A Critical Study of the Phonology of a Sub- Variety of under the Influence of

By Ayyaz Mahmood

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MODERN LANGUAGES ISLAMABAD

December 2013

A Critical Study of the Phonology of a Sub-Variety of Pakistani English under the Influence of Pashto

By Ayyaz Mahmood

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

In English Linguistics

To

FACULTY OF HIGHER STUDIES

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MODERN LANGUAGES, ISLAMABAD

December 2013

 Ayyaz Mahmood, 2013

iii

THESIS/DISSERTATION AND DEFENSE APPROVAL FORM

The undersigned certify that they have read the following thesis, examined the defense, are satisfied with the overall exam performance, and recommend the thesis to the Faculty of Higher Studies:

Thesis Title: A Critical Study of the Phonology of a Sub-Variety of Pakistani English under the Influence of Pashto

Submitted By: Ayyaz Mahmood Name of Student Registration #: 269-MPhil/Eng/2007(Jan)

Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Name in Full

English Linguistics Name of Discipline

Professor Dr Ahmad

Name of Research Supervisor Signature of Research Supervisor

Professor Dr Shazra Mnnawer Name of Dean (FHS) Signature of Dean (FHS)

Maj General () Masood Hasan Name of Rector Signature of Rector

Date

iv

CANDIDATE DECLARATION FORM

I Mr Ayyaz Mahmood

Son of Mr Sultan Mahmood

Registration # 269-MPhil/Eng/2007

Discipline: English Linguistics

Candidate of Doctor of Philosophy at the National University of Modern Languages do hereby declare that the thesis titled A Critical Study of the Phonology of a Sub-Variety of

Pakistani English under the Influence of Pashto submitted by me in partial fulfillment of

PhD degree in the Department of Advanced Integrated Studies and Research, NUML, is my original work, and has not been submitted or published earlier. I also solemnly declare that it shall not, in future, be submitted by me for obtaining any other degree from this or any other university or institution.

I also understand that if evidence of plagiarism is found in my thesis/dissertation at any stage, even after the award of a degree, the work may be cancelled and the degree revoked.

Date Signature of Candidate

Ayyaz Mahmood Name of Candidate

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I should like to convey my thanks to each and every one who helped me during the process of my research. I am extremely grateful to my supervisor, Dr Aziz Ahmad Khan whose support, guidance and encouragement from the very beginning of the work till the end facilitated more insight and understanding of the subject.

I must thank the Rector NUML, Maj. Gen. (R) Masood Hassan and the Dean, Faculty of

Advanced Integrated Studies and Research, Prof. Dr Shazra Munnawwer for allowing me to work on this thesis. I should never forget to thank both my beloved parents, all my respected teachers, lovely siblings, sincere family members and friends who were a great source of inspiration, support and encouragement in their own right. I am greatly indebted to Professor Dr Riaz Hassan who helped and guided me patiently whenever I requested him to help and guide me on my work. I must thank Brig (R) Naseer-ud-Deen for his affectionate guidance. I would like to express my gratitude to the Head of the

English Department (GS) who encouraged and facilitated me a lot to go ahead with my thesis.

I am genuinely obliged to my friend Mr. Zawar Hussain Shah whose help, motivating ideas and encouragement helped me all the way through my research and writing of this thesis. I must mention all the research participants who spared their valuable time for this project. It is important to mention those friends and colleagues who were a great help in arranging those participants; the group includes Mr. Saeed Imran, Mr. Bashir Ahmad

Khan, Mr. Gohar Ali, Ms Wajiha Shah, Ms Tauheeda Bhatti and last but not the least Ms

vi

Khadija Mushtaq.

I also want to thank Mr. Muddassir and Mr. Adnan Rashid for their technical support and assistance. I cannot forget Dr. Muhammad Uzair and Mr. Habib-ur-Rehman who answered all my queries with a smile in difficult times. I am grateful to my spouse for her timely support, keen interest, and valuable contribution.

Lastly, I offer my regards and blessings to all those who supported me in any respect during the completion of this project.

vii

DEDICATION

To my beloved parents, family, friends and all my respected teachers

viii

ABSTRACT

A Critical Study of the Phonology of a Sub-Variety of Pakistani English under the Influence of Pashto

In there are several languages which are spoken in different regions as mother tongues.

There are four major regional languages i.. Balochi, Pashto, Punjabi and Sindhi. In addition to these, is used as a lingua franca and the national language of the country. Language change is an established phenomenon; it changes horizontally (regionally) as well as vertically (socially) and naturally the same goes for the too which is used as a second language in our country. Since L1 influence is a reality, each regional language of the country influences the

English language in its own right when it is used by from different regions. In this way, there emerge different varieties of the English language in Pakistan which need to be identified, explored and studied in detail to highlight similarities and differences in them. It will help in getting Pakistani English recognized the world over as a distinct variety and it will project our beautiful indigenous linguistic treasure too. It will help in identifying those difficulties which the speakers of different regional languages face when they learn English. The present study is an effort in this connection with regard to the Pashto language. The phonology of English spoken by

Pakistani Pashto speaking people of the country is the focal point of this work. To be able to do it first the participants’ loud reading in English was recorded and transcribed to mark all the deviations manifested in their pronunciation. Finally those deviations were judged against the

British Standard English (RP) applying Contrastive Analysis (CA). It was done so because in

Pakistan we do not have one variety of English accepted and recognized by all. The possible reasons of the deviations found, have also been shown up to facilitate Pashto speaking learners of

English. At the end different suggestions and recommendations have been given to address those problems which are within our capacity.

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page THESIS/DISSERTATION AND DEFENSE APPROVAL FORM ...... ii CANDIDATE DECLARATION FORM ...... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... iv DEDICATION ...... vi ABSTRACT ...... vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... viii

1 INRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Research Objectives ...... 3 1.2 Statement of the Problem ...... 3 1.3 Delimitation ...... 4 1.4 Main Hypothesis ...... 4 1.4 Sub-Hypotheses ...... 4 1.5 Significance of the Study ...... 5 1.6 Rationale ...... 5 1.7 Outline of the Theoretical Framework of the Study ...... 6 1.8 Chapters Breakdown ...... 7 1.9 The Researcher' Concern ...... 7

2 LANGUAGE CHANGE AND THE RELATED CONCEPTS...... 8 2.1 Language Constantly Changing… ...... 8 2.1.1 Major Causes of Language Change ...... 9 2.1.2 Erroneous Views of Language Change ...... 10 2.1.3 Change Spread in Language ...... 11 2.1.4 Sound Change and the Regularity of Sound Change ...... 12 2.1.5 Types of Sound Changes ...... 13 2.1.5.1 Unconditioned and Conditioned Sound Change ...... 13 2.1.5.2 Assimilation and Dissimilation ...... 14 2.1.5.3 Deletion and Insertion ...... 14 2.1.5.4 Monophthongization and Diphthongization ...... 14 2.1.5.5 Metathesis ...... 15 2.1.5.6 Raising and Lowering… ...... 15 2.1.5.7 Backing and Fronting… ...... 15 2.2 Variety of a Language ...... 16 2.3 Idiolect and Dialect ...... 16 2.4 Social Register and Style ...... 18

3 MULTIPLE ENGLISHES IN THE WORLD ...... 20 3.1 British and American English… ...... 20 3.1.1 Spelling and Pronunciation Differences ...... 21 3.1.2 Vocabulary Differences ...... 22 3.1.3 Grammar and Usage ...... 22 3.2 Indian English ...... 23 3.2.1 Phonetics and Phonology of the Indian English ...... 24

3.2.1.1 System of Vowels in IE...... 25 3.2.1.2 Striking Differences between BRP and IE ...... 26 3.2.1.3 System of Consonants in IE ...... 26 3.2.1.3.1 Stops/ ...... 26 3.2.1.3.2 Nasals ...... 26 3.2.1.3.3 ...... 27 3.2.1.3.4 ...... 27 3.2.1.3.5 Consonant Chart of Indian English ...... 28 3.2.1.3.6 Suprasegmental Features...... 29 3.2.1.3.7 Word Stress ...... 29 3.2.1.3.8 Rhthm and Intonation ...... 30 3.2.1.3.9 Some Phonological Processes of Indian English ...... 30 3.2.2 Morphology of the Indian English… ...... 31 3.2.3 Lexicon of Indian English… ...... 32 3.2.4 Syntax of Indian English ...... 33 3.2.4.1 Use of Articles ...... 33 3.2.4.2 Use of Emphatic Markers ...... 34 3.2.4.3 Reduplication of Verbs ...... 34 3.2.4.4 Use of Verbs ...... 34 3.2.4.5 Confusion between Transitive and Intransitive Verbs ...... 35 3.2.4.6 Tense and Aspect ...... 35 3.2.4.7 Negative Structures ...... 37 3.2.4.8 Adverbs ...... 37 3.2.4.9 Use of -ing with Statives ...... 38 3.2.4.10 Relative Pronoun in Relative Clauses ...... 38 3.2.4.11 Preposition Stranding… ...... 38 3.2.4.12 Wh-questions ...... 38 3.2.4.13 Tag Questions ...... 39 3.2.4.14 Gapping in Coordinate Structures ...... 40 3.2.4.15 Complex Sentence Formation: Complementizer Deletion ...... 40 3.2.4.16 Direct and Indirect Speech ...... 41 3.2.4.17 Word Order ...... 41 3.2.4.18 Significant Syntactic Differences between SE and IE ...... 42 3.2.5 Semantics and Pragmatics of Indian English ...... 42 3.2.5.1 Semantics of Indian English ...... 43 3.2.5.2 Pragmatics of Indian English… ...... 43 3.2.5.3 Several Combinations of 'Thanking You' ...... 45 3.2.5.4 Concluding Phrases ...... 45 3.3 Pakistani English… ...... 46 3.3.1 History and Relationship with Indian English ...... 46 3.3.2 Use in Pakistan ...... 47 3.3.3 Grammar ...... 48 3.3.4 Phonology ...... 49 3.3.5 Influences ...... 49 3.3.6 Vocabulary and Colloquialisms ...... 50 3.3.6.1 Archaic Words Still Used in Pakistani English ...... 57

xi

3.3.6.2 Medical Terms ...... 57 3.3.6.3 Food… ...... 58 3.4 The Concept of the Standard Language ...... 58 3.4.1 Multiple Views and Controversies on the Standard English ...... 59

4 ISSUES IN SECOND LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY IN PAKISTAN ...... 63 4.1 Multilingualism ...... 64 4.1.1 Multilingualism in Pakistan ...... 66 4.1.2 Bilingualism ...... 69 4.2 Language Contact in Pakistan ...... 70 4.3 Native Language Interference ...... 72 4.3.1 Research on Native Language Interference ...... 73 4.3.2 Interference of First Language in the Acquisition of Second Language ...... 75 4.4 Language Acquisition ...... 75 4.4.1 First and Second Language Acquisition ...... 75 4.4.2 Relationship between First and Second Language Acquisition………76 4.4.3 Native Language Influence on the Production of English Sounds...... 78 4.4.4 L1 Influence on the Pronunciation of L2 and the Critical Period Theory ...... 80 4.4.5 Evidence Regarding Accents ...... 81 4.4.5.1 Developmental Errors ...... 82 4.4.5.2 Ambiguous Errors ...... 82 4.4.5.3 Unique Errors ...... 82 4.5 Phonological Awareness ...... 83 4.5.1 Labov's Study of Rhoticity in New York… ...... 85 4.5.2 Labov on Martha's Vineyard… ...... 86 4.5.3 Peter Trugill on Norwich English… ...... 87

5 THE PASHTO LANGUAGE ...... 88 5.1 Geographical Distribution ...... 88 5.2 Official Status ...... 89 5.3 History ...... 90 5.4 Grammar ...... 91 5.5 Phonology ...... 92 5.5.1 Vowels ...... 92 5.5.2 Consonants ...... 93 5.6 Vocabulary and ...... 94 5.7 Dialects ...... 101 5.8 The Development of Pashto ...... 104

6 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY OF ENGLISH ...... 105 6.1 List of Symbols ...... 106 6.1.1 Consonants ...... 106 6.1.2 Single/Pure Vowels (Monophthongs) ...... 107

xii

6.1.3 Double Vowels () ...... 107 6.2 Phonetics ...... 108 6.2.1 The Speech Organs ...... 108 6.2.2 Consonants ...... 111 6.2.3 Voicing… ...... 111 6.2.4 Places of Articulation ...... 113 6.2.4.1 Bilabial Sounds ...... 115 6.2.4.2 Labiodental Sounds ...... 116 6.2.4.3 Dental Sounds ...... 117 6.2.4.4 Alveolar Sounds ...... 118 6.2.4.5 Palatoalveolar Sounds ...... 119 6.2.4.6 Palatal Sounds ...... 120 6.2.4.7 Velar Sounds ...... 121 6.2.4.8 Glottal Sounds ...... 122 6.2.5 Manners of Articulation ...... 122 6.2.5.1 Consonants or Stops ...... 123 6.2.5.2 Fricatives or Spirants ...... 124 6.2.5.3 Affricates ...... 124 6.2.5.4 Nasals ...... 125 6.2.5.5 Laterals ...... 125 6.2.5.6 ...... 126 6.2.5.7 Table of the Consonants ...... 128 6.2.6 Vowels ...... 129 6.2.6.1 Difference from Consonants ...... 129 6.2.6.2 Tongue Position ...... 130 6.2.6.3 Length ...... 134 6.2.6.4 Rounding… ...... 135 6.2.6.5 Nasality ...... 136 6.2.6.6 Diphthongs ...... 137 6.2.6.7 Table of Vowels ...... 138 6.2.6.8 Vowel Charts ...... 140

7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 142 7.1 Research Procedure ...... 144 7.1.1 Participant's History Form ...... 144 7.1.2 Wordlist ...... 145 7.1.3 Passage ...... 146 7.1.4 Dialogue ...... 146 7.1.5 Wordlist for Stress ...... 146 7.1.6 Recording… ...... 146 7.1.7 Transcription ...... 147 7.1.8 Validity and Reliability ...... 147 7.1.9 Theory Applied… ...... 148 7.1.10 Operationalization of the Framework ...... 151 7.1.11 Data Description, Analysis and Presentation ...... 154 7.2 Population ...... 154

xiii

7.3 Sampling… ...... 154 7.3.1 Criterion for the Selection of the Participants ...... 155 7.4 Constraints ...... 155

8 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ...... 157 8.1 Analysis of the Consonants in the Wordlist ...... 158 8.1.1 The /p/… ...... 159 8.1.2 The Phoneme //… ...... 161 8.1.3 The Phoneme //… ...... 163 8.1.4 The Phoneme // ...... 165 8.1.5 The Phoneme // ...... 167 8.1.6 The Phoneme /g/… ...... 169 8.1.7 The Phoneme /tʃ/… ...... 170 8.1.8 The Phoneme /dʒ/… ...... 172 8.1.9 The Phoneme //… ...... 174 8.1.10 The Phoneme /v/… ...... 176 8.1.11 The Phoneme /Θ/… ...... 177 8.1.12 The Phoneme /Ð/ ...... 179 8.1.13 The Phoneme /s/…...... 181 8.1.14 The Phoneme /z/… ...... 182 8.1.15 The Phoneme /ʃ/… ...... 183 8.1.16 The Phoneme /ʒ/… ...... 184 8.1.17 The Phoneme //… ...... 185 8.1.18 The Phoneme //… ...... 186 8.1.19 The Phoneme //… ...... 187 8.1.20 The Phoneme /ŋ/… ...... 188 8.1.21 The Phoneme //… ...... 190 8.1.22 The Phoneme /r/… ...... 191 8.1.23 The Phoneme //… ...... 192 8.1.24 The Phoneme //… ...... 193 8.2 Analysis of the Long Vowels Given in the Wordlist ...... 195 8.2.1 The Long Vowel /i:/ ...... 195 8.2.2 The Long Vowel /ɔ:/ ...... 197 8.2.3 The Long Vowel ɜ:/ ...... 199 8.2.4 The Long Vowel /ɑ:/ ...... 201 8.2.5 The Long Vowel /u:/… ...... 203 8.3 Analysis of the Short Vowels ...... 205 8.3.1 The Short Vowel /ɪ/… ...... 205 8.3.2 The Short Vowel /e/… ...... 207 8.3.3 The Short Vowel /æ/… ...... 209 8.3.4 The Short Vowel /ʌ/… ...... 211 8.3.5 The Short Vowel /ɒ/…………………………………………………..213

xiv

8.3.6 The Short Vowel /ʊ/…………………………………………………..215 8.3.7 The Short Vowel /ə/… ...... 216 8.4 Analysis of the Diphthongs ...... 218 8.4.1 The /eɪ/… ...... 218 8.4.2 The Diphthong /aɪ/… ...... 220 8.4.3 The Diphthong /ɔɪ/… ...... 222 8.4.4 The Diphthong /aʊ/… ...... 224 8.4.5 The Diphthong /əʊ/… ...... 226 8.4.6 The Diphthong /ɪə/… ...... 228 8.4.7 The Diphthong /eə/… ...... 230 8.4.8 The Diphthong /ʊə/… ...... 232 8.5. The Deviations Identified in the Reading Passage ...... 233 8.5.1 Rhoticity ...... 234 8.5.2 The Change of the Long Vowel /ɔ:/ ...... 236 8.5.3 The /v/ Sound in the Preposition 'of' ...... 238 8.5.4 Syllabic /l/ Taking a Vowel /ə/… ...... 240 8.5.5 Aspiration of the Plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/ ...... 242 8.5.6 The Plosive /p/ Changed to the /f/… ...... 243 8.5.7 /h/ Pronounced in the Word ‘Hour’ ...... 245 8.5.8 Consonant Cluster Utterance Difficulty ...... 247 8.5.9 /ɪ/ in the Word ‘Prefer’...... 249 8.5.10 /u:/ in the Word ‘Group’ ...... 250 8.5.11 /ɪ/ in the Word ‘Market’ ...... 252 8.5.12 /ɪ/ in the Word ‘Minute’ ...... 254 8.5.13 /i:/ in the Word ‘Scenic’ ...... 256 8.5.14 /e/ in the Word ‘Entrance’ ...... 258 8.5.15 /e/ in the Word ‘Hotel’ ...... 260 8.5.16 /ʊə/ in the Word ‘Tourist’ ...... 262 8.5.17 /əʊ/ in the Word ‘Go’ ...... 264 8.5.18 /ə/ in the Word ‘Alternatively’ ...... 266 8.5.19 The Definite Article ‘The’ Read as /Ðɪ/… ...... 268 8.5.20 /ə/ in the Words ‘About, Among and Arrive’ ...... 270 8.5.21 /æ/ in ‘As’ ...... 272 8.5.22 The Diphthong /eɪ/ in the Word ‘Take’ ...... 273 8.5.23 /u:/ in the Word ‘Through’ ...... 274 8.5.24 /e/ in the Word ‘Every’ ...... 275

xv

8.5.25 /e/ in the Word ‘Ready’ ...... 276 8.5.26 The Triphthong /aʊə/ ‘Hour’………………………………………..277 8.5.27 /ɪ/ in the Words ‘Sit, If and Hill’...... 278 8.5.28 /æ/ in the Words ‘Enthusiastic and Grand’ ...... 280 8.5.29 /ɑ:/ in the Words ‘Park and Staff’ ...... 281 8.5.30 /k/ in the Word ‘Luxury’ ...... 283 8.5.31 /ʃ/ in the Word ‘Luxury’ ...... 284 8.5.32 /æ/ in the Word ‘Transport’ ...... 285 8.5.33 The Second Syllable in the Word ‘Minutes’ ...... 286 8.5.34 /æ/ in the Word ‘Grand’ ...... 287 8.5.35 /e/ in the Word ‘Get’ ...... 288 8.5.36 /v/ in the Word ‘Have’ ...... 289 8.5.37 /ɪ/ in the Word ‘Sit’ ...... 290 8.5.38 /ɔɪ/ in the Word ‘Enjoy’ ...... 291 8.6 Deviations Identified in the Dialogue ...... 292 8.6.1 /ɪ/ in the Word ‘Private’ ...... 293 8.6.2 /ɒ/in the Word ‘Everybody’ ...... 294 8.6.3 /eɪ/ in the Word ‘Basic’ ...... 295 8.7 Stress Analysis ...... 296 8.7.1 The Word ‘Hillside’ ...... 296 8.7.2 The Word ‘Water’ ...... 297 8.7.3 The Word ‘Summer’ ...... 298 8.7.4 The Word ‘Enthusiastic’ ...... 299 8.7.5 The Word ‘Northern’ ...... 300 8.7.6 The Word ‘Sunshine’ ...... 301 8.7.7 The Word ‘Directly’ ...... 302 8.7.8 The Word ‘Overlooking’ ...... 303 8.7.9 The Word ‘Tourist’ ...... 304 8.7.10 The Word ‘Hotel’ ...... 305 8.7.11 The Word ‘Prefer’ ...... 306 8.7.12 The Word ‘Transport’ ...... 307 8.7.13 The Word ‘Minutes’ ...... 308 8.7.14 The Word ‘Market’ ...... 309 8.7.15 The Word ‘Cricket’ ...... 310 8.7.16 The Word ‘Entrance’ ...... 311 8.7.17 The Word ‘Alternatively’ ...... 312 8.7.18 The Word ‘Probably’ ...... 313 8.7.19 The Word ‘Air-conditioned’ ...... 314 8.7.20 The Word ‘Luxury’ ...... 315

9 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 316

xvi

REFERENCES ...... 331

Appendix A Wordlists Containing English ...... i Appendix B Passage ...... ii Appendix C Dialogue ...... iii

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Language is an amazing gift of the Almighty bestowed to human beings for communication. Apparently it seems to be merely a tool to convey our thoughts, emotions and feelings but at times one feels that it is something much beyond this. As it is associated with culture, thought and identity, we cannot say that it is so simple a phenomenon to be declared merely a means or a tool of communication. We are extremely possessive about our respective languages as we feel them and therefore own them. It is because of this that language has always been a subject of intensive studies both at form (structural/surface) level and at abstract (emotional/deeper) level. This process does not seem to have ended yet. It is going on and on to explore it even further and deeper to be able to get to those realities about it which might not have been touched upon as yet.

This work aims at exploring the English language spoken by the Pashto speaking people of Pakistan. The researcher being a language student has always been interested in the variety of languages spoken in our country. Urdu is our national language and is used as a lingua franca by the people of Pakistan who generally do not understand the languages of one another as there are many other languages also in the country in addition to the four major regional languages namely Balochi, Pashto, Punjabi and Sindhi. The researcher has often observed that when the speakers of the different regional languages of the country speak English, it is in a notably different form from that of the others in many respects implying thereby that their language has a tinge of their first language i.e. their mother tongue in it. In other words one could say that it is not English

2 but different Englishes which are used in Pakistan. To put it more simply Pakistani English is not just one variety but a collection of several sub-varieties of the language. The language has its grammar, vocabulary, and of course its own distinct pronunciation as well. In other words English language spoken by Pakistanis in different regions is mostly affected by their respective mother tongue. This is with regard to geography as we have different languages in different regions of the country but it has often been noticed that language depends a lot on one’s socio-economic conditions also and thus we get different varieties of the language at vertical level also for which technically the term sociolect is used. In this way we get multiple varieties of our second language regionally as well as socially. There being horizontal (regional) and vertical (social) varieties of the English language is an interesting phenomenon which the researcher has tried to explore in this work. Naturally all this could not be covered by an individual single-handedly, therefore in this work the researcher has tried to study critically that variety of Pakistani English which is spoken by the i.e. the Pashto speaking people of our country. In Pashtuns also those people have been included who speak the Yousafzai dialect of the language to avoid problems as all the Pashto speaking people could not be covered in the study. To make the research doable only phonology of the language has been selected for the study.

Phonology of a sub-variety of Pakistani English has been taken in this study because we differ more from each other in our language phonologically and not so much in writing. In writing there is a general conformity at national level because from written scripts one cannot make out as to who a certain piece of work is written by. We speak in our own individual way and we carry this individuality when we use our target language i.e. English. In this manner our linguistic individuality becomes our recognition and identity. The same individual speakers constitute a different variety of Pakistani English and a sub-variety with regard to the Pashto language. This sub-variety of Pakistani English is the domain of the present researcher which will be explored, studied and examined in detail in this work.

3

1.1 Research Objectives i) The main objective of this research work is to explore and project the Pakistani variety of the English language which contains the flavor of the multiple regional . ii) The second objective of the work is to study the phonology of that specific variety of Pakistani English which is used by the Pashto speaking people of the country. iii) The third objective of the study is to make an effort to get Pakistani variety of the English language recognized the world over and to attract more researchers towards the different regional languages of Pakistan.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Pakistan is a country with multiple languages and cultures which is no less than a treasure. This treasure needs to be explored and projected further nationally and internationally. We need to know ourselves through these languages and cultures with an accommodative attitude. As regards the advanced countries of the world, they do their utmost to bring name to their respective countries by highlighting and projecting proudly their indigenous languages and cultures. Unfortunately we have been quite indifferent to such beauty scattered all around us resulting in the gradual loss of local languages and cultures. It is alarming that we take more interest in socially superior languages at times at the expense of our own mother tongue even. It is a sorry state of affairs which demands immediate attention in the interest of our local languages which are gradually fading away because of the adverse effects of globalization. Multiple local languages and cultures are our identity both locally and internationally which need immediate attention in the form of research. Unless serious efforts are made to explore and highlight them, we are likely to be in danger of losing them. Local languages and cultures are the different colours of Pakistan which add richness to it. They are so important that when socially superior languages such as Urdu and English are used, we can feel their flavor and one, at times, is easily recognized to be a speaker of a certain language of a certain region. These local colours in the form of different languages and cultures must be preserved; for they must live and not ever die. Neglecting them might be an irreparable loss to our country as

4

we seem to be gradually losing them. They are so important that they need to be studied from the perspective of the English language also because of its being the international language of communication and being a compulsory subject in the country. It will help us plan things in a better and more helpful ways from the point of view of teaching English in the country. Moreover neglecting our linguistic diversity implicates neglecting ourselves and our identity. Realizing the problem the present researcher decided to undertake this journey towards a Pakistani variety of the English language spoken by the speakers of one of our local languages, Pashto. It is likely to bring more research into this area which has been quite neglected so far which should be a matter of great concern to every Pakistani.

1.3 Delimitation

The research is delimited to the speakers of the Yousafzai dialect of the Pashto language. It was done so in order to manage the work more easily and properly as all the dialects of the language would not have been possible to be covered by the researcher in a single-handed work. Moreover phonology being a very vast area could not be covered fully, therefore, in this study, the forty-four phonemes of the English language i.e. consonants, monophthongs (both short and long), diphthongs, word stress and some common deviations have been covered.

1.4 Main Hypothesis

English used by Pashto speakers under the influence of their L1 attains sufficient phonological features to qualify as a sub-variety of Pakistani English.

1.4.1 Sub-Hypotheses i) English spoken by Pashto speaking Pakistani people shares phonological features with Pakistani English. ii) English spoken by Pashto speaking Pakistani people deviates from the phonological features of Pakistani English.

5

1.5 Significance of the Study

The present work has been done on the Pakistani variety of the English language with regard to the Pashto language; one of the major regional languages of Pakistan. Pakistan is a multilingual country where there are numerous rich cultures along with different beautiful languages growing simultaneously on its soil. This gorgeous variety in the form of different languages needs to be preserved and researched upon. This work is a small effort done by the present researcher to contribute in the research done already by different linguists and scholars in this domain. It will help encourage more research on Pakistani English to get it recognized the world over. Similarly it may draw the attention of those students and scholars who have a mind to do research on our regional languages which are not less than a treasure for our country. This study will help promote the culture of discovering our cultural and linguistic heritage which is still waiting to be explored. There are over thirty languages spoken in our country which we hardly know of. If such projects are taken up, we can get to the knowledge, wisdom and scholarship which our indigenous languages have preserved in abundance. Small languages are in danger of being extinct as the majority of people resort to those languages which are held socially superior or they have a material benefit. In this manner minor languages are being replaced by the major ones and constituting thus a very serious threat to our rich cultural heritage. If these languages are studied in relation to the more established ones, we can save them from being lost.

