ob-

serve present planning techniques and toascertain the possible

effects on the environment. Extensive interviews with government

officials and community representatives provided further informa-

tion. From all these sources, the team formulated initial guidelines to be used by the community, governmental agencies, and

developers in the planning of recreational developments. To

facilitate the use of the guidelines, the recommendations have

been made according to the stages of development. Following are

the preliminary guidelines:

1. Site Location. The selection of the land to be developed

278 should be based on comprehensive land-use factors. The

choice of a site seriously affects the regional use of

recreational resources.

2. Pre-Construction Period. Includes all preliminary planning

of site design, based on intensive surveys of the natural

features of the site. An Environmental Impact Statement

must be filed at this stage, with a scale model of the

site design available for public comment.

3. Construction and Sales Period. Special engineering con-

siderations must be made at this time to avoid disruption.

Alternative methods to the usual approach to land develop-

ment sales should be sought.

4. Post-Construction Period. Encompasses the stage of habi-

tation, the evolutionary period that the development gc,cs

through,, from vacation homes to a permanent, full-time com-

munity.

It is the intent of the group that these guidelines be used by public as well as private entities to open corridors of communication, thus increasing the understanding of public needs. The consideration of all aspects of man's environment, and the use of these considerations as a decision-making tool hopefully will result in developments which are more environmentally sound, and in a wiser approach to land and resource management.

Reference copy: Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western

Washington State College ******************************************************************

279