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Handbook of Parenting Volume 5: The Practice of Parenting Marc H. Bornstein

Parenting and Child Discipline

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780429401695-3 Jennifer E. Lansford Published online on: 20 Feb 2019

How to cite :- Jennifer E. Lansford. 20 Feb 2019, Parenting and Child Discipline from: Handbook of Parenting, Volume 5: The Practice of Parenting Routledge Accessed on: 01 Oct 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780429401695-3

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 publication of dren’s behavior likewise (e.g., stemfrombehaviorism ( theirchildren’sstructure dailyroutinesinways toprevent misbehavior and tominimizepunishment Watson, ofbehaviorism, thefather provided advicethatemphasizedhow childrearing parents should onparental disciplinestemmed fromthetheoretical For tenetsofbehaviorism. cal writings example, withinthefi Thestudyofparental discipline hasalonghistory as concludingcomments. discipline. Finally, suggestionsforfuture thechapteroffers theoretical andresearch directions aswell includinginterventions,practical information laws, andpoliciesthathave attemptedtoalter parents’ oflinksbetweenand mediators parental disciplineandchildoutcomes. Thenthechapterreviews how disciplineissituatedwithintheoverall climateoftheparent–child relationship, andmoderators ofdiscipline, ofdifferentdictors forms ofdiscipline, childoutcomesassociatedwithdifferent forms have ofdiscipline. guidedourunderstanding Thebulk ofthechapterthenreviews research onpre- that and thenpresents centralissuesinthisarea ofresearch. tomajortheories Thechapternextturns to socializedesired childbehaviors. discipline torespond tomisbehavior Thischapterfocusesonparents’ afteritoccurs. useofdiscipline is throughtheuseofproactive discipline toencouragedesired behavior inthefuture andreactive ing love ways andstimulation. Oneofthemostimportant thatparents shapetheirchildren’s behavior and protectingthemfromharm, aswell asproviding forsocioemotionalandcognitive needsby offer- func Parents are tasked withmany theirchildren responsibilities tobecompetent, inrearing well- Prior tothisstudy,Prior researchers generallyhypothesized thatmore parental controlwould beassociated andhowwhy disciplinestrategies parents disciplineisrelated usedparticular tochildren’s behavior. parentspline techniquesusedby intheBostonarea inthe1950s, European-American including Watson andWatson, 1928 Parents’ ofdisciplinehasbeensubjecttoscientifi useofdifferent forms The chapter begins by context situatingthestudyofparenting Thechapterbegins andchilddisciplineinhistorical tioning members ofsociety.tioning members Theseresponsibilities includeproviding forchildren’s physical needs Parental intheStudyof Historical Considerations Discipline Sears, Maccoby, andLevin’s (1957 P RNIG N CHILD AND PARENTING ). Many ideasaboutparents’ useofrewards andpunishmentstoshapechil- DISCIPLINE Jennifer E. Lansford Introduction Introduction 3 65 ) Patterns of Childrearing Skinner, 1938 eld ofpsychology. Earlypsychologi- ). .Thisbookdetaileddisci- c inquiry at leastsincethe c inquiry Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 used tostudyparental disciplineare ofparental centralissuesintheunderstanding discipline. ofparental approachesthathave disciplineandmethodological Distinguishingdifferent forms been oflinksbetweenmoderators disciplineandchildoutcomes. increasingly diverse samples, and mediators andincreasingly sophisticatedanalysesthatincorporate discipline anddifferent aspectsofchilddevelopment, usingincreasingly complexconceptualmodels, set thestageforsubsequentresearch thathasnow testedrelations between different typesofparental with betterchildbehavior, etal.studydemonstratedtheopposite. but theSears Thisearlyresearch pline was explainingwhy somethingwas wrong, thatsomeone had reporting with80% ofmothers 2- to4-year-old children in24low- andmiddle-incomecountries, themostcommontypeofdisci- ofdiscipline.of different Inastudyofmothers’ forms by their ofdisciplineexperienced reports or olderchildren ( ( preschoolers; punishmentwas withpreschoolers oneofthethree corporal leastcommonstrategies studyofU.S. inalongitudinal cipline strategies parents’ ofdisciplinewith useoftendifferent forms talking withchildren, usingdistraction, andmodelingdesired behaviors were the mostcommondis- behaviors, implementing time-outs, andspanking, tonameafew. children’s Monitoring behavior, parents useanumber ofspecifi their behavior constructively. discipline isrelated tonegative childoutcomes, confrontive disciplinemight helpchildren toregulate childbehaviors ratherthanmerelyabout particular establishingparental authority. Althoughcoercive establish theirauthority. Bycontrast, parents useconfrontive disciplineinanegotiableway tobring ofpowerforms Parents assertion. usecoercive way andarbitrary to disciplineinadomineering pline thatmay varyineffectiveness. assertive disciplinehasbeenmore controversial andencompassesarangeofspecifi for physically abusing theirchildren ( power assertion, andevaluate power atlow thandomothers risk asbeingmore appropriate assertion forphysically abusinghigh risk theirchildren uselessinductive reasoning, more verbal andphysical taking are allenhancedby theuseofinductive reasoning ( tive inpunishingchildren’s pastmisbehavior; indeed, moraldevelopment, empathy, andperspective inductive reasoning isproactive toaffectchildren’s intrying future behavior ratherthanmerely reac- affect otherpeopleandprovides Thus, explanationsaboutwhy behaviors are certain wrongorright. ( discipline, predicting more positive childoutcomesthaneitherpower orlove assertion withdrawal inductive reasoning (whichinvolves discussinghow otherpeopleare affectedby children’s behaviors). manipulation ofchildren’s negative emotions, oftenthroughexpressing angerordisapproval), and parents’ exertion ofpower over andauthority thechild), love withdrawal (whichinvolves parents’ ofdiscipline( three maincategories An overarching framework awiderangeofspecifi forunderstanding already,has occurred orproactive, focusingonpreventing inthefuture. misbehavior fromoccurring Parental asbeing eitherreactive, disciplinecanbebroadlycategorized responding to misbehavior that Socolar, Savage, andEvans, 2007 Hoffman andSaltzstein, 1967 Incontrasttothewidelyacceptedbenefi Within theoverarching ofpower categories assertion, love withdrawal, andinductive reasoning, Ofthesethree categories, inductive reasoning hasbeenfoundtobethemostoptimaltypeof Straus andStewart, 1999 IssuesCentral inUnderstanding Parental Discipline Forms Parental of Different Discipline ). Inductive reasoning helpschildrenhow tounderstand theiractions ofdiscipline,c forms suchasremoving privileges, rewarding desired ), who are more punishedthaneitheryounger likely to becorporally Baumrind (2012 Baumrind Hoffman andSaltzstein, 1967 Chilamkurti andMilner,Chilamkurti 1993 Jennifer E. Lansford ). Inothercountries, parents show ofuse similarpatterns ts ofdisciplineinvolving inductive reasoning, power- 66 ) distinguishesbetween coercive andconfrontive Hoffman, 1977 ): power (whichinvolves assertion ). ofdisciplineincludes c forms ). Furthermore, at mothers ofdisci- c forms Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 encouraging or harsher inasubsequentattempt( orharsher encouraging or ratchetingupwhenthemothers’ fi related tothechildorsituation, response dependentonfactors withaparticular contingent strategies strategy, asingledisciplinary endorsed ers ofdiscipline, withmultiple simultaneousforms strategies involved. Furthermore, dependingoncontextualfeatures ofthemisbehavior andsituation, moth- or moral), possibleoutcomes(e.g., toself, behavior), harm inappropriate andhow much confl versus anacquaintance), orconventions whichrules were violated(safety, health, social-conventional, (at homeversus inpublic), whowas versus members strangers present atthetime(immediatefamily ofdisciplinedependingonthesettinginwhichmisbehavior different occurred endorsed forms wan were responses ( foundtoconsiderawiderangeofdisciplinary hypothetical vignettesdepictingcommonchildbehavior problems, inHongKong mothers andTai- the child’s misbehavior andcontextualfeatures ofthesituation.Inopen-ended, in-depthresponses to favorably thanshamingorlove withdrawal. To, Wang, Liu, and Yang, 2014 ceived tochildren’s shamingasbeingdetrimental self-worth well-being andpsychological ( China,perceived asbeingmore withage, commonin increasingly per- children inbothcountries p. 201).However,Canada, althoughshamingwasChina and inasampleofchildren ages7to14in Dimensions of Discipline InventoryDimensions of ( “confess andrepent”children moralbehavior andsocializingthemto afterwrongdoing( nonverbal interactionswiththeirchildren toinstillshameaftermisbehavior, withthegoalofteaching fromwrong.Parentsdren right of2-to4-year-olds studyusedbothverbal inanethnographic and ofdiscipline example,Chinese parents useaform dren, punishmentinthelastmonth. acrosscountries, corporal stillexperienced Furthermore, althoughreasoning was punishment, more commonthancorporal ofchil- themajority didnotreceiveacross the24countries explanationsinthelastmonthofwhy something was wrong. ofdisciplineisinductive form that themostcommonlyreported reasoning, 20%of2-to4-year-olds taneously orsequentially. Parents ofdisciplinebut rely onanumber usedsimul- donotusejustoneform ofdifferent strategies although reasoning isgenerally usedmorepunishmentacrosscountries. frequently thancorporal thanothers, ofdisciplineare moreporal punishment.Particularcommon insomecountries forms reasoning tohelpchildren theeffectsoftheiractionsonotherpeople, understand and avoiding cor- children misbehave. types ofdiscipline, whichmay dependonfamilies’ culturalcontextandfeatures ofsituationsinwhich punishment inthelastmonth( 2012 explained totheirchildwhy somethingwas wronginthelastmonth( et al., 2012 Confl the Parent–child typesofdisciplineinthelastmonth,particular 