1.6 Rationale

Like many in Pakistan the researcher is a multilingual with Pashto language being his mother tongue. has always been interested in our beautiful regional languages which are very rich as regards the knowledge and scholarship they preserve in shape of folk wisdom. Their literature is unique both in style and substance. Being a language student and a Pashto speaker the researcher wanted to do something where he could have a chance to promote his language Pashto in relation to the English language. In this work he has tried to do his best in his limited capacity the same he had been meaning to do since long. Not only has he made an attempt to serve his language but also has availed himself the opportunity to highlight that variety of the English language which is spoken

6

by the Pashto speaking Pakistanis. Through this work he hopes to invite more research into the area of our indigenous languages which desperately need to be studied deeply and thoroughly in our own best interest.

1.7 Outline of the Theoretical Framework of the Study

The researcher has discussed the framework in detail in the chapter of the Research Methodology. This outline is a brief synoptic representation of the conceptual framework that was followed in order to conduct this study. i. Theoretical framework is based on the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) which has been explained in detail in chapter 4 and briefly in chapter 7 ii. Contrastive phonology (discussed in chapter 4) iii. Brown (1987) was followed (explanation given in chapter 4 and 7) iv. Whitman’s (1970) four steps were followed in the analysis (discussed in detail in chapter 4 and 7) v. Stockwell’s (1965) three types of transfer were followed in explanation as well as description (discussed in the chapters mentioned above) vi. Operationalization of the framework (discussed at length in chapter 7) 1. Selection i) Inventory of English phonemes ii) Data selected from recordings 2. Pick (identify) sounds/stress that mark deviation/s 3. Find the ways the selected/picked forms mutually contrast 4. Pinpoint density and systematicity to establish the point in case (critical discussion done thoroughly in chapter 8)

Below is the flow diagram of the conceptual framework. Brown is the first as his discussion provided theoretical justification to the present study followed by Whitman who gave the four-step analysis while Stockwell gave the three-type transfer. The ideas of these three writers were incorporated through adaptation to prepare the framework for conducting this study.

7

Brown Whitman Stockwell

1.8 Chapters Breakdown

The thesis has been divided into nine chapters in total. They are as under:

1) Introduction 2) Language Change and the Related Concepts 3) Multiple Englishes in the World 4) Issues in Second Language and Linguistic Diversity in Pakistan 5) The Pashto Language 6) Phonetics and Phonology of English 7) Research Methodology 8) Data Presentation and Analysis 9) Conclusion and Recommendations

1.9 The Researcher’s Concern

The researcher realizes that he has taken up a thought-teasing area of phonology of the English language with respect to his own language i.e. Pashto. Since it is a technical area which has been ignored almost altogether so far in our educational system and therefore many people do not know much about it. In order to educate the reader/s of the work and to be able to appropriately ground his study and pursue his research, it was considered important to discuss in detail some related terms, concepts, and facts which will either be discussed or mentioned or at least referred to in the due course of the present study. Some of the themes being more technical and relevant at the same time need greater elaboration which has been done to better understand and relate them with the present work in the first place and for the sake of convenience of the reader/s in the second. The discussion follows in the next chapter.

8

CHAPTER 2

LANGUAGE CHANGE AND THE RELATED CONCEPTS

In this chapter the researcher aims to show up the notion of change with regard to language. Language has to undergo a change in order to absorb and accommodate the changing times. Languages which resist change are supposed to be dead languages. In this connection we can take the example of the classical languages, Greek and Latin which died out because they did not welcome change. Despite their being the languages of knowledge and scholarship, they just vanished from the surface of the earth. Since the present work is based on the notion of change, it is very important to discuss the basic concepts which are related with this study. The terms used in this chapter (02) and the next one (03) will be depended upon to take the study further. Moreover these concepts are important for the readers to understand and appreciate the present research work as they provide a background to the study. In plain words in order to take the discussion further, the following concepts are necessary to be considered for a better understanding of this work.

2.1 Language Constantly Changing

Language is a living phenomenon as it keeps growing which indicates that it keeps changing. It is usually a very slow process but sometimes it may be a very rapid one also. There may be many reasons owing to which a language may undergo a change. One major reason could be its frequent contact and interaction with other language/s. If a community of people is engaged in doing business with another one, they may possibly choose certain linguistic expressions and phrases for the trade products, for example. If a

9 small but prevailing group of people suppresses a bigger one, their language may turn out to be a dominant one as we see in our daily routine life that the language of the privileged most often shows influence on the language of the majority, and the majority language borrows vocabulary and turns of expression from the language of the elite so they could be associated with them or at least look and sound like them. Resultantly, at times one language or the other simply vanishes and leaves behind an absolutely changed form of the language. We can take the example of the English language in this regard: The French language of the Norman conquerors has long disappeared, but it disappeared only when it had changed the language of the Anglo-Saxons into such a form of the language which sounded French more than English. In other words the essential disposition of the language gradually disappeared transforming it into an Analytic language from a Synthetic one.

On the other hand if a people are inaccessible owing to their being on an island may be or a mountain valley for that matter, their language may change extremely slowly indeed but it still changes because of their long-lasting seclusion and not because of any give-and-take practice. Usually as a result of change a language becomes more simple and expressive as we want our languages to convey a lot of thought and content using a minimum number of words. One wants one’s language to be rich and concise at the same time. Additionally we tend to like those combinations of sounds more which are relatively easier to pronounce and understand.

2.1.1 Major Causes of Language Change

One of the most important causes of language change is the loss of homogeneity owing to the geographical division of the languages across the world which means that language changes horizontally i.e. there is a change in language if the area in which it is used is changed. In other words it always receives a local flavor.

Another noteworthy factor is its contact with other languages. At times languages in contact with each other begin to show similarities as they keep using words from the languages of one another. These similarities appear in language when there has been an extensive interchange of ideas between two peoples for a long period of time. Usually

10 vocabulary items and turns of expressions used more often get assimilated into a language as a result of frequent interaction/s of the users of two different languages. This phenomenon is explained befittingly by a number of shared features and characteristics identified among the different languages spoken around the world.

Languages are spoken by human beings, and humans are anatomically similar which means that structurally and biologically they are the same everywhere. When they grow up, their language starts undergoing a change owing to the growth in their biology which has a lot to do with their language. The large and small size of the articulators, the harshness and softness of the muscles and many such other factors may launch a change in language. It means that physical disposition matters a lot when it comes to talking of change in language.

Borrowing is another important factor in language. It takes place when two or more languages are generally in contact with each other. In such a state the languages concerned are influenced by each other to a large extent. However it is significant that the core words in such a phenomenon generally remain undisturbed. This fact helps the linguists in making the languages related to each other distinct from those which are merely influenced by each other but not related otherwise.

It is an observable phenomenon that different languages have similar expressions for the same sense which may be a mere coincidence in most cases. In certain cases this similarity may exist in the phonetic form of the linguistic item as well.

2.1.2 Erroneous Views of Language Change

It is a grave misconception that each language forms a uniform speech community without any internal variation and without contact with its neighbor languages. In simple terms a language changes when it is in contact with other languages but if not so, it changes even then. Change owing to an obvious factor, like another language for instance, is termed as external change whereas if a language changes without any clearly visible agent, it is known as internal change of a language. External change of a language is a fast process because of the factor being a strong one whereas an internal change in a

11 language may take a much longer time as there is nothing so dynamic to ground that change. Internal change is not readily noticeable but when a language is examined after a period of time, it appears much different from what it was in the past. External change is usually more readily visible because the cause is known to its users.

There is another misunderstanding about a language getting developed into different languages called the ‘daughter languages’. It is a very slow and gradual process. Some people wrongly think that a language develops into different languages overnight. In reality however it takes very long to happen as there are several intermediary stages. In simple words it is not an abrupt or swift process as it, at times, takes centuries or even millenniums. An important point to note is that different languages cannot be so clearly separated and their boundaries cannot be nicely defined because there is an overlapping between different languages. The reason for this overlapping is their mutual contact with each other because no language can ever possibly develop in absolute isolation. One language may have several forms called ‘dialects’. These dialects may gradually drift away from each other to become different languages themselves. As mentioned above in the discussion, it is an extremely slow phenomenon resulting after centuries of development and therefore it is very difficult to mark clearly the separation of any two different languages. Moreover there is many a factor at work to influence a given language. Normally the factors which influence a language are political, socioeconomic and geographic.

2.1.3 Change Spread in Language

Language change spreads like a wave which gets generated from that point of a pool where a small stone has been hurled in. Different dialects have similarities as well as differences at the same time. The differences appear in dialects as a result of multiple reasons. The changes make their appearance at a varied pace. Some of the changes are just superficial and do not have a profound impact as such but others have a significant one which leave a huge mark and at times entail the creation of different dialects. These dialects gradually become independent languages and resultantly multiple language families evolve. Finally on the basis of similarities and differences classification of

12 languages takes place. All this occurs due to the constant process of change in the form of growth and decay of the language. Such a change ultimately results into linguistic diversity bringing about the creation of totally new languages.

2.1.4 Sound Change and the Regularity of Sound Change

Sound change is a very common phenomenon often observed and studied in depth by language researchers, scholars and linguists. It is one of those linguistic phenomena which is easily noticeable because the data is available in the spoken form. A layman even, can also notice the change which exists in the language of two different speakers of a certain language. It is due to this reason perhaps, that we find so much research done in this area by linguists of different eras. In such studies different languages are compared and their sound patterns are studied in order to get to know the earlier form of a particular language. Due to research in this area many languages have been identified which fall in different language families. It is therefore possible to discuss and even challenge the ancestry of different languages. In addition to this, sound change does not remain confined to the sound system/s of a language only; it has at times a great influence on the morphology of different words which ultimately influence sentences. In simple words language change basically emanates from the sound change and language change implies sound change.

Sound changes are systematic in their development. Any kind of such a change moves on a regular pattern within the system of a language so that all the loci of the sound in question are affected within that system of the language. However speed of the change is gradual as it moves from a person to the next and then to the next until the whole community adopts it. In similar way it affects all the possible phonological positions of a language wherein the sound is used one after the other till the entire language experiences the brunt of the change. Sound changes in the language can be conceived through the study of communal based division; the basis of pronunciation as people belonging to different speech communities, social groups, ethnicities and social classes differ in their language use.

13

2.1.5 Types of Sound Changes

The sounds of a language may change in different ways. As the present work deals with sounds of the English language, it is important to know the different types of sound change which may occur in a language. They have been discussed briefly in the following.

2.1.6.1 Unconditioned and Conditioned Sound Change

This kind of change is so called because it is caused without the influence of a factor which controls the change. Example of such a change in English is [u:] which changed to become [au]. It gradually pervaded the whole corpus and affected all the positions wherever there was [u:] in Old English. A more clear example is the Old English /a:/ which changes everywhere to Middle English /:/ and to Modern English /ou/. OE /a:/ > ME /o:/ > Mod E /ou/. The word ham /ha:m/, for example, became hoom /ho:m/ in ME, and home /houm/ in Modern English. But unconditioned or generic changes are rare.

Another type of change takes place when the sounds of a language are changed under the influence of other sounds which come into contact with them. It can happen as a result of the influence of any adjacent sound. They are normally referred to as conditioned or combinatory changes which occur only under a fixed set of conditions. Allophones of a phoneme, for example, are generally restricted to certain environments where they are conditioned by their surroundings. An example in this context could be the phonemes p, t and k which are aspirated when they occur in the initial position only but not so necessarily elsewhere. When such allophones undergo a change, we speak of a conditioned or a combinatory change. One way to know a conditioned change from an unconditioned one is to see whether it is so when the sound occurs within some particular phonological context or it occurs otherwise also i.e. the sound remains unaffected by its phonological context.

14

2.1.5.2 Assimilation and Dissimilation

This change is an example of a conditioned change because in it a sound is changed into another sound under the influence of a sound which occurs within its immediate context. The example of this can be that of [f] sound in the word ‘knife’ becoming [v] in its plural form ‘knives’.

It is also a type of conditioned change. It occurs when two similar sounds start becoming less similar to each other. The language varieties having experienced such type of changes are put to synchronic (with regard to a point of time) as well as diachronic (with regard to a period of time) studies for the sake of understanding the changes which have taken place. In the former type of study, a changed variety of language is examined in contrast to the one that has not undergone any such changes as yet, while in the latter, changes within a language over a particular period of time are studied.

2.1.5.3 Deletion and Insertion

It is a change in which a particular sound is no more produced. It can also be studied in two different ways. It may be studied as a change happening over a particular time period or it may be studied as a phenomenon resulting at a particular time within a language.

It is opposite to deletion in the sense that where in deletion a sound segment is dropped, in insertion an extra sound is added where it did not exist earlier. Its example is ‘athlete’ when it is produced as [aethelit]. Such words are otherwise difficult to pronounce unless insertion of an additional sounds takes place.

2.1.5.4 Monophthongization and Diphthongization

It is the reduction of a vowel sound from a diphthong. In English there is a phenomenon in which diphthongs (or even triphthongs) are reduced to a single vowel or in technical terms a pure vowel. Its example is the reduction of the diphthong [iu] in

15 words like ‘due’ [diue], ‘rule’ [riule] and ‘rude’ [riude] which are reduced to become [du, rul and rud]. In all these examples monophthongization has taken place.

This change can be conceived as moving in opposite direction to monophthongization because in this change a single vowel is replaced by a diphthong in a particular context within a language. Its example is the [i:], which is considered as high with regard to the position of the tongue in its production, changed to become the diphthong [ai]. For example in the word ‘house’ [u:] became [au].

2.1.5.5 Metathesis

It is a particular type of change in which the order of sounds is readjusted in a word. Its examples are ‘brid’ becoming ‘bird’, ‘hros’ becoming ‘horse’ and ‘frist’ becoming ‘first’.

2.1.5.6 Raising and Lowering

Height of the tongue has a great role in the production of certain sounds. In some cases at times the height of the tongue is changed in the production of certain sounds which consequently do not maintain their phonetic form after this phenomenon. This is why such changes are attributed to raising or lowering of the tongue which in both the cases, results in change. Its example is a raise in the position of the tongue from mid to high in the change of the sound [o:] to the sound [u:].

2.1.5.7 Backing and Fronting

During the production of the vowel sounds the part of the tongue that is raised or lowered or in other words that is involved in the production of a particular sound is very important because it impacts phonetic contours of the sound. Vowels’ positions are on the basis of the part of the tongue involved in their production, called frontness or backness. A change that occurs with regard to these positions is referred to as backing or fronting. It refers to variations in the frontness and backness of the tongue in the production of

16 different sounds. For example [a] became fronted [ae] in ask, calf, glass, past and path etc.

2.2 Variety of a Language

There is always a gradual change in language because of which at times a language grows into a variety different from the actual language. Due to the constant process of change one language may generate a number of varieties. It is here important to appreciate as to what the term ‘variety’ implicates as it is a very commonly used term. The term basically signifies a particular form of a given language. Sometimes a substitute term ‘lect’ also is used in order to refer to a language variety. Most often the term variety is used so that terms like ‘language’ and ‘dialect’ could be avoided as normally we use the term ‘language’ in order to refer to that variety of a given language which is considered the standard whereas when referring to the non-standard dialects, people usually use the term ‘dialects’. Standard language or variety is that form of a language which is looked on as superior and the most polished one whereas other non-standard forms are considered crude and unpolished. In research however, all forms of language are examined regardless of their being standard or non-standard. To be on the safer side linguists and language researchers tend to use the term ‘lect’ more so that no controversy is raised about whether we are studying two different languages or varieties of a particular language i.e. dialects. There are other internal differences in each variety such as one’s style of speech or difference in terms of one’s choice of words which depends on the degree of formality existing between two parties/interlocutors. Differences as such are dealt separately by the language researchers.

2.3 Idiolect and Dialect

Society consists of different individuals. These individuals are marked by different ways of thinking and behavior. Every individual is identified by the differences they manifest. As we are different from others in multiple respects, we are different when it comes to language also. An individual’s language is the product of their regional and social background. We come upon a variety of languages and dialects in our life. We meet different people with different social, regional and professional backgrounds. Our interaction with each individual in our society leaves an impact on our personality as well

17 as on our language. In other words our language manifests what we are, what our background is, what sort of people we spend most of our time with and what our qualification or profession is. Owing to each person’s circumstances being different, our language manifests that difference and thus each individual’s language becomes different which is technically called ‘idiolect’. In simple words an individual’s language is an idiolect. Many idiolects combine to form a dialect. When studying an individual’s language and their overall linguistic proficiency, linguists take into consideration the factors mentioned in the foregoing discussion. It helps them determine the actual linguistic potential of that individual. In the opinion of some linguists the knowledge one has about one’s language gets referred to when one is using language. The term idiolect actually is used to the display of one’s linguistic knowledge in the form of one’s language. Since an idiolect is shaped and developed in society so at times an idiolect is called an individual’s dialect. Language is a social practice; the way an individual cannot be seen without a society, we cannot see language in isolation. It is a shared social phenomenon and therefore idiolects are studied in relation to dialects.

Dialect is a varied form of a particular language as change in language is an ongoing phenomenon and there is hardly any way to keep a check upon this process. O'Grady et al. define ‘dialect’ as, a regional or social variety of a language characterized by its own phonological, syntactic, and lexical properties. The term ‘dialect’ is often seen with regard to the regional varieties of speech. Moreover, there are multiple factors which have to be considered when we talk of varieties with reference to language. Language is affected by diverse social factors such as one’s cultural background, economic condition, social status, education, family and so on. Varieties which are associated with different ethnic groups are called ‘ethnolects’ as they have to do with the ethnicity of their users. There are varieties with regard to the socioeconomic classes, which are called ‘sociolects’. Sociolects are used by different social and cultural groups in a community of people.

Dialectology is the study of different dialects which means that it deals with different dialects and their regional or social distribution. Dialectologists examine the diversity of language used in a particular speech community. A speech community is a

18 group of people who have in common a set of habits or conventions for language use. They have shared knowledge and their ways of interaction are also similar. It is within this group that a different dialect originates, develops and changes also. In other words their linguistic practices are shared with one another because of which they constitute a community of practice. Sociolinguists Penelope Eckert and Sally McConnell-Ginet explain, some communities of practice may develop more distinctive ways of speaking than others. Thus it is within communities of practice that linguistic influence may spread within and among speech communities.

Sometimes the terms ‘dialect’ and ‘accent’ are used in place of one another by some people in their everyday speech. Linguists and scholars however look at the two terms differently. Accent refers only to differences in pronunciation, especially those associated with regional or social differences. Dialect on the other hand, takes into consideration the differences manifested in syntax (sentence structure), morphology (word structure), vocabulary (word-stock), and pronunciation (the way speech sounds are produced by language users) in the broader term.

2.4 Social Register and Style

We frequently come across the terms ‘social register and style’s when we study language. It is important to know about them to avoid any misconception. A ‘register’ is a variety of language that is used in a certain social setting. It is sometimes called ‘style’ also. From setting is meant sometimes, the degree of formality which exists between the interlocutors in different situations. Sometimes the level of formality is greater and sometimes lesser depending upon the social relationship between the two parties. Language changes in different social events. For instance baby talk is generally found upon occasions in several western cultures while talking to kids who are very young. It is another social setting and requires such form of the language which is appropriate there. The specific language used there will be a different social register. There is a joking register also which is normally used when teasing others. There are registers which are associated with different professions and interest groups such as law, business, media,

19 showbiz, telecom, textile industry and so on. The term ‘jargon’ implicates the vocabulary of a social register.

The term ‘dialect’ refers to the language used by a social class or by people of a certain area who constitute a community. A social register is the language used on a specific occasion, situation, profession or field. One speaker may have the ability to use different registers at the same time. These registers are used on different occasions in varied social settings. Of course the vocabulary used is always dependent on the context in which language is used. Mutual relationship existing between two interlocutors also helps in the selection of vocabulary during a linguistic engagement.

During the course of a conversation, at times, language may undergo a sudden change because of the change in relationship between the two parties engaged in a social engagement. In other words the change in relationship brings about change in their language. We can take the example of an interview live on air which is a formal engagement as it is a host and guest relationship in view of the general public but during an interval they may take liberties with each other if they have a close relationship otherwise too. In that case as a result of this their style will take a change because in such contexts different social dimensions become important which were not significant before. Speakers at times may shift styles if their understanding of an event in progress takes a change. At times a person might use a rather formal register, as it suitable as per the occasion but while speaking to an intimate friend; one may well switch to an informal register of colloquial. This shift is something the same as we do code-switching. Since it involves styles or registers, it is therefore considered an example of style shifting.

20

CHAPTER 3

MULTIPLE ENGLISHES IN THE WORLD

As a result of the regional and social change and because of a plethora of reasons in the backdrop there have emerged different varieties of the English language. Some of these varieties are native varieties as they are used as an L1 in different countries across the world whereas the others are non-native because they are used in different regions around the globe as a second or foreign language. The two most prominent native varieties are discussed below followed by two non-native varieties of the English language i.e. Pakistani and Indian. British and American English have some similarities and some differences and the same goes for Pakistani and the Indian varieties of the language. It is important to mention here that the two native varieties mentioned above are mutually more similar than different and almost the same is the case with the non- native ones also. The possible reason for this is the geography being the same in case of Pakistani and Indian English. As regards British and American English, they show greater similarity because American English has evolved out of British English. In order to read the similarity and the difference all four varieties have been discussed in the following.

3.1 British and American English

There are multiple Englishes in the world which vary from one another in their spelling, grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. Owing to this non-native learners of

21 the language are often confused as to which variety of the language they should go for. The Englishes around the world include the British English, Canadian English, American English, Australian English and South-African English in addition to the different non- native varieties used all across the world. Apart from the differences existing already, these varieties are on a constant drift away from each other and thus bringing about more changes in these dialects. Non-native users of the English language are often in trouble of being consistent linguistically as the dialects cannot be so tidily kept apart. One wants to communicate successfully and to be able to do that one has to be extra careful about where one is and who one is communicating with. At times due to these language differences, not only does communication get at stake but it entails embarrassment also. For instance, words like ‘nappy’, ‘dummy’, ‘pram’ and many more are used in British English whereas in the United States, there are different words for them. In American English the words ‘diapers’ and ‘pacifiers’ are used for ‘nappies’ and ‘dummies’. Similarly the words ‘trunks’ and ‘baby carriages’ are used for the words ‘boots’ and ‘prams’. In the same way in American English the word ‘pants’ is used for ‘trousers’ and in British English the same word refers to the undergarments worn with the trousers. There are other differences also which will be discussed as the discussion follows.

3.1.1 Spelling and Pronunciation Differences

Along with other differences, American and British English differ from each other in spelling. The spellings of American English are more phonetic, simple and economical whereas it is not the case in British English which preserves the same spellings used traditionally. In American English spellings are compatible with the pronunciation of words whereas in British English the spellings are mostly non-phonetic. Words are spelled according to their pronunciation American English. Needless letters in the spellings are omitted unlike in British English. For example where in British English there are two consonants, in American they use one. Similarly words in which there is ‘ou’ combination, in American English the letter ‘u’ is omitted but it does not apply always in all cases.

22

In addition to multiple vocabulary differences, there is a difference of pronunciation in the language of both the countries. On the basis of pronunciation differences, the speakers of both the regions are easily recognized the moment they start speaking. The differences are more in the production of the vowel sounds. In addition, they differ in terms of the stress of their English also.

3.1.2 Vocabulary Differences

In the language of both the regions, the similarities are far greater than the dissimilarities. It is therefore convenient for both the peoples to communicate intelligibly with one another without much confusion as such. Despite this fact however they may sound confusing to one another because the differences are found in those words also which are used most often in routine general language. To a degree it is possible for both the parties to get along but at times they seem to be at a loss linguistically to manage successful communication. The difficulty arises when those vocabulary items are used which are either exclusive in the American variety or in British English. Some of the differences are words like ‘flat’ and ‘apartment’, ‘punctured’ and ‘flat’, ‘hood’ and ‘wing’ and so on. Because of exposure to such vocabulary items or at times because of context, words as such are understood most often but technically both the languages differ from each other to a noticeable degree.

3.1.3 Grammar and Usage

Like vocabulary and pronunciation, there are differences, of course, observed in the grammar of both the languages. The differences being minute do not cause any misunderstanding as such but they do exist and at times sound interesting to the speaker of the other dialect. Upon occasion the differences are found in the way sentences are structured. For example where a Briton uses the structure in the present perfect tense, an American will use a past simple structure there. Similarly their interrogative structure at times differs from that of the others’. Their treatment of the prepositions substantially differs from each other. For instance, Britons ‘fill in’ a form whereas Americans ‘fill it out’. Moreover Americans tend to be more accurate than Britons when it comes to

23 collective nouns and form of the verb used with them in agreement. For example, ‘the team has won the match’ and ‘the team have won the match’. The first sentence is American and the second one is British.

With regard to the usage of the language, there are multiple observations which are made in both the varieties. For example, if a session starts in September and ends in June, an American speaker would possibly say ‘the session is going September through June’ whereas a British speaker may language it as ‘the session is going September to June’. As far as British English is concerned, it is a little ambiguous because one does not know whether the session begins in the beginning of September and ends at the end or beginning of June. On the other hand, in American English, there is no confusion or misunderstanding as such. Some of the more examples of usage include the way both the speakers say numbers. For example the number 297 will be read by an American speaker as two hundred ninety-seven but a British speaker will be read it as two hundred and ninety-seven. Similarly in British English the word ‘nought’ is used for ‘zero’ but Americans call it ‘zero’. For British speakers there are twelve zeros in the figure ‘one billion’ but for Americans the same figure has nine zeros. In other words the same word has a different usage in both the countries. For British speakers it is ‘one million million’ and for American speakers it signifies ‘one thousand million’. Keeping all such differences in view, one can say that they constitute at times a great problem for those who try to learn the English language as a second or foreign language.

3.2 Indian English

One of the non-native varieties of the English language is the Indian variety. Because of multiple reasons many scholars and language researchers have attempted to study it as a different variety. The researchers include native as well as the non-native scholars (see Kachru, 1986; Bansal, 1976; Parasher, 1991; Aitchison & Agnihotri 1985). Despite all research done so far on the Indian variety, still more work is needed to further explore its phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic features.

24

Although Indian English has been studied at length by many but still it seems to have recognition issue as there is a divide between those who have studied and examined the variety. According to some of them, it exists as a distinct variety but others are of the opinion that it is not any different from the British English because of the degree of overlapping seen between the two languages. They hold that in terms of the structure of the language, there is no enough difference as such to enable the Indian variety to claim a separate position. On this basis they believe that the term ‘Indian English’ should be challenged as it is misleading. If a comparative analysis of the Indian English and its native varieties is done, one comes to realize that most of the Indian English resembles the native varieties in terms of grammar, vocabulary and phonology. There are however different sub-varieties internally in Indian English with differences in vocabulary, structure and phonology with different accents. Phonological differences outnumber other differences because each speaker has a different regional and social background which makes their speech distinct from that of the others. There do not seem to be any significant differences in the syntax of the language as such.

English is used as a second language in and it is not always possible for the non-native speakers to sound like the natives in their language. In India, the highly educated people speak really good English and it is difficult in most cases to identify any differences in their speech. In India there are various social classes and it is not possible for everyone there to get the education of the same quality from well-established institutions of the country. There is no uniformity in terms of their linguistic ability as their education system is not uniform. In most cases there are deviations from the standard native language and for these deviations, some scholars use the term ‘features’ of the English language. In fact, these are not the features but errors found in their speech because of a lack of exposure to the correct form of the language. At times these deviations become linguistic habits and are named as a variety.

