Why Regional Parties?: Clientelism, Elites, and the Indian Party System Adam Ziegfeld Index More Information

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Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-11868-3 - Why Regional Parties?: Clientelism, Elites, and the Indian Party System Adam Ziegfeld Index More information

Index

2014 election (India) Argentina Bharatiya Janata Party and, electoral success clientelism in, 120 of, 189–90 Peronist Party in, 68 coalition era after, durability of, 188–9 regional parties in, 11, 33 regional parties after, 189–90 Asom Gana Parishad (AGP), 38, 40 SPM government following, 187–90 as opportunistic faction, 230 regional support for, 94 Aam Aadmi Party (AAP), 31, 48–9 Assam (state) programmatic politics and, 89–90 opportunistic factions in, 223–4 African party systems, 19 regional parties in, 98, 180, 214 agrarian national parties. See Janata Dal Australia, regional parties in, 33 Akali Dal. See Shiromani Akali Dal autonomist parties. See regionalist parties All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), 38–9, 182 backward caste. See Other Backward Classes Tamil Maanila Congress (Moopanar) and, Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), 20, 31, 48, 161 107 clientelistic strategies of, 63 All India Communist Party, 161–2 electoral success of, 180 All India Forward Bloc (AIFB), 44–5, 163 programmatic politics and, 88–9 All India Indira Congress (Tiwari), Scheduled Caste voters and, 87 43, 177 Bandhopadhyay, Debabrata, 110 All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen Banerjee, Mamata, 186–7 (AIMIM), 25, 47 Bangla Congress (BAC), 43, 162, 186–7 All India N. R. Congress (AINRC), 49 Berhampore, 110–11 All India Trinamool Congress (AITC), 43, 199, bhadralok castes, 247–8, 250 233 Bhajan Lal. See Haryana Janhit Congress All India United Democratic Front (AUDF), Bharati, Uma, 161–2 47–8 Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS), 157, 165, 222–4 Andhra Pradesh (state) Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), 20 ideological factions in, 218–21, 227–8 clientelistic strategies of, 63, 86–7 regional parties in, 214 electoral strike rate of, 188–9 Anti-Defection Law, 153, 193–4 under Modi leadership, 1 Anushilan Samiti, 108–9 as opportunistic faction, 229–33 Apna Dal (AD), 47–8 organization of, 165

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© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-11868-3 - Why Regional Parties?: Clientelism, Elites, and the Indian Party System Adam Ziegfeld Index More information

278 Index

Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) (cont.) clientelism programmatic politics and, 88–9 African party systems influenced by, 19 2014 election and, electoral success of, alternative hypotheses to, 137–42 189–90 in Argentina, 120 vote winning by, 86 assumptions about, 119–21 Bharatiya Janshakti Party (BJSP), 161–2, 233 Bahujan Samaj Party and, 63 Bharatiya Kranti Dal (BKD), 229–33 benefits to voters under, 59–60 Bharipa Bahujan Mahasangh (BBM), 47–8 Bharatiya Janata Party and, 63, 86–7 Bhati, Devi Singh, 104–5. See also Rajasthan in Brazil, 245–6 Samajik Nyaya Manch contingent exchange of goods and services, Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali, 252 54 Bihar (state) cross-national data on, 82–3 opportunistic factions in, 221–4 decentralized vote-winning and, 115, 121–3 regional parties in, 214–15 defined, 14–15, 52–6 Biju Janata Dal (BJD), 41 democracy and, 4, 15 Binner, Hermes, 33 Democratic Accountability and Linkages Bodoland People’s Front (BPF), 49 Project (DALP) data, 82–3 Brazil distribution of goods and, 53 clientelism in, 245–6 elites and, 75–8, 207 Law 9096 in, 245–6 ethnographic accounts of, 121 party system in, 245–6 face-to-face transactions as part of, 115 party-switching in, 246 as fixed political feature, 120–1 political elites in, 245–6 incumbency and, 81 regional parties in, 7, 245–6 in India, 80–3 Indian National Election Study (INES), 82–5 cartel parties, 122 institutions and, 129, 137–9 castes in Italy, 54–5 bhadralok, 247–8, 250 national parties and, 115–31 EBCs, 42 in Pakistan, 252 Ezhavas, 248–9 party types, 64–5 Kshatriya Mahasabha, 155–7 permissive institutions and, 142 Kutch Rajput Sabha, 155–7 personalistic appeals in, 55–6 OBCs, 41–2, 93, 200–2, 241–2 political exchange involving, 63–4 politicization of, 200–2 programmatic politics compared to, 53 Rajput, 104–5 regional parties and, 4, 14–16, 58–71, regional parties supported by, 40, 42, 200–2, 115–31, 142, 145–50 241–2 state capacity and, 53 Scheduled Castes, 40, 87, 190, 248–9 as vote-winning strategy, 54–5 Tamil Maanila Congress (Moopanar) and, 108 clientelistic democracies, 4, 15, 56–7. See also Telugu Naickers, 102–3 India causality, direction of, 177–81 alternative hypotheses for explaining, centralization, of government 137–42 fiscal, 74 likelihood of benefits to voters in, 61–4 horizontal, 12, 138 national parties in, 69–71 Chakraborty, Manoj, 110–11 party success in, 65–7 Chaudhuri, Tribid, 109–11 party systems in, 72–3 Chota Nagpur Santhal Parganas Janata Party party type and, 67 (CNSPJP), 156 political exchange and, 63–4 Chiranjeevi, 42–8 regional parties in, 69–71, 133–4 Chowdhury, Adhir Ranjan, 110–11 voter benefits in, 59–60 Chowdhury, Saifuddin, 161–2 voter indifference in, 69–71 Christian democratic parties, 77 voter preferences in, 58–9, 69–71