6months,Commonly usedmeasures include oryear. Parental ofthe frequency disciplineisusuallyassessedviaself-reports withwhichparents have used reports arereports subjecttoimperfectrecall and socialdesirabilitybiases, withthe potentialforparents to observations. Adisadvantage, naturalisticorlaboratory-based to occurduring however, isthatself- about arangeoflow-frequency behaviors that would bediffi Parents ofdisciplinebut insteadvarytheirresponses dependingon donotusejustasingleform Some types of discipline appear to be common in particular cultural groups but not others. For but notothers. culturalgroups Sometypesofdisciplineappeartobecommoninparticular To summarize, effective by beingproactive disciplineischaracterized ratherthanreactive, using ). Across the 24 countries, 63% of mothers reported that their child had experienced corporal corporal ). Acrossthe24countries, thattheirchildhadexperienced reported 63%ofmothers ; Lansford etal., 2005 ict Tactics Scale( Methods Study of Parental of Discipline ). Children in China and Canada evaluated inductiveChina andreasoning more Children in ). Lansford and Deater-Deckard,Lansford and 2012 ). Anadvantage measures ofself-report isthatitpossibletoask Parenting andChildDiscipline Straus andFauchier, 2011 they reported would somothers failed bemore strategy rst Straus, Hamby, Finkelhor, Moore, andRunyan, 1998 67 Fung (1999 Fung etal., 2017 ) described as “shaming” astoteachchil- ) described ), ( Discipline Interview and the cult towitnessorthatare unlikely Fung, Li, andLam, 2017 ). Thus, parents useanumber of ). Thus, althoughitisreassuring Lansford and Deater-Deckard,Lansford and Fung, 1999 ). Mothers ). Mothers Helwig, ict was ict Huang ), the , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 for rigorous testingoflinksbetween ofdisciplineand children’s differentfor rigorous forms behavior. interventions manipulateexposure todifferent typesofexperiences, bothmethods offerthepotential ( positive disciplinestrategies, which, inturn, decreased children’s behavior problems externalizing wererandomized totheintervention rather thancontrolgroup foundtoimprove intheiruseof designed toimprove outcomesforchildren following theirparents’ divorce, whowere mothers in the families randomized to a control group ( randomizedtoacontrol group in thefamilies reduced young children’s behavior problems, whereas children’s behavior problemsdidnotchange ple, whowere families randomizedto anintervention thatimproved positive parenting practices ( and Chamberlain, 1993 demonstrate thatchangesinparenting predict changesinchildren’s ( aggression ofchildeffectsinshaping thekindsofdisciplinethey Otherexperiments experience. importance to elicitmore negative responses from boththeirown andothermothers, providing evidence forthe Lytton, andRomney, 1986 interacting withboys withoutconductdisorder were foundtobehave more positively ( interacting withboys withconductdisorder were foundtobehave more negatively, whereas mothers each mothercompletedthetaskswithherown sonandwith two otherboys. whowere Mothers conduct disorder. Theseboy–mother dyads were tasks; inthree thenobserved laboratory engaging order were pairedofconduct-disordered eitherwithmothers ofsonswithout sonsorwithmothers in81%ofthecases. punishmentcorresponded instancesofcorporal self-reported punishment, children were misbehaving againwithintenminutes. Theaudio-recorded instancesand ( of thefamilies 5-year-old children foruptosixnights, punishmentwere instancesofcorporal heard inalmosthalf tionship whenthey dooccur. In a studyinwhichaudiorecorders were wornby of 2-to mothers ofdisciplinemayfrequency notbeobserved, forms even ifthey are salienttotheparent–child rela- Disadvantages ofobservations are thatthey are timeconsumingandexpensive toconduct, andlow- by objective researchers toavoid socialdesirabilitybiasesthatcanbeassociatedwithself-reports. ing theinteractionsare recorded and coded.Anadvantage ofobservations isthatthey canbecoded their own child. that parents are notbeingasked ofdisciplinewith whetherandhow forms oftenthey useparticular responses ( varyby thesefactors canbemanipulatedtoexaminewhetherparents’and othersituationalfactors disciplinary reported Dodge, 1997 would beself-enhancing( behaviors they perceiveunderreport asbeingsociallyundesirableoroverreport behaviors they believe inductive reasoning ( tions thatare thencodedintocategories, punishment, suchascorporal manipulationofprivileges, or 2010 and askingparents whatthey would dotorespond toeachsituation(e.g., parents withimages, videos, ortextdepictinghypothetical vignettesinvolving achild’s misbehavior kindsofdisciplineisalsosometimesassessedusinganalog methods,to useparticular suchaspresenting perspectives onwhetherandhow oftenparents have kindsofdiscipline. usedparticular responses frommultiple respondentstriangulating (mother, father, andchild)canprovide different ability biasesare sometimesstatisticallycontrolledinanalyses( Webster-Stratton, 1990 Tein, Sandler, MacKinnon, andWolchik, 2004 Finally, intervention studiesofferanadditionalmethodforstudyingparental discipline. For exam- For example, Disciplinecanalsobestudiedinthecontextofexperiments. boys withconduct dis- More rarely, parents are observed interactingwiththeirchildren, dur- anddisciplineencounters As a variation on self-report measures onself-report Asavariation inwhichparents ontheiractualbehavior, report propensity ). Responsescaninvolve eitherclosed-endedoptionsforparents toselectoropen-endedques- ). Anadvantage ofusinghypothetical vignettesisthatthetypeofmisbehavior, setting, Holden, Williamson, andHolland, 2014 Bombi, Di Norcia,Bombi,Di Giunta,Di Pastorelli, andLansford, 2015 ) andthatparents’ manipulated canbeexperimentally managementstrategies ). ). Boys withconductdisorder were foundtobemore noncompliantand Morsbach andPrinz,Morsbach 2006 Fung etal., 2017 Jennifer E. Lansford ). Because laboratory experiments andrandomized experiments ). Becauselaboratory 68 ). Adisadvantage ofusinghypothetical vignettesis Dishion etal., 2008 ). To overcome theselimitations, socialdesir- ). After 73% of the instances of corporal ). After73%oftheinstancescorporal Bornstein etal.,Bornstein 2015 ). Inadifferent intervention Russa andRodriguez, Patterson, Dishion, ; Pettit, Bates, and ). Inaddition, Anderson, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 fi (which ishighlyrestrictive) versus authoritative parents (which isnothighlyrestrictive yet still exerts low demandingnessandresponsiveness parents andtodifferentiate demandingnessof authoritarian (1991 siveness, but indulgent parents were low ondemandingnessbut high onresponsiveness. in Maccoby andMartin’s theory, neglectingparents were low inbothdemandingness andrespon- parents were justby beinglow characterized ondemandingness(regardless oftheirresponsiveness), were highondemandingnessbut low onresponsiveness. Whereas inBaumrind’s theory, permissive rind’s theory, authoritative parents were highonbothdimensions, parents whereas authoritarian ononeaxisandresponsiveness,and supervision warmth, andacceptanceontheother. AsinBaum- parenting withinatwo-by-two by highversus characterized low demandingness, matrix control, dimensions (see dimensions (see control, restrictiveness, permissiveness) andemotional(e.g., warmth, acceptance, hostility, rejection) missive ( orper- competent andhigherachieving academicallythanchildren whoseparents are authoritarian Children whoseparents are authoritativevoice have theiropinions. been foundtobemore socially without question, authoritative parents provide forchildren more to explanationsandopportunities dimensions. However, parents whoexpectchildren tofollow unlike theirdirectives authoritarian but dimension.Authoritative highonthewarmth parents are highonboththecontrolandwarmth dimension but low dimension.Permissive onthewarmth parents are low onthecontroldimension of parents: authoritarian, authoritative, parents are highonthe control andpermissive. Authoritarian parenting may operatesomewhat independently. Baumrind’s three types theoretical modeldescribed that contributes tochildren’sthat contributes socialandacademiccompetence ( dren’s andcommunicate freedom openlywiththeirparents tonegotiaterules inauthoritative families 1955 ness ( versus autonomy ( contributes toscientifi contributes whichapproachtouseforany givendetermining study.Converging evidence fromseveral methods ments, andintervention studies.Eachmethodhasbenefi asking parents how they would respond tohypothetical vignettes, parent–child observations, experi- acceptance ( ofdominanceversus submissionandrejectionized majordimensionsofparenting versus interms and respond todiscipline; see the overall emotionalclimateoftheparent–child relationship (whichcanaffecthow children receive ofwhatparents dotocontrolchildren’s interms construed behavior (mostrelevant todiscipline)and parenting practicesandstylesinrelation todimensionsthatare describe broadly parenting theories tices andparenting styles, towhatparents doandhow they referring doit, respectively. Many classic parents’ andchildren’s behavior. related toparental disciplinedifferentiate Theories parenting prac- emotions indisciplinesituations, how andmodelingothers’ observing anddescribing behavior affects ing between parenting practicesandparenting styles, delineatingtheroleofparents’ andchildren’s relevant Theories parental tounderstanding disciplinetake offorms, avariety includingdistinguish- do alone. rm control). rm Maccoby andMartin’s (1983 As characterized well in Ascharacterized Primary methodsofstudyingparental disciplineincludeself-reports, Primary analog measures suchas ), versus permissiveness( andwarmth strictness Becker, 1964 ) subsequentlyrevised by toaddarejecting-neglecting parenting hertheory stylecharacterized Baumrind, 1971 Symonds, 1939 Darling andSteinberg, 1993 Schaefer, 1959 ). All of these theories emphasizethatparenting involves). Allofthesetheories bothbehavioral (e.g., c rigor andincreased confi c