3.2.1 Phonetics and Phonology of the Indian English

Given that the Indian variety is considered to exist as distinct but a full-length study of the language is not yet available. In India there are different regions with

25

different people with different languages. They cannot therefore be expected to be uniform in their second language as their mother tongue varies from case to case. Moreover, in the studies done on the Indian variety of the English language compare it with the RP i.e. Received Pronunciation. When it gets compared with the RP, it emerges as a distinct variety because of the noticeable differences which the variety has. Research on the Indian variety has been done in different phases. Segmental and suprasegmental aspects of the Indian English have been studied by Bansal (1978), Pandey (1990) and many others. Several comparative studies on the British and Indian variety have been done by Chaswal (1973), Warrier (1976) and Sethi (1971). The list includes many more names also. The findings of the studies conducted on the phonology of the Indian variety can be given in a few points given in the following:

a) Indian English receives a lot of influence from the Indian local languages. b) Local variation is found in the respective language/s of the areas. c) Indian English language learners usually do not get exposed to the natives of the language as they are taught by the Indian teachers. d) There are multiple social classes in India usually divided into three:

i) The first category of the educated Indians speaking excellent English, are hardly any different from the natives. ii) The second category consists of semi-educated Indians or those who are still learning it. iii) The third category is of those speakers who can use English related to their profession, field or domain.

3.2.1.1 System of Vowels in Indian English

There is a difference between Indian English (IE) and RP (Received Pronunciation) used in England so far as the number of vowels is concerned. Indian English has 11 pure vowels and only 6 glides whereas there exist 12 pure vowels and 8 vowels glides in BRP (British Received Pronunciation). Thus in English there are 20 vowel sounds while in Indian English they are 17.

The lists of vowels are given in the following:

26

Pure vowels: /ε, I, i, , ε, o, , Θ, A, ʋ, ↔, ɑ,/

Glides: /ɑY, ↔I, ↔I, Y↔, I↔, ε↔/

Representation of IE vowels in terms of cardinal vowels system is as below:

/ε I ʋ Θ I  Y o ε  ɑ/

3.2.1.2 Striking Differences between BRP and IE:

There exist in British English two distinct phonemes i.e. |↔| and |↔|. When these sounds are studied in Indian English, it is found that U has its own way of characterizing two distinguished sets of words having either of these phonemes. In some, distinction is made on the basis of length whereas in the others it is made on the basis of presence or absence of |r|. For example ‘Caught’ and ‘Cot’ are distinguished on the basis of length while ‘Short’ and ‘Shot’ are distinguished on the basis of |r|.

3.2.1.3 System of Consonants in IE

Both the Englishes, mentioned above, differ on the basis of consonants as well. The detail of such consonants which have different realizations in Indian variety is in the following.

3.2.1.3.1 Stops/Plosives

Out of plosives |b, d, g| and |p, t, k| the second group only differs in their realization from British English. The difference is in the feature of aspiration which exists in British English whereas it is absent in Indian English.

3.2.1.3.2 Nasals

In the Indian variety |m| and |n| occur in the initial position of a syllable. However |N| sound which is a velar exists only as a homorganic variant of |n| sound when it comes

27 before the velar voiced consonants. There exists retroflexed form of |N| sound when it comes immediately before a retroflexed plosive like in the word bend.

3.2.1.3.3 Affricates

In English both the sounds stand distinct and are not subject to any considerable variation. They exist in words like ‘chin’ |tʃin| and ‘gin’ |dʒin|. However in Indian English these sounds are substituted with the plosive sounds as a result of simulation and confusion of the phonetic features of the local languages.

3.2.1.3.4 Fricatives

So far as fricatives are concerned the two labiodentals |f| and |v| are not realized as labiodentals in the Indian English. The former is realized in bilabial plosive |ph| under the influence of phonetic features of the sounds of local language whereas the latter is confused with a frictionless continuant from local languages. This is found as in the word ‘power’ /pa:var/. In some other areas like Brigal and Orissa /v/ sound is produced a /bh/ as this it can be found in the pronunciation of the word never /nebhar/. The two dental affricates /T/ and /Δ/which exist in British English are not to be found in Indian English. They are replaced with voiceless and voiced plosive corresponding to their voicing feature in British English so that the voiceless |ð| is replaced by and Indian voiceless plosive |th| and the voiced |ð| is replaced by and Indian voiced plosive almost equal to |d|. Regarding |s| and |z| both exist in IE but are subject to regional variation. At some places |s| is realized as |ʃ| and |z| is realized as |dȝ|.

The palate-alveolar |ʃ| and |Ʒ| have heir variants as well. However, the former fricatives out these is least problematic for Indians or in other words the least unfamiliar hence it is mostly realized as in RP but the later is almost non-existent in local languages. It has different variants in Indian variety like |z|, |j| or |dz|. Its example can be pronunciation of word pleasure as /pledzǝr/ or /plezǝr/ or /plejǝr/ instead of /pleȝǝ/ as in RP.

28

Glottal fricative |h| has almost no problem however among some varieties there is a tendency to drop |h| or replace it with |j| or with |w| as it is found in certain others. The example of dropping is like house is produced as |a:us| and that of replacement by |j| can be in pronunciation of hill produced as |jɪl| instead of |hɪl|.

Two liquids exist in Indian variety |I| and |r|. They vary in their realization from that which they have in British English and/or RP. |I| is almost always clear in IE against its allophonic variation in RP as dark |I| and clear |I|. So in IE there is only one variety of |I| again the two in RP. Same is the case with |r| sound as it is always trilled in IE whereas its realization varies in different phonological context in RP as flapped |r|, rolled |r|. It is considered an in British English against its trilled form in Indian English. It is important to point out here that in Indian variety portroalic |r| also exists as in |ca:r| etc. Out of semi-vowels |j| and |w| former is realized as in RP while the latter is confused with labio-dental |v|.

3.2.1.3.5 Consonant Chart of the Indian English

The differences between Indian variety and the RP can be specified as under:

1. The plosive sounds |p, t, k| are not aspirate even in their phonological position where they are aspirated in Indian English i.e. before strong vowel or diphthongs in syllable initial position. 2. The alveolar plosive sounds |t & d| are generally retroflexed in Indian English. 3. In Indian variety the characteristic of lip-rounding is typically absent in the production of the sounds |tʃ| and |dz|. 4. Generally alveolar plosive |th| and |d| are found in Indian English in place of dental fricatives |e| and |ð| in British English. 5. Both the labio-dental |v| and the approximant |w| are replaced by a single labio-dental |v| in Indian variety. 6. Indian speakers make use of trilled |r| in all the phonological contexts whereas it is dropped in postvocalic position in RP.

29

3.2.1.3.6 Suprasegmental Features

Indian languages differ from English language in one important respect, so far as suprasegmental features are concerned that the former are syllable-timed languages while the latter is a stress-timed languages. Indian English is considered as a distinct variety by Singh and Gargesh on the bases of its being stress-timed and having a variant initial pattern. These properties of Indian English have been detailed in the following.

3.2.1.3.7 Word Stress

In its word stress Indian English betrays traces of the influence of filter languages. It is found in the prominence of syllable in the way each syllable is articulated with an effort to bring clarity which is not found in RP where all the syllables are not produced with such prominence. A significant correlation is found between the weight and position of a syllable and its prominence in Indian English. Gargesh and Singh (1995) have made a division of syllables into three categories in Indian English on the basis of their weight i.e. a) Light Syllables b) Heavy Syllables c) Extra Heavy Syllable

The list of the rules applicable in word stress in Indian English is as in the following: a) Regardless of the quantity of a syllable all the monosyllabic words are accented. b) In case of bi-syllabic words the stress is always placed on penultimate syllable with the exception only when there comes an extra-heavy syllable in the ultimate position in which case the stress moves to ultimate syllable. c) The rule for tri-syllabic words is that the stress is placed on penultimate syllable only if it is by nature or by position heavy otherwise it comes to the ante penultimate syllable. It can be inferred from the rules that word stress does not rely much on grammatical category of the word in IE as happens to do in RP. Consequently the meanings based on

30 grammatical category of the word cannot be construed from the stress placement but are to be referred from the context instead.

3.2.1.3.8 Rhythm and Intonation

It has been seen that Indian English has its own pattern of stress-timed pattern which makes a characteristic rhymic pattern of this variety. In this variety almost all the syllables are almost equally accent or there exists a tendency for this in other words. This is why weak forms of those syllables in which weak vowels are used in rare. This phenomenon results in a slow rate of the use of linguistic items or slow speed of speech as compared to RP.

In exclamations and commands generally a following pattern of intonation is worked while rising is used in question tags, yes-no questions, dependent clauses and ‘wh’ questions.

3.2.1.3.9 Some Phonological Processes of Indian English

A conical structure of a syllable is taken to be “cvc”. However, in the distribution of consonants all the languages show constraints. Even in Indian language the number of initial consonants does not exceed the number of three consonants. Initial and final consonant clusters show characteristic restriction in different languages. For instance if in English language there is a cluster of three consonants in initial position then the first consonant is |s|, the second consonant is one of the group i.e. |p, t, k| and the third is to be one of the group of |l, r, y or w|. Indian users of English especially those who are not educated and fluent speakers tend to follow canonical structure of a syllable and in this process they split the consonant clusters by inserting an extra vowel in between the consonants.

Speakers of Uttar Pardesh and Bihar generally use |I| sound while speaking English in the initial position of a syllable with a consonant cluster typically starting with |s| sound. For example school |sku:l| is pronounced by them as /Isku:l/. This vowel is called prothetic vowel. However, by speakers from and Haryana an epenthetic

31 vowel is inserted producing /sku:l/ as /sǝku:l/; thus converting monosyllabic word into a disyllabic one. In Nagaland and Maripur there is a trend of simplification lone by dropping the final consonant for example the word fruits /fru:ts/ is pronounced as /fru:t/.

Another variant of Indian English is found in the pronunciation of the words having inflection “-ed”. Generally Indians use |d| sound regardless of the voicing feature of the preceding consonants whereas in RP if “-ed” follow voiceless consonant the pronunciation is |t| while it is |d| only when ‘-ed’ is preceded by voiced consonant. Indian English has another distinguishing feature that of not using /l/, /m/, /n/ as syllabic consonants in the words like bottle, bottom and button.

3.2.2 Morphology of the Indian English

So far as the morphology of Indian English is concerned there is, in general, a tendency in IE to respect the rules of Standard English. Hannak (1982) as cited in (Mesthrie 2008) finds Indian English to be different from Standard English in having a propensity for the use of compounds. Compounds are formed more in IE compared with SE according to him. The examples for such compounds are ‘age barred’, ‘meeting notice’ key-bunch, chock-piece etc. A characteristic Indian English compound is ‘time- pass’ which is used to show lack of interest in something e.g. pea-nuts are called pastime because they are used to while away time that is lacking in interest. In Indian English man nouns are often pluralized like ‘woods’, ‘letters’, ‘furnitures’. However, sometimes the nouns which need to be pluralized are used in their singular form like in the phrase “one of my relative”.

It was also suggested by Baldridge (2002) that Indian English makes an extensive use of compound formation. A unique example of compound formation in Indian English is the words like cousin-brother and cousin-sister. It shows the function that is found in most of the Indian languages.

Baldridge proposed that when a word is taken into IE form a local language ‘s’ or ‘’ is added even when the word thus taken is already has plural use e.g. ‘roti’ becomes ‘roties’. Also, there is a trend of attaching English suffixes to Indian items when taken in

32

IE from local language such as ‘-dom’ (cooliedom), -ic (upanichadic), -ism (ghundaism). The word prepone is formed by substituting ‘post-’ by ‘pre-’ in the word postpone.

Following are some other important features of IE:

1) Non-count nouns are pluralized for example evidence is pluralized as “there are many evidences” in literature to show. This feature is called deviant nominal. 2) Modifiers are used in a different way such as “they felt very much thankful for the kindness shown”. This is called deviant modifiers. 3) There is category confusion in Indian English in which a particular grammatical category of a word is used as which it is not a Standard English e.g. ‘our telephonic conversation may please be recalled’.

3.2.3 Lexicon of Indian English

Differences in Indian English are observed in the vocabulary of the language also. In some cases the differences are because of the morphology. Similarly in Indian English new words and expressions are made which have a local flavor of their culture and languages. Indian English speakers seem to be rather creative in the way they use language. The linguistic creativity manifested in the process of communications shows variation as per the age and gender of the individual using language. Abbreviations such as ‘princi’, ‘congs’ and ‘subsi’ etc are used to mean ‘principal’, ‘congratulation’ and ‘subsidiary’. Another aspect of variation is shown in creating altogether new words and different usages; for example the word ‘mixi’ is used to refer to a ‘food grinder’ and words like action-packed and hard-hitting are used to indicate a deadly film. Their language sounds different at times because of the mother tongue influence when the Indian English speakers tend to go for literal translations or expressions. Some of the examples of the literal translations are ‘yesterday evening’, ‘today morning’, ‘may I know your good name’ etc. Similarly when they say ‘you people’, they are addressing a group of people. All the examples given above are the exact translation of what they say in . Moreover there is a lot of code-mixing in the speech of the Indian speakers which yields even more of such divergences from the Standard British English. For example when they use the expression ‘in general’ they use the word ‘general’ as it is,

33 whereas the translation of ‘in’ comes from their respective mother tongue. Moreover some vocabulary items are not a part of the British Standard English but they are found in the Indian variety. The origin of some such words is the Portuguese language. Words such as ‘peon’, ‘cobra’ and ‘mosquito’ are some of the most frequently used examples in this regard. Some more words like ‘curry’, ‘bamboo’ and ‘betel’ also make appropriate examples in this connection.

Indian region has a long history and it is very rich and fertile in its linguistic heritage. Many words used in the Indian variety date back to the Mughal period also and these linguistic items are used till date in the contemporary times. Items such as ‘zamindar’, ‘lathi’, ‘bakhshish’, ‘pyjama’, ‘lakh’, ‘chowkidar’ and ‘sepoy’ constitute appropriate examples in this regard.

3.2.4 Syntax of Indian English

In terms of the syntax of the language there is no much difference between the Indian variety and the standard British English. Most of the structures used in both the languages are the same and acceptable to each other but there are a few differences discussed in the following discussion.

3.2.4.1 Use of Articles

The use of the correct article i.e. ‘the’ ‘a’ and ‘an’ (definite and indefinite) is a very complex issue. There seem to be a difference even among the natives of the language as to when it ought to be used and when dropped. Moreover articles are not found in any of the Indian languages and thus it becomes extremely difficult at times for the speakers to correctly decide how to go about them. It has been observed that Indians use an article where it should not be used and it is so the other way round as well. One possible reason in addition to the absence of the articles in the Indian local languages could be that no English grammar clearly states the rules about the English articles. Therefore in addition to the mother tongue influence, teaching of the language also becomes at times one the causes of the issue. Owing to this it becomes a problem especially at the undergraduate level for students to manage it rightly. It has been

34 observed that sometimes ‘a’ is replaced by ‘one’. For example: ‘there is one man in the shop’. However it should be noted that mostly well-educated Indian speakers do not go wrong about the use of the articles. Some of the deviations found in the speech of the undergraduate learners of the English language include for instance: confusing the correct article, dropping an article where it is to be used, using one where it is not even necessary and so on. If there is a complex sentence some speakers find it difficult to use the articles correctly and if the complexity increases, they find it even more difficult then. As mentioned earlier these deviations seem to be a product of the learners’ L2 errors which get associated wrongly with the Indian English to mark it as a variety distinct from others.

3.2.4.2 Use of Emphatic Marker

The Indian speakers of the English language at times use the emphatic markers ‘only’ and ‘itself’ in a deviant fashion. They use these emphatic markers to underscore and highlight time and place but their way of doing this seems to be unlike that of the native English speakers. For example one may hear sentences such as ‘can you come to day itself?’ and ‘he was at the airport only’. In addition to ‘itself’ and ‘only’, Indian speakers use the word ‘also’ in a slightly different way. For example: ‘he did not use the English words also’. In this sentence the placement of ‘also’ at the end of the sentence make the sentence a little confusing.

3.2.4.3 Reduplication of Verbs

Reduplication of the verbs is observed as a feature of the Indian English when they emphasize something. For example ‘run run’, ‘eat eat’ etc. Reduplication of the verbs is very common in the Indian languages, which gets transferred into English when they use it.

3.2.4.4 Use of Verbs

In the Indian variety of English, Indian local languages have a big role to play when it comes to using the verbs. They seem to literally translate verbs like ‘take’,

35

‘keep’, ‘leave’, ‘open’, ‘close’ and ‘put’ when they communicate in English. For example if they want someone to put something somewhere, they say ‘keep it there’ which is a literal translation of what they say in Hindi. Similarly if they want a light to be turned on or off, they may say ‘open or close the light’. It is the same actually what they have in their indigenous languages. In the same way if someone is a sitting for a test, they say ‘he is giving the test’ and if someone is conducting it, they will say, ‘he is taking the test’. In simple words, if there is a difference in the usage of the verbs, it is usually the literal translation.

3.2.4.5 Confusion between Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

At times Indian speakers of the English language do not seem to be able to use the transitive and intransitive verbs correctly. There are deviations from the Standard British language however it is not true of all the Indian speakers. Fluent and educated Indians speak very good English.

3.2.4.6 Tense and Aspect

Indian English language speakers sometimes tend to deviate from the Standard English in the use of tense and aspect. Some of the deviations recorded by Parasher (1994) are given in the following:

Use of present perfect for the simple past:

E.g. ‘Funds have been received last year’.

Present progressive for the simple present:

E.g. ‘We are manufacturing a malted food’.

Past progressive for simple past:

E.g. ‘The method we were using sometimes ago’

36

Trudgill and Hannah (1982) also observed some difference in the use of tense and aspect between SE and IE. They listed the following difference:

Present tense with durational phrases:

E.g. ‘I am here since two o’clock’.

Future in temporal and conditional clause:

E.g. ‘When you will arrive, please visit me’.

Tense sequence in embedded and matrix clauses:

E.g. ‘When I saw him last week, he told me that he is coming’.

Progressive aspect with habitual action:

E.g. ‘I am doing it often’.

Perfective aspect instead of simple past:

E.g. ‘I have been there ten years ago’.

According to a point of view deviations as such given in the examples above should not be considered a feature of the Indian English because such structures are often generated by those who are still learning the language. It is suggested that instead of marking them as Indian structures, they should rather be looked on as steps of the learning process.

There are certain general features which may be noticed often in the speech of the Indian English speakers. They are given in the following:

1) Indian speakers can use non-perfect aspect more easily than the perfect one. 2) They feel at ease with the past simple structure.

37

3) They use present progressive structure more often where present perfect progressive structure should be used. 4) Indian speakers tend more to maintain structures in the same tense. 5) Since they stick to one tense, they at times tend to use a past structure repeatedly where a past perfect structure is required otherwise. 6) Indian speakers have been found using the present continuous tense where other structures are normally used; such as in the following examples: a) ‘They are often going out’ instead of ‘they often go out’. b) ‘Where are they coming from?’ instead of ‘where have they come from?’ c) ‘He was eating lots of biscuits’ instead of ‘he ate lots of biscuits’.

3.2.4.7 Negative Structures

Indian English negative structures tend to be a little different than those in the standard British English. In Standard English such structures are usually used in which the negation is implicit or indirect whereas in Indian English it is done overtly and explicitly as it is done in case of most of the Indian languages. In other words in negative structures their mother tongue encroaches upon their target language.

3.2.4.8 Adverbs

In Indian English there is deviation in terms of the placement of the adverb. They place the adverbs where the native of the language do not use them. For example: ‘they will be definitely coming’. However such sentences and structures are seldom found in the speech of educated fluent Indian English speakers and thus it, as per a different point of view, should not be associated with the Indian English. Similar usually the natives tend to place the adverb before the adjective as in the sentence ‘she is always nervous’. The same sentence, may be structured by an Indian speaker as ‘he is nervous always’. As said before sentences as such given above in the examples are often refused to be Indian by the Indian educated fluent English speakers.

38

3.2.4.9 Use of –ing with Statives

Indian English speakers are at times found using -ing with verbs which are non- progressive. For example: ‘they are understanding the situation better now’. If a native were to convey the same sense, they would not use -ing with the verb understand owing to its being a stative. This is one of the striking differences because such structures are often used by the Indians.

3.2.4.10 Relative Pronoun in Relative Clauses

According to Parashar in Indian English relative pronoun is used without reduction which means that the relative pronoun used happens to be pronoun + be, whereas the speakers of Standard English tend to reduce relative clause. It is pointed out by Agnihotri and Sahgal (1994) that resumptive pronoun does not follow relative clause in Standard English. According to them the relative clauses followed by resumptive pronouns are accepted in Indian English.

It is known, according to Agnihotri, to Indian speakers that relative pronoun cannot be deleted when it is in subject position in relative clauses. It was interesting to observe that the informants did not delete or preferred not to delete the elements despite having grammatical knowledge that the deletion of items is perfectly accepted in Standard English.

3.2.4.11 Preposition Stranding

Relative pronoun can be brought to the sentence initial position without the preposition which is thus left stranded.

3.2.4.12 Wh-questions

Many studies indicate that the word order of questions in Indian English is often unique.

39 a) Sentences such as ‘What you would like to eat?’ and ‘Who you will come with?’ show the absence of subject-verb inversion in direct questions. b) ‘What is your companion’ in which an inversion does not take place where it does in SE. Many scholars also claim that Indian English tends to neutralize the distinction between embedded and non-embedded interrogatives.

In SE the interrogative transformation, which is obligatory for non-embedded questions, cannot be applied to embedded questions, whereas for most of the Indian English speakers, this transformation is acceptable in both the cases. Verma (1980) mentioned that in IE the distinction between embedded and non-embedded interrogatives has been neutralized. Kachru (1985) argued that the formation of interrogative sentences can be seen as deviant constructions. Trudgill and Hannah (1982) also claimed that IE shows deviations from BE regarding wh-questions. As in the following examples:

Examples:

1. ‘What this is made from?’

2. ‘Who do you come to see?’

In their study, Agnihotri et al. (1998) showed that fluent IE speakers show greater acceptability for question with auxiliary inversion and low acceptability for questions without auxiliary inversion.

3.2.4.13 Tag Questions

According to Verma (1990) Indian English has simplified the complex rules of generating tag-questions to one rule that is very simple. It is the affixation of isn’t it or no at the end as in the following:

You will eat it, no? His uncle left for yesterday, isn’t it?

40

Kachru (1986) has noted the use of a past posed particle (na) from Hindi language at the end of sentences in Indian English.

The use of such an undifferentiated tag was noted by Trudgil (1992) as well in Indian English. According to many researchers both ‘isn’t it’ and ‘no’ were considered as equivalent in their use by Indian speakers of English. However, Agrichotri et al. (1998) differ in their view. They have shown that Indian speakers have the knowledge that the use of tag depends on the tense of main auxiliary of the main clause of the given sentence. They show in their studies that such type of undifferentiated use of tags is not part of the normative behavior of the fluent speakers. According to them the educated speakers of the Indian English do not equate both the tags in their use. In their behaviour ‘isn’t it’ is preferred over ‘no’ because the use of the former is considered good and not that of the latter.

3.2.4.14 Gapping in Coordinate Structures

In the structures consisting of coordinate clauses deletion of the verb in the following clause can be made whereas it is not done in the preceding clause in Standard English. However, there is a tendency in Indian English to resist such a deletion of particles e.g. Kuldep plays hockey and Sundeep plays tennis, while in Standard English; Kuldep plays hockey and Sundeep tennis; though both of these options are correct grammatically.

3.2.4.15 Complex Sentence Formation: Complementizer Deletion

Standard English exhibits certain restriction on the deletion of complementizer. Certain verbs like ‘admit’ and ‘accept’ do not permit such a deletion whereas it is possible in case of certain other verbs like ‘want’ and ‘seem’. According to Sehriher (1972) in Indian English the use of the complement is overgeneralized so that Indian English uses that fossilized form of the Standard English e.g. Sikandar wants that he should win that prize. However, Agnihotri’s (1988) studies have different results. He shows that fluent Indian speakers are aware of complemntizer deletion in Standard English.

41

3.2.4.16 Direct and Indirect Speech

In Standard English when direct narration is changed into indirect narration, changes generally occur in tense, modal, speech and person.

Simple past tense becomes past perfect and present continuous becomes past continuous. All the modals change into their past forms. Interrogatives change into noun clauses. These changes generally have not been regularized in Indian English but here again Agnihotri maintains a different view; according to him the fluent speakers of the Indian English are aware of and tend to use the norms of the Standard English for indirect speech.

3.2.4.17 Word Order

Indian English rarely differs from the Standard English so far as the general word order is concerned. As it has been seen in the literature discussed heretofore that the deviant patterns are found generally in the use of the learners or the ones who have not been able to get sufficient exposure to the language as a result of which their language has become fossilized. Therefore it is wrong to say that all the Indian speakers use such variation of word order even though many make such a use to make it a part of informal English.

Examples IE:

1) My all articles are in it (Possessive – Predeterminer) 2) What he is doing now? (wh+sub+aux+v+adv.) 3) They are late always. Examples SE:

1) All my articles are in it. 2) What is he doing now? 3) They are always late.

3.2.4.18 Significant Syntactic Differences between SE and IE

42

According to Agnihotri et al. (1988) there do not exist such a set of closely linked syntactic features on the basis of which Indian English can be differentiated from British English. The differences which emerge are generally a matter of preference. It has been revealed through voluminous studies that fluent Indian speakers are aware of the rules of the Standard English but it is only that they show their preferences for certain structures. Following is the list of significant preference they make: a) Most of the speakers of Indian English resist deletions against the Standard English tendency like,

- That of relative pronouns from relative clauses. - That of verbs in structures having coordinate clauses. - That of embedded subjects from absolute clauses. b) This is because Indian speakers tend to sustain redundancy and do not favor deletion. c) The movement of the relative pronoun with the preposition to the initial position of a sentence is preferred by Indians. In Standard English either relative pronoun alone or along with the preposition is moved to final position. d) In case of negatives, explicit negatives are disfavored by the English speakers in ‘if clauses’ while in Standard English they exist as constructions to be preferred. e) In standard English preference is given to the use of various tenses in matrix clauses and embedded clauses when required; whereas in Indian English tense harmony is taken care of even in the situation where the opposite (difference of tenses) is required.

3.2.5 Semantics and Pragmatics of Indian English

A large number of studies were conducted to show that Indian English differs from the Standard English in its semantic, lexical and phonological features. The area where it keeps essential differences from the Standard English is phonology. However, semantics and pragmatics can either be studied to see points of difference possessed by IE from SE.

43

3.2.5.1 Semantics of Indian English

A study conducted on fifty teachers of English at college level came up with such results as:

1) The Indian English differs from the Standard English in meanings of the auxiliaries. 2) In Indian English there is confusion as to which meaning to be assigned to an auxiliary. 3) Where there is a definite meaning assigned to an auxiliary in the Indian English, it is generally close to its core meaning in the Standard English.

3.2.5.2 Pragmatics of Indian English

Speech acts are involved in the pragmatic studies. Pragmatics is defined with reference to the socio-cultural context of the utterance. The notion of discourse is closely related to that of pragmatics. Where pragmatics deals with the phenomenon on static terms, discourse analysis studies it as an ongoing process which ever grows and develops; always grafted on that which proceeds in the process of interaction. Because the discourse is culture-bound so the more the cultural dependence of the discourse, the more are the chances of pragmatics to differ in its norms while dealing with language used in different social and cultural set ups.

According to Kachru (1994) socio-cultural background plays a very important role in the constitution and interpretation of discourse. As a proof she cites some texts which are interpreted differently in different cultures according to her despite the language being the same.