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coalition governments. See also single-party contested elections majority governments cross-regional laws for, 139 benefits to politicians under, 181–4 in India, absence of cross-regional rules for, causality and, 177–81 153 Council of Ministers in, 182 by political factions, 209–10 durability of, 188–9 Council of Ministers, 182 elite behavior in, 184–7 Country Liberal Party, 33 increased support for regional parties under, cross-regional contestation laws, 139 182–3 in India, 175–9 Dalal, Karan Singh, 81 Janata Dal in, 176 Dange, S. A., 161–2 during 1990s, 173–5 decentralization, of government as political shift, 170–1 constitutional amendments and, 191 President’s Rule under, 183–4 fiscal, 117–18, 138, 152, 191–3 regional parties and, 171–3, 181–4 horizontal, 117–18, 138 regional party success and, 17 in India, 152 regionalist parties and, 184–5 party system nationalization influenced by, seat-sharing agreements and, 180–1 12–13 Colombia, regional parties in, 33 political, 137 communist parties, 77, 247–50. See also Left regional parties as result of, 190–1 parties decentralized vote-winning organizational advantages of, 248–50 clientelism and, 121–3 political elites and, 247–8 in India, 154–6 Scheduled Castes and, 248–9 programmatic politics and, 122–3 Communist Party of India (CPI), 31, 44–5 decentralized voting, 115 electoral mobilization by, 165 democracy. See also clientelistic democracies; electoral success of, 158, 174 programmatic democracies as ideological faction, 220–1, 226–7 clientelism and, 4, 15 splintering of, 161–2 in India, overview of, 254–5 VFI scores of, 161 internal party, 126, 215 Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPM), political accountability and, 6 24–5, 31 political factions in beginning stages of, electoral success of, 158, 174 208–9 organization of, 126 Democratic Accountability and Linkages VFI scores for, 161 Project (DALP), 82–3 Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Desai, Morarji, 182 (Liberation) (CPI(ML)(L)), 44–5 Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam concentrated minorities, 140 (DMDK), 42–8 concentration of power dismissal of state governments. See President’s horizontal centralization and, 12 Rule party system nationalization influenced by, distribution of goods, 53 12–13 Downs, Anthony, 58 Concurrent List, 190 Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), 38–9, confessional parties, 57, 76–7 101–2, 185 Congress. See Indian National Congress as ideological faction, 219–20, 227 Congress (I), 176 Self-Respect Movement and, 165 Congress (O), 43, 159, 175–6, 186–7, 224 Tamil Maanila Congress (Moopanar) as Congress (R), 159, 175–6 political ally, 106–7 Congress (S), 176 Dravidar Kazhagam (DK), 219–20 Congress (U), 43, 159–60, 175–6 Congress Socialist Party (CSP), 221, EBCs. See Extremely Backward Castes 248–9 ECI. See Election Commission of India