rigor ). Others have). Others thatitisnothighlevels theorized ofcontrolbut rather chil- ), hostilityversus andinvolvement warmth versus detachment( Baumrind’s (1967 Rudolph, Lansford, andRodkin, 2017 ) theory ofparenting built) theory onBaumrind’s by conceptualizing theory inParentalTheory Discipline ), andhostilityversus andpermissiveness warmth versus restrictive- Parenting andChildDiscipline ). ) framework, behavioral andemotionaldimensionsof dence infi 69 Sears etal.,Sears 1957 ts anddrawbacks thatmust beweighed when ndings, beyond whatany methodcould Lewis, 1981 ), hostilityversus love andcontrol ). These theories have). Thesetheories character- ). Baumrind Baumrind Baldwin, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 Davies and Cummings (1994 Davies and their parents as being accepting or rejecting of them. The theory has been supported empirically in empirically their parents hasbeensupported asbeingacceptingorrejecting ofthem.Thetheory theory, whicharguesthatchildren’s largely by whetherchildren adjustmentisdetermined perceive emotional security. Cummings’s model, theassociationbetween parenting andchildoutcomes ismediatedby children’s and, inturn, problematicbehaviors thatmightstemfrom negative emotions.Thus,Davies and in can bothcompromisechildren’s andcapacitytoregulate theirown emotionalsecurity emotions dysphoria, withdrawal, andnoncompliance. Poor child behavior managementandparental rejection negative emotions, intrusiveness, andwithdrawal, allofwhich are related tochildren’s own anger, problems.Parentalrelated andinternalizing rejection tomore canencompass childexternalizing parents’ anddisciplineare toolaxorbecausedisciplineisharsh, supervision both ofwhichare behavior management andparental rejection. Poor childbehavior managementcanbe eitherbecause respond toparents ( the affective contextoftheparent–child children’s relationship facilitates motivation toattendand behaviorsthey andwhen ofparticular offerexplanationsandreason withchildren aboutthemerits children’sthese modelssuggestthatparents are mostsuccessfulatfostering moraldevelopment when children’sin disciplinesituationstofacilitate opennesstoparents’ socializationattempts.Together ents canuseconsistency, autonomy support, perspective taking, andparental acceptance ofthechild Grusec,Danyliuk, Kil, and O’Neill’s (2017 away ofnegativeattempts intheface emotions, andsuchemotionscanalsoshiftattentionprocessing parents’Children willbelessopentoparents’which undermines socializationattempts. socialization discipline may beineffective disciplineinducesnegative isthatharsh emotionsinchildren andparents, in thisemotion-focusedframework, ofharsh punishmentandotherforms onereason thatcorporal children whenparents’ owninduceweaker concerns emotionsthanchildren’s Understood concerns. not display emotionsthatare counterproductive. Parents are mostlikely torespond empathicallyto matchthemtoparentingable toregulate situationsanddo theiremotionssothatthey appropriately enough, they may notengage orrespond tochildren suffi they may reactorintrusively, tooharshly emotionsstrongly whereas ifparents donotexperience events emotionstoostrongly, thestrength oftheemotioninduced.Ifparents experience determine use offorce parents’ may undermine future attemptstogainchildren’s compliance. to resist becausethey forceful donottake strategies children’s perspectives anddesires intoaccount, so (e.g.,or forceful strategies imposingtheparent’sChildren are more willthroughphysicallikely force). (e.g.,strategies reasoning, negotiating), (e.g., empathicstrategies goingalongwithchildren’s wishes), gent. Whenparents’ andchildren’s goalsandbehaviors diverge, parents canrespond withcooperative more positive whenparents’ andchildren’s goalsandbehaviors are alignedthanwhenthey are diver- morality) goalsare beingthwarted oradvanced. Emotionsinparent–child interactionsare generally (e.g.,short-term getthechild’s (e.g., andlong-term teethbrushed) promotethedevelopment of and controltheiremotions.Emotionsinparent–child interactionsoftendependonwhetherparents’ cognitively, physiologically, andbehaviorally. Regulationreferstohow individuals express, understand, toeventsorient inways thatare consistentwiththeiremotionsandaffectshow they respond toevents well Engagementreferstohow aswhenandhow individuals stronglytheemotionisexperienced. cesses: activation, engagement, andregulation. Activation referstowhichemotionisexperienced, as foragiven three pro- situation.Thisemotion-focusedmodelofparentinginappropriate describes promote sensitive, responsive parenting dependingonwhetheremotionsare toostrong, tooweak, or As in Dix’s Asin model, hypothesis emotionplays proposedby acentral roleintheemotionalsecurity Parental rejection alsoplays acentralrolein According to Dix’s According to model, parents’ perceptions ofthestability, controllability, of andimportance Dix(1991 from theparents’ message. Thisfocusonchildren’s willingcomplianceisalsoahallmarkof ) proposedatheoretical parenting modelofhow or emotionscaneitherundermine Smetana, 1999 ), two ofparenting whichincorporates clusters problems: poorchild ). Jennifer E. Lansford ) conceptualmodelofdiscipline, whichdelineateshow par- Rohner’s (2004 70 ciently. forparents tobe Itisimportant ) interpersonal acceptance-rejection ) interpersonal Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 violence and aggression areviolence andaggression alsomore normative ( be adopted.For example, punishmentismore insocietieswhere normative, corporal of otherforms 1998 Guerra, 1997 tive inparent–child relationships ( throughtheirexperiences beliefsaboutaggression behaviors ontheirparents’ behavior over time( problems,parents tohandleinterpersonal usingaggression they may imitateandmodeltheirown and thedevelopment ofchildren’s aggressive behavior problems.Thatis, aschildren observe their ment isrelated tohigherlevels inthe populationasawhole( ofaggression societies inwhichitisnormative asinwhichitisnon-normative, atasocietallevel, punish- corporal if atanindividual level, punishmentisnotasstronglyrelated toworse corporal childoutcomesin likely tomake children anxiousandfearful( a more plannedandconsistentrather thanimpulsive andunregulated way, would whichinturn beless parents perceive thatthey are behaving inanormative way, they may ofdisciplinein useagiven form ization messagesifthey believe thattheirparents are way. behaving inanappropriate Inaddition, if its effectiveness ( Children’s andreasonablenessacceptable. ofdisciplineare associatedwith perceptions ofthefairness other parents are behaving, thenthey may bemore likely toregard theirparents’ disciplineasbeing 2005 ofdiscipline thatisnotnormative intheircultural context( than ifparents useaform context (i.e., normative), thenitwillberelated tomore positive (orlessnegative) childoutcomes ofdisciplinethatisacceptedandcommonintheircultural isthatifparents useaform ness theory livein whichfamilies ( ofdisciplinemightdifferdependingonthebroaderculturalcontext forms associated withparticular violent waysconfl ofdealingwithinterpersonal andacceptablewaya legitimate totreat others, non- andthey are tolearn deprived ofopportunities behaviors ( peer relationshipsthatthey aschildrencangetwhatthey learn want throughaggressive andantisocial ment inthelatter).Over time, thesecoercive cyclesescalateandgeneralizetoothercontextssuchas has beenreinforced (thechild’s ortheparent’s intheformer tempertantrum punish- useofcorporal parent smacksthechildsostopsmakingrequest. In eitherscenario, aversive behavior the childthrows atempertantrum, andtheparent gives inand buys thecandytoavoid asceneorthe store, theparent says no, thechildrepeats therequest more forcefully, theparent says nomore fi stopbehaving aversively.temporarily Aprototypicalexamplewould beifachildasksforcandyatthe discipline, andparents’ ineffective discipline, suchasyelling orhitting, isreinforced whenchildren aversive behaviors, suchaswhining, yelling, andhitting, are reinforced by parents’ withdrawal of behavior problems( one hand, versus rejection andhostility, ontheother. becauseofthemessagesparents’part behaviors convey aboutlove andacceptanceofthechild, onthe emphasizesthatparents’rejection theory specifi rejection versus acceptance( ment andchildren’s adjustmentwas psychological mediatedby children’s perceptions oftheirparents’ between children’s perceptionsoftheirparents’ ofthejustnessandharshness punish- useofcorporal children’s perceptions oftheirparents’ rejection ( Consistent withthetheory,2017). through punishmentisrelated tochildadjustment inpart corporal (e.g.,a largenumber ofstudiesinmany countries Social learning theories alsohelpaccountforlinksbetween parents’ theories Sociallearning punishment use ofcorporal Normativeness theory hasbeenproposedasaway Normativeness theory ofaccountingforhow andwhy childbehaviors Coercion theory isausefulframework Coercion theory thathelps accountforthedevelopment ofexternalizing ). However, acaveat existssuggesting thatanextreme positiononculturalrelativism shouldnot ). Ifchildren perceive thattheirparents are behaving in away thatisconsistentwiththeway Dishion, 2014 ). If parents use corporal punishment,). Ifparents usecorporal children are more likely toperceive as aggression Grusec and Goodnow,Grusec 1994 Patterson,Capaldi, andBank, 1991 Deater-Deckard and Dodge,Deater-Deckard and 1997 ). Rohner, Bourque, andElordi, 1996 Parenting andChildDiscipline Holden, Miller, andHarris, 1999 ). Children are more parents’ likely tointernalize ). social- c disciplinebehaviors are related tochildoutcomesin icts. Bandura, 2016 71 Lansford and Dodge,Lansford and 2008 Khaleque andRohner, 2002 Rohner, Kean,Cournoyer, and 1991 ). Inbidirectional coercive cycles, children’s ). Ahypothesis derived fromnormative- ). Likewise, children develop norma- ). Thus, acceptance- interpersonal Lansford and Dodge,Lansford and 2008 ). Thissuggeststhateven ; ; Straus andMouradian, Rohner andLansford, Huesmann and Lansford etal., ). Thelink rmly, ).