An example for this is large expenses raised on weddings which according to family elders, especially women are believed to be in the larger interest of their family. They believe it to be a way of expanding their family resources because they believe social capital to be very important for the enhancement of economic capital whereas the economists find no role of social capital in economic improvement rather it has adverse a effect in contrast to the beliefs of these people. The typical feeling of the member of traditional family is that there is no other better investment than spending to secure the future of their own children Mandelbaum (1970). According to him social security and

44

social welfare have culture-specific meanings and have different interpretation in the domain of the Standard English. The identification of these terms with extravagant expenses on wedding incurs confusion for the speakers of SE. She views such texts as throwing light on several other cultures – specific meaning and sees as extending the semantic range of many a collocation. Thus, in order to contextualize the utterances properly there is a need also to see the relationship of such values to the family norms.

According to Parashar (1994) lexical choices as well as the use of speech acts is to a large extent a part of the topic of discourse. The areas of style and lexis are expected, according to her, to show a large number of differences in Indian English and Standard English. It is because Indian English has developed after a lot of linguistic contact with the local languages and is also used in a particular sociocultural environment. Indian English is sure to have its own peculiar discourse features for its being a non-native language for most of its speakers. It can be converted into a hypothesis that the educated Indian English conforms to the major syntactic rules of the British English while at the same time, for its being a non-native variety, it shows differences from the Standard English in its lexis and stylistic features. He came up with the findings given below on the basis of data he collected and analyzed:

1. Indians show the difference in the level of formality by using formal items whereas a native might go for informal items e.g. IE: The project is expected to commence next week. BE: The project is expected to start/begin next week.

One explanation of this preference for more formal items can be that English in India is generally learnt in formal classroom environment.

2. Speaker of Indian English also differ in the expression of politeness. In British English politeness is generally expressed by using past form of modal or by using conditional constructions while in Indian English it is different. Indian English goes much farther in finding expressions of politeness than British English. 3. In official or unofficial correspondence, Indian speakers tend to be much different in their ways than the standard native speakers. There are multiple ways of addressing the

45 addressee and different concluding sentences and phrases in application and letter writing. In plain terms the addressee is clearly conveyed by the addresser as to how much they mean to them. There is a variety in phrases used in letters and applications. For example:

3.2.5.3 Several Combinations of ‘thanking you’

Indians have been found using the combinations like ‘thanking you sir’, ‘thanking you in anticipation’ etc. which do not seem to be in fashion when it comes to the letters and applications written by the natives.

3.2.5.4 Concluding Phrases

Concluding phrases like ‘with best regards’, ‘with best wishes’, ‘kindest regards’, ‘with personal regards’, ‘warmest regards’ and many more are used in their writings which do not seem to be in vogue when the natives’ writings are considered.

4. Indians differ in their official correspondence also. They tend to be a little more formal and humble than the native speakers in the ways they express themselves. They tend to use such expressions which are not direct whereas comparatively the natives are more direct in their writings. Moreover Indian sentences are much longer than those of the natives. The natives usually find them difficult to process. Similarly complex sentences are found to be used preferably by the Indians which the natives incline to avoid in their language.

5. Passive constructions and structures are used more frequently in the Indian variety whereas they are avoided in the speech habits of the native speakers.

3.3 Pakistani English

Like different varieties of the English language, Pakistani English also emerged like one. Although it has problems with regard to recognition but it has several features which render it different from other regional dialects spoken all across the world.

46

Pakistani English differs from other varieties in phonology, morphology, lexis, syntax and semantics.

3.3.1 History and Relationship with Indian English

The British people ruled the Indian Sub-Continent for around two centuries. The areas which constitute Pakistan today came under the British rule quite late. All these areas were not included at one fell swoop but rather brought under the British rule in different times and phases. This process of inclusion started in 1843 from and ended in 1879 with Baluchistan including . Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa and Punjab came under the rule in 1849. As this region was a British colony, naturally the language of the elite class was the English language. Therefore the same language was used in media, educational institutions, courts of law and the government offices. Being the elitist language, it was readily adopted by the effluent subjects also but due to several reasons it could not make its way to the ordinary masses. Thus it remained throughout the language of the upper class. After independence in 1947, almost the same old practice and policy was followed by the governments in Pakistan and in 1973 constitution, it was given the status of the official language of the country. Thus the state of affairs did not change much with regard to the English language. It continued being used and promoted only at the upper level and gradually became a symbol of high social status in the country. It is still used in the higher circles and different institutions at the upper level, especially of the elite class. It is used in official correspondence, schools, colleges, universities, radio, television, newspapers and social media as well. It is most commonly used in the armed forces of Pakistan. Owing to its deep roots in the country, it could not be replaced by the Urdu language despite different attempts and declarations about it. Instead of getting replaced, it is becoming more and more important with the changing times. It still remains the language of power as it has always been since British colonial era. Moreover there is a growing increase in its demand in education at all levels.

Despite a number of similarities between Indian and Pakistani English, there are many differences in both the Englishes. Both in India and Pakistan there are several regional languages which seem to have quite a lot of influence on the Englishes of both the regions. In Pakistan there are multiple educational systems in which the English

47 language is taught using different methods. In those institutions where English is taught with maximum exposure to the language of the natives, the linguistic product there is almost native-like which may be called Anglicized English. Then comes that group of people, who have been taught English in those institutions where the medium of teaching the language is English. Such people speak Acrolectal English. The next group of people, who speak mesolectal English, have been taught the language through Urdu or their respective regional language. The last category of people speaking basilectal English, are those who are not formally educated but they can still get along on the basis of the little knowledge they have about the language. Moreover in addition to these social linguistic categories, there are some more on the basis of the respective regional language of the users of English in Pakistan. Since there are many regional languages because of which the speakers of these regional languages show a great deal of variation in English. Due to this the English of different regions varies phonologically because of the influence of the L1 of the individual. Other than that, in Pakistani English some turns of expression and phrases are still used which British Standard English speakers no more use.

3.3.2 Use in Pakistan

English in Pakistan is used frequently in the routine communication. It is a symbol of a higher social status and therefore very many people tend to use it. It is proudly used in education, especially at the advanced levels. Most of the higher education teaching takes place in the English language. Similarly most of the official documents are drafted in English. National and international business companies and firms do all correspondence in the same language. It is practically the official language of Pakistan. Other than that all legal proceedings, especially in the higher courts are conducted in English.

Pakistan possesses a large English language press and more recently media also have made a lot of development where English language is used quite a lot in various programmes which are telecast. All of Pakistan's major daily newspapers are published in or at least, have an edition in the English language. There are different English newspapers which have a major role to play in the spread of the Pakistani variety of

48

English. In addition to the papers there are television channels which have their programmes in the English language. The Dawn News, for instance, is a very big English Language News Channel. It is quite popular in its viewers. Since most of Pakistani people are multilingual, they tend to codeswitch at times. Code-switching is the simultaneous use of more than one language, or language variety. In conversation/s it is generally done in our country and nearly every conversation in whatever language it may be, has a considerable mixture from the English language. As it is a symbol of a high status, people tend to use it more often while communicating in other languages also. Using English purely is not a very general phenomenon in our country but it is not rare. Purely English is used more in institutions, such as higher education and higher judiciary.

3.3.3 Grammar

The grammar of a language has a big role to play as far as the use of a particular language is concerned. In our country there are multiple languages and varieties that are used for communication. English is a language which Pakistani people have to learn as an additional language to be able to communicate internationally and to secure a respectable job and a sound position. In a multilingual society like Pakistan, a second or foreign language cannot be used uniformly and the same goes for the English language in our country. There are several languages spoken in the country which each leaves an impact on the English language spoken in Pakistan. In that case Pakistani English is not a single variety which is the same everywhere. Its grammar and vocabulary have the flavor of the local language/s. In some cases at times, it seems to be a translation of the structures and phraseology of the mother tongue of the individual using it. Even in translation there is a great deal of variation as everyone does not possess the same level of competence neither in English, nor in the language which the translation is being done from. Grammatically however, Pakistani English resembles the British Standard English more than the General American. Mostly British grammar is followed but at times some American aspects also are adopted by some users of the language. Often those people’s language shows deviations, who are not so well-educated as they seem to lack proper exposure to good English.

49

3.3.4 Phonology

As mentioned before Pakistani English is not a single uniform variety; it has social as well as regional variation. Those who have good exposure to the language, use good English but those whose exposure is not so good, cannot manage communication even. In the phonology of Pakistani people, there is a flavor of their mother tongue. They have an accent which they carry in their speech and often even when speaking the English language, they are identified as Balochi, Pashto, Punjabi and Sindhi speaking. Of course there are exceptions also to this generalization but aerial color in the second language is usually found in the speech of the majority. The speech of a very large majority is rhotic i.e. they pronounce the /r/ regardless of its being followed by a vowel or a consonant but there is a very low percentage of the ones whose speech is non-rhotic. Pakistani speakers have a different stress and intonation behavior as these two things are not taught at school and college level. There are more differences on which several studies have been done. The present work on the Pakistani variety is Pashto specific.

3.3.5 Influences

Languages keep being influenced by one another and it is not quite possible for them to stay absolutely pure for a long period of time. Languages are interdependent i.e. they keep doing the exchange business with each other for their further growth and development but at times only to survive. When any two languages coexist, they are liable to be influenced by each other. Pakistan is a rich country as far as its languages and cultures are concerned. It has accommodated a variety of them on its soil to survive and further thrive due to mutual coexistence. English is one of the languages spoken in our country. Like other local languages, it has to interact with them because of its being spoken by the ones who use the indigenous vernaculars of the country which are many in number. Since in Pakistan several different languages are used and there are number of Englishes spoken around the world. Pakistani English is influenced by both the indigenous languages of the country and also by those Englishes which are spoken around the globe. Domestically Pakistani English directly interacts with the local languages and with other international varieties by means of media. Due to this Pakistani

50

English has a local as well as an international color. Due to this interaction many words from Urdu have made their way into English and they have become globally current also. The region which is now Pakistan and India was a British colony and therefore many places were occupied by British army in the region due to which many vocabulary items made their way into Urdu and other regional languages of the country. The vocabulary mainly includes words from the military jargon. In Pakistan mainly British English is followed which is perhaps due to the fact that we had been ruled by them during the British colonial era. However because of media and other factors one cannot claim that it is purely British English which is used in the country. American culture and language have greatly influenced our language through their films and social media. Owing to this exposure some users of the language deliberately copy the speech styles used by the stars and celebrities they like. This is how their language takes a new effect which combined with the local form of the language appears like a new product.

3.3.7 Vocabulary and Colloquialism

Generally the vocabulary of a language is affected more readily. Essential structure (grammar) of the language remains the same or is just slightly changed after a very long time has elapsed. Pakistani English contains many terms which are unique. It has terms which are utilized somewhat differently in Pakistan. For instance, "chips" is used for potato chips and for French fries as well. The word "lemon" is used both for lime and lemon at the same time.

There are some words which are often confused by Pakistani people when they use them or they are used in a different sense.

Uncle/Aunty - It is a respectful way of addressing anyone who is significantly older than you. "Uncle, please help me with my assignment."

Use of double and triple for numbers occurring twice or three times in succession, especially for a phone number. For example, a phone number 2233344 would be pronounced as double two, triple three, double four.

51

Double roti - This compound noun refers to 'bread' in Pakistani English.

Shopper - This word means a shopping bag, rather than a person who is shopping. The latter is referred to as a 'customer'.

Opening/closing an object - These phrases are used in order to refer to switching something on or off. This is because of the verbs for 'to open' and 'to close' being the same as the verbs for 'to turn on' and 'to turn off' in Urdu and other Pakistani regional languages.

Light Gone - This refers to the electric power outage from the electric supply company. Number – Its use is made often as ‘marks’ secured in an exam. In a conversation which is a mixture of Urdu and English it is often used as plural with the suffixes ‘-s’ at the end.

His/Her meter has turned or is high – It implies that the person is flared up. Generally it is used when a sudden outburst of anger is shown which is probably unreasonable.

Get no lift – This is used to imply a lack of respect, value or protocol offered to any one which otherwise is deserved by the fellow.

In-charge – The use of this is both formal as well as informal; it is a title for a unit’s, department’s or group’s head.

Same to same – It is used to show something being almost exactly similar to another.

One parade – It signifies an engagement in an activity etc. Usually but not always it is used to signify something as a novel start of something.

Out of station – It shows someone being away from the town or city.

Become a direct Sergeant – It signifies promotion out of turn or assignment of responsibility or an office prematurely. Often it is used to give meaning that a person is out of his or her depth. For example in this sentence, “poor performance is as a result of the direct Sergeants in the team”. At times the word sergeant is substituted by Havildar which is equal to a rank in Pakistan’s army.

52

Miss – The word is used as a title for a female teacher regardless of her marital status. It is not much in trend while referring to female colleagues or other females in general.

Madam – This word is generally used as a title for the females who are superior in position or have a higher status in any other sense. For example “I was ordered by Madam to be in the office by 8’o clock”. Thus the word has been used for a boss who is in a superior position if the use in derogatory sense is ruled out here.

Sir – It is used for someone who happens to be superior in position or higher in the rank; it is generally used with the name of that individual. However, at times its use is made independently to refer to a person. For example in the former sense; has Sir Ali left the class? While in the latter sense it is; is Sir still in the office?

Well left – It is used to mean that something dangerous or harmful has been avoided artfully. It is used especially in cricket to mean that the batsman has not bothered to play a delivery which might have been dangerous if it had been played.

Threw/received a googly – It is used to imply that something unexpected has resulted. It is used in the sense of a deceptive move. In cricket this term is used when an off spinner bowls a leg-breaker or vice versa.

Yorker – It implies a situation which involves a sudden and dangerous move, the result of which is devastating.

Hit the middle stump – It is used to show the accuracy of a move. It implies the thing has been done in the best way by achieving the target in an exact way. It is used in cricket when the ball hits the middle stump so that the batsman is bowled out beyond any confusion.

Master Sahib – It is used as a title for a craftsman who is believed to be an expert in the art or his field.

Drinking a cigarette/a cigar – It is an outcome of the mother tongue influence because in Urdu and other regional languages the words for smoking and drinking are same which

53 result in confusing both of these in English. Its cause is the tendency for literal translation and not idiomatic one.

Elder – The typical local use of this item is that it is used as comparative adjective. For example in the sentence ‘I am elder to you’ instead of being ‘I am older than you’.

Graduation – Here the local use matches that which is made of UK. It is used to mean or refer to the bachelor’s degree. For example saying ‘He is a graduate’ means the same as saying ‘He has got the bachelor’s degree’. However the use of graduation in the United States is made for anyone who has completed High School or Masters or even Ph.D.

Shirting and Suiting – It is used to refer to the process of making such dresses. Generally the suffix –ing is used in the names of different shops which serve in men’s wears.

Timings – It is used to signify the office time or the duty timings of a work place. However it is used at times in the sense of a schedule which has a plan of distribution of time for different activities.

Gentry – It is commonly used to refer to a social class without its specific used for high social class only. This word procures different adjectives in order to mark different classes e.g. high gentry, low gentry etc.

Mutton – Commonly it means the meat of goat and that of sheep.

In the list given below are the items which are not well known outside but are popular in Pakistan.

Batchmate or Batch-mate – It is used for a person who is not a class fellow but is schoolmate in the same grade or course.

Compass Box – It is used to refer to a sort of box which contains different instruments which are used to draw in mathematics. There is another name which is even more popular for it i.e. ‘geometry box’.

Cousin-brother – is used to refer to a male who is a first cousin and cousin-sister is referred to a female who is a first cousin.

54

Overhead bridge – It is used for a bridge that is constructed over a road for the pedestrians to use while crossing a road without getting into traffic on the road.

Flyover – By it a bridge or a pass is meant which goes over a road or crosses a railway track.

Go down – It is a place which is used to store things.

God-man – A term with negative implications used to refer to such a person who claims to have dynamic or supernatural powers.

Gully – It has come from the Hindi word ‘gali’ which means almost the same. It is used to signify a narrow passage or a lane or an alley.

Long-cut – It means taking a long course to reach a destination where a shorter one is available. It is used as opposite to short-cut.

Mugging/Cramming or Mugging up – It means committing something to memory without understanding it properly. There is another word used in the same sense i.e. ‘rote learning’. This word has nothing to do with the meaning it produces in American/British culture i.e. that of having something to do with street crime.

Nose-screw – There is another word in use for it as well i.e. nose-pin. Basically both of these words refer to a jewelry item worn by women in their pierced nose.

Prepone – It has been entered into many dictionaries which means putting something off. Therefore this word means doing something before the set time for it starts.

Tiffin Box – Its use is similar to lunch-box. However it refers to something taken between meals as a snack food.

BHK – An abbreviation to refer collectively to ‘bedroom, hall and kitchen’. It is an exclusive term for house categorization where hall refers to a living room. Hall is highlighted separately.

Co-brothers – This term is used to refer to two persons who have married two sisters.

55

Co-in-laws – It is used to indicate the mutual relationship of the parents of a girl and a boy who have been wedded to each other.

Co-sister – indicates the relationship that exists between two girls who have been married to two brothers.

Boss – It is used for person other than a chum who is very frank or enjoys intimacy. It is used by strangers in certain cases.

Vote Bank – This term is used very commonly in Pakistan during elections. It means the sum total of expected voters of a particular party who may possibly cast their vote in favor of that party during the elections.

Rubber – It is something used to erase anything written by lead pencil. The word ‘eraser’ is also used to mean the something however it is very uncommon.

Pant – The word has been specified for trouser wear because the word ‘trousers’ is used specifically for a casual wear or a sports-wear. It is extended to even sleepwear as well.

Mess – It indicates a dining hall especially in dormitories of students. This word is also used for dining hall for army officers as well.

Eve-tearing – It is used to mean verbal harassment of women.

Out of Station – The term finds its origin during the time of East India Company in the Subcontinent. It was developed in the army especially to tell that a particular person has gone out of the town. It maintains its meaning even at the present.

Acting Pricey – It is used to show the behavior of a person who is being a snob.

Pass Out – It means to complete a course, academic or that of military training or any other training successfully.

Tight Slap – It is used for a powerful or hard slap.

Time pass – It is used for an activity which is done in order to pass the time which hangs or could hang heavy otherwise.

56

Time-waste - It means something that is not worth it and is a waste of time; something which is not good to be done even in one's leisure.

Pin drop silence - It means absolute silence that is enough to hear a drop of a pin even.

Charge sheet - It refers to the formal charges filed in a court of law.

Redressal - It is a noun from redress i.e. a remedy, compensation for some loss.

Hill Station - It means a public resort on a mountain place.

Stepney - It refers to a spare tire in a car. This word essentially is a general trademark taking its origin from the Stepney Spare Motor Wheel. It is itself named after Stepney Street, in Llanelli, Wales.

Cooling glasses – This noun is used for sunglasses.

Cent per cent - This means a "100 per cent" as in the sentence: "It is true cent per cent that he has failed in mathematics".

Loose motion - This refers to a stomach disorder or diarrhea.

Expire - It means to die. It is used formally especially with regard to one's loved ones.

Bunking - It means to skip a class without seeking the due permission of an authority.

Carrying - It means to be pregnant, as in the sentence: "She is carrying".

Pressurize - It means to put pressure on someone in order to influence them.

Club or clubbing - It means to mix or put two things together. For example: ''Both the issues have been clubbed together''.

Cantonment - It refers to a regular military installation.

57

Giving an exam/test- It means "taking or sitting for an exam". The phrase is more frequently used in the United States and Canada as well.

3.3.6.1 Archaic Words Still Used in Pakistani English

Curd – It denotes yoghurt.

Dicky/Dickey/Digy - These words are used for the trunk of a car.

In tension - It means being concerned, nervous or in a state of mind. It is used usually in a sentence like this: "They are taking too much tension about the matter". It comes from the eighteenth century British English.

Into - multiplied by - It is used in a sentence like this: 5 into 5 equals 25, rather than 5 times 5 is 25, which is more generally used in other varieties of the English language. The use of into dates back to the fifteenth century as it was common in British English then.

Thrice - It means "three times". It is quite commonly used in Pakistani English.

Like nothing or like anything- These phrases are sometimes used to express intensity. For example, "The people here will trap you like anything". This usage was part of the colloquial English language in seventeenth century both in Britain and America.

3.3.6.2 Medical Terms

Viral Fever- It refers to influenza in Pakistani English.

Sugar- It refers to Diabetes. It is a very commonly used word in Pakistani medical terminology.

Jaundice- This word refers to an acute form of Hepatitis. In standard medical terminology the word is used for a symptom in which a yellow discoloration of skin takes place. In Pakistan the term is used to refer to the illness in which this symptom is most common.

58

Allopathy- This term is used by homeopaths to refer to conventional medicines.

3.3.6.3 Food

Brinjal - This word is used to refer to aubergines or eggplant.

Curds - It means yogurt.

Sooji - It refers to semolina.

Karahi, kadai- These words are used for embroidery work.

Ladyfinger, bhindi - It refers to the vegetable normally called 'okra'.

Sabzi - It means green vegetables.

3.4 The Concept of the Standard Language

Most languages have a standard variety. It is that variety of a language which is held superior and therefore promoted by different concerned authorities and social institutions, such as schools, colleges, universities, government departments, private organizations and media etc. Standard varieties are considered more prestigious than the other nonstandard varieties and are generally thought of as ‘correct’ by speakers of a particular language. However other varieties do exist at the same time which are mostly used in day to day affairs but avoided at formal occasions as they are generally thought of inferior to the standard form of the language. It is indeed an arbitrary and quite baseless approach of looking at a language but they are considered ‘correct’ merely in the sense of their being highly valued within the society that uses the language. It is a kind of social understanding or agreement which exists in that particular community of people. Fasold (1992) puts it in these words: The standard language may not even be the best possible constellation of linguistic features available. It is general social acceptance that gives us a workable arbitrary standard, not any inherent superiority of the characteristics it specifies." In fact the standard variety of a language is one of the dialects of that

59 particular language which gradually grows to be the best of all and therefore appropriate to be used in formal contexts. It gets established because people prefer it and study it to explore and research it even further. Eventually in some cases, an official body, such as the Academie Francaise, describes clearly the grammar and usage of the standard variety. In that case it gets ascertained and fixed to be followed as a model. This is how it is checked from a further rapid change and there comes linguistic uniformity also. More often standard varieties are understood only implicitly as it is a kind of social agreement for a certain type of a language to be called and declared a standard which means that there is nothing inherently good or bad about a language but it is all social and liable to change also. Writing of Standard English for that matter, John Algeo (2001) says that the standard variety is simply what English speakers agree to regard as good.

3.4.1 Multiple Views and Controversies on the Standard English

As regards language it keeps changing all the while. It is always in a process of transition as it does not stay static. There is nothing absolute about it owing to its undergoing a change always. Since there is no fixedness in language, one cannot say that it will always have only one uniform standard. The way the other varieties of a language change, on the same pattern the standard form of the language also changes. At times the standard changes altogether, that is to say that if one variety is the standard form of the language today; one might have another standard tomorrow. Similarly in one place there will be one standard and elsewhere it may be different. Of course there are multiple factors operating in the backdrop and they cannot be pinpointed or identified so nicely, clearly and decisively. Different scholars have attempted to give the definition of Standard English so they explain it in simple terms as to what it actually is and how linguists view it from an objective point of view. As per a point of view Standard English is that particular variety of English which is regarded by educated people as appropriate for most types of public discourse, including most broadcasting, almost all publication, and virtually all conversation with anyone other than intimates. According to this description standard form of the language has to be appropriate in the opinion of the educated people as their educated background gives them the license to give a viewpoint upon language. Similarly it should be acceptable to all sorts of people in the society

60 meaning thereby that it should not cause any public offence. In addition it must be good enough to be used in books and media as in both these domains the best possible form of the language is required. Intimates are an exception as per this definition because usually in such a relationship language does not matter much as one is socially allowed to take liberty with close chums.

Another explanation of the Standard English says that Standard English is not entirely uniform around the globe: for example, American users of Standard English say first floor and I've just gotten a letter and write center and color, while British users say ground floor and I've just got a letter and write centre and colour. But these regional differences are few in comparison with the very high degree of agreement about which forms should count as standard. Nevertheless, Standard English, like all living languages, changes over time. In this portrayal variety in the standard language has been stated to be indispensable which is important for a language student to know because language keeps changing in order to keep pace with the changing times and therefore the standard also changes. Another significant point to remember is that standard varies regionally in any case which implicates that one standard form of the language is not to be regarded superior to its other forms it comes from the society. In plain words it is public opinion which gives an edge to one form of the language over others. Since it is based on public opinion, it is not absolute. It is not any better than the other forms of the language because any variety of the language serves the basic purpose of communication and therefore is good enough. Standard is established in order to give convergence and uniformity to a language. The same point has been highlighted in these lines quite vividly: It is important to realize that standard English is in no way intrinsically superior to any other variety of English: in particular, it is not 'more logical,' 'more grammatical,' or 'more expressive.' It is, at bottom, a convenience: the use of a single agreed standard form, learned by speakers everywhere, minimizes uncertainty, confusion, misunderstanding and communicative difficulty generally.

To determine exactly what British Standard English is and what its features are is discussed as follows. According to numerous sources, Standard English - the official language of Great Britain taught at schools and universities, used by the press, the radio

61 and the television and spoken by educated people may be defined as that form of English which is current and literary, substantially uniform and recognized as acceptable wherever English is spoken or understood. In this description the word literary is important because literary language is considered better than that of a man in the street as it is refined, carefully well-chosen and beautifully worded according to the occasion underway and the established norm of a particular society. The term Standard English is used for that type of English which is held in the highest esteem in such a country where it is used as a first language. It has currency for its established vocabulary, acceptable structures, polished phonology and also fixed orthography (spelling). Standard varies from region to region as there are several Englishes used around the globe and every region has its own standard which the speakers of that region follow. In the United States of America, they have General American which they follow as a standard whereas in Britain, it is the RP (Received Pronunciation) which is considered as the standard. Another term to refer to the RP is the Queen’s English. RP is followed in Wales and England. Like in other English speaking countries, in Australia, there is General Australian which is used as the standard form of the language. To put the whole argument in a nutshell, one would say that internationally there is no such body which may organize, regulate and maintain a globally accepted standard. In simple terms one can assert that it is almost impossible to reach a settlement where there may be one standard internationally accepted by all around the globe. The point of significance here is of the standard being a regional thing as it has a local flavor embedded in it. Another interesting point is that there is usually no official body to regulate language according to the socially set standard. It evolves through a natural growth process without any external check on it. In other words an external or artificial check on language does not work. One more point which we can derive out of the above definitions is that if every English is supposed to be taken as the Standard English, it appears more like a paradox and one tends to abandon this position, or disregard the regional division and takes it just as a broad layout of rules which are moderately flexible and capable of convincing peoples from different regions of the world.

62

A relevant fact one must always remember is the reasons in the backdrop which render a status of superiority to one form of the language over others. The possible reasons of one dialect being considered superior to others could be economic, political, social and traditional. In this context the example of standard British English can be taken which gradually evolved from that variety of the language which was used in London. Since London was a city of economic and political activity, its language gradually rose to become the standard. In addition to such factors, geography of a given language matters a great deal. If a particular region is in the centre with several populated areas around it, its language is likely to be understood more than that of the others. Such a dialect is therefore is likely to be used more than the other varieties. Owing to the form of a language being used more than the others, makes it more likely to be affected more easily by the speakers of the other forms of the other regions. There is a point of view which negates the fact of there being a standard internationally speaking. This argument has been put forward in these words: [T]here is no such thing (at present) as a Standard English which is not British or American or Australian, etc. There is no International Standard (yet), in the sense that publishers cannot currently aim at a standard which is not locally bound.

Thus we can sacrifice the search of a Standard English due to the reason that there is no uniform and internationally accepted Standard which implicates that there is no binding as such on any country as far as the choice of a standard form of the English language is concerned.