280 Index

economic disparity, regional party success and, sustainability of, 212–13 141, 145, 197–200, 207, 238–41 at time of democratization, 208–9 An Economic Theory of Democracy (Downs), variation in sorting patterns across Indian 58 states, 216–24 Election Commission of India (ECI) federalism classification of political parties by, 31–2 in India, 11 Congress (I) recognition by, 176 political decentralization and, 137 Lok Sabha and, 32 fiscal centralization, 74 new parties and, classification of, 184 fiscal decentralization, 117–18, 138, 152, party registration with, 153 191–3 Vidhan Sabha and, 32 fiscal transfers, 39 electoral feudalism, 251 Forward Bloc. See All India Forward Bloc electoral thresholds, 138, 152–3 Fourth Front, 186 elites, political in beginning stages of democracy, 208–9 Ganatantra Parishad, 155–7 in Brazil, 245–6 Gandhi, Indira, 128, 175–6 clientelism and, 75–8, 207 Gandhi, Rajiv, 176, 179 in coalition governments, 184–7 Gandhi Kamaraj Congress (GKC), 43 communist parties and, 247–8 Ghosh, P. C., 157 defined, 57 Gopalasamy, V., 101–3 fiscal centralization and, 74 Telugu Naickers and, 102–3 ideological factions among, 206, 225–8 Gorkha Janmukti Morcha (GJM), 49 ideology of, 72 Gowri Amma, K. R., 161–2 in Japan, 69 Gujarat (state) in national parties, 68–9 opportunistic factions in, 221–4 party systems influenced by, 67–9, 71–6 regional parties in, 214–15 party type influenced by, 67–9, 76–8 Gujarat Parivartan Party (GPP), 161–2, 233 predictions for, 211–14 regional parties and, 4, 16–18, 68–9, 73–5, Haryana (state) 224–30 opportunistic factions in, 223–4 regional party formation and, 207–14 regional parties in, 214–15 sorting patterns for, 215–16, 224–31 Haryana Janhit Congress (Bhajan Lal) in Taiwan, 69 (HJCBL), 44 ethnic party, 9. See also regionalist parties Haryana Lok Dal (Rashtriya) (HLD[R]), 158–9 ethnoregional parties. See regionalist parties Haryana Lok Samiti (HLS), 224 ethnoterritorial parties. See regionalist parties Haryana Vikas Party (HVP), 43, 233 Extremely Backward Castes (EBCs), 42 Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI), 26 Ezhava caste, 248–9 horizontal centralization, 12, 138 horizontal decentralization, 117–18, 138, 152 factionalism. See ideological factionalism factions, political. See also ideological factions; identity, regional opportunistic factions Asom Gana Parishad and, 94 contested elections by, 209–10 electoral success of regional parties and, elites and, 206 236–8 Indian National Congress and, 216–18 in India, 90–100, 196 insurgent, 210–11 voting for regional parties and, 93, 139–40, after organization of political parties, 126–7 145, 195–7 political entrepreneurs in, 210–11 ideological factionalism, between regional predictions for, 211–14 parties, 17–18 regional party formation and, 208–9 ideological factions, 209, 218–21, 227–8 social cleavages and, 216 Communist Party of India, 220–1, 226–7 sorting patterns, for elites in, 215–16, 224–31 Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, 219–20, 227

Index 281

Shiromani Akali Dal, 218–19 Indian National Congress (INC), 1 sustainable, 225–8 declining support of, 200 ideology, political electoral success of, 157 among elites, factions as result of, 206 independence movement and, 217 of elites, 72 political factions and, 216–18 of parties, 57 regional parties splintered from, 42–4, 101, of regional parties, 17–18, 75 186–7, 200 incumbency, clientelism and, 81 in Sholinghur, 107–8 independence movement, 217 Indian National Democratic Congress, 155–7 independent candidates, 46–7 Indian National Election Study (INES), 82–5 India. See also speciﬁc states Indian national legislature. See Lok Sabha Anti-Defection Law in, 153, 193–4 Indian National Lok Dal (INLD), 41 clientelism in, 80–3 Indian People’s Front (IPF), 174 as clientelistic democracy, 80–90, 154–6 Indian state legislatures. See Vidhan Sabha coalition governments in, 175–9 INES. See Indian National Election Study communist parties in, 247–50 Inkatha Freedom Party, 11 Concurrent List in, 190 institutions, political constitutional amendments in, 191 clientelism and, 129, 137–9 cross-regional contestation rules in, 153 data analysis of, 143–4 decentralized vote-winning in, 154–6 in India, 151–3 early years after independence, 175 party systems and, 12–14 ECI in, 31–2, 153 permissive, 116–17, 142 elections in, conventional wisdom on, 254 regional parties and, 116–19, 151–3, 190–5, electoral politics in, research on, 85–9 234–5 electoral thresholds in, 138, 152–3 restrictive, 116 federalism in, 11 insurgent political factions, 210–11 ﬁscal decentralization in, 152 intra-party democracy, 126, 215 horizontal decentralization in, 152 Islamist parties, 250–2 institutional setting in, 151–3 Italy, clientelism in, 54–5 Left parties in, 44–6, 108–9, 185, 247–50 micro-parties in, 49 Jamaat-e-Islami (JI), 250–2 minimum vote-winning threshold in, 152–3 Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam (JUI), 250–2 minority rule in, 175–6 Jammu and Kashmir, regional party voting in, 98 national party formation in, 155–9 Jammu and Kashmir National Conference during 1990s, coalition governments in, (JKNC), 38, 185 173–5 Jammu and Kashmir People’s Democratic Party parliamentary system in, 152–3 (JKPDP), 38 political decentralization in, 152 Jan Morcha, 179 programmatic politics in, 88–9, 254–5 Jana Congress (JAC), 43, 155–7, 162, 186–7, regional identity in, 90–100, 196 229–33 regional party success in, 27–30, 173–5 Jana Sangh. See Bharatiya Jana Sangh regionalist parties in, 37–41 Janata Dal (JD), 41–2, 232–3 Representation of the People Act in, 194 after Anti-Defection Law, 194 SMDs in, 11, 152–3 in coalition governments, 176 SPM government in, 175 disintegration of, 158, 185–6 state boundaries in, changes in, 204 formation of, 41, 179 State List in, 190 splinters of, 41, 174–5 2014 election in, 187–90 Janata Dal (Secular) (JD[S]), 41, 158–9 Union List in, 190 Janata Dal (United) (JD[U]), 41, 158–9 vote percentages for regional parties in, 3, EBC support of, 42 8–9 plural leadership within, 167 voter behavior in, 49, 90–100 Janata Party (JNP), 155–8, 160, 175