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 and desirableforone’s own behavior. emphasizehow others’ness theory observing behavior affectswhatoneperceives asbeingacceptable placement totheroleofparents’ andchildren’s frameworks emotions.Sociallearning andnormative- Many theoretical dimensionofclassicparentingto thewarmth modelsgive theories. prominent parents’ behaviors. Parenting tothecontroldimensionandparenting practicesoftencorrespond styles emotional climateoftheparent–child relationship); parenting stylescanaffecthow children interpret of parenting practices(whatparents doindisciplinesituations)aswell asparenting styles(theoverall and community-level (e.g.,( punishment)factors aboutcorporal norms punishmentwas predicteduse ofcorporal by bothindividual-level (e.g., behaviors) childexternalizing Dodge, andReznick, 2013 Koeppl, andReid, 2005 level factors, stress ( such asfamily Parents’ ofdisciplineispredicted by forms arangeofindividual- andcommunity- useofparticular links between parental disciplineand childoutcomes. pline issituatedinthebroadercontextofparent–child relationships, of andmediators andmoderators ofdiscipline,predictors ofdifferent forms ofdiscipline, consequencesofdifferent forms how disci- Thissectionprovides anoverview research ofclassicalandmodern inparental disciplineby reviewing ( of disciplinewithchildren whohave thatmake theirbehavior characteristics more diffi use. Overall, parents are more likely touseawiderangeoftypesdisciplineaswell forms asharsher factors. wise, ofparental disciplinealsoare predicted otherforms by bothindividual- andcommunity-level 2007 who have problemswithconduct( and McArthur, 2012 discipline withchildren whohave disabilitiesthanchildren withoutdisabilities(forreviews, see angry, reactive discipline( of children andsalientevoke thatare challenging parental distress, which thenleadstofrustrated, isthatcharacteristics discipline.ents willuseharsh Onemechanism that canaccountforthispattern nalizing behavior problems( punishment,such ascorporal discipline alsoincreases but harsher children’s for subsequent exter- risk cesses unfoldover timesothatchildren withthesediffi discipline ( comply withparents’ andmore likely socializationefforts toelicitparents’ hostileandinconsistent children whohave highlevels temperamentsare lesslikely ofnegative to emotionalityandirritable reasoning ( tend toelicitpunishment, inductive whereas toactprosociallytendelicitother-oriented failures also have beenfoundtoelicitdifferent typesofdiscipline. For example, children’s antisocialbehaviors time and energy they musttime andenergy expendtomanagethedisabilityaswell asstigmarelated tothedisability 2012 Larzelere, 2000 To summarize, relevant elements theories parental tounderstanding disciplineoftenincorporate Individual characteristics ofbothchildren ofdisciplinethatparents andparents Individual predict characteristics theforms Other child characteristics inadditiontobehavior problemscanincrease Otherchildcharacteristics thelikelihood thatpar- ), andnoncompliance( ). Parents ofchildren highlevels withdisabilitiesmay experience ofstress because ofadditional Bates, Schermerhorn, andPetersen, 2014 Grusec andKuczynski,Grusec 1980 ). For instance, compared tochildren whosebehaviors are easiertomanage, children ResearchClassical andModern inParental Discipline ; WestcottJones, and 1999 ), andparents’ negative regarding attributions children’s behaviors ( Deater-Deckard, 2004 ). In a longitudinal studyofparents inninecountries,). Inalongitudinal inparents’ variance Patterson, 2002 Lansford etal., 2011 Whipple andWebster-Stratton, 1991 Predictors ofDiscipline Lytton, 1990 ). Jennifer E. Lansford ) are discipline. more harsh Likewise, likely toexperience ; but forcaveats see ). Consistent withthisperspective,). parents useharsher ; Patterson, 1982 72 ), attention( ). Reciprocal, bidirectional, andtransactionalpro- discipline, elicitharsher cult characteristics Alizadeh,Coolidge, Applequist, and ). Specifi Leeb, Bitsko, Merrick, andArmour, ), poverty ( c typesofchildmisbehavior Lansford etal., 2015 Knutson, DeGarmo, cult tocontrol ). Like- Stalker Berlin, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 and likelihood discipline( ofusingharsh for typicallydeveloping children may notapply(seealso control, anddiffi the disabilitydraws attention, troubledistinguishingbetween behaviors thatthechildcanandcannot therapy appointments, thechild’s extratasksrelated tomanaging disability, beinginthe spotlightwhen parents ofchildren withdisabilitiessuggestthatextratimerelated totakingchildren tomedicaland child interactions( have stylecompared aharsh, toparents disciplinary whobelieve angry they are responsible forparent– locus ofcontrolandbelieve theirchildisresponsible forparent–child interactionsare more likely to accounted for 27% to 38% of the variance inwhether parentsaccounted for27%to38%of thevariance believing reported itwas necessary parents of2-to4-year-old children in24low- andmiddle-incomecountries, ofresidence country ofdiscipline. Innationallyrepresentative andexpectationsaboutadvisable forms norms samples of involvesbut rather community-level ofthesefactors Oneofthemostimportant factors. community are parents withoutthesebiases( ations andpositively evaluating aggressive responses, are more punishmentthan likely tousecorporal social-cognitive biasesthatfavor aggression, inambiguous situ- including makinghostileattributions corporal punishmentwiththeirowncorporal children ( 2016 less likely touse inductive reasoning thanhigher-SESparents ( ofdiscipline. Forforms example, lower-SES parents are more punishmentand likely tousecorporal with suchchildren. ful ( ofparents’jeopardize theinternalization socializationattemptsforchildren whoare anxiousandfear- ofdisciplinehighin power punishmentandotherforms have assertion As corporal beenfoundto likely tohow responding inpart they perceive theirchildren asreceiving ofdiscipline. different forms subsequent development problems( ofinternalizing ment ( problems,with internalizing such asanxietyanddepression, are punish- lesslikely tousecorporal ents’ abilitytodisciplineconsistentlyandeffectively. physiological arousal, negative emotionalityanddysregulation, andcognitive biasesalldecrease par- defi Deckard, 2004 such asanxietyandanger, aswell asdecrease parents’ capacityforregulating theiremotions( Gunnar, andHeim, 2009 andfunctioninwaysbrain structure functioning(see thatimpairpsychological discipline ( onlynonviolent punishmentandlesslikely toexperience forcorporal risk found tobeatgreater children withallkindsofdisabilities(notjustthoseinvolving communication diffi the childverbally usingexplanationsandreasoning ( parents may bemore punishmentifthey likely donotfeelabletocommunicate with tousecorporal 2007 deliberative ofdisciplineifthey are lessconfi forms abilities alsomay bemore likely toreact impulsively punishmentratherthanmore withcorporal tional, andcognitive mechanisms( ( Deater-Deckard, 2004 cits in processing social information ( cits inprocessingsocialinformation Somepredictorsofparental disciplineare notrelated toindividual childorparent characteristics Parents’ characteristics, inadditiontochildcharacteristics, alsopredict parents’ useof different Unlike parentsproblemsorwithdisabilities, ofchildren withexternalizing parents ofchildren Parents’ stress increasesandinconsistentdisciplinethroughphysiological, theiruseofharsh emo- Kochanska, Aksan,Joy, and 2007 ). Parents punishmentaschildren are corporal more whothemselves likely experienced touse ; Jones andPrinz, 2005 Grogan-Kaylor andOtis, 2007 Hendricks, Lansford,Deater-Deckard, andBornstein, 2014 ). Cognitively,). highlevels biasesandother tohostileattribution ofstress contribute culty determining what behaviors are appropriate fortheirchildgiven whatbehaviors are thatstandards appropriate culty determining Rodriguez, 2010 ; Whittingham, Wee, Sanders, andBoyd, 2011 , forareview). Highlevels ofstress alsoincrease parents’ negative emotions ). Particularly ifchildren’s disabilitiesinvolve communication diffi Lansford etal., 2014 Deater-Deckard, 2004 ). Parenting andChildDiscipline ), parents may respond by reducingdiscipline theiruseofharsh ), althoughparents’ punishmentpredicts the useofcorporal Whittingham etal., 2011 Pinderhughes,Dodge, Zelli, Bates, andPettit, 2000 73 Wang, Xing, andZhao, 2014 Gershoff, 2002 Knutson,Johnson, andSullivan, 2004 dent inthemselves asparents ( ; Milner, 2000 ). Physiologically, highlevels ofstress affect Weisleder, 2011 Ryan, Kalil, Ziol-Guest, andPadilla, ). ; Lansford etal., 2014 ). Parents whohave anexternal ). Focus group discussionswith ). Focus group ). Parents ofchildren withdis- ) allincreased parents’ stress ). Parents whohold culties) have been Lupien, McEwen, Alizadeh etal., ). Parents are ). However, However, ). ). Inturn, Deater- culties, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 policies shapehow individual parents respond totheirchildren’s misbehavior. level, ofdisciplineaswell aslaws forms ofparticular and regarding theappropriateness culturalnorms with fewer resources orpsychological tocopewithdiffi material ofparents,and by characteristics suchaslow levels ofeducationorstressful lifeevents, thatleave them ofchildren,teristics suchasconductproblemsordisabilities, thatmake themmore diffi types ofdiscipline. Atanindividual level, ofdisciplineare predicted bothby forms harsher charac- canshapeparental discipline.factors offering explanations or giving thechildsomethingelsetodo( explanationsorgiving offering ment), inparents’ and11%to18%ofthevariance ofdiscipline, ofnonviolent reports forms suchas punishment(hittingontheheadorbeatingwithanimple- usingseverereported ofcorporal forms punishmenttorear achildproperly,to usecorporal inwhetherparents 11%to18%ofthevariance to positive childoutcomesinmany domainsratherthanamixture ofpositive andnegative outcomes. pline. However, ofdiscipline, research suggeststhatotherforms such asinductive reasoning, are related perceive itasbeingtoosevere. ment, even ifparents believe themselves tobe justifi is, behaviorspredicted are more by longitudinally childexternalizing morepunish- frequent corporal punishmentandchildren’scorporal behaviors ( subsequentexternalizing and parents’ perceptions ofitsjustnesshave notbeenfoundtomoderatelinksbetween parents’ useof child outcomes( 2002 punishment( of effectsizesshowed childoutcomesassociatedwithcorporal detrimental Regardless ofhowpunishment was operationalized, corporal