63

CHAPTER 4

ISSUES IN SECOND LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY IN PAKISTAN

The spirit of research is to create something new in order to add to the existing knowledge of a discipline so that it may be used by others to benefit from and take it further as well. Language has always been a subject of study and research for language students and scholars. Our language is our identity and therefore it is held in great esteem by humans. It is an established fact that no language is, technically speaking, superior or inferior as every language fulfills its fundamental social function of communication. It is only socially that some languages are considered superior to some others for several reasons. In simple terms we can say that superiority or inferiority of a given language is not absolute but relative as circumstances in an environment keep changing which affect a language directly or indirectly. Owing to this, different languages emerged as influential languages in different regions of the world, completed their tenure and vanished because the factors which gave them support were no more favorable and resultantly some other language took over instead. In our country several languages are spoken but it is really a pity that we are gradually losing them as we prefer our children to learn those languages which we believe are better from a pragmatic point of view. It has been generally observed that children learn Urdu and English at the expense of their mother tongue which is not less than a shameful ignorance. As per the teachings of our holy prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), we must learn as many languages as we possibly may to keep ourselves from the evil of the ones whose languages we do not

64 know. At the same time we must not forget our roots, our mother tongue being one of them.

The present research has been conducted by the present researcher with a view to establish a link between Pashto (his mother tongue) and English (the international lingua franca and the second language of Pakistan). It is likely to help Pashto speakers learn the English language better and more easily as it will give them a sense of the two languages being same and different at the same time. As regards the sounds of the two languages, they are more similar than different. In that case proper learning and the correct production of the target language sounds can be facilitated. Mother tongue interference is a reality which cannot be denied; our country is teeming full as far as different languages are concerned. Because of their being a variety in terms of the languages spoken as mother tongues in Pakistan, there emerge different varieties of the target language (English) also as each first language of the speaker influences the target language in its own right. A lot of research has been done on the ability of a person to manage successfully more than one language. It is a very big plus to know several languages at the same time. Charlemagne, King of the Franks puts it in these words: “To have another language is to possess a second soul” (Paradowski, 2011, p. 742/7–814). What exactly multilingualism is and what are the related themes and issues is discussed in detail below.

4.1 Multilingualism

The ability to speak several different languages at the same time is called multilingualism. Each one of us can be a multilingual provided one gets exposure to all those languages in one’s early childhood life. In other words it is not something exceptionally unusual to be able to use different languages concurrently. Moreover the languages one speaks can be altogether different from one another and they may have partial similarity also. Those who use the different forms of a given language, for instance, a literary form and a common one, can also be included in this category. At the same time to be a multilingual, one does not have to be perfectly fluent in all the languages as it is almost an impossibility in most cases. A multilingual person seems to

65

enjoy an edge over those who are monolinguals i.e. those who can use only one language. The advantages of being a multilingual are discussed in the following: a) Multilingual enjoy an opportunity to look at the world from multiple angles and dimensions. b) They have greater linguistic flexibility and display a much better understanding of the world around them. c) They display much sharper analytical skills with regard to tasks and activities which have to do with one’s problem solving potential. d) Their understanding of how language functions is much greater and better than that of the monolinguals. e) They are established to possess a deeper and sharper perception of language.

There are certain advantages of learning a foreign language also. According to Cummins (1981), it enhances the children’s understanding of how language itself works and their ability to manipulate language in the service of thinking and problem so lving. They are generally more capable of separating meaning from form and are more efficient communicators in their L1. They are consistently better able to deal with distractions, which may help balance age-related declines in mental agility. Similarly they learn more rapidly in their respective mother tongue (L1), e.g. to read, as well as display improved performance in other basic L1 skills, regardless of race, gender, or academic level. They develop a markedly better language proficiency in, sensitivity to, and understanding of their mother tongue. Moreover they develop a greater vocabulary size over age, including that in their L1 and have a better ear for listening and sharper memories too. They prove better language learners in institutionalized learning contexts because of more developed language-learning capacities owing to the more complex linguistic knowledge and a higher level of language awareness. They show increased ability to apply more reading strategies effectively due to their greater experience in language learning and reading in two or more different languages. Additionally they have better abilities to categorize meanings in different ways displaying generally greater cognitive flexibility with better problem solving and high-order thinking skills. According to Cook (2001) a person who speaks multiple languages has a stereoscopic vision of the world from two or more

66 perspectives, enabling them to be more flexible in their thinking, learn reading more easily. Multilinguals, therefore, are not restricted to a single world-view, but also have a better understanding that other outlooks are possible. Indeed, this has always been seen as one of the main educational advantages of language teaching. Multilinguals can expand their personal horizons and being simultaneously insiders and outsiders see their own culture from a new perspective not available to monoglots, enabling the comparison, contrast and understanding of cultural concepts. To add to this they are better problem- solvers gaining multiple perspectives on issues at hand with improved critical thinking abilities. In the same way they better understand and appreciate people of other countries, thereby lessening racism, xenophobia, and intolerance, as the learning of a new language usually brings with it a revelation of a new culture. They have the ability to learn further languages more quickly and efficiently than their monolingual peers. There are social and employment advantages of being bilingual which offer them the ability to communicate with people one would otherwise not have a chance to interact with and increasing job opportunities in many careers.

In short just like Latin once used to be taught as an academic exercise and mental gymnastics with the aim of cognitive training, it has been demonstrated that people who know more than one language usually think more flexibly than the monolinguals. Many celebrated bilingual writers such as John Milton, Vladimir Nabokov, Samuel Barclay Beckett and Iosif Brodsky attest that knowing a second language enhances the use of the first.

4.1.1 Multilingualism in Pakistan

In Pakistan, most of the people can speak Urdu in addition to their regional language or respective mother tongue. Urdu is used as a lingua franca in the country because of their being a variety of several regional languages. It is used, especially at elementary level, as a medium of instruction. Most of the people of Pakistan use it on formal occasions. Owing to its use in education and formal communication, Urdu language enjoys currency to a very large extent in the country. Moreover it is almost a status symbol after the English language and because of this reason; it has become the

67 national language of our country. It inspires the Pakistani people to learn it as it has always been their need. Since it is used in formal communication, it possesses the status of being the second official language of Pakistan. In 1973 constitution it has been declared to be one of the two official languages of the country. The other language is English which is often used by those Pakistanis who make the elite of the country. In reality the Urdu language is the language of a very low percentage of the Pakistani people but still it serves a symbol of our national unity. It is the first language of a very few people whereas the remaining population uses other regional languages as their first language.

Giving the exact number of languages spoken in the country is not quite possible as it seems rather hard to decide for sure as to what one should count as a language and what should be considered as different varieties of a given language. A tidy division of languages and their varieties is not usually an easy task. For example, depending on the criteria applied, Pothohari, Siraiki and are members of the Punjabi-related dialectal continuum found in western and central regions of Pakistan. They can be considered as separate varieties of one vernacular i.e. Punjabi or as three independent languages. In any case according to a cautious estimate there are not less than 60 languages which are spoken as mother tongues in Pakistan. This region has a long and eventful history. The idioms spoken here represent a diversity of language families and their branches. The languages here are of Indo-Aryan and Iranian extraction. There are like Brahui, in central , Sino-Tibetan languages like Balti, in the east of Gilgit-Baltistan and even one language named , in the northern valleys of Nager, Hunza and Yasin. The number of speakers of each language varies from more than 50 million people in the case of Punjabi to less than 250 souls for Aer (Sindh) and Gowro (Gilgit-Baltistan).

There are quite a number of languages which are used for interethnic communication other than Urdu. Urdu is spoken and written throughout the country. Each of Pakistan’s federal provinces has its own distinctive language. In , the Pashto language is used as lingua franca in all its areas except in the

68 north, where Dardic Chitrali is used for communication. Punjabi is the language of the province of Punjab. One of its varieties is Hindko which is used as lingua franca at the northern border with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Its southwestern varieties are Multani and Siraiki spoken on the territory close to Sindh and Balochistan. Sindhi is the majority language and provincial lingua franca in most of the province of Sindh. In the southern megalopolis of it draws back before Urdu and in the north of the province it gradually gives way to Siraiki. In the province of Balochistan mostly people speak the . On the frontiers of the province with and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, it is the Pashto language which is widely used by a great majority of the people for interethnic communication and day to day interaction among the masses.

In those zones where two or more regional languages overlap, multilingualism is mostly found there. For example, Siraiki and speakers living on both sides of the Sindh/Punjab are often found to be fluent in each other´s languages. Pashto speakers living in Hazara District located in the south eastern corner of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa usually know Hindko and many are well conversant in Pashto meaning thereby that the phenomenon is nor so strictly regional. In a way it means that everyone in Pakistan is at least bilingual but one has to consider different degrees of fluency. Learning to speak a new language is normally motivated by practical considerations. Therefore, Pakistani men who work outside the house are more likely to master the regional lingua franca than women who are expected to stay at home mostly. A bazaar trader might speak several languages on a level allowing him to conduct business smoothly with his customers but he may not be able to use these idioms in any other situation. In Pakistan languages other than Urdu, Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi and Balochi are minority languages. For the users of these languages multilingualism is strongly linked to domain. For some people in Pakistan it is nothing special to be conversant in three-four languages; however other individuals will know at least two.

69

4.1.2 Bilingualism

In Pakistan there are many regional languages which are not mutually intelligible in most cases. For communication Urdu, which is the national language of Pakistan, is generally used where people do not understand each other’s language. Thus it enjoys the status of a common lingua franca in the country. Because of this reason, a large section of population is bilingual i.e. they can communicate in two different languages i.e. their mother tongue or regional language and Urdu. Urdu relatively has a higher social status and is used on formal occasions whereas communication in regional languages takes place on informal social occasions usually among people from the same social community having the same background. At times, however, interaction happens in Urdu among those also who share the same regional language but their terms with each other are formal. Urdu is used where the interlocutors mean to maintain social distance. In other word they use it as a social tool to let the other party know as to what they feel about each other. The ability to use two languages makes the individual socially more intelligent. Other than this advantage, the analytical skills of a bilingual are far sharper than those of a monolingual. Similarly they (bilinguals) have an opportunity to view the word from different perspectives. They seem to be ahead of the monolinguals in terms of their scholarship because they can benefit from the insight preserved in different languages. They have greater folk wisdom found in different languages. They have better comprehension and production linguistic skills. Moreover their conceptual understanding emanates from those languages which they use in their routine life. They have a deeper understanding of the psychology of the respective languages they speak. As there are similarities as well as differences at the same time in languages, their comparative and contrastive analytical abilities seem to make see the world from a linguistic perspective. All this is surely affected by the manner in which one acquires two different languages. If two languages are concurrently acquired from the environment where they are used, there will be hardly any difference in the linguistic competence of the two languages as both will be treated by the brain as the same. On the other hand if two languages are learned one after the other, they develop separate systems in the brain as they get registered as two different languages. In the first case, words for the same objects are looked on as one

70 whereas in the second, they are treated as different words with different meanings in different languages. In the second case the competence in the two languages may not be the same. The first type of bilingualism is termed as ‘compound bilingualism’ and the second as ‘coordinate’. A third type of bilingualism is termed as ‘sub-coordinate bilingualism’; in this type while speaking one language, one tends to depend upon the other language when one seems to be lost for words to say something. In such a case one tends to assume a linguistic behavior which may be termed as code-switching and mixing.

4.2 Language Contact in Pakistan

In Pakistan several different languages are spoken which come into contact with one another directly or indirectly. There are five provinces, each with a major provincial language and many minor varieties. The national language of the country is Urdu which is used as a lingua franca by the ones who do not know each other’s language. Similarly Urdu enjoys a higher social status as it is used mostly by the educated lot of the country. At home, Pakistani people mostly use their mother tongue or their respective regional language but communication, out of home usually takes place in Urdu, especially in the big cities. Urdu is used as the second official language of the country. In addition, it is used on formal occasions and in educational institutions.

The region, which makes Pakistan now, has been invaded by different peoples in different eras. Naturally the invaders and foreigners brought their own respective language/s with them; thus providing an opportunity to different languages to be in contact with one another. In the course of history British invaders came, subjugated the local people, settled and ruled the region around two long centuries. The rulers introduced and promoted their own language on the soil and it was done so by design. It is due to this reason that the use of English was not confined to the rulers only; it was used by the local elite of the region also. Thus it became the language of the upper class and therefore a status symbol also. Even those who wanted to be known as an upper class people or at least wished to be associated by them started using the language of the rulers

71 and later cashed its advantages also. As there was diversity in the population, there had to be linguistic diversity also. All these languages thus got into contact as a result of the state of affairs that developed in the region. Although each language was different from the others, speaking genealogically, but still due to the contact factor, they influenced each other to a degree. In addition, since Indo-Pak partition English has always held the highest status which became one of the agents affecting the linguistic ecology of the country.

Punjabi has assimilated English loanwords into it extensively and one main cause of this wide-ranging borrowing is the acceptance of the western way of life. People are more cognizant about imported goods. “When new material goods and concepts are introduced by one group to another, names for them may be introduced as well” (Haugen & Mithun, 2003; p. 244). Proportionally the borrowing of nouns is more in fashion. An additional aspect of borrowing in Pakistani languages is that words to be introduced from other cultures take an outsized share of other words connected with them. In simple words one can say when one word is borrowed it brings along a lot of other words too, e.g. the word ‘mobile-phone’ brought in a number of other words which have been borrowed already now, such as ‘casing’, ‘keypad’ ‘sms’ ‘blue-tooth’, ‘messaging’, ‘memory card’, ‘charger’, ‘hands-free’ etc. Since Punjab is relatively an advanced province of the country, people from the other provinces of the country come in search of bread and butter, education and other multiple needs. As a result of their mingling up with each other, different languages come into contact with one other and words are carried about from one language to the other. They have a chance to learn and understand the languages of one another as a result of which, contact among different languages of the country and the English language also gets strengthened. Owing to this linguistic contact those languages which have been learned and not acquired, carry a tinge of the respective mother tongue of their speakers.

72

4.3 Native Language Interference

L1 interference is an established phenomenon. It has often been discussed by the language experts that the native language of an individual always encroaches upon his/her second language. This cannot be eliminated completely but it can be reduced noticeably if proper training and coaching is provided to the learners in a congenial linguistic environment. Native language interference may be found almost in all the components of the second language. It may erode the target language structure, influence the choice of words, color the phonology, impact the morphology and change the semantics even. What usually happens is that non-native speakers think in their native language which forces them to translate the idea into the target language which becomes one of the causes of native language interference. To minimize the influence of the first language, one has to be exposed to the target language used by its natives and it must happen right in the beginning of one’s life or else it will be impossible to sound like the natives do.

There are various features involved which could help the learners in accumulating and organizing the structural elements of the foreign language. It makes the learners to create coherent structures in order to fulfill the elementary purpose of effective communication of learning the foreign language. It is a slow and continuous process of combining and arranging the structural elements is order to show the gradual growth of learners learning the target languages. According to Rutherford (1987) when a well- formed structure is produced by the foreign language learners in the target language, it indicates the growing perfection in terms of the linguistic competence for successful learning. They are able to absorb the language items and also create coherent context for it.

The foreign language learning appears to be an easy task but it is very complex in reality. It is observed that learners may acquire or learn the elementary or basic linguist ic items easily but they find difficulty while creating meaningful linguistic structures. They are unable to create mutual correspondence between the accumulation and organization

73 of the structural units. The knowledge of the learners can be better gauged about the second language learning by analyzing the production of various skills of the language. One of the factors which becomes a hindrance in foreign language learning is that usually the learners depend heavily on their mother tongue to comprehend the concept. Due to this reason errors may occur in language learning. According to Dechert (1983) and Ellis (1997), if the two languages, the native language and foreign language, are entirely different in terms of their structure it would cause a high frequency of errors in learning the target language.

4.3.1 Research on Native Language Interference

The existence of two languages confirms interference of one language on the other. It is partially due to the learners’ extension of native language rules for learning the second language i.e. they tend to apply the same rules on the target language which leads to the interference of L1 on L2. The surface structure of the target language is affected by the native language. Learners do not altogether transfer the native language surface structure rather the interference of the surface structure of L1 is according to the need of learners, which could facilitate learning of the target language. According to Ellis (1997), the influence of L1 exerts over L2 due to the lack of knowledge on the part of learners while learning a language. He identifies and makes distinction between errors and mistakes. An error is essentially the lack of knowledge which causes inappropriateness in language because one does not know the structure or system of the target language; whereas mistakes are an inconsistent performance and misapplication of the desired language rules in the target language. As a result, learners are unable to generate appropriate linguistic structures of the target language.

It is already stated that second language learning is a difficult task for an adult learner because they already have an established set of language system of their own native language which exerts its influence on the target language structure. It is observed that adult learners are likely to make mistakes because they get confused in making distinction between a set of two different forms; one which already exists in their respective mother tongue and second the target language structure. As a result the

74 learners’ fluency and accuracy of the target language is affected due to the negative transfer of their native language into the target language.

According to Carroll (1964), the circumstances for the learning of the second language are as favorable as for the native language are. He is of the opinion that the same environmental features are operating in the learning of the foreign language except for the occasional penetration of the surface structure of the native language. A target language can be best learned if it is kept separate from the native language. He also highlights the fact that if the two languages i.e. the mother tongue and the second language are dissimilar in form or structure; it will help the learners to differentiate between the distinct sets of structure.

Beardsmore (1982), declares that the foreign language learners face difficultly while learning the target language in terms of the different language aspects and elements like phonology, vocabulary and grammar. The differences stimulate due to the interference or the automatic transfer of the native language, as a result of which, the performance in the target language is affected. There are two layers of difficulty for the foreign language learners; the higher level of difficulty is when the learners are exposed to learn a near language in terms of phonology, grammar and the surface structure. It means that when there are marked differences of form and function between the native and target language, the learning is difficult but the learner is clear about the differences. The level of difficulty is relatively low when the two languages have similar (surface) structure. As a result, the languages having similar structures would definitely share the common lexical items and in this respect the learners would be inclined to mutual interference compared with the one which have different structures.

According to Dechert (1983), if the languages are apart from each other structurally it will tend to bring errors of high frequency in the target language learning because of the distinct systems of the languages. The other factor which may cause errors in the target language is due to the transference of the native language rules. The transfer of rules can possibly be of form or function or both on the part of the learners’ prediction of rules on the basis of equivalences. One has to have maximum exposure to the rules of

75 the language which one aims to learn which will enable the individual to maintain a difference between the first and the second language.

4.3.2 Interference of First Language in the Acquisition of Second Language

As mentioned and discussed above native language influence is indispensable with regard to a second language. It can certainly be minimized but not overcome completely unless one is born and brought up in the target language environment as in that case a second language environment is almost the same as that of the native language. To be able to fully understand the process of interference, it is mandatory to be clear on the related issues and concepts involved which have been discussed at length below in the following one by one.

4.4 Language Acquisition

Language is a social phenomenon which is naturally acquired from the society. It is the greatest and the most important tool with the help of which we express our sentiments, opinions and desires. Therefore, language is said to be the most important element or aspect of human growth and development. A child acquires a language from the society and he starts producing sounds in the form of “coos” and “gurgles’ which indicate the development of his language. It is not only the society which helps in the development of language acquisition but also there are other driving forces like formal teaching and learning which determine the effectiveness of language acquisition. It is the formal elements education and teaching of various language elements which sharpen the cognitive abilities of an individual. It helps them to acquire the phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics through this process of teaching and learning.

4.4.1 First and Second Language Acquisition

The language which we acquire during the early childhood is known as the mother tongue of an individual. There are other names also associated with the language

76 which we acquire from our society; terms like ‘mother tongue’, ‘the primary language’ and the ‘native language’ are commonly used for the language acquired naturally. It is the language which we attain from our society. Sometimes, there is more than one language offered to us by the society and naturally an individual acquires more than one language leading to the phenomenon of multilingualism.

The second language acquisition is a purposeful activity which is learned to fulfill or achieve a fundamental purpose in a community. The language which is meant to be pursued for the better scholastic achievement, for jobs and for official needs, is called a second language. In Pakistan, the use of English is not much widespread in terms of its practical application but it is in the growing demand of the learners to educate themselves to attain a good social recognition in the society with the help of the effectiveness of the English language.

4.4.2 Relationship between First and Second Language Acquisition

There is a mutual relationship between the native and target language phonological systems. It is observed that a phoneme functions in terms of perception and production of linguistic acquisition. The interference of an L1 phoneme reflects the perception of the speech of the target language. Various models are proposed which analyze the phonological system of an L1 and its impact on the L2. The perceptual assimilation model (PAM), as the name suggests, tends to analyze the mutual relationship of the phonological structures or systems of the languages. It determines the function of an L1 sound system in perception of the target language phonological system. The Speech Learning Model (SLM) is also one of the models which focusses on the function of the phonological perception and its effects on the phonological system acquisition of two distinct sounds. The sounds are said to be of ‘New’ nature which are not recognized by an L1 learner because it does not exist in the mother tongue phonological system whereas ‘similar’ sounds are identified by the L1 learners. It can be said that phonemes play a vital role in the perception and production of the target language. The process of

77 identification and construction of the phonological system is known as ‘equivalence classification’ which hampers the categorization of new phonological set.

The learners face difficulty in the perception of the phonological system of the target language due to the similarity index of the native and non-native sound system. Each phoneme has its unique properties and features in terms of its structure and accordingly kept as a separate segment from the other phonemes. Non-native sounds at times are perceived in terms of the native sound categories. It is quite natural that the sounds of high prominence which are frequently used and practiced in L1 tend to influence the perception of the target language phonological structures. We also cannot ignore the fact that while learning a second language the phonemic distribution of phones, takes place in terms of our native language sound system.

The operating principles for language learning are almost the same. Language is a culturally shared knowledge which we acquire from the immediate social set up and environment. The basic or fundamental requirement for the language learning process is the same but there can be difficulty in processing the target language learning because of L1 interference.

In order to examine the key characteristics or features which distinguish the target language from the native language, contrastive analysis hypothesis can be used. According to the theory, languages may have dissimilarities in terms of the structure and the writing style. Like Urdu and the English language structures could be used for illustration of the fact that, the Urdu language structure is an SOV (Subject Object Verb) structure whereas English language makes use of a different unit structure, which is SVO (Subject Verb Object). Similarly the writing style of both the languages is different as a result the differences of structures are liable to create errors in terms of speaking, reading and writing. Lennenberg (1967) is of the view that a learner can acquire linguistic proficiency if he makes use of the language from the very beginning (the childhood age) because with the growing age and maturity our brain loses its effectiveness for the acquisition of a language and therefore in linguistic construction and organization, the learners are likely to make errors.

78

It is believed that human being is capable of learning languages perfectly. Their learning of the language can be excellent if they are exposed to the target language/s in their early childhood. With the growing age, the capacity of learning languages slowly declines and weakens and adults therefore are unable to learn the languages so effectively. The process of a acquiring or learning a language at an early age composes the learners to learn further languages. Lenneberg (1967) suggests that the left hemisphere deals with the perception of linguistic unit which later on functions in production of language when linguistic knowledge is transferred to the right hemisphere. It enables learners to learn the second language effectively without much interference of the L1.

4.4.3 Native Language Influence on the Production of English Sounds

The present study aims to analyze the mother tongue interference of Pakistani Pashto speaking speakers of the English language. There are two approaches mainly used to analyze the foreign language learners’ output. The approaches are the contrastive analysis and the interference theory.

The contrastive analysis is an approach to use in applied linguistics to analyze the diverse forms and structures of the languages. It has been applied for a couple of decades now in order to describe the structures of languages. It has two versions; a strong version, which deals with the prediction of the learners’ errors likely to be committed while learning the second language. The weak version of contrastive analysis helps to identify the errors of the learners while learning the foreign language. One deals with the prediction of errors whereas the other with the identification and classification of errors. The above mentioned versions help to study the process of teaching and learning of the foreign language structural system. Moreover, the learning of the target language is very much dependent upon the native language. It is the mother tongue which either facilitates or hampers the language learning. It is felt that languages which have similar structures facilitate the target language learners as they have to utilize less efforts compared with the languages having distinct forms. The native language could be of thorough advantage for the learners when the native language and the target language have similar features

79

with respect to phonology, morphology and grammar. The language can be learned successfully when it involves minimum transfer of L1 into L2. Lado (1957), claims that when the structure of an L1 is transferred to L2, it creates a major problem in the acquisition or rather learning of the target language.

Fries (1945), a well knows scholar in linguistic studies proposed the scientific based module for the learning of the target language. In order to develop the learning material effective a contrastive analysis be made between the target language and the native language which, either facilitates or hampers the process of language learning. It also assesses the teachers’ methodology to devise and design materials for the learners in order to make learning the target language effective. Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982) defend against the contrastive analysis-based material coming up with their findings on the basis of the data gathered and thus dealing with the CA hypothesis:

1) Grammatical errors of the learners in the L2, whether adults or children, do not manifest the impact of their first language. 2) Many grammatical mistakes can be avoided if positive transfer is operational. 3) The learners do not much depend on their mother tongue to judge their second language grammatical errors. 4) L1 influence is seen more in the phonology of the target language than the grammar of the language.

The ineffectiveness of contrastive analysis can be observed from the above given results. According to the results collected, CA falls short to predict the learners’ errors accurately and also misleads the teachers’ procedures of adopting and designing materials for the learners who acquire the foreign language. But on the basis of such results, we cannot altogether ignore the contribution of CA which helps in analyzing the system of languages in order to facilitate learning.

There are several principles which are used in order to constitute the contrastive analysis. With the passage of time, the principles are changed. The theoretical objectives which were propagated by Lado (1957) and Weinreich (1957), were completely ignored.

80

By the time period of 1960, the contrastive analysis tended to focus on the objectives of teaching foreign language practically. The principle of practical objectives (the strong version) of contrastive analysis causes the controversy as the theoretical objectives are ignored fully. According to the stated objectives L1 tends to influence L2 either in limited elements or in a broader context.

In the target language learning, the interference of the native language rules is bound to make its way into the foreign language. The interference of L1 on L2 is due to either convergence or divergence. The given factors may cause errors in the language learning phenomenon. It is natural and also inevitable that whenever we learn a new language, the rules of the native language are extended to be applied on the target language. The learners of the foreign language keep generalizing the native rules to the target language until and unless they gain sufficient linguistic competence of “receptive or productive skills, or both”. The errors occur while transferring the native rules of the language into the target language. Transfer indicates that when a learner interprets the target language in terms of the mother tongue or other languages. The mistakes which occur in the process of transferring are due to the interference.

Linguistic borrowing is an essential characteristic while learning the foreign language. Haugen (1953), and Lado hold different opinion as far as linguistic borrowing is concerned. According to Haugen linguistic borrowing is a cultural phenomenon which is the result of cultural and mother tongue interference in which the native language of the learner is affected by the second language. Whereas Lado’s remarks that the language which is learned by the learner is influenced. It is not the mother tongue rather the foreign language which is affected in the process of language but the individual style of learning is focused whereas Haugen gives importance to the language. Lado gauges the linguistic competence of the learners on the basis of accurate output.