282 Index

Janata Party (Secular) (JNP[S]), 175–6 Lok Sabha Janathipathiya Samrakshana Samithy (JSS), ECI criteria for recognition, 32 161–2 success of regional parties in, 2, 100–11 Japan, political elites in, 69 Lok Satta Party (LSP), 89–90 Jayababu, R., 107 Lok Shakti (LS), 158–9 Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM), 38–9 Jharkhand Vikas Morcha (Prajatantrik) Madhya Pradesh (state) (JVM[P]), 42–8 opportunistic factions in, 214–15 Justice Party, 219–20 regional parties in, 214–15 Madhya Pradesh Vikas Congress, 159 Karnataka, regional parties in, 98, 180, 214–15 Maharashtra (state) Karnataka Janatha Paksha (KJP), 233 opportunistic factions in, 223–4 Karunanidhi, M., 103 regional parties in, 214 karyakartas (social workers), 81 Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS), 40 Kejriwal, Arvind, 48–9, 90 Marandi, Babulal, 42–8 Kerala (state) Marathi language, 92 communist parties in, 247–50 Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam economic issues in, voter preferences on, 247 (MDMK), 38–9 formation of state, 248 electoral success of, 101–3 ideological factions in, 218–21 founding of, 101–2 regional parties in, 214 in Perundurai, 103 Kerala Congress (KEC), 43, 49, 162, 186–7 as regionalist party, 101 Kerala Congress (M) (KCM), 43, 49 in Sivakasi, 102–3 Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party (KMPP), 157, as splinter party, 101 221–2 Telugu Naickers and, 102–3 Kriplani, J. B., 157 Marxist-Leninist parties. See Left parties Kshatriya Mahasabha, 155–7 mass parties, 126 Kumar, Nitish, 42 Meena, Kirori Lal, 47–8 Kushwaha, Upendra, 42–8 Mexico, clientelism in, 120 Kutch Rajput Sabha, 155–7 micro-parties, in India, 49 minority governments Lal, Bansi, 43 Congress (O) and, 175–6 Lal, Devi, 229–30 Congress (R) and, 175–6 Law 9096, 245–6 Congress (U) and, 175–6 Left Democratic Front (LDF), 44–5 JNP(S) and, 175–6 Left Front, 1 Modi, Narendra, 1 Left parties, in India, 44–6, 185, 247–50. Moopanar. See Tamil Maanila Congress See also All India Forward Bloc; Moopanar, G. K., 43, 106–7 Communist Party of India (Marxist); Movimiento Nacional, 33 Communist Party of India (Marxist- Munirathinam, A. M., 107. See also Tamil Leninist) (Liberation); Revolutionary Maanila Congress (Moopanar) Socialist Party Musharraf, Pervez, 252 Anushilan Samiti and, 108–9 Muslim League (MUL), 47, 217–32 bhadralok castes and, 247–8, 250 Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal (MMA), 251 Liberal National Party, 33 Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), 38, Nagoke, Udham Singh, 155–7 101–2 National Conference. See Jammu and Kashmir Lijst Pim Fortuyn (LPF), 123 National Conference linguistic fractionalization, 139 national parties. See also Bahujan Samaj Party; Lok Dal (A), 158, 179 Bharatiya Janata Party; Communist Party Lok Dal (B), 158, 179 of India; Indian National Congress; Janata Lok Jan Shakti Party (LJNSP), 41 Dal