meta-analysisfound that94% arigorous parents, ofvalues, internalization andmoraldevelopment (e.g., izing problems, problems, internalizing andacademicdiffi reviews andmeta-analyseshave punishmentpredicts more demonstratedthatcorporal childexternal- Specifi Sweden, whichwas thefi ishment begandecliningeven before thelegalbanandthencontinued todeclineaftertheban(e.g., in Children,Punishment of 201 punishment( hadoutlawed ofcorporal 54 countries allforms tonationallawsuted inpart andpoliciesregarding For example, childrearing. asofOctober2018, whereas 49%ofparents inAlbaniadidso. onlynonviolent disciplineinthelastmonth, thattheirchildexperienced ents inMongoliareported punishment inthelastmonthcompared toonly1%inBelarus, Kazakhstan,No par- andUkraine. parents inMongoliaand Yemen severe ofcorporal thattheirchildhadexperienced reported forms punishment torear achildproperlyincontrasttoonly4%ofparents percent inAlbania.Forty of To illustratethisrange, believing reported itwastousecorporal 93%ofparents inSyria necessary less endorsement ofviolenceatasocietallevelless endorsement ( with by andmorepunishmentthanculturalgroups are harsher frequent alsocharacterized corporal with higherlevels ofwarfare, between aggression adults, inchildren andsocializationofaggression ferent forms of violence than others (e.g., ofviolencethanothers ferent forms (see countries, legalbanshave parents’ beenpassedwiththegoalofchanging attitudesaswell asbehaviors To summarize, bothindividual-level andcommunity-level predict parents’ factors use ofdifferent More research has focused on consequences of corporal punishment than other forms ofdisci- More researchpunishment thanotherforms hasfocusedonconsequencesofcorporal ofdisciplinecanbeattrib- forms differences inattitudesaboutanduseofparticular Country-wide Zolotor andPuzia, 2010 ). Features ofstudydesignsdidnotmoderatethelinksbetweenpunishmentandpoorer corporal ofdisciplineare generallyrelated toadiversec forms setofchildoutcomes.For example, Gershoff andGrogan-Kaylor,Gershoff 2016 rst country to outlaw corporal punishment, tooutlaw country corporal rst see ). Some cultural groups are more). Someculturalgroups tolerantoreven ofdif- encouraging 8). Insomecountries, pun- attitudesabouttheacceptabilityofcorporal Discipline of Consequences Jennifer E. Lansford Nisbett and Cohen, 1996 Nisbett and Lansford and Dodge,Lansford and 2008 74 ed in their use of corporal punishmentanddonot ed intheiruseofcorporal ). Likewise, punishment theseverity ofcorporal culties aswell aspoorer relationships with Global Initiative to End All Corporal Corporal Global Initiative toEndAll Lansford and Deater-Deckard,Lansford and 2012 cult childbehavior. Atacommunity Gershoff andGrogan-Kaylor,Gershoff 2016 ). For example, cultural groups Durrant, 1999 Alampay etal., ). Thus, community-level culttoparent ), but inother 2017).That Gershoff, ). ). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 ( to otherpeopleanddisappointmentinexpectations, ofdiscipline form asbeingamore appropriate to love withdrawal orpower andalsoregarded assertion induction, caused includingfocusingonharm 2012 and intelligence), but mothers’ useofinductionpredicts highermoralidentity( qualities, tothemselves, suchaskindnessandfairness more thannonmoralqualities, suchasathleticism are unrelatedassertion toadolescents’ moralidentity(operationalizedasadolescents’ moral ascribing (e.g., focusing onhow achild’s behavior affectsotherpeople. confl interpersonal several punishmentcausespainandmodelsan aggressive outcomesisthatcorporal response toan iors,emotions, offi andrelationships. Oneexplanationfortheseconsistentpatterns emotions, andrelationships, whereas inductive reasoning isrelated tomore adaptive childbehav- power assertion; such asteaching, encouraging, andguidingthechild)tolessnegative control(whichincluded child self-regulation was related topositive control(whichincludedfeatures ofinductive reasoning, In ameta-analysisofhow preschoolers’ self-regulation isrelated todifferent typesofparenting, better specifi effective. Theoverall parent–child relationship contextmay therefore moderatelinksbetween children willbemore motivated toobey theirparents, makingdisciplineattemptseasierandmore ofdiscipline( forms particular child relationship affectshow receptive children are toparents’ attemptstosocializethemthrough relationship, whichmay beshapedbyparenting style. aparticular Theoverall climateoftheparent– tinct, parental discipline(asaparenting practice)issituatedintheoverall contextoftheparent–child Consistentwiththeideafromtheoretical modelsthatparenting practicesandparenting stylesare dis- are loving andsupportive are more conducive toconvey ofmessagesparents try to theinternalization overall climateoftheparent–child relationship. There isevidence thatparent–child relationships that moment toabouthow parents willtreat them. children have adiffi the context of a generally warm parent–childthe contextofagenerallywarm relationship ( 2009 loving, punishmentisstill related tonegative corporal childoutcomes( Smith, 2002 negative childoutcomesiftheparent–child relationship andloving isgenerallywarm ( yielded mixed research fi attenuated inthecontextofagenerallypositive parent–child relationship has beencontroversial and O’Bleness, 2009 only forchildren whowere insecurely attachedat15months( social behavior and resentful oppositionbetween 25 and67months, linksthatwere signifi was noassociationbetween parents’ laterpower andthedevelopment assertion ofchildren’s anti- 2008 Patrick andGibbs,Patrick 2012 Other-oriented induction is especially important forpromotingmoralandprosocialbehavior inductionisespeciallyimportant Other-oriented Acrossanumber ofoutcomes, punishmentisrelated tomore corporal problematicchildbehaviors, Iftheoverall parent–child relationship andloving iswarm ratherthanhostileorneglectful, Parental discipline encompassesspecifi Thequestionofwhetherlinksbetweenpunishment andnegative corporal childoutcomes are ). Adolescentsresponded withmore guiltaswell aspositive emotionstoinductive disciplinethan ). Stillotherstudieshave punishmenthaseven suggestedthatcorporal more negative effectsin ). For example, forchildren whowere securely attachedtotheirparents at15months, there Krevans andGibbs, 1996 c disciplineattemptsandchildoutcomes(e.g., ). Others have). Others shown thateven iftheparent–child relationship and isgenerallywarm Karreman, van Tuijl, van Aken,Dekovi and ). ict. Bycontrast, inductive reasoning increases empathy andprosocialbehavior by cult timeresolving discrepancies inparents’ from behaviors andfeeluncertain ndings. Somestudieshave shownpunishmentisunrelated to that corporal ). Parent–ChildOverall Relationship Climate ). Adolescents’ perceptions oftheirmothers’ love withdrawal andpower Grusec andGoodnow,Grusec 1994 Parenting andChildDiscipline c behaviors, but thesebehaviors are situatedwithin the 75 Fletcher, Walls,Cook, Madison, andBridges, ). ć , 2006 Lansford etal., 2014 ). Kochanska, Barry, Stellern, and Stacks, Oshio, Gerard, andRoe, Patrick andGibbs,Patrick ), perhapsbecause ndings across ndings McLoyd and cant Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 between parental disciplineandchildren’s adjustment.Eachwillbeconsidered inturn. ofparentallinks disciplineand aspotentialmoderators as maineffectpredictorsofdifferent forms Childgender, parent gender, childage, temperament, have andculture orcountry beenexaminedboth parent–childcontext ofgenerallywarm relationships. in theirdisciplineresponses. However, punishmentmay have corporal effects even detrimental inthe cipline generallyfi Studiesthathave examinedthemaineffectsofparents’ ofdis- genderontheiruseofdifferent forms ofdisciplineandchildren’sforms outcomes. dence intheliterature regarding whether childgendermoderateslinksbetween parents’ useofother to develop problems, internalizing suchasanxietyanddepression ( develop aggressive andantisocialbehaviors, punishedare whoaremore whereas corporally likely girls no genderdifferences ( are daughters, but theeffectsare generallysmallandofteninconsistent, withmany studiesreporting that sonsare verbal more punishmentandharsh likely responses tobedisciplinedwithcorporal than Themostconsistentmaineffectofchildgenderonparental intheliterature disciplinereported is behaviors usingmore noncoercive verbal ( strategies Mothers, inthesame families, compared tofathers alsohave beenfoundtomanagetheirchildren’s illegal since1979, andThailand), punishmentwas usedby corporal very feworfathers. mothers Alampay, etal., 2010 inseven punishmentmore ( frequently usingcorporal thanfathers reported ofthecountries Haalboom etal., 2016 and Klein, 2003 boys ( thangirls ishment andchildren’s behavior outcomeswere externalizing strongerifthesampleincludedmore parental disciplineandchildoutcomes.Inameta-analysis, linksbetween parents’ pun- useofcorporal discipline by parents. 2016 punishment thanboys, but theeffectsizeswere ( sosmallastobetrivial old children in32low- andmiddle-income countries, were lesscorporal girls foundtoexperience Gunn, andWaldfogel, 2011 do ( position torespond tothembecause, onaverage, spendmore mothers timewithchildren thanfathers to fathers, may mothers more frequently witnesschildren’s misbehaviors andtherefore beinabetter more punishmentfrombothparents antisocialbehavior when corporal ifthey recalled experiencing was usedby neitherparent, justthemother, justthefather, orbothparents, in engaging adultsreported jointly.ers) “dyadic concordance types,” Inastudyof punishment operationalized aswhethercorporal frombothparentsdently but (andothercaregiv- alsoonthecombinationofdisciplinethey experience Even ifparentsinsimilarways, disciplinesonsand daughters gendermight moderatelinksbetween Childoutcomesmay fromeachparent indepen- dependnotonlyondiscipline they experience Huerta etal.,Huerta 2013 ). Taken together, there thandifferences ismore insons’ evidence forsimilarities anddaughters’ ) or that mothers use more of all types of discipline than do fathers (e.g., usemore) orthatmothers ofalltypesdisciplinethando fathers Gershoff, 2002 Main Parental EffectsandModerators Links of Between nd nodifferences between (e.g., disciplineusedby andfathers mothers ). In the other two countries (Sweden,). Intheothertwo countries punishmenthasbeen where corporal ). In a study of mothers and fathers of8-year-olds inninecountries, andfathers ). Inastudyofmothers mothers ). Jansen etal., 2012 ). Usingnationallyrepresentative with2-to4-year- samplesoffamilies ). One possibility