4.4.4 L1 Influence on the Pronunciation of L2 and the Critical Period Theory

It is a universally agreed phenomenon that one’s native language/mother tongue (L1) influences the second language/target language (L2). In our country Pakistan non-

81 native speakers of the English language are often found speaking English with a noticeable foreign accent even when they begin learning English very early in their life as kids. It seems that the frequency of the use of the L1 influences the L2 production. In other words the speakers who use their mother tongue more often have considerably stronger foreign accents than the ones who speak it rarely or only at times when required. Similarly age plays a crucial role in one’s ability to speak a foreign or a second language. It has been observed in most cases that the earlier one starts learning a second language (L2) in life, the better (Asher & Garcia, 1969). Strong effects on the pronunciation of an L2 have made a number of researchers to conclude that L2 learning should take place during the critical period of one’s early childhood (Singleton, 1989). The language learning ability is much greater in the very early years of one’s life. During this time no matter how difficult and complicated a language may be, the child will pick it up very fast and with surprising proficiency. The pronunciation will be perfectly fine and speech will carry no foreign accent. Age matters a lot in language learning and a child must be exposed to the target language before the articulators grow up fully to take their shape as per the first language of the learner. After certain age the mother tongue does not let one speak language the way the natives do. First language invariably encroaches upon the second one. Patkowski (1990) found that the strength of foreign accent increases to a large extent if L2 learning begins later than the age of 15 years. However, on an analysis of the findings available, Long (1990) concluded that an L2 is generally spoken with almost no accent if learning commences within the age of 6 years, but with a foreign accent if learning begins after the age of 12 years, and with variable achievement between the period from 6 to 12 years. Long suggests the critical period in favor of speech does not stop immediately. The same was maintained through the results of Munro’s and Mackay’s (1995) research.

4.4.5 Evidence Regarding Accents

Foreign accent is the result of the inability of the speakers to produce a foreign language with its phonological/phonetic accuracy so that it is accepted by the native listeners as their native tongue. It cannot be derived that in all the languages there are a

82 lot of variations found on the basis of regional, stylistic and social factors. Native speakers do not face problem or face minimum problem in recognizing these deviant uses of any language because of their long experience with the language which leads to their perfect learning.

Strange (1995), has dealt with the problem of difficulty in understanding the deviant use of a language. She calls this problem as “perceptual foreign accent” which entails the difficulty that is faced by the adults in understanding the phonetic differences of any other languages which are not functional within their own native tongue. According to her these contrasts can interfere in the learning of the L2 phonology. According to Scorel (1967), a foreign accent appears the time lateralization of cerebellum is complete near puberty. The mastery of foreign or second language has bright chances till the age of around 12 because after that lateralization is complete. Interference was derived from the approach that sees language learning as a habit formation. Interference consists of the errors which are generally faced while learning a second or foreign language. These learning errors have been categorized as in the following:

4.4.5.1 Developmental Errors

These are the errors which are not a direct result of the learner’s first language but are made by the learners while learning their second language in childhood as L1.

4.4.5.2 Ambiguous Errors

The errors which can be categorized in either of the categories i.e. interference errors or developmental errors.

4.4.5.3 Unique Errors

These are the errors which cannot be categorized as interference or developmental errors. According to Dulay and Burts (1972) interference errors result from the fact that old habits of the L1 need to die or to be unlearned before new habits of the L2 or foreign language are developed. The important question here is whether the use of the L1 is unavoidable for a learner of the L2 and also whether the errors result from the

83

interference of the first language. Littlewood (1973) has found in his studies that learning Chinese for an American is comparatively much more difficult than learning German or French while for Japanese the converse is correct. According to Taylor (1975) humans generally overgeneralize the rules of a foreign language during their learning process. The learners also tend to reduce the redundancies in the rules and try to omit those rules which they have not learned.

Flege (1999) dealt with this issue and has developed three hypotheses to account for the issue of a foreign accent.

1) According to the first hypothesis which is called the exercise hypothesis; the ability of a learner to learn and produce speech remains intact if the individual keeps learning a language throughout his age without any interruption.

2) According to the second hypothesis which is called the unfolding hypothesis it is proposed that the more developed phonetic system of the L1 is, the more foreign accented speech is of an L2 learner.

3) According to the third hypothesis which is called the interaction hypothesis, an L2 learner cannot keep the phonetic systems of L1 and L2 separate from each other because they inevitably interact.

The difficulties faced by an L2 user in comprehension resulting from the phonetic or phonological features is surely problematic in everyday use of the language and also that is involved in making oneself to be understood due to one’s non-native pronunciation.

4.5 Phonological Awareness

There is an important role of the phonological awareness in learning a foreign language. It has its importance even in learning to read words, sentences as well as paragraphs. It is used in the sense of processing of speaking and writing. Thus it means the awareness of the phonological system of one’s language and the access to this system. For successful acquisition of the phonological system, understanding of phonemics of

84 that language is very necessary. It has been proved that awareness of phonological system enhances the reading skills.

Widjaja and Winskel (2004) conducted a study on 73 grade one learners. The assessment tasks given to them were letter knowledge, phonological awareness, non- word and word reading skills. There subtests were also administered to the students. These subtests consisted of different tasks like syllable deletion, rhyme detection, onset deletion, syllable detection and phoneme deletion. The results showed no considerable difference in the different tasks. However, it was observed that overall the students performed the best in syllable awareness and the worst in rhyme detection. It was found in further analysis that phonological awareness of the Indonesian language was acquired in a different way than that of the English language.

For the comparison of non-word reading in Greek and English the ways the orthographic ‘chunks’ corresponded to rhymes was investigated by Goswami et al. (1997). In another study by Weber (2000) it was found that German English bilinguals showed sensitivity to the phonotactic constraints of both the languages i.e. their native German and non-native English. In the study the subjects were given non-sense words having English and German onsets and were asked to detect the word luck. They were able to find it out first in the word moyshluck. It was concluded that because ‘shl’ is not a possible English onset it made ‘luck’ salient in this way. However, it was observed in case of German-English bilinguals that they detected ‘luck’ in the word moysfluck easily and they detected it much faster in the word ‘moyshluck’ than in ‘moysfuck’. This fact showed their sensitivity to the phonotactics of both the languages. Recently in China a study by Pu et al. (2001) found that subjects showed a shared mechanism at neural level for second as well as native language.

Studies of inferior left and middle frontal lobe showed some parallel activities in these parts of the brain for the generation of verbs in the native and the second language. These findings are an evidence for simultaneous activities in the same region of the brain for different languages.

85

In a study by Oller and Richards (1973) the processing time of a native reader and a non-native reader was compared while reading the English text. The findings proved that non-native readers also make the same number of regressive moves and experience fixations as the native readers do but the fixations were much longer. It proves the processing by the bilinguals being much slower in speech but not different in kind. A similar study by Maki and Marsh (1976) came with the results which endorse the already mentioned research. Simple mathematical computing was assigned to the bilinguals and it was found that they felt more comfortable doing this in their preferred language. It was interpreted that bilinguals do not divide practice time evenly in both the languages with the result that they attain greater automaticity in the language they practice the more.

4.5.1 Labov’s Study of Rhoticity in New York

Non-rhotic accents started appearing in the 18th century in London and Boston. This feature spread to Newyork later because many immigrants came there from East Anglia. Edward Sturtevant, a linguist wrote about the situation in 1917, “A strong western ‘r’ is a distinct hindrance to a man who is trying to make his way in the East or the west of the United States.” This statement can be used as evidence that the accent of Newyork was non-rhotic at that time. The change in the prestige variety is traced back to the time of Word War-II.

Labov hypothesized that the variation of rhotic speech was not random for which he collected data to conduct research. The shop assistants generally try to follow the accent of the customers. This is why the stores labor selected were in Manhattan and were visited by distinguishable customers. The stores selected by him were Saks Fifth Avenue (high), Macy’s (mid) and S. Klein (low). Labov asked for such goods which were on the fourth floor and intentionally repeated his question so that he would get the desired data. It was found that rhotic accent was more common among the people working at the Saks. The percentage of ‘r’ further increased when the shopkeepers were asked to repeat. He reached a conclusion that social stratification in Newyork could be traced to the diversity of accents. According to him a centripetal force was behind all the change towards the rhotic accent and people tried to follow which was prestigious according to them.

86

4.5.2 Labov on Martha’s Vineyard

The experiments conducted by Labov are based on the variety of English spoken in Martha’s Vineyard, an island three miles away from the Mainland USA. The population of this area is about 6000, whereas the visitors it receives annually are about 40000 who come to spend their summer there. The permanent residents or the locals reside in the western part of the island called the Up-Island while the visitors have their property in the eastern part called the Down-Island. Both the areas differ widely from each other so far as their development is concerned. The eastern part where the visitors come to live is far advanced and developed while the western part is the underdeveloped rural area.

Labov study focused two diphthongs [aʊ] and [aɪ] as they are found in the words ‘foul’ and ‘fine’ respectively. It was observed by him that among the locals there were people who started the diphthongs with a schwa / ə /. He devised such questions for the purpose which elicited answers having these diphthongs and each time the locals produced the items involving these sounds. He noted the difference which they would make. When he tabulated his result, the local elements were found dominant in the age group between 31-45 years, while it was the least in the group above 75 years of age. The presence of the local elements and the diphthongs was prominent in the people coming from the Up-Island. It was further noted that fishermen from the Up-Island had this local variety of diphthongs, dominant in their language. The phenomenon was concluded as a movement away from the norm and not towards the norm.

This phenomenon is called centrifugal which highlights the differences rather than the similarities. Summer people’s variety was disapproved whereas the variety used by the fishermen was approved by the locals. The former were seen to represent the indolent class of the consumerists whereas the latter were seen to be the representative of the old Yankee norms with the virtues such as physical strength, courage, skill and independence. It was noted that there is not only movement away from one centre but it was towards another. So both the push and pull forces were formed to be working i.e. a push away from one and a pull towards a new emerging centre.

87

4.5.3 Peter Trudgill on Norwich English

The change in language is sometimes temporary depending on the context where it takes place. Peter Trudgill’s findings are interesting in this regard; he noted a change in his own style of language use while talking to other people in various contexts. He conducted face to face interviews in Norwich England when he came across this phenomenon. He conducted a study to know the way glottal stop replaces the /t/ sound in some of the UK and other accents as in the words ‘better’ and ‘a lot off it’ ["be?ə, ə "lɒ? əv ɪ?]. Some varieties of the Received Pronunciation have this sound in words like ‘apartment’. It is also found in accents used in Singapore like in the words ‘mat’ and ‘pack’. Trudgill found in the analysis of his own language that his own language had more glottal stops while speaking to those who made a greater use of it and less with the ones who used it less. He interpreted this tendency as an unconscious attempt to reduced social distance by bringing into use similar features of the language of the interlocutors. This is emphasized in ‘accommodation theory’ in which the interlocutors tend to have convergent features of language if they decide to get on with one another. Thus the parties signify their engagement. On the other hand people use divergent variety if they want to highlight their differences or different social positions.

Trudgill investigated the use of ‘-ing’ as a word-ending as well. The earlier version of this sound used to be /-in/ whereas the standard one is used as ‘-ing’ /iŋ/. So far as this difference is concerned, Ttrudgill found an internal distinction in this regard which was related to the gender difference. He found that men and women pulled themselves towards different centers regarding the use of ‘-ing’ /iŋ/ or ‘-in’ /ɪn/forms. Women were concluded as being status conscious and that is why fond of standard varieties whereas men preferred masculinity, casualness and toughness.

88

CHAPTER 5

THE PASHTO LANGUAGE

Pashto, also spelled Pukhto or Pushto is also known as Afghani and Pathani. It is the language of the Pashtun people of South Central Asia. Pashto is one of the members of the Eastern group. It is spoken in Pakistan and Afghanistan as well as by the Pushtuns all across the world (Robson et al., 2002).

Pashto belongs to the Northeastern Iranic branch of the Indo-Iranian family of languages, although Ethnologue lists it as Southeastern Iranic. The number of Pashtuns or Pashto-speakers is about 50-60 million people all around the world (Lewis, 2009). Pashto is one of the two official . The other language used officially is Persian (Banting, 2003). It is a regional language in western and northwestern Pakistan.

5.1 Geographical Distribution

According to the online encyclopedia Britannica, Pashto is the national language of Afghanistan and also spoken in most part of Pakistan as the native language of the people. It has provincial character in KPK and also spoken in the east and south of our country. It is hard to determine the exact population/number of the people who speak the Pashto language but it is estimated that about 35-60% of the people make use of Pashto language as their native language.

Pashto language is one of the regional languages of Pakistan which is widely spoken in the southern, northern and tribal area (FATA) of Pakistan. It is one of the principle languages of KPK. According to the given data of Pakistan government, Pashto

89 is spoken by 15.42% of Pakistan population as their mother tongue. It is also spoken in different districts of Punjab like Attock and Mianwali where a large number of Pashto speakers are putting up/residing. Moreover, Pashto language is very much used in the Sindh districts and also in big cities of Sindh like Karachi and Hyderabad. It is spoken in different areas of Baluchistan including the provincial capital Quetta. In short, Pashto language is spoken across all the provinces of Pakistan.

Apart from Pakistani region, Pashto is spoken in the adjacent places of Pakistan and Afghanistan. It is convenient to find Pashto speakers in north-eastern , Tajikistan and South Khorasan province adjacent to the Afghan border. The regional importance of Pasto language can never be denied as it is spoken and understood in parts of the UAE, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Thailand, Canada, , Japan, Russia, Sweden and the United Kingdom also.

5.2 Official Status Pashto language in Afghanistan has national as well as official status. The territory of Afghanistan extended to both the sides of the Durand line which was largely occupied by the British where they established their colonies. The divide line was drawn because of the British colonized regions and left a greater part of it where Pashto language was used which became the part of Pakistan.

The importance and the status of the Pashto language can be measured with reference to the history of Herodotus chapter 07; that all the kings of Afghanistan could make use of the Pashto language as their mother or native tongue except Habibullah Khan Kala Kani. Most of the Afghan kings were bilingual because Pashto and Dari languages were the official languages. had a literary character and was also used in government offices and institutions as the language of instruction whereas Pashto did not have a literary character and was used only in Pashto tribes as their native language. If we draw a comparative analysis, it can be said that Persian was a popular language because it was in fashion in literary writings whereas Pashto was known in the spoken form. One of the Afghan kings spoke Pashto as his native language struggled really hard to promote the Pashto language as a sign of the national identity. Moreover, the feeling of the national interest and growth among the native

90

Afghans lead them for a separate homeland and set themselves free from the British colonial power. They worked for the development of the Pashto language and as a result they established the Pashto Literary Society (Pashto Anjuman) in 1931 with the help of which Pashto made its way into the administrative and government affairs. Furthermore, the establishment of educational institutions and the formation of the Pashto Language Academy (Pashto Tolana) in 1932 paved the way for Pashto to acquire the official status along with Dari (Persian). The growing popularity of the Pashto language did not affect the status of the Persian language which was considered to be a refined, sophisticated and polished language. It was the language which provided an insight into the traditional and the cultural knowledge of the region. According to encyclopedia Britannica King Zahir Shah stressed upon the utility of both Persian and Pashto languages as the official languages. As a result Pashto language came into use of the government and administrative affairs despite the fact that Persian was the language of the elite and the bureaucrats. Thus Pashto became the national language of the native Afghans; the national anthem of Afghanistan is also composed of Pashto lyrics.

Urdu and English are the official languages of Pakistan as they are used extensively in our government and administrative affairs. Pashto language is also spoken in different parts and regions of Pakistan. It is the chief language of KPK and has a provincial character. It is also spoken in northern Balochistan and the FATA area. In some parts of Pakistan Pashto language was permitted to be used as the medium of instruction by the government in different educational institutions. In government schools the Pashto language is taught to the students as a compulsory subject up to grade 5 but not practiced in the public or private school sector.

5.3 History

The origin of Pashto language is rather uncertain and therefore exactly unknown to us. The word ‘Pashto’ is said to be derived from Parsawa Persian (Manfred, 1990). In Rigveda (1700-1100 BC), Pashto tribes are compared with Pashtuns. It is assumed that ‘Pactyans’ and Pashtuns are the same people living in the Achaemenid’s Arachosia Satrapy, in the early 1st millennium BC. But the given comparison as the basis of similarity of names and etymology does not stand justified.

91

Herodotus, the Greek historian, describes one of the tribes the Pactyan ‘Apridai’ who were living in the west of the Indus River. He explains that we do not have definite knowledge about their language and it is unknown to us. The only definite knowledge which we have about them is the term which is associated with them since the 3rd century CE. They are known as “Afghan” (Compbell, 1990; Spooner, 1994; & Dupree, 1978) and the language which is spoken as “Afghani” (Brown, 2009).

‘Pata Khazana’ a manuscript composed by Amir Kror Suri, is said to be the earliest preserved Pashto work which was found in the 8th century. It was said to be compiled during the Hotaki dynasty (1709-1738) in Kandhar, Afghanistan and objected by various European experts because of lack of authentic evidence. During the 17th century, poetry written in Pashto was appreciated by Pashtuns. The eminent poets of the age are Khushhal Khan , Rahman Baba, Nazo Talki and Ahmed Shah Durani. Ahmad Shah Durani is considered to be the founder of the Afghan Empire.

5.4 Grammar

The basic structure of sentence is comprised of SOV (subject, object and verb). In Pashto language the adjective is followed by the noun. Pashto language makes use of number of inflections in terms of case, number and gender. Nouns and adjectives of the Pashto language have four different cases, two numbers, two genders and four forms of the verb. Thus nouns and adjectives are fully inflected linguistic items. Similarly the verb of the Pashto language has a very complex system in terms of tenses; the present, the simple past, the past progressive, the present perfect and the past perfect are the different forms of the verb. Subjunctive mood of the verb has also a separate inflection for it. It follows the sentence construction of the Indo-Aryan languages which includes Prakrits, Hindi, Urdu and others as well. The verbs when used intransitively, they have to collocate with the subject and when used transitively they have to agree with the object noun phrase. In short, there is subject and verb and verb and object agreement. It also makes use of lots of prepositions.

92

5.5 Phonology

The phonology of the Pashto language has been discussed in the following for the reader/s to better understand and relate it with the phonology of the English language.

5.5.1 Vowels

Front Central Back

Close I U

Mid E ə O

Open a ɑ

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashto_language

Pashto also has the diphthongs /ai/, /əi/, /ɑ w/, /aw/.

93

5.5.2 Consonants

Post- Labia Denta Alveola Retrofle Palata Vela Uvula Glotta alveola l l r x l r r l r

Nasal m N ɳ

Plosive p b t̪ d̪ ʈ ɖ k ɡ ʔ

ts̪ Affricate t̪ʃd̪ʒ dz̪

Fricative f s z (ʂ ʐ) ʃʒ (ç ʝ) x ɣ H

Approximan L J W t

Rhotic R

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashto_language

The phonemes /q/, /f/ tend to be replaced by [k], [p].

94

The retroflex lateral flap / / (/̪/) is pronounced as retroflex approximant [ɻ] when final. The retroflex fricatives /ʂ/, /ʐ/ and palatal fricatives /ç/, /ʝ/ represent dialectally different pronunciations of the same sound, not separate phonemes. In particular, the retroflex fricatives, which represent the original pronunciation of these sounds, are preserved in the southern/southwestern dialects (especially the prestige dialect /ʝ/ actually occurs only in the province, and is merged into /ɡ / elsewhere in the region.

The velars /k/, /ɡ /, /x/, /ɣ/ followed by the close back rounded of , while they are pronounced as palatal fricatives in the west-central dialects. Other dialects merge the original retroflexes with other existing sounds: The southeastern dialects merge them with the postalveolar fricatives /ʃ/, /ʒ/, while the northern/northeastern dialects merge them with the velar phonemes in an asymmetric pattern, pronouncing them as /x/,

/ɡ / not /ɣ/. Furthermore, according to Henderson (1984), the west-central vowel /u/ assimilate into the labialized velars [kʷ], [ɡ ʷ], [xʷ], [ɣʷ].

5.6 Vocabulary and Writing System

Like other languages, Pashto language has borrowed lexical items extensively from the diverse languages of the world. It has borrowed words primarily from , Persian and Hindustani languages after the 7th century. A large number of words in origin can be traced back to the eastern Iranian languages which can be compared with the lexical items of Ossetic, and . It has also taken words from French, English and German. Languages always do not rely upon other languages. The same goes for Pashto, which has a large number of words specific to Pashto character.

Pashto language writing system is somewhat different from that of Persian and Arabic. It makes use of 4 diametric marks and 45 letters to represent the alphabet which are the modified form of the Persian letters of the alphabet. Additional letters are also used for specific sounds. Moreover, Persian and Urdu languages are written according to the script whereas Pashto is written in script. The following table gives

95 the letters' isolated forms, along with the Latin equivalents and the IPA values for the letters' typical sounds:

Contextual forms ALA- Unico LC Translitera Isolat Name IPA Latin de Roma tion ed (Hex) Medi Initi niz. Final al al

U+06 Ā ā, nothi 27, 1 alif [ɑ], [ʔ] ā, ʾ ā, ʾ , , ا آ ا آ ـا ـا ng U+06 22

ب U+06 be [b] B B B b بـ ـﺒـ ـﺐ 28

پ U+06 [p] P P P p پـ ـﭙـ ـﭗ 7E

ت U+06 te [t̪] T T T t تـ ـﺘـ ـﺖ 2A

ټ U+06 ṭe [ʈ] ṭ ṭ (or tt) Ṭ ṭ ټـ ـټـ ـټ 7C

96

ث U+06 2 se [s] s̱ S S s ثـ ـﺜـ ـﺚ 2B

ج U+06 jīm [d͡ ʒ] J j (or ǰ) J j جـ ـﺠـ ـﺞ 2C

چ U+06 če [͡tʃ] Ch Č Č č چـ ـﭽـ ـﭻ 86

ح U+06 2 3 he [h] / [x] ḥ H H h حـ ـﺤـ ـﺢ 2D

خ U+06 xe [x] Kh X X x خـ ـﺨـ ـﺦ 2E

څ U+06 ce [͡ts] / [s] ṡ ts (or c) C c څـ ـڅـ ـڅ 85

ځ U+06 źim [d͡ z] / [z] Ż dz (or j) Ź ź ځـ ـځـ ـځ 81

د د U+06 dāl [d̪ ] D D D d ـﺪ ـﺪ 2F

97

ډ ډ U+06 ḍāl [ɖ] ḍ ḍ (or dd) Ḍ ḍ ـډ ـډ 89

ﺫ ﺫ U+06 2 zāl [z] ẕ Z Z z ـﺬ ـﺬ 30

ﺭ ﺭ U+06 re [r] R R R r ـﺮ ـﺮ 31

ړ ړ ɺ̢] ( , U+06] 4 ṛe ṛ ṛ (or rr) Ṛ ṛ ـړ ـړ ɭ̆), [ɻ] 93

ﺯ ﺯ U+06 ze [z] Z Z Z z ـﺰ ـﺰ 23

ژ ژ U+06 že [ʒ] / [d͡ z] Zh Ž Ž ž ـﮋ ـﮋ 98

ẓ̌e (S) [ʐ] (S) ẓh (S) ẓ̌ (S) γ̌/ǵ ږ ږ Ǵ ǵ (or Ẓ̌ U+06 ǵe (C, [ʝ] (C) g'h (C) (C) g ـږ ـږ ẓ̌) 96 N) [ɡ] (N) g (N) (N)

س ﺲ U+06 سـ ـﺴـ sīn [s] S S S s ـ 33

98

ش ﺶ U+06 شـ ـﺸـ šīn [ʃ] Sh Š Š š ـ 34

ṣ̌īn (S) [ʂ] (S) ṣh (S) ṣ̌ (S) ښ ښ X̌ x̌ (or Ṣ̌ ṣ̌) U+06 x̌īn (C, [ç] (C) k'h (C) x̌ (C) ښـ ـښـ 9A ـ (N) [x] (N) kh (N) x (N

ص ﺺ U+06 2 صـ ـﺼـ swād [s] ṣ S S s ـ 35

ض ﺾ dwād / U+06 ضـ ـﻀـ z], [d̪ ] z̤ z, d Z z, D d] 2 ـ zwād 36

ط U+06 2 twe [t̪] ṭ T T t طـ ـﻄـ ـﻂ 37

U+06 ظ 2 zwe [z] ẓ Z Z z ظـ ـﻈـ ـﻆ 38

ع U+06 2 ayn [ʔ] ʻ ʻ nothing عـ ـﻌـ ـﻊ 39

غ U+06 ğayn [ɣ] Gh gh (or γ) Ğ ğ غـ ـﻐـ ـﻎ 3A

99

ف ﻒ U+06 2 5 فـ ـﻔـ fe [f] / [p] F F F f ـ 41

ق U+06 qāf [q] / [k] Q Q Q q قـ ـﻘـ ـﻖ 42

ک U+06 6 ک کـ ـکـ kāf [k] K K K k ـ A9

ګ U+06 7 ګ ګـ ـګـ gāf [ɡ] G G G g ـ AB

ل U+06 lām [l] L L L l لـ ـﻠـ ـﻞ 44

م U+06 mīm [m] M M M m مـ ـﻤـ ـﻢ 45

ن U+06 nūn [n] N N N n نـ ـﻨـ ـﻦ 46

ڼ U+06 ṇūn [ɳ] ṇ ṇ (or nn) Ṇ ṇ ڼـ ـڼـ ـڼ BC

100

و و w], [u], [ W w, Ū ū, U+06] wāw w, ū, o w, ū, o ـﻮ ـﻮ o] O o 48

gərda ه h]/[ʔ], [a] H h, A a, U+06] he h, a, ə h, a, ə هـ ـﻬـ ـﻪ ə] Ə ə 47] , round hē

klaka ي U+06 ye [j], [i] y, ī y, ī Y y, Ī ī يـ ـﻴـ ـﻲ 4A hard yē

pasta U+06 ye [e] E Ē E e 8 ې ېـ ـﯧـ ـﯥ D0 soft yē

nārīna ye U+06 9 8 ی ـ ـ ـی ai], [j] ay, y ay, y Ay ay, Y y] masculin CC

e yē

x̌əźīna ye U+06 8 ۍ ـ ـ ـۍ əi] ạy əi Əi əi] feminine CD

yē

U+06 10 fāiliya [əi], [j] ạy, y əi, y Əi əi, Y y 8,11 ئ ئـ ـ ئـ ـئ 26 ye

101

verbal yē

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashto_alphabet

It is important to mention here that the Pashto language is written from right to left.

5.7 Dialects

Pashto language has two principle dialects spoken in the south and north respectively. The dialects spoken in the south are further categorized into the south western and south eastern dialects which are considered to be softer dialects compared with the north western and north eastern dialects which are the harsher ones. The shift in pronunciation can be observed in the consonant sounds because of regional differences of dialects. The chart is given below to highlight the consonant features.

Consonants:

Southwest [ʂ] [ʐ] [ts] [dz] [ʒ]

Southeast [ʃ] [ʒ] [ts] [dz] [ʒ]

102

Central [ç] [g]/[ ʝ] [ts] [z] [ʒ]

Northeast [x] [ɡ ] [s] [z] [dʒ]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashto_dialects

The differences between Pashto dialects spoken in the extreme southwest and northeast are not of morphological nature but these differences are of phonological character as discussed earlier.