Index 283

Aam Aadmi Party, 31, 48–9, 89–90 in Communist Party of India (Marxist), 126 access to power with, 74 costs of, 127–8, 163–7 All India Indira Congress (Tiwari), 43, 177 for national parties, 115, 125–8 Bharatiya Jana Sangh, 157, 165 party coordination issues influenced by, building costs of, 73–4, 115–31 125–7 classification of, 26–7 programmatic politics and, 129–30 clientelism and, 115–31 regional parties as result of, 128, 168–9 in clientelistic democracies, 69–71 socialization, 126–7 coordination of, clientelism as influence on, Other Backward Classes (OBCs), 41–2, 241–2 123–5 politicization of, 200–2 Council of Ministers and, 182 regional party voting among, 93 ECI classifications of, 31–2 Samyukta Socialist Party and, 201 in India, 155–9 Owaisi, Abdul Wahed, 194 indifferent voters and, 69–71 Owaisi, Sultan Salahuddin, 194 intrinsic benefits to voters and, 61 investment in, 115 Pakistan Janata Dal (Secular), 41, 158–9 clientelism in, 252 Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party, 157, 221–2 electoral feudalism in, 251 leadership takeovers within, 166 Islamist parties in, 250–2 organization of, 115, 125–8 sharia law in, 250 organization of, durability as result of, Pakistan Muslim League (Nawaz) (PML-N), 159–63 251–2 political elites in, 68–9 Pakistan Muslim League (Quaid-e-Azam) in programmatic democracies, 124–30 (PML-Q), 251–2 Republican Party of India, 47–8, 224 Pakistan People’s Party (PPP), 251–2 Samajwadi Janata Party, 158–9, 176 Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI), 251–2 Samyukta Socialist Party, 201 parliamentary systems, 152–3 Scheduled Caste Federation, 224 Partido Socialista, 11, 33 Swatantra Party, 155–7 Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS), 161–2 VFI for, 26–7, 160–1 party systems Worker’s Party, 7 in Brazil, 245–6 National Party, 33 in clientelistic democracies, 72–3 National People’s Party (NPEP), 47–8 concentration of power as influence on, national pride, 140 12–13 Nationalist Congress Party (NCP), 43, 159, decentralization as influence on, 12–13 186–7, 233 defined, 57 nativist regionalist parties, 40 elite influence on, 67–9, 71–6 New Frontier Party, 7 formation of, 3–4, 57 non-programmatic politics. See clientelism institutional approach to, 12–14 nationalization of, 12–14, 35–7, 116 OBCs. See Other Backward Classes in Pakistan, 250–2 Odisha (state) presidentialism as influence on, 12–13 opportunistic factions in, 221–4 party type, political regional parties in, 214–15 clientelism and, estimation of benefits opportunistic factions, 210, 221–4 without, 64–5 Asom Gana Parishad, 230 clientelistic democracies and, 67 Bharatiya Janata Party, 228–9 confessional parties, 57, 76–7 Shiv Sena, 230 defined, 57 sustainable, 221–3, 228–9 elites’ influence on, 67–9, 76–8 unsustainable, 223–4, 229–30 intrinsic benefits and, for voters, 60–1 organization, of political parties likelihood of benefit and, for voters, 61–4 for communist parties, 248–50 Paswan, Ram Vilas, 42