is that boys who experience corporal punishment corporal ). Onepossibilityisthatboys whoexperience Discipline and Child Behavior andChildBehavior Discipline Jennifer E. Lansford ; Parent Gender Gender Parent Child Gender Gender Child Lytton andRomney, 1991 76 Volling, Blandon, andGorvine, 2006 Gershoff, 2002 ; Deater-Deckard andLansford, MacKenzie, Nicklas, Brooks- ). There islittleevi- ). Compared Lansford, Feldman Hallers- Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 and that children are especially at risk if both parents use detrimental forms ofdiscipline. forms ifbothparentsand thatchildren usedetrimental are especiallyatrisk buffer ofdisciplineadministered theirchildren by fromadverse effectsofsomeforms theotherparent antisocial behaviors forolderadolescentsmay bemore infl andthataggressive punishmentisrarely usedwiththisolderagegroup than age12becausecorporal and met. Furthermore, shehypothesized thattheassociationmay have beenweaker fortheadolescentsolder children shouldbeabletocontrol theirbehavior andreact morewhenthese expectationsare harshly not 12-year-olds punishmentthanyounger elicitmore corporal children dobecauseparents believe thatolder vilinear relation, to 12years ofagethanwhenthe samplewas younger orolder( punishment andchildren’s behaviors, externalizing theassociationwas strongerwhenthesamplewas 10 parents ( tarian adolescence alsohasbeenlinked withhaving atleastoneauthoritative parent ratherthantwo authori- controlling forretrospective ofchildhoodmisbehavior. reports Betteremotionaladjustmentduring Greece, Italy, Poland, Russia, Scotland, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, andtheUnitedStatesafter authority fi authority will behave setofvalues andstandards becauseofaninternalized rather thanjustinthepresence ofan theirparents’children internalize sothat aschildren develop, socializationmessagesisimportant they children how tobehave indesired ways even intheabsenceofrewards andpunishments, sohaving ary response should be( ary children’s tounderstanding isalsoimportant the transgression perceptions ofwhatparents’ disciplin- weretransgressions thanviolationsofsocialconventions, more serious suggestingthatthenature of and Smetana, 2003 and more likely torefer toreasons thatinvolved theacceptednature ofthesocialconventions ( social conventions fi becauseauthority coby, 1984 ishment alsodeclinesaschildren grow older( therefore, misbehaviors are more likely deliberate( because parents perceive thatolderchildren are betterabletocontroltheirown behavior andthat, their approachtodisciplineappealmore tochildren’s senseofhumor, guilt, andresponsibility neither parent ( they were punishmentfromjustoneparent or children corporal thanifthey recalled experiencing parents, andinconsistentdisciplineincreases andharsh children’s fearfulness, irritability, andnegative Children withmore diffi ofinductiveincreases theimportance reasoning ( ity toadministerpunishmentsandrewards andmore tiedtoparents’ knowledge andskills, which behaviors ( approaches willbemore adaptive ifthey changetorely more onreasoning tomanagechildren’s develop cognitively more andcanunderstand complexreasoning andexplanations, parents’ discipline them somethingdifferent todoredirect theirattention For andpreschoolers, toddlers disciplinemay involve appropriate simplydistractingchildren orgiving Adaptive tochildren’s parenting disciplinestrategies requires tailoring ageanddevelopmental status. Inameta-analysisthattestedageasmoderatoroftheassociation between parents’ useofcorporal Aschildren develop, they alsocometoregard parents’ asbeinglesstiedtotheircapac- authority gure toobtainrewards oravoid punishments. ). Compared to4-year-olds,). 6-year-olds were lesslikely tosay thatthey would adhere to Collins, Madsen, andSusman-Stillman, 2002 McKinney andRenk, 2008 Rebellon andStraus, Gershoff (2002 Gershoff ). However, regardless fi ofhow authority cult temperaments elicit harsher andmore culttemperamentselicitharsher inconsistentdisciplinefromtheir Padilla-Walker, 2008 ) hypothesized that childeffectsmay play arolebecause aggressive 10-to 2017).Thesefi Parenting andChildDiscipline behaviorsgures ortoavoid prohibitedparticular punishments ). Thus, can there issomeevidence andfathers thatmothers Temperament Cid Age Child Straus andStewart, 1999 ). Theultimategoalofparental disciplineistoteach 77 Braine, Pomerantz, Lorber, andKrantz, 1991 ndings wereChina,Canada, consistentinBelgium, Collins etal., 2002 uenced by ( peers ). Aschildren develop, parents alsochange gures responded, bothagesthoughtmoral away away Gershoff, 2002 from misbehaviors, but aschildren ). Parents’ pun- useofcorporal ). Gershoff, 2002 ). Inexplainingthiscur- ). ). ; Mac- Yau Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 ( poral punishmentwere those thathadlegallyoutlawed itaswell aslaunchededucationalcampaigns benefi punishmentand of legalbansandparent ofcorporal regarding educationprograms the detriments (Austria, France, Germany, Spain, andSweden) thathave oftheirimplementation interms varied conducted ( and 17childoutcomesrevealed inwhichthestudywas that effectsizesdidnotdifferby thecountry andanxiety( aggression ofdisciplinemoderatedsome oftheassociationsbetween thattypeofdisciplineandchild forms and shamingwere related tomore childanxiety; children’s perceptions ofthenormativeness ofthese and yelling were alsorelated tomore childaggression, andexpressions ofdisappointment, time-outs, ( countries but morepunishmentwas frequent related corporal tomore andanxietyinallsix childaggression andanxietywasaggression punishmentwas weaker more inwhich corporal normative, incountries Italy, Kenya, thePhilippines, andThailand, theassociationbetweenpunishmentandchild corporal have nowChina, beentested in several aswell. Inastudyofmother–childdyads countries India, in child outcomeshave intheUnitedStates, beenconductedwithdifferent ethnicgroups but theselinks fewer toengageinsuchbehaviors ( opportunities and Ridge, 1998 izing behaviors forchildren whoare highbut notlow inresistance tocontrol( children’s behaviors, laterexternalizing withmore restrictive control predicting fewer childexternal- peramental resistance tocontrolalsomoderatestherelation between parents’ restrictive controland usethiscooperativeand mothers relationship asthebasisoftheirdiscipline( of aconcern, but socializationmessageswereare whentoddlers securely attached betterinternalized ( deemphasizepower better whenmothers ofdiscipline messages are internalized andusegentleforms related tochildoutcomes.For example, fortemperamentallyfearfulandanxioustoddlers, socialization of disciplineparents use, ofdisciplineare temperamentalsomoderatestheway forms thatparticular emotionality ( poral punishmentinthelastmonth( outlawed punishment, cor- corporal thattheirchildhadexperienced stillreported 32%ofmothers punishmentinthelastmonth; corporal that theirchildhadexperienced eightyears afterUkraine 2017 ment, punishment( corporal ofchildren continue largeproportions toexperience and Wahlbeck, 2014 tothechangeinlaw pointthatcouldbeattributed ( suggesting aturning signifi was tothelegalban, notdecreasing inthe39years prior afterthelegalbanwere but children born from arepresentative punishment sampleofFinnish15-to80-year-olds demonstratedthatcorporal Children,ment of 201 becauseofdifferences inlawsin part andpolicies( inparents’the variance ofdiscipline( useofdifferent forms Deater-Deckard, 2012 ofdiscipline( ofdifferent forms ofdisciplineandbeliefsintheappropriateness forms demonstratelargedifferences inparents’ andcountries Different culturalgroups useofdifferent Kochanska, 1995 Bussmann, Erthal, andSchroth, 2011 Most studies of whether cultural group moderatesthelinkbetweenpunishmentand Moststudiesofwhetherculturalgroup corporal ). For example, three years afterTogo outlawed punishment, corporal reported 77%ofmothers cantly lesslikely tohave before punishedthanchildrenthelegalban, born beencorporally ofdisciplineshowedts ofusingalternative withthe lowest forms thatcountries ratesofcor- Lansford etal., 2005 Gershoff andGrogan-Kaylor,Gershoff 2016 Lengua andKovacs, 2005 ). Itispossiblethatrestrictiveproblems controlgives forexternalizing children atrisk ). For more temperamentallyfearlesstoddlers, however, minimizinganxietyisless ). However, even thathave punish- insomecountries legallybannedcorporal 8). For example, punishmentinFinlandwas outlawed corporal Data in1983. ). As described earlier,). Asdescribed ofresidence of predicts country alargeproportion Gershoff etal.,Gershoff 2010 ). Inthesesamesixcountries, mothers’ expressions ofdisappointment Lansford etal., 2017 ). ). Not onlydoestemperamenthave maineffectsonthetypes ). Culture orCountry Jennifer E. Lansford ). Ameta-analysisoflinksbetween punishment corporal ). 78 Bates etal., 1998 Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punish- Corporal Global Initiative toEndAll ). Ananalysisoffi Lansford and Deater-Deckard,Lansford and 2012 ). Kochanska, 1995 inEurope ve countries Österman, Björkqvist, Bates, Pettit,Dodge, Lansford etal., Lansford and ). Tem- ), Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 socialize children tobehave prosocially( tothewelfaredirectly contributing ofotherpeople, parents may useinductive to reasoning totry more abstractinductive reasoning. However, ifchildren have few chancestobehave prosociallyby often promotedimplicitlyaschildren take members’ care ofotherfamily needsratherthanthrough ( the wholefamily behavior oftheireveryday inthecourse lives asthey care foryounger siblingsordochores thatbenefi desired behaviors. For example, insomesocieties, children have toengageinprosocial the opportunity parents’ perceptions ofwhatare desired andundesired behaviors andinbroadercontextsthatsupport Differences acrosscultures existbothin ofdisciplineandchildoutcomes. links between forms certain children’s adjustment. temperament, linksbetween andculturalcontextsinunderstanding different typesofdisciplineand moderation effectshave beenfound, oftakingintoaccountgender, suggestingtheimportance age, thatare acceptingofitsuse. without legalprohibitionsandwithculturalnorms Anumber of tries than children witheasiertemperaments, punishmentismore frequent anduseofcorporal incoun- with childage, children withmore diffi of disciplinethandofathers, useofreasoningpunishmentdecreases increases anduseofcorporal punishmentthangirls, more corporal usemore offorms generally experience mothers ofavariety temperament, Whenmaineffectsare found, are andculture