The nine phonemes represented in the column headings below show key phonetic differences between the dialects. Five of them are consonants written in the , and four are vowels written in the ; sounds are transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA):

a ā o u ژ ځ څ ږ ښ Dialect Location

Kandahari (o Southern and western [ʂ [ʐ [͡ts [d͡ z [a [ɑ [o [u [ʒ] [2] r Southern) Afghanistan, including Kandahar ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ]

Kakar (or Northern Balochistan, [ʒ [͡ts [d͡ z [ʒ, [a [ɑ [o [u Southeaster [ʃ] including Quetta ] ] ] z] ] ] ] ] n)

[͡ts [ʒ [z, [a [ɑ [o [u [6] Harnai and Sinjawi [ʃ] , [z] ] d͡ ʒ] ] ] ] ] ͡tʃ]

Mandokhel- [ʒ [͡ts [a [ɑ [o [u , , and Darazinda [ʃ] [z] [z] Shirani ] ] ] ] ] ]

103

Marwat-- Lakki , Jandola, Tank, and [ʒ [d͡ ʒ [a [ɑ [o [u [ʃ] [͡tʃ] [z] northern ] ] ] ] ] ]

Karak, southern and [ʒ [͡ts [ɑ [ɔ [ɤ [u Khattak eastern Kohat, and [ʃ] [z] [ʒ] ] ] ] ] ] ] southwestern Nowshera

[ʒ [ɑ [o [e [ʃ] [s] [z] [ʒ] [i] ] ] ] ]

[͡ts [ʒ [ɑ [o [e Dawarwola Tochi in North [ʃ] , [z] [ʒ] [i] ] ] ] ] s]

From Janimela, South [ʒ [ʃ, [d͡ ʒ [ʒ, [ɑ [o [e Masidwola Waziristan to Shuidar, North , [͡tʃ] [i] ɕ] ] ʑ] ] ] ] Waziristan ʑ]

[ʒ [͡ts Darweshkhel () areas in [ʃ, [ʒ, [ɑ [o [e Wazirwola , , [z] [i] South and North Waziristan ɕ] ʑ] ] ] ] ʑ] s]

Tani, Gurbuz, and Mandozayi, in [x [ɡ [͡ts [ɑ [o [e Taniwola [z] [ʒ] [i] southern ] ] ] ] ] ]

[x [ɡ [͡ts [ɑ [ɒ [ɵ [u Khosti Central and northern Khost [z] [ʒ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ]

[o [u - The Zadran- Arc in [x [g [͡ts [d͡ z [ɑ [o [ʒ] , , Mangal eastern Loya Paktia ] ] ] ] ] ] e] i]

Bangash- Kurram, Aryob, [x [ɡ [͡ts [ɑ [ɔ [ɤ [u -- Maidan, Orakzai, Hangu, and [z] [ʒ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] Zazi northwestern Kohat

[x [ɡ [͡ts [ʒ, d͡ [ɑ [ɔ [ɤ [u Khyber and Darra [z] ] ] ] ʒ] ] ] ] ]

104

Khogyani, , and Pachir aw [x [ɡ [͡ts [ɑ [ɒ [ɵ [u [z] [ʒ] Agam, in southwestern Nangarhar ] ] ] ] ] ] ]

Chak, Saydabad, Jaghatu, [ç [͡ts [d͡ z [ʒ, [ɑ [ɒ [ɵ [u [2] Wardak and Jilga, in southern Maidan [ʝ] ] ] ] z] ] ] ] ] Wardak

Urgun, Gomal, Barmal, Omna, [ç [͡ts [ʒ, [a [ɑ [o [u obi, and Sar Hawza, in [ʝ] [z] ] ] z] ] ] ] ] eastern Paktika

Central Central region Ghilji (or [ç [͡ts [ʒ, [a [ɑ [o [u (, northern [ʝ] [z] Northwester ] ] z] ] ] ] ] Wardak, , , etc.) n)[2]

Eastern and northeastern Northern (or Afghanistan, and northern FATA [x [ɡ [͡ts [a [ɑ [o [u [z] [ʒ] [2] Eastern) (Jalalabad, Kunar, Kunduz, Bajaur, ] ] ] ] ] ] ] etc.)

Central, northern, and (or eastern Pakhtunkhwa [x [ɡ [d͡ ʒ [a [ɑ [o [u Northeastern [s] [z] (Peshawar, Dir, Swat, Swabi, Man ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ) sehra, etc.)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashto_dialects

5.9 The Development of Pashto

One of the most eminent writers Kushhal Khan Khattak wrote around 45,000 poems in the Pashto language. It is estimated by the historians that he wrote more than 200 books. Distar Nama, Baz Nama, Fazal Nama and Farrah Nama are some of his most famous books. Pashto happened to be the language of the court at the time of Ahmad Shah Baba (1723-1773). Marefa al Afghani was the first teaching text written by

105

Pir Muhammad appeared in Ahmad Shah’s time period. In 1805 AD, the first grammar of Pashto was written. Riaz al Muhabbat and Ajayeb al Lughat were the couple of Pashto books written in India by Hafiz Rahmatullah Khan’s sons.

CHAPTER 6

PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY OF ENGLISH

Syntax, semantics, phonology and phonetics have distinct areas of study in linguistics. Where syntax studies constraints of word order in a sentence and the rules which govern their order of occurrence in a sentence; semantics deals with the meaning part of different items in a sentence structure. Phonetics and phonology deal with the spoken part of the utterances. They stand distinct so that phonetics deals with the articulation, transmission and reception of the speech sounds while phonology deals with their function, organization and variation when they are used in a particular language. Therefore phonetics can be seen as dealing with the sounds of a language whereas phonology as the study of a sound system of a language. Hence phonetics is an important description tool used to investigate phonological features of a language.

Much importance is attached to the phonetic and phonological study of a language for various reasons. One of these reasons is that such a study which deals with language and its phonological features provides an insight into the functions of human mind during the process of languaging. The other two reasons are important from the second language learning and teaching point of view as it is believed that phonological study better equips

106 the learners to develop effective listening skills and consequently greater listening comprehension. The second reason is that the knowledge of phonology helps in teaching better pronunciation of the L2.

It is important to know that phonetics and phonology deal with the sounds of a language and do not depend on letters of the language used as graphical symbols. So it needs to be made clear here that the discussion in this study will not account for the letters the alphabet of the English language. English being a non-phonetic language is something very familiar. For example English letters have traditionally only five vowels whereas in English phonemic inventory there are twenty vowel sounds. To make a distinction, the orthographic form will be written in italics and their phonetic transcription will be in square brackets. However there is a phonological transcription which will be provided within slashes. For example the word ‘please’ will be transcribed phonetically as [pli:z] while phonologically as /pli:z/.

6.1 List of Symbols

There are 44 phonemes in total of the English language. Out of these 44, there are 24 consonants and 20 vowel sounds. The vowel sounds have been further categorized into two groups i.e. single and double vowels. There are 12 single and 8 double vowels. Single vowels have two groups i.e. long and short vowels. There are 5 long and 7 short vowels in total. All this has been given in the form of a table in the following for the convenience of the reader/s.

6.1.1 Consonants

p as in pea b as in bee t as in toe d as in doe k as in cap g as in gap tʃ as in chin dʒ as in gin f as in fat v as in vat

107

Θ as in thing Ð as in this s as in sip z as in zip ʃ as in ship ʒ as in measure h as in hat m as in map n as in nap ŋ as in hang l as in led r as in red j as in yet w as in wet

6.1.2 Single/Pure Vowels (Monophthongs)

ɪ as in pit i: as in key

e as in pet ɑ: as in car

æ as in pat ɔ: as in core

ʊ as in put u: as in coo

ɒ as in pot ɜ: as in cur

ʌ as in but ə as in about

6.1.3 Double Vowels (Diphthongs)

eɪ as in bay əʊ as in go

aɪ as in buy aʊ as in cow

ɔɪ as in boy

ɪə as in peer eə as in pear ʊə as in poor

108

Figure 1 (List of English Phonemes with Examples)

6.2 Phonetics

Phonetics is the technical and methodical study of human speech sounds. In other words it is a science which deals with the speech sounds made by humans. Yule (1996) defines it as the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds. Different speech organs are involved in the production of the sounds of a language; they are called articulators as well. In the following they have been discussed in detail in order to highlight their role with regard to the production of the different phonemes of the English language.

6.2.1 The Speech Organs

109

Figure (2): Speech Organs. (Thomas, 1976; p. 31)

The organs given above, on figure 2, have their role in the production of speech. In this process the air stream passes through the wind pipe and enters the vocal tract (an area in which speech organs are located which is why it is called the speech area) where it is worked upon by the speech organs to turn it into different speech sounds. Diaphragm helps lungs in pulling in and pushing out the air. The air coming from the lungs faces the first obstruction at the point of the larynx which is marked as the beginning point of the vocal tract. Here the airstream comes across two flapped and flexible structures called the vocal cords which vibrate, partially obstructing the air passage, producing sounds characterized as voiced. On the other hand, the sounds in the production of which the vocal cords do not vibrate are categorized as voiceless. From the larynx the airstream enters the pharynx and from there goes into the upper part of the vocal tract from where it passes either through the oral or nasal cavity producing a non-nasal sound in case of the former and a nasal one in case of the latter.

110

Figure (3): Production of oral and nasal sounds. (Thomas, 1976; p. 32)

The organs used in the articulation of sounds have other functions to perform. The diaphragm and lungs are obviously involved in breathing and the nasal cavity is involved in filtering and humidifying the incoming air. The tongue and the teeth also have an important function in food digestion. Vocal cords have a function of stopping the food from entering the windpipe and allowing it to go down the way towards the esophagus. Thus four different places can be identified where sounds are modified. Vibration of the vocal cords can be considered as their additional function.

111

Figure (4): sound modification places. (Thomas, 1976; p. 33)

6.2.2 Consonants

The airstream coming from the lungs is obstructed in various ways at different points in the vocal tract and thus producing the consonant sounds. At times the airstream is simply modified in different ways by different positions of the tongue and lips while passing unobstructed through the mouth producing thus sounds known as the vowel sounds.

The basis for the classification of the consonant sounds is formed generally on VPM formula which stands for voicing, manner of articulation and place of articulation. Voicing is dependent upon the vibration of the vocal cords. If in the production of a sound, the vocal cords vibrate, it is categorized as a voiced sound while a sound in which they do not vibrate, is called a voiceless sound. Place of articulation tells us about the place in the vocal tract where the obstruction is made and the organs involved in the production the sound. Manner of articulation tells about the nature of the obstruction.

112

6.2.3 Voicing

Larynx is located in the neck. It is a box like structure which is commonly referred to as the Adam’s apple. Vocal cords are the two flapped muscles attached to the inner side of the walls of the larynx. There is a longitudinal opening in the centre so that each half on either side can move to the other half to come into contact with each other to block the airstream coming from below.

113

Figure (5): voicing. (Roach, 1983; pp. 23, 25)

The vocal cords have three different positions. In their fully open position, they offer no hindrance to the air passage so that the air may pass uninterrupted. In this position, the sounds produced are called ‘voiceless sounds’. In the second position i.e. half-open or semi-open position, the vocal cords come close to each other but do not make a tight contact so that the cords are made to vibrate as the air passes through. In the third position, which is fully closed position, the passage for air is fully blocked and no

114 sound can be produced as the air is not let to pass through the vocal tract. All the different positions have been given above.

For example sue and zoo differ in their first sound only with respect to the feature of voicing as [s] is a voiceless sound whereas [z] a voiced one. As per the other two bases of classification, i.e. place and manner of articulation, they are the same. Exactly similar is the case with few and view where [f] is voiceless while [v] a voiced sound. Voicing can be detected by plugging one’s fingers into the ears while producing a sound. In case of a voiced sound, a buzz is felt and in case of the voiceless, there is no buzz. It can be done alternatively by placing a finger on the Adam’s apple. This way the vibration or its absence can be felt.

In this method, generally such pairs of words are used which differ from each other by one sound only. These pairs are called the minimal pairs. For example, in the pairs try/dry, chew/Jew, pie/buy, thigh/thy and clue/glue the initial sounds in each pair differ only on the basis of voicing. Minimal pairs can be used to make distinction between two vowels also. The method can also be used to distinguish the final consonants like in the words pig/pick, leave/leaf, ridge/rich etc. following are the voiced consonants /b/, /d/, /g/, /v/, /Ð/, /z/, /ʒ/, /l/, /r/, /j/, /w/, /dʒ/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ in English while voiceless consonants are /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, /ʃ/, /s/, /Θ/, /h/, /tʃ/.

6.2.4 Places of Articulation.

As it has been discussed that consonants differ on the basis of their voicing features; however this does not suffice to enable us to categorize or make distinct all the consonants. For example voicing cannot account for the different sounds used in the following minimal pairs fry/cry, pick/tick and kick/lick. In such cases there is a need for other bases to account for such problems. Place of articulation is another basis of distinction which tells where an obstruction is made in the oral cavity in the production of a particular sound. Classification on the basis of place of articulation has been presented

115 through the figure below. The different places of articulation used in the production of the English sounds have been marked in it.

Figure (6): places of articulation. (Roach, 1983; p. 8)

116

6.2.4.1 Bilabial Sounds

These are the sounds in the production of which both the lips are actively involved. The lips in this process either have a complete contact or a partial one as in case of [p] [b] and [m]. There may be a simple movement towards each other as in case of the [w] sound.

Figure (7): bilabial articulation. (Roach, 1983; p. 31)

117

6.2.4.2 Labiodental Sounds

The sounds which are produced through the participation of the lower lip and the upper teeth are called the labiodentals. In English [f] and [v] are labiodentals; the former being voiceless and the latter voiced.

.

Figure (8): labiodental fricative articulation. (Roach, 1983; p. 49)

118

6.2.4.3 Dental Sounds These sounds are produced with the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth on the front. They are dental because the stricture is made at teeth. In English they are [Θ] oath (voiceless) and [Ð] clothe (voiced).

Figure (9): dental fricative articulation. (Roach, 1983; p. 49)

119

6.2.4.4 Alveolar Sounds

Behind the upper teeth a bulging part of the gum can be felt which is called alveolum. Tip of the tongue is brought close to this part in making obstruction for the airstream in production of certain English sound which are called the alveolar sounds. In English [t, s] two, sew are voiceless and [d, z, n, l, r] dew, zero, not, like, rock, are voiced.

Figure (9): alveolar articulation. (Roach, 1983; p. 49)

120

6.2.4.5 Palatoalveolar Sounds

These sounds are produced when the tip of the tongue touches or gets close enough to the part of the hard palate behind the teeth ridge just before the roof of the hard palate. These sounds in English are [∫, t∫, З, dЗ].

Figure (10): palate-alveolar fricative articulation. (Roach, 1983; p. 50)

121

6.2.4.6 Palatal Sounds

These are the sounds which are produced by the contact of the tongue further back from the teeth ridge. The place is exactly the roof of the hard palate from where further the velum starts. In English only [j] sound is a palatal sound.

Figure (11): palatal articulation. (Roach, 1983; p. 50)

122

6.2.4.7 Velar Sounds Velar sounds are produced when the back part of the tongue is raised towards the soft-palate or the velum. In English /k/, /g/ and /ŋ/ are the velar sounds.

Figure (12): velar articulation. (Roach, 1983; p. 50)

123

2.9.8 Glottal Sounds

Obstruction for the glottal sounds is made at the glottis. [h] is a glottal sound in the English language.

Figure (14), Source: Roach (1983; p. 25)

6.2.5 Manners of Articulation.

So far the discussion has been made on the two bases of distinction of consonants from one another. They have been found successful as many sounds can be put into distinct categories using these two points as the criteria. For example ‘pin’ and ‘bin’ can be made distinct on the voicing feature although both the sounds are bilabial and similarly [t] sound in the word ‘tin’ and [d] sound in the word ‘din’ can be made distinct from both the [p] in ‘pin’ and the [b] in ‘bin’ on the basis of their place of articulation because both [p] and [t] are voiceless while [d] and [b] are voiced however they differ on the basis of the place of articulation.

There are some other sounds which cannot be made distinct by bringing both the bases, mentioned already, into play. Such an example is that of /b/ and /m/ which are both voiced as well as bilabial. So, their voicing feature and place of articulation fail to prove

124 them distinct therefore something more is required for this distinction and this is found in manner of articulation. [b] and [m] stand distinct because one is plosive while the other i.e. /m/ is a nasal sound.

Manner of articulation is characterized by the nature of obstruction which the air stream faces in its way out. For example this closure may be a complete one which is followed by a sudden release as in the production of the plosive sounds or it may be a close enough closure as to resist the passage of air with the resultant friction as in case of the fricative sounds or spirants (as they are called by some American linguists). Still further this closure may be to a lesser degree as in the production of the approximants. The closure is characterized by the side from which the air passed i.e. it may be the center of tongue, one side or both the sides of the tongue or it may pass from the nasal cavity and not from the mouth cavity at all as in case of nasal sounds.

6.2.5.1 Plosive Consonants or Stops

Plosive sounds are produced when there is a complete blockage of the air stream in the mouth and then a sudden release after a momentary blockage to build air pressure behind the strictures. The process of articulation of the plosives is generally divided into four phases. In phase one the speech organs come close to build a stricture which is called the ‘stricture phase’. In the second phase which is called the ‘hold phase’, pressure is built up behind the stricture. The third phase involves a sudden release of the air as a result of opening of the stricture with a characteristic plosion. This is called the ‘release phase’ and in the last phase which is called the ‘post-release phase’ the effect after the release of the pressed air is experienced. There are six plosive sounds in English which make three homorganic pairs like [p, b], [t, d], and [k, g].

Voiceless plosives have a characteristic feature of aspiration in the English language. It takes place when a voiceless plosive or a stop comes in the initial position of a word and is followed by a long vowel, a diphthong or a strong vowel. Sounds with such

125 characteristic variations are called allophones or sub variants of a phoneme the nature of which depends on the phonological context.

6.2.5.2 Fricatives or Spirants

Fricatives are called spirants as well. The obstruction in the production of these sounds is not complete. The articulators involved in the production of sounds are brought close to each other to such an extent that the narrow passage forces the air to create friction while passing. The passage is not completely blocked for any period of time but the air continues to pass. An audible friction can be heard while the air passes through the narrow path provided to it. There are nine fricative sounds in English out of which eight can be put together in four homorganic pairs such as (f, v), ( Θ, Ð), (s, z), (∫, З) while the ninth fricative is a glottal fricative which may have its voiced variants as well in case it comes immediately before a vowel sound otherwise it is a voiceless fricative. Out of the four pairs mentioned above, the first pair is labio-dental, the second is dental, the third is alveolar and the fourth one is palato-alveolar. These fricatives which give a hissing sound during their articulation are called sibilants such as (s, z, ∫, З). Two fricatives (t∫ and dЗ) are also considered as sibilants.

6.2.5.3 Affricates

Affricates are the sounds which start as plosives and end as fricatives during their articulation. The first two phases which are identified in the articulation of the plosives are shared by affricates as well but their last two phases resemble with fricatives. In the articulation of the affricates, the passage is fully blocked as in the plosive and pressure is also built but the release is slow and gradual contrary to that of the plosives where it is sudden with a resultant plosive. Here, the air is given a narrow opening through which it is released with an audible friction characteristic of the fricatives. There are only two affricate sounds in the English language which are represented by diagraphic symbols showing their characteristic manner of articulation behaving as plosives as well as

126 fricatives. The first in both is a plosive while the second component is a symbol of a fricative.

6.2.5.4 Nasals

Nasal sounds are produced when the velum is in the lowered position thus providing the way to the air stream through the nasal cavity and blocking it at the same time from the mouth cavity. There are many sounds which are produced with the velum in the raised position even though the normal position of the velum is lowered which helps breathing through the nose. There are three nasal sounds in English. However there are other sounds also, in the production of which the air is partially made to pass through the nasal cavity but this is the result of a specific phonological context and not an original feature of those sounds. Such rendering of particular sounds is called nasalization. There are three nasal sounds in English m, n and ŋ. The first is a bilabial sound, the second an alveolar while the last one is a velar sound. All the nasal sounds are voiced sounds.

6.2.5.5 Laterals

Lateral literally means ‘of side’. Such is the name given to those sounds in the production of which the air escapes from one or both sides of the tongue. In the production of the English lateral sound [l], the center of the tongue makes a stricture with the palate while from the sides, an opening is provided to the air stream to escape. This sound has two versions in English large, i.e. clear [l] and dark [l]. It is clear [l] when it occurs in the syllable’s initial position and dark when it occurs at the syllable’s final position. In articulation of clear [l] tip of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate while in the production of the dark [l], it is the back of the tongue that is raised. Both of these variants of the [l] sound are in complementary distribution and also make no change in meaning when substituted by each other in the same position except only that the pronunciation sounds unusual. This is why both dark and clear [l] are considered as allophones of [l] and not two different phonemes.

127

Figure 15: clear and dark “l”. (Thomas, 1976; p. 44)

6.2.5.6 Approximants

Approximants are those sounds which are produced not only without a complete close but rather without even a narrow passage as to produce audible friction. This is why these sounds are also called as semi-vowels. These sounds are given the status of vowels phonetically while they are considered consonants on phonological grounds. In English language there are three approximants. All the approximants are voiced in the English language. They are [r], [w] and [j]. The first is alveolar so far as its place of articulation is considered. However, it is sometimes considered as post-alveolar because its place is a little further back than the alveolar ridge. In English there are two different varieties of [r] on the basis of its manner. It is either flapped [r] that is produced with a tap of tongue against the part where alveolar ridge ends or rolled [r] in which the tip of the tongue is rolled back while it has several highly frequent taps against the front of the hard palate

128 with a trill. [r] sound in British variety is dropped in syllable final position or before consonant sounds whereas in American English it is produced for which American variety is called rhotic.

Out of the other two approximants [w] is produced with rounded lips. However its place of articulation is velum. This sound, for this reason, is called sometimes bilabial sound, sometimes labio-velar and sometimes only velar. The last among the approximants is a palatal sound because in its production the tongue moves towards the roof of the hard palate.

Different manners of articulation can be divided into two main groups; obstruents and sonorants. Obstruents are those sounds in the production of which there is greater level of obstruction. These sounds make homorganic pairs of the voiced and the voiceless sounds. On the other hand sonorants are those sounds which involve less obstruction and are all voiced. These are the features which make these sounds more sonorous. Such sounds become syllabic consonants also because of their sonority.

Consonants

Obstruents Sonorants

Plosives, Fricatives, Affricates Nasals, Lateral, Approximants

129

6.2.5.7 Table of the Consonants

Above discussion on consonants can be summarized in the following table. The sounds have been arranged so that the ones on the left side in each column are voiceless while those on the right side are voiced.

Consonant Phonemes of the English Language

Labio- Post- Bilabial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal dental alveolar

1 Nasal m n Ŋ

Stop p b t d k ɡ

Affricate tʃ dʒ

2 Fricative f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ (x) h

Approximant r1, 5 J w3

Lateral l1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_phonology

130

6.2.6 Vowels

In the upcoming discussion first of all the bases of difference between the consonants and the vowel sounds are discussed. Then, phonetic features of the vowel sounds have been given in detail. The points which have been made the basis of this discussion can be enlisted as in the following: i) Position of the tongue: In the position of the tongue different things are considered like; to what height the tongue is raised and which part of the tongue is raised to the highest position. ii) Length: In it the duration of vowel production or its stretch will be measured. iii) Lip Round: In it different ways and extents of lip-rounding will be discussed. iv) Nasality: It deals with measuring that to what extent the air stream is let to pass through the nasal cavity. v) Diphthongization: It will also be noted whether all vowels are pure or they are vowel glides which means that they move from one vowel position to another.

6.2.6.1 Difference from Consonants

All the languages in the world have both the categories of sounds i.e. consonants as well as vowels. Everyone may not be able to define the two categories in technical terms but we do have the conceptual knowledge as to what is meant by the consonants and vowels in our language/s. In order to draw a line between these two categories, there are different grounds. In order to make this distinction on phonetic basis, it is seen how much the path of the airstream from the lungs is obstructed in production of a particular sound. In consonants such as the stops, it is the maximum while the other sounds vary on the basis of the level of the obstruction. Some other sounds like the nasals and the laterals are also placed among those sounds which have a high level of obstruction. Semi vowels or approximants on the other hand have almost no obstruction. They are produced in the same way as vowels which do not have any obstruction. The division between vowels and consonants can also be made on phonological basis as well. In this case it is seen whether a particular sound can make the nucleus of a syllable or not. As in a syllable,

131 nucleus is a must part; there can be a syllable without the onset and termination but none is without nucleus. It is the vowel sound which makes nucleus of a syllable as in the word Cart |ka:t| if /k/ is removed, the word |a:t| is still a syllable and if |t| is removed, the remaining part |ka| still makes a syllable. However, if |a:| sound is removed |kt| does not remain a syllable any more. Similarly the word Yeast | Ji:st| can be analyzed for the similar results. The sound |i:| can make a syllable despite the removal of both the preceding and the following sound with |i:| but if the vowel is removed, the result |jst| is no more a syllable.

Here the issue of syllabic consonant needs to be discussed; otherwise this discussion cannot be complete. The sonorous sounds like m, n, and ‘l’ are the syllabic consonants because each of these sounds can stand alone as a syllabic one. In this case they provide the nucleus of the syllable despite being the consonant sounds. Native speakers of the English language can identify two syllables in each of the words ‘bottle’ |botl| and ‘button’ |bᶺtń| although the words sound like a single syllable as it consists of a single vowel sound. Such sounds which consist of a full syllable are called the syllabic consonants.

6.2.6.2 Tongue Position

Position of the tongue can be described in two ways i.e. height of the tongue and the part of the tongue. So far as the height of the tongue is concerned in the English language, with the purpose of describing its vowel sounds, four different levels are identified with respect to which the vowels are analyzed. These positions are clo se, half- close, half-open and open. So far as the place of the tongue is concerned, it is divided into three parts i.e. the front of the tongue, the center of the tongue and the back of the tongue. |i:| and |u| are the vowels in which the tongue is raised to the highest position while producing these vowels of the English language. The place of the tongue in |i:| is the front of the tongue whereas in |u:| it is the back of the tongue that is raised.

Generally in the English language with respect to the height of the tongue three different positions are identified i.e. high, mid and low. The French language has two

132 different intermediate tongue heights which makes four tongue heights in total i.e. high, mid high, mid low and low.

a) Tongue is at the highest b) Tongue is at the lowest

Figure 16: tongue height. (Thomas, 1976; p. 56)

The place of the tongue can be understood by producing |i:| followed by |u:| in order. It can be felt while shifting from |i:| to |u:| that the part of the tongue moves from the front to the back because |i:| is a front vowel while |u:| is a . In the former the front part of the tongue is raised to the highest position while in the latter, the back part of the tongue is raised to the highest position.

Figure [17] illustrates the above mentioned positions. In its part (a) it is the front of the tongue which is raised to the highest, while in its part (b) it is the back of the tongue that is raised to its highest position.

133

Figure 17: tongue position (a) front and (b) back. (Thomas, 1976; p. 56)

In between the front vowels |e, i:, I| and back vowels |ʊ, u:, Ͻ:| there are other vowels which are produced from the center of the tongue (i.e. the center of the tongue is raised to its highest position). Such vowels are called the central vowels. For example |ǝ, Ʒ:, ˄| are central vowels in the words, ‘word’ |w Ʒ:d|, ‘forward’ |f Ͻ:wd| and ‘mud’ |m ˄d|.

In order to describe the vowels accurately, height and part of the tongue both are needed to be described. For example in the figure 18(a) and (b), different positions of the tongue with respect to its height and the part raised have been shown.

134

a) Front vowels: height positions b) Back vowels: height positions

Figure 18: tongue position (Thomas, 1976; p. 57)

135

In case of combination of (a) and (b) and then isolation of the tongue position, the result will be as given in the figures below:

Figure 19: vowel diagram (Thomas, 1976; p. 57)

6.2.6.3 Length

In English there are two types of vowels. It can be easily understood by those who are familiar with English phonology. They are placed in two different positions in the English language. However, so far as their description is concerned they are not differentiated on the basis of their position of occurrence but on the basis of their length because both of them vary in their length of articulation. |i:| vowel is a long vowel whereas |I| is a short vowel.

In the same way certain other vowels can as well be divided into the categories of short and long. For example / ɔː/ and / ɒ/, /u:/ and /ʊ/ and / ɜː/ and /ǝ/. Each vowel in the paired set differs from the other member in length only.

136

Through phonological analysis such rules can be ascertained that long vowels can come at the end of the syllable that does not have a final consonant to serve as coda while short vowels do not have a possibility for it. For example if in the word ‘court’ |kɔ:t|, final |t| is taken away the remaining part will still be a syllable as |k ɔː|. However, the short vowels which come in the totally unstressed syllables i.e. /ǝ/, /ɪ/ and /ʊ/ are considered an exception as they can occur in the syllable final position like in the words ‘city’ |sɪtɪ|, ‘into’ |ɪntʊ| and ‘sweater’ |swetǝ|.