284 Index

Patel, Joga Ram, 105–6 voter benefits under, 59–60, 65 Patel, Keshubhai, 161–2 voter preferences and, 58–9 patronage. See clientelism proportional representation (PR) systems, Pattali Makkal Katchi (PMK), 40, 47 118–19 Pawar, Sharad, 186–7 Propuesta Republicana, 33 Peasants and Workers Party (PWP), 224 Puducherry (Union territory), 22 People’s Democratic Front (PDF), 227 Punjab (state) permissive institutions, 116–17, 142 ideological factions in, 218–21 Peronist Party, 68 regional parties in, 214 Perundurai, 103 Puthiya Needhi Katchi (PNK), 107 political decentralization, 137 political elites. See elites, political radical right parties, 77 political entrepreneurs, 210–11 Rajagopalachari, C., 155–7 political factions. See factions, political Rajasthan (state) political institutions. See institutions, political opportunistic factions in, 221–4 political parties. See also party systems; party regional parties in, 214–15 type, political Rajasthan Samajik Nyaya Manch (RSNM) ideology of, 57 electoral success of, 104–6 mass, 126 founding of, 104 registration of, with ECI, 153 as micro-party, 101 types of, 57 Rajput support of, 104–5 political regionalism, 96 Samajik Nyaya Manch and, 104 Polity IV dataset, 27 Rajput caste, 104–5 PR systems. See proportional representation Rajya Sabha, 152 systems Ram Rajya Parishad, 157 Praja Rajyam Party (PRP), 42–8 Rama Rao, N. T., 38–9 Prakasam, T., 157 Ramachandran, M. G., 38–9 presidentialism Ramgarh (Raja), 155–7 African party systems influenced by, Ranga, N. G., 155–7 19 Rangasamy, N., 49 party system nationalization influenced by, Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), 41, 158–9 12–13 Rashtriya Lok Dal (RLD), 41 regional parties and, 118, 138 Rashtriya Lok Samata Party (RLSP), 42–8 President’s Rule, 183–4. See also S. R. Bommai Rashtriya Swayamsewak Sangh (RSS), 105, 165 v. Union of India Reddy, Y. S. Jaganmohan, 44, 233 programmatic democracies, 56 Reddy, Y. S. Rajasekhara, 44 likelihood of benefits in, 61–4 redistributive politics, 52. See also clientelism national parties in, 124–30 regional identity. See identity, regional regional parties in, 130–1, 133–4 regional parties. See also Communist Party of voter benefits in, 59–60 India (Marxist); Dravida Munnetra programmatic politics Kazhagam; Marumalarchi Dravida Aam Aadmi Party and, 89–90 Munnetra Kazhagam; Revolutionary Bahujan Samaj Party and, 88–9 Socialist Party; Tamil Maanila Congress Bharatiya Janata Party and, 88–9 (Moopanar) clientelism compared to, 53 access to power and, 74 decentralized vote-winning and, 122–3 All India Anna Dravida Munnetra defined, 52–6 Kazhagam, 38–9, 107, 182 in India, 88–9, 254–5 All India Forward Bloc, 44–5, 163 Lok Satta Party and, 89–90 All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen, 25, party organization and, 129–30 47 personalistic appeals in, 55–6 All India N. R. Congress, 49 regional parties and, 58–71, 130–1 All India Trinamool Congress, 43, 199, 233

Index 285

All India United Democratic Front, 47–8 Gorkha Janmukti Morcha, 49 alternative hypotheses explaining, 144–5 in Gujarat, 214–15 in Andhra Pradesh, 214 Gujarat Parivartan Party, 161–2, 233 under Anti-Defection Law, 153, 193–4 in Haryana, 214–15 Apna Dal, 47–8 Haryana Janhit Congress (Bhajan Lal), 44 in Argentina, 11, 33 Haryana Lok Dal (Rashtriya), 158–9 Asom Gana Parishad, 38, 40, 94, 230 Haryana Lok Samiti, 224 in Assam, 98, 180, 214 Haryana Vikas Party, 43, 233 in Australia, 33 ideological factions and, 17–18 Bangla Congress, 43, 162, 186–7 independent candidates as, 46–7 Bharipa Bahujan Mahasangh, 47–8 from Indian National Congress, 42–4, 101, in Bihar, 214–15 186–7 Biju Janata Dal, 41 Indian National Democratic Congress, 155–7 Bodoland People’s Front, 49 Indian National Lok Dal, 41 in Brazil, 7, 245–6 indifferent voters and, 69–71 castes’ political support of, 40, 42, 200–2, indigenous groups’ interests and, 40 241–2 institutions’ role in, 116–19, 151–3, 190–5, causality, direction of, 177–81 234–5 Chota Nagpur Santhal Parganas Janata intrinsic benefits for voters and, 61 Party, 156 in Jammu and Kashmir, 98 classification of, 26–7 Jammu and Kashmir National Conference, clientelism and, 4, 14–16, 58–71, 115–31, 38, 185 142, 145–50 Jammu and Kashmir People’s Democratic in clientelistic democracies, 69–71, 133–4 Party, 38 coalition governments and, 17, 171–3, 181–4 Jana Congress, 43, 155–7, 162, 186–7, in Colombia, 33 229–33 Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Janata Dal (Secular), 41, 158–9 (Liberation), 44–5 Janata Dal (United), 41–2, 158–9, 167 constitutional amendments resulting in, 191 Janata Party, 155–8, 160, 175 costs of forming, 73–4 Janathipathiya Samrakshana Samithy, 161–2 Council of Ministers and, 182 Jharkhand Mukti Morcha, 38–9 cross-national variation in success of, 131–7, Jharkhand Vikas Morcha (Prajatantrik), 142–50 42–8 cross-regional contestation laws and, 139 in Karnataka, 98, 180, 214–15 defined, 5, 18, 24–6 Karnataka Janatha Paksha, 233 democratic accountability and, 6 in Kerala, 214 Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam, 42–8 Kerala Congress, 43, 49, 162 ECI classifications of, 31–2 Kerala Congress (M), 43, 49 economic development by state, 198–9 Left parties, 44–6 economic disparity between states and, 141, localized interests and, 6 145, 197–200, 207, 238–41 Lok Jan Shakti Party, 41 electoral success of, 2, 100–11, 168–9, 224–30 Lok Satta Party, 89–90 electoral thresholds and, 138 Lok Shakti, 158–9 elite-centered approach to, 4, 16–18 in Madhya Pradesh, 214–15 elites and, 68–9, 73–5, 207–14, 224–30 in Maharashtra, 214 endogeneity concerns and, 98–100 Maharashtra Navnirman Sena, 40 expansion limitations for, 5–6 measures of success for, 25–6 fiscal decentralization and, 191–3 methodological approach to, 21–2 formation of, 207–14 micro-parties, 49 Ganatantra Parishad, 155–7 national elections impacted by, 6–7 Gandhi Kamaraj Congress, 43 Nationalist Congress Party, 43, 159, global importance of, 7 186–7, 233