amongthesefactors. orcountry boys ate linksbetween parents’ disciplineandchildren’sChild gender, adjustment. parent gender, childage, have onparents’ ofways useofdifferent typesofdisciplineandinterms inwhichthey mightmoder- and defi punishmentisrelated tothedevelopmentcorporal ofchildren’s processingbiases socialinformation emotional pathways involving theways children perceive andrespond tootherpeople. For example, Linksbetween parental discipline and childbehavior are oftenindirect ormediatedby cognitive and children’s perceptions oftheirparents asrejecting them( the linkbetweenpunishmentandchildren’s corporal maladjustmentwas psychological mediatedby ceptions oftheirparents andthe parent–child relationship. For example, inalow-income U.S. sample, reasoning andchildren’s prosocialbehavior ( Thedevelopmentactions onothers. ofchildren’s empathy mediatestheassociationbetween inductive empathy, asitpromotestaking other people’s theeffectsofone’s perspectives tounderstand andtrying aggression, andperceptions ofparents asbeinghostileandrejecting, inductive reasoning islinked to how theirparents feelaboutthem. affects children’s development thatdisciplineconveys operates through information tochildren about direct effectsonchildren’s behavioral adjustment, andpsychological but thattheway thatdiscipline hostility ( pline andchildren’s were anxietyandaggression mediated by children’s perceptions oftheirmothers’ India, thePhilippines, andThailand, verbal thelinksbetweenpunishmentandharsh disci- corporal and toevaluate more aggression positively ( ishment are alsomore likely asapossibleway toaccessaggression torespond inagiven socialsituation likely torespond aggressively ( even inbenignorambiguoussocial situations; children whomakeare thenmore hostileattributions ral punishmentincreases thelikelihood thatchildren willbelieve actedwith hostileintent, thatothers Cultural differences in discipline may arise not only in frequency of using particular strategies and Culturaldifferencesstrategies notonlyinfrequency indisciplinemay ofusingparticular arise To summarize, have ofmaineffectsthey anumber offactors may beenexaminedbothinterms Linksbetween ofdisciplineandchildoutcomesalsoare mediatedby different forms children’s per- In contrast to corporal punishment, Incontrasttocorporal whichislinked tohostileattributions, positive evaluations of cits, predict aggressive whichinturn behavior ( Lansford, Malone, etal., 2010 ParentalMediators andChildBehavior Links of Between Discipline de Guzman, Edwards,Carlo, and 2005 Dodge and Coie,Dodge and 1987 Parenting andChildDiscipline ). Thus, ofdisciplinehave itmay notbesimplythatsomeforms Hastings, Utendale, andSullivan, 2007 ofdiscipline forms harsher cult temperamentsexperience Weiss etal., 1992 Krevans andGibbs, 1996 79 ). Children pun- whohave corporal experienced ). Weiss,Dodge, Bates, andPettit, 1992 Rohner etal., 1996 ). Inthesecontexts, prosocialbehavior is ). ). Experiencing power-assertive). Experiencing ). In a sample from China, ). Inasamplefrom ). ). Corpo- t Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 comes, withrespect tomoralbehavior particularly ( country to outlaw all forms of corporal punishment, but intermediary legal reforms occurred for punishment, occurred ofcorporal legalreforms tooutlawcountry allforms but intermediary ( childhood,discipline during however, isrelated tolessempathy inchildhoodaswell asadulthood of Children, 201 punishment(see to outlawto legislation corporal parents’ useofnonpunitive ofdiscipline( forms vention have efforts toways turned toeliminateparents’ punishmentandpromote useofcorporal decrees thatitisaviolationofchildren’s ( rights Rodriguez, 2010 ment ratherthanaqualitative difference betweenpunishment andphysical abuse corporal ( agendathrough2030( Nations GeneralAssemblytoguidetheinternational in TargetDevelopment 16.2oftheSustainable Goals, whichwere adoptedin2015by theUnited circles, ininternational ofviolenceagainstchildren continues including tobeprioritized all forms Children, Punishmentof 201 Corporal Initiative toEndAll thathavegrowth inthenumber of countries punishment( outlawed ofcorporal allforms reviews ofhow withrespect fare well tochildprotectionhave countries toexponential contributed toprotectionthatallpeople,disrespectful andaviolationoftheright regardless ofage, have. Periodic it isrelated punishmentis toworse childoutcomesbut isalsounacceptablebecauseusingcorporal perspective,a humanrights because punishmentisnotjustaninadvisabledisciplinestrategy corporal ofabuse andexploitationhasbeen ratifi forms children’sChild (CRC)asserts Convention toprotectionfromall right ontheRightsof Nations interventions designedtoenhanceparenting, thereby improving childoutcomes.The1989United policiesrelated Research tochildprotectionandin onparental disciplinehasbeenusedtoinform consequences inconfl of children’s conscienceisassociatedwiththeirmothers’ references or toemotionsratherthanrules capacity toinhibitprohibitedbehavior andbehave prosocially( the extenttowhichchildren feelguiltandanxietyassociatedwithmisbehaving, aswell as children’s Deater-Deckard, 2012 punishment ( formore severe factor punishmentare ofcorporal arisk ofcorporal forms Milderforms injuries. such aswhethertheactleaves ormarksthatlastmore orresults than24hours inpainbut bruises not States, punishmentfromphysical where abuse lawstodistinguishcorporal by try references tofactors stillallowpunishment.For example, corporal countries punishmentislegalintheUnited corporal their parents’ rejection orhostilityaswell asthedevelopment ofempathy andconscience. increase futureturn aggressive behavior. Socioemotionalpathways involve children’s perceptions of poral punishmentincreases thelikelihood ofchildren’s processingbiases, socialinformation whichin ofcognitivesuggests theimportance Cognitively, andsocioemotionalpathways. cor- experiencing ment ( are more likely torefer tomoralevaluations andemotions, predict consciencedevelop- whichinturn attached totheirmothers, discussionsofsituationsinwhichchildren have misbehaved orbehaved well Lopez, Bonenberger, andSchneider, 2001 Thedevelopment ofconsciencealsomediatesthelinkbetween parents’ disciplineandchildout- Inmany countries, evolves legislation over time. For example, in1979Sweden becamethefi punishment( continue tousecorporal ofparents insomecountries Themajority Despite the legal bans against corporal punishment in 54 countries asofOctober2018, punishmentin54countries Despitethelegalbansagainstcorporal many Taken together, research onmechanismsthroughwhichparental disciplineaffectschildoutcomes Laible andThompson, 2000 Lansford, Wager, Bates, Pettit,Dodge, and 2012 ). 8). Information AboutPractical Parental Discipline ict episodes( ), despitescientifi ). Laible andThompson, 2002 c evidence effectsandinternational regarding its detrimental Jennifer E. Lansford ). Britto, Ponguta, Reyes, andKarnati, 2015 Gershoff, 2013 80 ed by all countries excepttheUnitedStates.From ed by allcountries Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment Corporal Global Initiative toEndAll Kochanska, 1993 8). Child protectionthroughpreventing 8). ), treat- suggestingacontinuum ofharsh ). Therefore, inter- many international Kochanska, 1993 ). Whenpreschoolersare securely ). Parents’ disciplinecanshape United Nations, 2017 ). Thedevelopment Lansford and ), inaddition Russa and Global rst rst ). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 1- to3-year-olds ( tive asopposedtocommands, expressions ofdisapproval, physical obstruction, in)with orgiving (operationalized asusingdistraction, inductive reasoning, thechild’s tounderstand ortrying perspec- toimprovein arandomizedcontrolledtrial mothers’ attitudesaboutanduse ofsensitive discipline Intervention topromotePositive Parenting andSensitiveDiscipline (VIPP-SD)was demonstrated effects of corporal punishmentshowedeffects ofcorporal adeclineinpositive punishment; attitudesaboutcorporal the ofscientifi thatreadassigned toanintervention summaries group but lessintensive interventions alsohave beenfoundtobebenefi behaviorof children problems, withexternalizing involving each, sixin-homesessionsof1.5hours needs of individual families ( needs ofindividual families tive managementstrategies, disciplineandfamily canbemodifi andtheprogram Forgatch, Patterson,DeGarmo, andBeldavs, 2009 coercive parenting andchildren’s antisocialbehavior, (e.g., randomizedcontrolledtrials usingrigorous printsprograms.com ventions have shown promiseinimproving parental disciplineandchildoutcomes(see more effectively potentialforreducing heldthegreatest children’s antisocialbehavior. Several inter- escalate over time, responses thatthenleadtoworse ofreciprocaldisciplinary childbehavior transactionsthat in a series improve coercive childoutcomes.Indescribing cyclesinwhichchildren’s misbehavior leadstoharsh from attendingtoreasons motivating itsuse. ( ment whenstudentswere exposed tothebiblicalreinterpretationplusresearch-based intervention punish- reductionofcorporal foundthegreatest inendorsement or ano-intervention controlgroup “spare(which offered therod, aprogressive reinterpretationofthe spoilthechild” biblicalpassages), fi university toaresearch-basedChristian interventiondents ataconservative (whichpresented research ishment ( the law was passed, more than90%oftheSwedish populationwas aware pun- ofthebanoncorporal atraisingpublicawareness Efforts announcements onmilkcartons). were successful, asone year after cases.Whenthelegalbanwasin disciplinary passed, thenews was widelypublicized(e.g., with removalCode thatexempted parents in1957ofthesectionPenalfromphysical assaultcharges decades prior totheban( decades prior religious groups ( groups religious Song, 2017 punishmentamongconservative ( ing corporal groups Protestantreligious “spare therod, punishmentaddresses the ofcorporal spoilthechild” toeliminat- priateness barrier Deater-Deckard,ford and 2012 properly, suggestingthatbeliefsaboutdiscipline donotalignperfectlywithdisciplinebehaviors ( punishment torear punishmentthanbelieve children tousecorporal use corporal thatitisnecessary might beimportant, but itislikely notsuffi ability andeffectiveness ( reduce oreliminateparents’ theirbeliefsaboutitsaccept- punishmentby changing useofcorporal as beingmore normative andaccepted( being more normative andaccepted, aswell asby whoperceive parents withinaculturalgroup it protection ofchildren’s ( rights ndings aboutthenegative punishment), effectsofcorporal abiblicalreinterpretationintervention