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River Response to Land Clearing and Landscape Salinisation in Southwestern Australia

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River Response to Land Clearing and Landscape Salinisation in Southwestern Australia RIVER RESPONSE TO LAND CLEARING AND LANDSCAPE SALINISATION IN SOUTHWESTERN AUSTRALIA John Nikolaus Callow B.SC (HONS) GEOGRAPHY THIS THESIS IS PRESENTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA SCHOOL OF EARTH AND GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCES & SCHOOL FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING PERTH, AUSTRALIA. APRIL 2007 Declaration Candidate Declaration The research presented in this thesis was conducted by the candidate and remains original unless otherwise acknowledged. The candidate was lead author and presenter for all published articles and conference presentations associated with this research. K.R.J. Smettem provided advice on analysis methods and editorial review of the paper by Callow and Smettem (2007), and on the structure and scope of conference presentation and editorial review of conference abstracts (Callow and Smettem, 2004; Callow and Smettem, 2006). In the article by Callow, Van Niel and Boggs (2007), K. Van Niel provided advice on analysis methods, literature and editorial review, and G.S. Boggs provided advice on analysis methods and editorial review of the paper. Related work includes: Callow, J.N. and Smettem, K.R.J., 2007. Channel response to a new hydrological regime in southwestern Australia. Geomorphology, 84(3-4): 254-276. Callow, J.N., Van Niel, K. and Boggs, G.S., 2007. How does modifying a DEM to reflect known hydrology affect subsequent terrain analysis? Journal of Hydrology, 332(1-2): 30-39. Callow, J.N., and Smettem, K.R.J., 2006. Variable channel responses following land clearing of a dryland catchment, Dalyup River, southwestern Australia, European Geophysical Union General Assembly, Vienna, Austria. Callow, J.N., and Smettem, K.R.J., 2004. Channel response to a new hydrological equilibrium in southern Western Australia, Joint International Geomorphology Conference, Glasgow, Scotland. Secondary authors give their permission for published material to appear in this thesis. © Copyright J.N. Callow 2007. This thesis may not be copied in whole or in part by any process without the prior written permission of the author. ~ iii ~ Abstract Abstract Land clearing is known to increase runoff, and in many dryland landscapes is also associated with rising saline watertables, causing increased stream salinity and degrading riparian vegetation. The limited understanding of how river morphology responds to these changes and the potential for vegetation-based strategies to offer river management options under these conditions, has prompted this research. In southwestern Australia the severity of salinity and recent nature of land clearing provides an appropriate setting to investigate river response. A data-based, multidisciplinary methodology was applied to determine how land clearing and landscape salinisation has altered landscape sensitivity through changes in erosive potential, system connectivity and material threshold mechanisms, and how these affect patterns of river response. The study investigated the responses of morphologically similar reaches across fifty two study sites in the Kent River and Dalyup River catchments, in the south coastal rivers region of Western Australia. Land clearing was found to have significantly altered the hydrologic regime and erosive potential in both frequency and magnitude, with flow becoming more perennial, and increased annual discharge, flood peaks and bankfull flow frequency. While sediment transport rates have also increased since land clearing, they remain low on a global scale. Human response to a reduced rainfall regime and related water security pressures has caused large hillslope areas to be decoupled from the main channels by bank and farm dam construction, and have reduced downstream transmission of change. Tools for representing known hydrologic pathways in a landscape using Digital Elevation Models are found to have limitations, particularly when replication of hydrology is required prior to subsequent terrain analyses. Increased stream salinity has resulted in severe vegetation degradation, lowering erosive thresholds. Landscape gradient is, however, found to have a stronger control on changes in erosive potential than vegetation degradation. A reach-based geomorphic classification based on the RiverStyles® Framework was successfully applied across the eleven river styles found in the two study catchments. The severity of response was determined by channel gradient, erosivity of material surrounding the channel (bedrock, clay or sand), upstream sediment supply, and the degree of vegetation degradation (itself depending on factors such as salinity, valley width and the arrangement of the geomorphic units that affect micro topography across rivers). While many upper catchment areas have experienced severe vegetation degradation since land clearing occurred five decades ago, there has been little morphological response due to the low channel gradients and the resistivity of the clay valley fill material that underlies the ~ v ~ Abstract channels. By contrast, steeper-sloped mid-catchment areas with minimal vegetation degradation caused by salinity are associated with higher erosive potential. A more erosive response is observed in these reaches where floodplains have been cleared for agricultural purposes. A conceptual model of vegetation growth across the salinity gradient observed in the study catchments was developed, and applied to selected river styles to assess the potential that vegetation-based strategies offer for river management. This work identifies the unsuitability of river restoration strategies, but the potential for river restoration or remediation in a saline landscape. Hydraulic modelling demonstrated that river rehabilitation strategies such as improving the vegetation condition of the riparian buffer using native or commercial species on areas elevated above saline flow can stabilise reaches. For river styles in wide and flat valleys, there is limited potential for vegetation-based river rehabilitation under the current salinity gradient. Field observation and modelling suggest that river remediation may offer geomorphic management options in salt-affected reaches through channelisation to lower watertables, and further research on this is warranted. This work found a consistent response for river styles across the two study catchments. Based on the understanding of river response and the potential for vegetation-based river management for each style, this research offers a regional-scale tool for river management in a saline landscape. ~ vi ~ Acknowledgements Acknowledgements I have been privileged to have had the opportunity to undertake this research. Completion of this project would not have been possible without the financial, field and personal assistance of a great number of people. To the many who have assisted me, but space prevents me from specifically thanking, I remain indebted to you for your contribution to this research. Field work was supported by postgraduate student funding from the School of Earth and Geographic Sciences and School of Environmental Systems Engineering (formerly the Centre for Water Research). Small grants and scholarships from the Department of Environment, Ernest Jackson Memorial Grant from the River Basin Management Society, and Mary Janet Lindsay of Yanchep Memorial Grant from the Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences (UWA) contributed towards more extensive field work. The Mary Janet Lindsay of Yanchep Memorial Grant and postgraduate travel grant from the Australian Institute of Geographers assisted in travel to present aspects of this research at two international conferences. Particular thanks go to Lucy Sheehy and Brad Palmer who assisted with collection of field data. Steve Janicke and Nigel Brodie are thanked for their help with the repeat photography survey. Offices from the Department of Environment (Albany), Agriculture Western Australia (Esperance) and the Salinity and Land Use Impacts Branch of the Department of Environment (Perth) are thanked for data, advice and extensive field knowledge they generously shared. Landowners are thanked for permission to access waterways, for their interest in this research and sharing their own observations and knowledge of landscape change. The editorial advice and assistance of John Dunlop, Lucy Sheehy, Shan Callow, and my supervisors Associate Professor Keith Smettem, Dr Kimberly Van Niel and Dr Guy Boggs greatly improved the quality and clarity of this thesis. I have benefited greatly from their ideas, suggestions and varied background that my supervisors have contributed to this research, and the independence they have allowed me in exploring these rivers. I sincerely hope that this research marks the beginning of a research career which these people will be an important part of. To the fellow Geographers who have shared the PhD experience with me on a personal and social basis, I thank all of you for making the journey one that was enjoyable, entertaining and more rounded. Without the companionship and support of Lucy Sheehy, this research would not have been possible. ~ vii ~ Table of Contents Table of Contents Candidate Declaration..................................................................................................iii Abstract ...........................................................................................................v Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................vii Table of Contents .........................................................................................................ix
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