286 Index

regional parties. (cont.) Swabhimani Paksha, 42–8 during 1990s, 173–5 in Tamil Nadu, 1, 214 OBCs and, 41–2 Telangana Praja Samithi, 43 in Odisha, 214–15 Telangana Rashtra Samithi, 25, 39, 199 Party of Democratic Socialism, 161–2 Telugu Desam Party, 38–9, 227–8 party organization and, 128, 168–9 trajectory of electoral success of, 214–15, party system nationalization and, 35–7 225 Pattali Makkal Katchi, 40, 47 after 2014 election, political assessment of, Peasant and Workers Party, 224 189–90 political decentralization and, 190–1 Uktal Congress, 43, 159, 162, 186–7 political factions and, 208–9 in Uttar Pradesh, 214–15 political ideology of, 17–18, 75 Uttarakhand Kranti Dal, 39 as political phenomenon, 5–7 VFI for, 26–7 politicians in, 181–4 Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi, 47–8 PR systems and, 118–19 Vishal Haryana Party, 224 Praja Rajyam Party, 42–8 vote percentages for, in India, 3, 8–9 predictors of voting for, 95–100 voters and, 3, 61 presidentialism and, 118, 138 voting for, regional identity as influence on, under President’s Rule, 183–4 93 in programmatic democracies, 130–1, 133–4 in West Bengal, 98, 214 programmatic politics and, 58–71, 130–1 Zamindar Party, 224 in Punjab, 214 regionalist parties. See also specific regionalist Puthiya Needhi Katchi, 107 parties in Rajasthan, 214–15 in coalition governments, 184–5 Rajasthan Samajik Nyaya Manch, 101, defined, 9–10, 32–4, 52 104–6 economic interests of, 11 Ram Rajya Parishad, 157 ethno-cultural interests of, 10–11 Rashtriya Janata Dal, 41, 158–9 fiscal transfers influenced by, 39 Rashtriya Lok Dal, 41 in India, 37–41 Rashtriya Lok Samata Party, 42–8 MDMK, 101 regional identity and, 93, 139–40, 145, name as criteria for, 34 195–7, 236–8 nativist, 40 regional loyalty and, 97, 99 regional parties compared to, 34 regionalist parties compared to, 34 sociological approach to, 9–12 remnants of Janata Dal, 41–2 in Tamil Nadu state, 38–9 under Representation of the People Act, 194 voting for, 91–5 robustness of measures of, 30–1 Representation of the People Act, 194 Samajwadi Party, 41, 158–9 Republican Party of India (RPI), 47–8, 224 Samata Party, 158–9 restrictive institutions, 116 seat-sharing agreements between, 180–1 Revolutionary Socialist Party (RSP), 44–5 Shiromani Akali Dal, 38–40, 168–9, 185, Anushilan Samiti and, 108–9 218–19 in Berhampore, 110–11 Shiv Sena, 38, 40–1, 230 electoral success of, 108–11 Sikkim Democratic Front, 49 founding of, 108–9 in SMDs, 138–9 as Left party, 101 sorting patterns for, across Indian states, organization of, 163 216–24 in South Africa, 11 S. R. Bommai v. Union of India, 183–4 in South Korea, 7 Samajik Nyaya Manch (SNM), 104 subnational variation in success of, Samajwadi Janata Party (SJP), 158–9, 176 238–41 Samajwadi Party (SP), 41, 158–9 success of, by country, 8, 27–30 Samata Party (SAP), 158–9