Perrin etal.,Perrin 2017 Parent ManagementTraining thathasbeenfoundtodecrease isanexampleofaprogram both Ultimately, goalofparenting interventions animportant focusedonparental disciplineisto Anexampleofanintervention thathasattemptedtochangebeliefsaboutthenecessityandappro- punishmentisusedmore where frequently itisperceived Becausecorporal inculturalgroups as Ziegert, 1983 ). Conservative Protestantshave). punishmentthanother beenfoundtousemore corporal Gershoff, Miller, andHolden, 1999 Van Zeijletal., 2006 ). Thisresearch punishmentwillbenefi suggeststhatattemptstoreduce corporal Patterson (1982 for a summary). forasummary). ). Sincethattime, legalrefi Chavis etal., 2013 Durrant and Janson, and 2005 Durrant Forgatch,DeGarmo, andBeldavs, 2005 Durrant and Janson, and 2005 Durrant ). ) arguedthattrainingparents inhow todisciplinetheirchildren Parenting andChildDiscipline ). The VIPP-SD is a fairly intensive). TheVIPP-SDisafairly intervention forfamilies Lansford etal., 2014 cient becauseinadiverse rangeofcountries, more parents ; Lansford andBornstein, 2007 nements have continued toreaffi 81 ). Parents of3-to16-year-oldsabouteffec- learn ). Anintervention thatrandomlyassignedstu- ). One notable intermediary reform was reform the ). Onenotableintermediary ). ), someinterventions have attemptedto ofparents randomly cial. Agroup c fi c ). Similarly, theVideofeedback ndings regarding the negative ). Changing parents’Changing beliefs ). Perrin, Miller-Perrin, and rm andextendthe rm ed tomeet the www.blue- Lans- t Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 use more proactive punishment. andinductive tocorporal ofdiscipline ratherthanresorting forms thathavecountries notoutlawed punishment, corporal parenting interventions oftenattempttohelpparents make parents aware ofthelegalbanandadvisethemabout alternate, effective of discipline. Even forms in punishmentcontinues togrow.corporal Ideally, legalbansare accompaniedby educationalcampaignsto thathaveChild. Thenumber ofcountries Convention outlawed erated following ontheRightsof the interactions andoffersuggestionsforchanges( with theirown whocanprovide childinthepresence ofatrainedfacilitator feedbackonparent–child attitudes but alsobehaviors andifthey give forpracticingwhatthey parents learned opportunities ventions attemptingtoalterparents’ disciplineare mosteffective ifthey targetnotonlybeliefsand Japan, Kosovo, Mongolia, Palestine, Paraguay, Philippines, theSolomonIslands, andVenezuela.to decrease punitive Inter- parenting inarangeofcontexts:Canada, Australia, Gambia, Georgia, Guatemala, in Everyday Parenting hasbeenadaptedforusein13countries, Program providing insightsintoways discipline suchasinductive reasoning (e.g., 2014 control group’s attitudesdidnotchangeover time( between parental disciplineandchildren’s development. otherbrainmechanismsthatare thepotentialtounderstand implicatedinlinks neuroscience offers oftoxic andfunction. Future effectsonbrainstructure work stressment isaform withharmful in punishment.Therefore,also isaffectedby corporal other mentalhealthproblems ( pitu to productionandhasbeen demonstratedtoaffectthebrainthroughhypothalamic– cortisol punishmentisrelated Corporal standing ofways inwhichparental disciplineaffectschildoutcomes. for whom, aftertakingintoaccount children’s propensityforproblembehaviors. tal disciplineandchildren’s ofdisciplineare mosteffective whatforms outcomestounderstand and 2004 through inductive reasoning by explaininghow otherpeople(see hurts aggression sion but ratherthatmore aggressive children elicitmore parental attemptstoaddress theaggression aggression, thelikely causaldirection isnotfromparents’ inductive reasoning tochildren’s aggres- specifi and Johnson, 2004 in statisticalanalysesofrelations between parental disciplineandchildadjustment( kinds ofdisciplinethandochildren whoare well behaved, childeffectsshouldbewell accountedfor Because children withbehavior andlessconsistentdisciplinemore problemselicitharsher ofall First, additional research childeffectsinrelation isneededtohelpunderstand parental discipline. especially neededinthree key areas: childeffects, neuroscience, andgene × environment interactions. different typesofdiscipline, andconsequencesofexperiencing tors andresearch future theory are studiesofpredic- oftheoretical modelsofparental Despitethelonghistory disciplineandempirical not chronically corporally punishedwhenthey werenot chronicallycorporally children ( punishmentwithanobjectatleastonetimeayearand corporal compared toyoung adultswho were punishmentatleastonetimeamonth corporal thataschildrenadults whoreported they experienced executive functions, hasbeen found foryoung suchasmakingdecisions)intheprefrontal cortex inprocessingemotionsandhigher-level elementsofthebrain thatare important matter (structural stress disorder ( To punishmenthave ofcorporal summarize, toprotectchildren accel- fromallforms efforts international Second, neuroscienceisaburgeoning area of research withthepotentialforadvancing under- itary–adrenal (HPA)itary–adrenal axis(Bugental, Martorell, andBarraza, 2003; ). Otherinterventions focusonpromotingsensitive, responsive caregiving andpositive of forms ). Future research transactionalrelations isneededtounderstand between ofparen- diverse forms ed andcounterintuitive. For example, ifinductive reasoningtoberelated appears tomore child Bremner etal., 1997 ). Unlessways thatchildren affecttheirparents are considered, modelscanbemis- Future DirectionsinResearch onParental Discipline Gershoff, 2016 ), depression ( Jennifer E. Lansford Durrant etal.,Durrant 2017 ) are affectedby thearea that oftheprefrontal cortex UNICEF, 2017 82 Fitzgerald, Laird, Maller,Daskalakis, and 2008 Gershoff (2016 Gershoff Holden, Brown,Caderao,Croft Baldwin, and ). ). For example, thePositiveDiscipline Tomoda etal., 2009 ) has argued that corporal punish- ) hasarguedthatcorporal Kohrt etal., 2014 ). Post-traumatic Larzelere, Kuhn, Larzelere etal., ). Lessgray ), and Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 related toparental disciplineonchildoutcomes. respectively), aswell astheextenttowhichgenes canmoderateeffectsofenvironmental experiences parents’ toward aggression thechildandchildren’s toward aggression inthetwo peers generations, thatarecan beaccountedforbytransmittedgeneticallyfromparent tochild(manifestedas factors to whichassociationsbetween parents’ impulsive, disciplineandchildren’s harsh behavior problems et al., 2013 children’s susceptibilitytomothers’ positive discipline, whichincreases children’s compliance( dren’s geneticallyinfl shaped by parents’ ( genotypeandenvironmental factors Meta-analyses ofstudieswithgeneticallyinformative designshave demonstratedthatparenting is positive, noncoercive disciplineaswell aslesspunitive, coercive discipline( and shared environmental tolinksbetween effectscontribute children’s prosocialbehavior andmore child outcomes.Studiesusinggeneticallysensitive twindesignshave demonstratedthatbothgenetic toknowledgeto contribute regarding oflinksbetween additional moderators parental disciplineand International Center grant RO3-TW008141.Center grant International Development RO1-HD054805Child HealthandHuman grant andFogarty National Instituteof Lansford’s ofresearch program onparental disciplinehasbeenfundedby theEuniceKennedy Shriver well-functioning oftheir respective members societies. use ofnonpunitive, effective ofdisciplinetoprotectchildren whilesocializingthemtobecome forms toadvanceimportant scientifi throughinductiveare supported and research reasoning. Theory onparental disciplineare timelyand disciplineaswellties thatcanstemfromharsh asempathy andthedevelopment ofconsciencethat links between parental disciplineandchildoutcomesincludecognitive biasesandemotionalinsecuri- the benefi comes includechildgender, childage, temperament, andculture, but the generalfi child outcomes.Potential ofdisciplineandchildout- oflinksbetween forms moderators particular punishmentinpredicting arangeofproblematic ofcorporal prosocial behavior andthedetriments work demonstratesthebenefi ment. Alargebodyofempirical children how theirbehavior affectsotherpeople, andpower assertion, punish- corporal particularly ofdisciplineincludeinductivemost frequently studiedforms reasoning, inwhichparents discusswith specifi “control” ofthedimensionparenting,“warmth”as part dimension; tothe whichisorthogonal guidingthestudyofparental disciplineoftentreat discipline Theories rootsinbehaviorism. torical Theideathatparents canuserewards andpunishmentstoshapechildren’s behavior stemsfromhis- links between the experience of particular types ofdisciplineandchildren’s ofparticular links between theexperience adjustment. interactions willprovide advance may how animportant inunderstanding moderate geneticfactors of disciplineare related andfunction.Finally, tobrainstructure future researchenvironment ongene × will maketechnology itpossibleforfuture research toadvance ofhow understanding different forms adjustment reciprocally infl how parentalporating childeffectsintotransactionalmodelsdescribing disciplineandchildren’s To summarize, studieswillbenefi future theoretical approachesandempirical Third, future andgene×environment research interactionshasthepotential ongeneticfactors ofdisciplineare parenting practicesthatarec forms contextualizedby parenting styles.The punishmentarets ofinductive of robust. Mediators ofcorporal reasoning anddetriments ). Future geneticallyinformative research thepotentialtodisentangleextent offers uenced behaviors ( uence oneanotherover time. Inaddition, rapidadvances inneuroimaging aswellc understanding aspoliciesand practicestooptimizeparents’ Parenting andChildDiscipline Acknowledgments Avinun andKnafo, 2014 Conclusions 83 Klahr andBurt, 2014 ts ofinductive reasoning inpromoting ). Specifi to c genotypescontribute Knafo andPlomin, 2006 ), aswell asby chil- t fromfullyincor- ndings regarding ndings Kok ). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:38 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780429401695, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429401695-3 Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns ofparental authority. patterns Baumrind,Current D. (1971). Bugental,D. B., Martorell, G. A., andBarraza, V. maltreat- ofinfant costsofsubtleforms (2003).Thehormonal Bornstein, M.H., Putnick,D. L., Lansford,J. E., Pastorelli,C., Skinner, A.T., Sorbring, E., .Oburu, P. (2015). 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