Index 287

Samyukta Socialist Party (SSP), 201 Taiwan, political elites in, 69 Sangma, P. A., 43, 47–8 Tamil Maanila Congress (Moopanar) Scheduled Caste Federation (SCF), 224 (TMC[M]), 43, 233 Scheduled Castes, 40, 190 All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam Bahujan Samaj Party and, 87 and, 107 communist parties and, 248–9 caste support for, 108 seat-sharing agreements, 180–1 Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam as political Self-Respect Movement, 165 ally, 106–7 sharia law, 250 electoral success of, 106–8 Shekhar, Chandra, 176 founding of, 106–7 Shetty, Raju, 42–8 ideological factions in, 218–21 Shiromani Akali Dal (Mann) (SAD[M]), 174 Indian National Congress and, 101 Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD), 38–9, 168–9, 185 revival of, 101 as ideological faction, 218–19 in Sholinghur, 107–8 Sikh support of, 40 Tamil Nadu (state). See also Marumalarchi Shiromani Gurudwara Parbandhak Committee Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (SGPC), 165–7, 218–19 Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and, 38–9, Shiv Sena (SHS), 38, 40–1, 230 101–2 Sholinghur, 107–8 Perundurai in, 103 Sikhs, 40, 218–19 regional parties in, 1, 214 Sikkim Democratic Front (SDF), 49 regionalist parties in, 38–9 Singh, Ajit, 41 Sivakasi in, 102–3 Singh, Charan, 175–6, 182, 229–33 Telugu Naickers in, 102–3 Singh, Digvijay, 89 trajectories of regional parties in, 214 Singh, Karan, 105–6 Telangana (state), 25 Singh, V. P., 176 Telangana Praja Samithi (TPS), 43 single-member districts (SMDs) Telangana Rashtra Samithi (TRS), 25, 39, 199 in India, 11, 152–3 Telugu Desam Party (TDP), 38–9, 227–8 regional parties and, 138–9 Telugu Naicker caste, 102–3 single-party majority (SPM) governments under Bharatiya Janata Party, 189–90 Uktal Congress (UTK), 43, 159, 162, 186–7 in India, 175 Union List, 190 opposition coordination as a cause of, 180 United National Progressive Alliance (UNPA), transition to, from coalition government, 186 170–1 Uttar Pradesh (state), 85–6 2014 election and, 187–90 opportunistic factions in, 221–4 Sivakasi, 102–3 regional parties in, 214–15 SMDs. See single-member districts Uttarakhand Kranti Dal (UKKD), 39 social democratic parties, 77 social workers. See karyakartas Vaiko. See Gopalasamy, V. socialist national parties. See Janata Dal Vanniyar Sangham, 47–8. See also Pattali South Africa, regional parties in, 11 Makkal Katchi South Korea, regional parties in, 7 Vasan, G. K., 43, 101 SPM governments. See single-party majority VFI. See vote fragmentation index governments Vidhan Sabha, ECI criteria for, 32 Stalin, M. K., 103 Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi (VCK), 47–8 state capacity, clientelism and, 53 Vijayakanth, 42–8 State List, 190 Vishal Haryana Party (VHP), 224 state politics, differences in, 1 Vishnoi, Malkan Singh, 105–6 state-wide parties, 25 Vishnoi, Ram Singh, 105–6 Swabhimani Paksha (SWP), 42–8 vote buying. See clientelism Swatantra Party, 155–7 vote fragmentation index (VFI), 26–7, 160–1

288 Index

voter behavior, in India, 49, 90–100 West Bengal (state) voter preferences bhadralok castes in, 247–8, 250 in clientelistic democracies, 58–9, 69–71 communist parties in, 247–50 on economic issues, in Kerala, 247 economic issues in, voter preferences on, 247 programmatic politics and, 58–9 ideological factions in, 218–21 voters Left Front in, 1 in clientelistic democracies, benefits to, 59–60 regional parties in, voting for, 98 exchange between brokers and, 63–4 trajectory of regional parties in, 214 indifference of, 69–71 Worker’s Party (PT), 7 intrinsic benefits to, 60–1 likelihood of benefits to, 61–4 Yadav, Lalu Prasad, 96 national parties and, 61 Yadav, Sharad, 42 in programmatic democracies, benefits to, YSR Congress Party (YSRCP), 44, 233 59–60, 65 regional parties and, 3, 61 Zamindar Party (ZP), 224