6.2.6.4 Rounding

Vowels do not only differ on the basis of length and height of the tongue but on the basis of part of the tongue as well. It is without doubt that the tongue holds the most important position in the production of the vowels. Lips are the other speech organs which are involved in shaping and modifying the vowel sounds; though not as important for all the vowel sounds but still very important in the production of certain vowel sounds. Lips can have different positions during the process of articulation; for example they can be in the normal/neutral position or they can be in the spread or rounded position depending on the nature of the vowel produced. This phenomenon can be studied by articulating two vowels in the words ‘cheese’ and ‘chose’ /tʃu:z|. It will be seen through their successive pronunciation that it is not only the front part that is raised in the vowel /i:/ but also that the lips are spread at the corners of the mouth; while in case of /u:/, the back part of the tongue is raised and the lips are rounded. In English generally vowels are categorized as rounded or unrounded with regard to the position of the lips.

137

In the figure above on the left, the position of lips for the unrounded while on the right the position for the rounded vowels is shown.

Figure 22: rounding. (McCarthy, 1994; p. 31)

6.2.6.5 Nasality No nasal vowels exist in the inventory of the English speech sounds. Thus it can be concluded that air never passes through the nasal cavity in the articulation of the English vowel sounds. However, the feature of nasalization stands as an exception to it because that is the result of a particular phonological context which results in assimilation in which one sound changes its realization partially or fully under the effect of another neighboring sound. This phenomenon can make the vowel sounds realized under the influence of the adjacent nasal sound as a result of which the airstream may partially pass through the nasal cavity as well but it is not a part of sound itself but a result of the situation.

138

6.2.6.6 Diphthongs

So far the vowel sounds which have been discussed are produced at a single place of articulation. There is no movement during their articulation from one place of articulation to another. Such sounds are also called as pure vowels, single vowels, monothongs or monophthongs also. In English language there are 12 such vowels. However, there exist other vowels in English as well which are produced at two different places of articulation. They begin at one place and move towards another in order to complete their articulation. For this reason they are called as diphthongs because there is a glide from one vowel position to another vowel position during their articulation. These vowels are represented with double vowel symbols or digraphs in the same way as it is done in case of the affricates.

The number of diphthongs in English is 8. For the purpose of differentiating the vowels from the diphthongs, words containing both in the same position can be compared. For example, ‘car’ and ‘cow’ can be compared to differentiate monophthong /a:/ from the diphthong /aѵ/.

In the same way ‘girl’ and ‘goal’ can be compared to distinguish the monophthong /Ʒ:/ from the diphthong /ǝʊ/. In both the diphthongs i.e. /ǝʊ/ and /ǝѵ/, the articulation of the vowel starts at the place of the first component of each of them and then moves (glides) towards the place of the second component but ends up without exactly reaching the place of second component in certain diphthongs. Such diphthongs have their past part longer and more dominant than the second component. Diphthongs are generally classified (grouped) as the following:

139

DIPHTHONGS

Moving towards central Moving towards high

ending in ə ending in ɪ ending in ʊ

ɪə eə ʊə eɪ aɪ ɔɪ əʊ aʊ

There exists still another kind of complex vowels which are a combination of three vowel movements and hence called triphthongs. They are part of carefully articulated speech and are reduced to diphthongs or monophthongs in the rapid speech as that is used normally. Triphthongs result from the addition of schwa |ə| at the end of the five closing diphthongs like /eɪ/ /aɪ/ /ɔɪ/ /əʊ/ /aʊ/.

6.2.6.7 Table of Vowels

In the pages above all the vowel sounds have been explained along with the tongue position by using the diagrams but since they do not give any information in relation to the length and rounding, the description of the vowels has been given in a summarized form in the following:

140 i: long high front unrounded monophthong ɪ short high front unrounded monophthong e short mid front unrounded monophthong ʌ short low front unrounded monophthong æ short low central unrounded monophthong ɑ: long low back unrounded monophthong ɒ short low back rounded monophthong ɔ: long mid back rounded monophthong ʊ short high back rounded monophthong u: long high back rounded monophthong ɜ: long mid central unrounded monophthong ə short mid central unrounded monophthong eɪ diphthong moving from mid front unrounded to high front unrounded aɪ diphthong low central unrounded to high front unrounded ɔɪ diphthong low back rounded to high front unrounded əʊ diphthong mid central unrounded to high back rounded aʊ diphthong low central unrounded to high back rounded ɪə diphthong high front unrounded to mid central unrounded eə diphthong mid front unrounded to mid central unrounded ʊə diphthong high back unrounded to mid central unrounded

141

6.2.6.8 Vowel Charts

https://www.google.com.pk/search?q=English+vowel+chart&biw=1103&bih=555&noj= 1&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=0CBwQsARqFQoTCIz_t86ejMYCFYI4 FAodDUkEqQ#imgrc

https://www.google.com.pk/search?q=English+vowel+chart&biw=1103&bih=555&noj= 1&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=0CBwQsARqFQoTCIz_t86ejMYCFYI4 FAodDUkEqQ#imgrc

142

Received Pronunciation

Front Central Back

Long Short long short long Short

Close iː ɪ uː ʊ

Mid e ɜː ə ɔː

Open æ ʌ ɑː ɒ

eɪ aɪ ɔɪ aʊ əʊ Diphthongs ɪə eə ʊə

https://www.google.com.pk/search?q=English+vowel+chart&biw=1103&bih=555&noj= 1&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=0CBwQsARqFQoTCIz_t86ejMYCFYI4 FAodDUkEqQ#imgrc

143

CHAPTER 7

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter deals in detail with the methodology employed to conduct the present research work. Because of the nature of the work both qualitative and quantitative modes of enquiry were adopted in order to conduct the research in the best appropriate manner. The research is descriptive in nature as actual phonetic and phonological facts on ground have been explored, identified and then critically analyzed by giving reasons in the backdrop. The researcher has tried to determine as to why and how Pashto speaking people differ phonetically and phonologically in their use of the English language from those speakers who speak the British Standard English known as the RP (Received Pronunciation). Since there are many languages (national as well as regional) used in Pakistan and they encroach upon English, each in their own singular right when it is used due to which the English language is observed to undergo a regional and social change. The tinge of the national language (i.e. Urdu) and the local/regional vernaculars (i.e. Pashto, Panjabi, Balochi and Sindhi) comes into sight in different forms and manifestations in several domains of the English language used by Pakistani people. It affects the grammar, spelling, vocabulary, writing and last but not the least, pronunciation of the English language. As a result of this there emerge multiple varieties of Pakistani English. Although there is a general conformity in English used by Pakistani people because of our being a single nation but there are some divergences owing to the existence of there being diversity in terms of different languages, cultures and ethnicities. Moreover there are different social classes in the country, each with its own habits,

144 norms, behaviors and traditions. The Pakistani variety of the English language accommodates most of these multiple shades and colors of the languages found in the country. They render it a collective linguistic identity without the loss of the respective individual identities of all the languages contributing to make this final product. Pakistani English thus becomes that variety of the English language which is the ultimate product of all Pakistani regional Englishes with a distinct and recognizable accent individually and collectively. Here the researcher means to say that both at individual and collective level our speech gets recognized as Pakistani variety of the language. A person with a bit of knowing can make out easily as to where one is from in Pakistan when he/she hears one’s speech and the same goes for the English language also i.e. from one’s speech in English one can be distinguished from others.

The researcher was inspired by this regional linguistic beauty observed even in our second language English. In order to explore an important corridor of Pakistani English, the researcher has made an effort in this work to identify and examine the variety of English spoken by those Pakistanis who speak Pashto as their mother tongue. This language has been compared with British Standard English known as the RP (Received Pronunciation) as mentioned above. It is important here to mention as to why the researcher chose the British Standard English for comparison and contrast when talking of there being a sub-variety of Pakistani English under the influence of Pashto. One thing which is important to justify this choice is that British English is the language of the original inhabitants of Britain which has undergone a natural growth since its birth in the middle of the 5th century when the Anglo-Saxons landed and eventually settled on the island. It is from there that the language spread over to the world subsequently as a result of British colonialism and the international status it gained in the later periods.

Additionally its phonology has been studied in a lot of detail and other Englishes across the world are studied making use of the RP as a reference to describe their respective varieties of the language. It is a standard declared and acknowledged internationally and which we claim to follow in our country. Moreover the British came to the Indian Subcontinent to rule the region and brought their language along here. This

145 is how the language came to this part of the world and was used by the rulers and the elite in the pre-partition era; the tradition continued in the post-partition times also and is still going on. For a long time now it has always been a status symbol in the country. As regards Pakistani English, there are many varieties of it horizontally (regionally because of different languages used as a mother tongue) and vertically (socially because of different strata/layers) and out of these one could not be taken as a standard to conduct the present study. Moreover a neat and so tidy a division of these is not so easily possible because research on such fine details is still to be done.

7.1 Research Procedure

In order to conduct the present research study first of all a suitable research instrument was designed in order to get the desired data. Along with the instrument the participants were given a history form to fill in so that their bio-data could be taken to be used to analyze the data in its backdrop. In the instrument there were wordlists with words containing consonants, vowels and diphthongs. Words were read aloud by the participants and recorded for examining their phonology. In addition to that they were given a passage and a dialogue also to read aloud so as to know whether or not they were able to pronounce words correctly in sentences and in long chunks of the English language. The detail of the participant’s history form followed by the research instrument is given below.

7.1.1 Participant’s History Form

As mentioned above the participants were supposed to fill in a form to consent and thereby commit their availability and provide necessary information about themselves which was likely to be needed during the analysis phase of the work. The form was named the ‘Participant’s History Form’ which asked them to provide their full name, mother tongue, qualification, place of birth and education, the medium their teachers used to teach and communicate with them, languages known, the duration of stay in their native town, place of stay other than the hometown along with the duration there, exposure to English channels with frequency, and frequency along with the nature

146 of interaction with non-Pashto speaking people. The information obtained through this form was of significant value during the description and analysis of the research data. It was used in order to give reasons of the different deviations found in the phonology of the participants’ language. For example there was a participant who had not lived ever in his birth place and therefore did not show any such deviations which were shown by others despite his being a Pashto speaking person.

Similarly girls were found comparatively better speakers than their male counterparts because they belonged to well to do families and were educated in relatively better institutions. In a very few cases however it was not so as they did not have exposure to the polished form of the language owing to their being confined to the institutions in their respective villages. In short it helped the researcher a great deal in the analysis and in giving findings and conclusion to the work and he depended a lot on it in making the final recommendations as well.

7.1.2 Wordlist

The instrument consisted of a wordlist containing all the forty-four phonemes of the English language. The reason for giving them such words having all phonemes was to facilitate the participants as the production of phonemes individually is hard for a layman because normally they are not pronounced in isolation. In addition the present researcher wanted to know if the participants had any difficulty in pronouncing any phoneme or they could produce all of them smoothly. In this regard twenty-four words containing the consonants were given in the list and there were twenty words containing the single (both short and long) and double vowels called the monophthongs and the diphthongs also respectively. In the wordlist the simplest possible words were given so that the participants could pronounce them without any difficulty. Moreover it was done for the sake of convenience of the researcher because in mono and bi-syllabic words it is easy to identify deviations and one could concentrate well on the data for the correct analysis and findings of the work.

147

7.1.3 Passage

The instrument consisted of a passage also containing words from the English language used in our daily routine life. It was ensured that a simple and easy reading is given to the participants so that they are not troubled and they pronounce each word in the passage without any problem. The reason for giving them a simple passage was to note the phonological deviations more accurately. Similarly it was to be determined whether or not they were able to utter phonemes in the words correctly given in sentences in long chunks of the language. The participants could not be involved in conversation which could give us the data required for this study (e.g. all the phonemes, di, tri, & tetrasyllabic words). In addition, the participants were not proficient enough in the English language to be involved in a conversation. The reading material was carefully selected which involved various types of language use (e.g. word lists, passage, and dialogue).

7.1.4 Dialogue

The instrument consisted of a dialogue also containing words from the English language used in our daily routine life. It was ensured that a simple and easy-worded dialogue is given to the participants so that they are not troubled and they could pronounce each word in it without any problem. The reason for giving them a dialogue was to note the phonological deviations more accurately. Similarly it was to be determined whether or not they were able to utter phonemes in the words correctly given in sentences in long chunks of the language.

7.1.5 Wordlist for Stress

A short list of words containing twenty words was prepared out of the very passage which had been used as research instrument and was read aloud by the research participants. The words on the list were multi-syllabic and were selected for stress analysis to identify and note down the divergence/s found in the stress pattern of the Pashto speaking Pakistani English speakers. To be precise the words given were bi, tri, tetra and penta-syllabic meaning thereby that both short and long words were given for a valid analysis. The purpose of using words from the passage was to see them in their

148 context as some words change their grammatical category if the stress is shifted from one to another syllable. In other words same word with varied stress may be correct if it is pronounced in isolation because no context has been given but in sentences the same words may shift the stress to some other syllable owing to its grammatical category being different. The researcher came across multiple stress patterns which have been discussed in detail in the next chapter of data collection and analysis.

7.1.6 Recording

All the three things in the instrument i.e. the wordlist, the passage and the dialogue were given to the participants to read aloud and were recorded by the researcher as it was the requirement of the study. First of all the wordlist was given to them and recorded, followed by the passage and the dialogue. The recording was done in an isolated room in order to reduce noise and disturbance and to improve the recording quality.

7.1.7 Transcription

The data gathered through the recordings was transcribed in two versions. One of the two versions was of British Standard English and the other one was of the participants’ recorded language. All the different deviations related with the consonants, vowels and diphthongs were marked and noted down in detail on the transcription sheets for further analysis. Similarly other distinct features such as the speech being rhotic or the utterance of the silent letters in certain words were also marked in order to study the different trends of deviation. Another important aspect of this work was the analysis of stress which too was marked to show where Pashto speaking Pakistani people place the stress in different words.

7.1.8 Validity and Reliability

The first criterion was that the selected passages had all the phonemes of English inventory to find segmental deviations. Then due care was taken to have di-, tri-, and tetrasyllabic words to find trends of deviation in word level stress. Moreover the material

149 was selected from BBC course which is used with the learners of English across the world and is graded and designed as per the needs of the learners. For this it was considered to be suitable in technical terms. The selected material was discussed with some scholars like Dr Riaz Hassan and Brig (R) Naseer ud Din and others to know its validity. The researcher has been a language teacher himself and has taught a large number of students with the background similar to the sample selected for this study. It was found most often that the students were very easily recognized which linguistic background they belonged to. The material designed by BBC served the purpose very well in this regard. Thus through the use of this material for years of language teaching it was found by the researcher to be reliable in understanding such contrastive features of the L1 and L2 (English).

Any specific model was not followed; however, a contrastive analysis was done and the theory applied and followed has been discussed in chapter 4 at length and briefly in this chapter also in the following. Stress was detected through careful and repeated listening and was established keeping in mind the four criteria given by Roach (1983) as loudness, length, pitch and quality. The syllables which were louder, lengthier, had greater pitch and varying quality could be clearly marked after careful listening.

7.1.9 Theory Applied

Contrastive Analysis Theory (CA) was adopted to conduct this study i.e. all possible similarities and differences between the two languages (Pashto and English) were marked to note down those phonological aspects which are difficult for the Pashto speakers and those as well which do not constitute any difficulty for the Pashto speaking people. The theory has been discussed in detail in chapter 4. The salients of the theory and the framework based on it is discussed in the following.

Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) is a framework that traces its origin to Lado’s ‘Linguistics Across Cultures’ (1957). This study concluded that the possible difficulties for learners in TL (Target Language) can be predicted by comparing language and culture of L1 (first/native language) with that of the L2/TL (second/target language

150

respectively). Weinreich (1953) and Haugen (1956) argued that the idea of such a comparison came to Lado from the massive movement of the immigrants to the United States of America which needed a long term study.

James (1985) differs in his approach to CAH from Winreich and Haugen. Against their approach of a long term study, even for generations, of L1 and L2 for Contrastive Analysis (CA), the key points of James limited CAH to the way L1 affected the performance of L2 at any particular time. Differentiation can be made between these two distinct conceptions of CAH in the following three points:

1. CAH, according to James, is concerned with the study of the way NL (Native Language) affects/influences the TL (Target Language) learning (synchronic) while according to Winreich and Haugen it is a long term study, which may last even for generations (diachronic). 2. CA according to James is concerned with ‘parole’ i.e. performance or the product in the form of language in actual use while according to the other two it is related with ‘langue’ i.e. competence or knowledge of the language and the process of influence in the course of time. 3. CA is concerned with ‘interference’ according to James while according to the other two with ‘integration’.

The first point distinguishes the approaches in temporal terms. According to the approach followed by James CAH studies the way L1 influences the L2 synchronically whereas according to Winreich and Haugen it deals with the influence over a long period of time and thus making it a diachronic process. The second point specifies the focus of this approach to the L2 performance only while at the same time drawing on the way L1 affects this performance. The last point draws a bit more delicate line between the two approaches. According to James’ rendering, CAH studies only the ways L1 is found affecting the performance of the L2 without any regard to the causes in the backdrop, which worked over a period of time to establish such accentual habits, in a retrospective and diachronic way. According to Winreich and Haugen, causes in the backdrop are also important which make contrastive studies diachronic and retrospective. Thus James’s approach studies the way L1 influence is apparent on the performance of L2 at a given

151 time while the other one studies the possible causes, the ways involved in the development of these influences as well as the way they become a (permanent) part of the L2.

CA is also founded on the assumption that L2 learners will tend to transfer the formal features of the L1 to L2. Lado (1957) argues that L2 learners transfer features of the L1 to L2. This transfer according to Corder (1971) carries over the habits of the mother tongue into the second language. Whitman (1970) suggested a procedure that could be followed in contrastive analysis. The first step in this regard is the selection and description of the material of the two languages that is to be compared for CA. In the second step forms are gathered from the descriptions of the selected languages i.e. L1 and L2 that are to be contrasted. The third step involves making contrast while in the fourth step explanation/interpretation is given to specify the possible difficulties for an L2/FL (second/foreign) learner.

Brown (1989) suggests as does Wardaugh (1970) that CAH has a weak version (related to EA – Error Analysis) that focuses not on a priori prediction of linguistic difficulties but on a posteriori explanation of the sources of errors in language learning. Brown suggests in this regard that many errors can be due to the negative transfer of L1 as it is quite common to guess from the foreign accent that where the learner comes from.

The current study traces its ground to the references made by almost all the major studies (e.g. Lado, 1957; Corder, 1971; Whitman, 1970; Brown, 1887; etc) conducted in this area, to the appearance of L1 features on L2 performance for its undertaking and the process followed. This study makes mainly use of Brown’s approach of CAH i.e. to find a posteriori explanation of the deviations instead of a priori prediction of the problems. Since this study is concerned with establishing the English spoken by Pakistani Pashto speaking people having Yousafzai dialect as their L1 to be a sub-variety of Pakistani English, its concern naturally remains limited to the performance features of the English used by the population of this study. Therefore, the concept of a posteriori explanation of L2 features under the influence of L1 provides theoretical basis to this venture. On the other hand, the technique followed to analyze the data can be broken down into two stages, each following the approach propounded by a particular scholar. The first stage

152 involved the four steps given by Whitman (1970) while the second involved the three types of transfer as conceptualized by Brown (1987). He viewed three different ways of looking at L1 influence (transfer) on L2 following CAH. They were categorized as positive, negative and zero transfer. The first according to him takes place where the L1 features align with those of the L2, second where they conflict with those of the L2 and the third where there exists neither of the two conditions. In the next part the adaptation made from the theoretical underpinnings (given above) has been discussed.

7.1.10 Operationalization of the Framework

The framework of this study has been conceptualized in the light of the approaches to CAH discussed in the studies mentioned above. For this study the reliance was mainly on the weak version of CAH reflected in the approach given by Brown (1987). The reason for it was the relevance of this approach to the aim of the current study. This study was concerned with the identification, description and interpretation of the influence of Yousafzai dialect of Pashto (as L1) on the features of English (as L2). In keeping with the objectives of the study, synchronic analyses were to be made. It stood distinguished from the long term diachronic concern to avoid tracing the incorporation of L1 features into L2 in the evolutionary course of the development of the L2 among the learners of the L2. This is how this study distinguishes itself from the version of CAH given by Winreich and Haugen. This provides a theoretical justification to this undertaking. Adaptation of the four-step approach by Whitman for CA and three types of transfer by Stockwell follows hereafter.

Four Steps of Whitman

Step 1)

i) Selection of the inventory of the English phonemes

ii) Data selected from the recordings

Whitman says that in the first step selection of material from both the languages has to be made for the contrastive purposes. This point was followed in the selection of the data through recordings from the L2 performance of the participants while Oxford

153

Advanced Learner’s Dictionary was used to make use of the features of the RP for the said purpose of the contrastive analysis.

Step 2)

Pick (identify) sounds/stress that mark deviation

In this step recordings were transcribed for focused phonological features and were held against the features of the items found in the dictionary. In this way the deviant sounds and stresses found in the data from the recordings were identified.

Phonological features of Pakistani English as identified/fixed by different studies of some prominent scholars such as Tariq Rehman were used to highlight the contours of the deviations.

Step 3)

Find the ways the selected/picked forms mutually contrast

To implement this step possible systematicity/regularity was traced in the deviations marked by the contrast in step 2. Ascriptions were made on the basis of similarities and differences between the phonology of L1 and L2 within the purview of this study. It was searched as to why the deviations took place in the phonological features at certain places and not at the others. The possible reasons of L1 influence were identified and explained to move towards significant findings.

Step 4)

Pinpoint density and systematicity to establish the point (critical discussion)

This point involved critical discussion on all what was achieved from performing the first three steps. At this stage the three types of transfer idea of Stockwell was incorporated. The possible reasons for any kind of transfer i.e. positive, negative or zero were traced to the L1 features. It was specified how far the deviations stood systematic and regular. The density or frequency of deviations was also traced to reach a conclusion about any particular deviation which purported to establish whether or not the deviation

154 qualified to make a regular feature of the L2 performance of the participants. In case of the former it would be considered just a haphazard or careless performance while in case of the latter it would pass for a regular feature establishing in this way their English as a separate variety.

The following figure can be presented as a model of analysis for the present study which suggests that English spoken by the Yousafzai Pashto speaking people shares features both with the RP and Pakistani English.

RP--- Received Pronunciation

PE --- Pakistani English

(Y)PE --- (Yousafzai) Variety of PE

R P P E (Y)P E

The figure above shows the process of analysis followed to establish the argument regarding the Yousafzai Pakistani English i.e. (Y)PE.

155

7.1.11 Data Description, Analysis and Presentation

The data was described in words as well as in numbers. For the sake of the convenience of the readers and beneficiaries of the present work the data has been presented through tabulation and shown through the pie charts as well. There are two rows in each table; the upper one for the headings and the lower one for the results acquired from the data and five columns for the category, deviation/s, correct pronunciation or stress, deviation frequency and the deviation percentage. In the pie chart all the findings have been shown for more clarity. Along with that the possible reasons of the deviations have also been given where it was possible for the researcher to pinpoint them.

Qualitative methods were used while following the framework for contrastive analysis. Selection of material, holding comparison, tracing differences and fixing deviation in this way all involved qualitative methods. On the other hand, presentation of the trends of qualitative data, in terms of frequencies and percentages to specify systematicity or regularity, in order to reach any conclusion, has followed quantitative methods. Transcription by Consensus was used to measure the deviations. The inventory of Pashto (Yousafzai dialect) was used to see the deviations. It was seen how far the sounds deviated in the direction of Pashto (Yousafzai). To establish this, features of Pakistani English were also used to find that it was Yousafzai dialect and not any other that caused the difference.

7.2 Population

All the Pakistani Pashto speaking people constitute the population of the present research work.

7.3 Sampling

Since it was a study of the language of a particular section of population of our country and therefore focused technique was used for sampling to appropriately represent the target population of the work. Focused group was first selected keeping in view the

156 nature and requirement of the study. Fifty people were selected to become the sample out of which there were thirty-four boys and sixteen girls.

7.3.1 Criterion for the Selection of the Participants

In order to do this those people whose L1 (mother tongue) was Pashto were selected for being the subjects for the work. It was ensured that all of them were university graduates or at least under-graduates. Their qualification was considered important as the majority of our students have learned the English language with the ability to communicate intelligibly by the time they start going to the university for further education. Of course their English is not perfectly sound phonologically, lexically and structurally but by this age they can read and write comfortably as they have had exposure to the English language since the beginning of their schooling. A great number of people in Pakistan use English words without even knowing sometimes that the word they are using comes from the English language; such people were not selected for the present study because they were not considered competent to be taken for the study. English language is used competently only by those educated people of Pakistan who have got extensive exposure to the language as a result of which they enjoy a command over its structure and vocabulary. As regards the basic sounds of the language, students learn them in the early years of life during their school education and gradually through further education and exposure they grow more and more confident and competent in using it. Since the purpose of this research was to study Pakistani Yousafzai Pashto English phonologically, the university graduates were considered the most appropriate sample.

7.4 Constraints

As mentioned above there were fifty people selected for the study. There were thirty-four university boys and sixteen girls. The difference in the number of the two genders is because of lack of availability. Females were not easily available which indicates a lower number of their strength at university level and a lower rate of their overall education. Some females, when requested, excused from being a part of the study because of shyness in most cases and for personal reasons in others. The main reason for

157 their hesitation was their being recorded as they read aloud the pages of the instrument. Some male students also refused politely when they were told that they would be given some material for reading aloud and that would be tape-recorded. Those who willingly participated were also found a little conscious during the whole exercise despite the researcher’s trying really hard to make them overcome their consciousness; in some cases the researcher was successful in making them feel at home but in others he could only reduce the intensity of their tension. Another problem which the researcher faced was the arrangement of a noise-free place for a good and high quality recording so that data could be gathered in a comfortable environment suitable for the research job.

The researcher had to face problems in the analysis phase of the work as well as he had to do the entire analysis manually because of a lack of availability of proper resources and facilities in the country. Ideally the analysis should have been done spectrographically so an absolutely correct and error-free finding of the work could be given in the best interest of research, knowledge and scholarship. Other than that appropriate scientific devices should have been relied upon for a better work but this too was not possible in the endeavor of a single individual. Since all this was not available the researcher had to use only the headphone and a tape-recorder and tables and pie charts were used to present the data. Owing to the limitations of the researcher he feels that such demanding research projects should be taken up at institutional level as it gets very hard at individual level. This recommendation has been included in the final chapter of the work.

158

CHAPTER 8

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

In this chapter the data gathered through recording has been presented and analyzed. As mentioned in chapter 7 the data was gathered from fifty participants by making them read aloud the pages of the research instrument which contained a wordlist having words containing all the forty-four phonemes (consonants, vowels and diphthongs) of the English language, a passage, and a dialogue. It was ensured that simple words are given to the students so that they could read them easily. The same was in the interest of the researcher as well as it was easy for him to concentrate better on the phonemes of the language individually. The reading was recorded by the researcher trying his utmost to do it in such a place where there was not any disturbance. After that all the data gathered was transcribed phonemically. There were two versions of the transcription; a standard and the other one of the participants’ language. All the deviations shown by the participants in different phonemes were marked on the transcription sheets and afterwards were noted down separately to examine them in detail along with the trying to highlight the reasons in the backdrop.

In the following all the findings of the research work have been given. They have been presented first in words to give a complete view of results acquired during the process and then in the tables numerically for facilitating the readers followed by the pie charts for even better clarity. Where possible for the researcher, he has given the reasons also for the multiple deviations identified in the participants’ language. In giving reasons to the deviations found in the participants’ language, it was considered whether a certain

159 phoneme was beyond the participant’s ability (with hundred percent deviation from the standard) i.e. he/she was not able to pronounce it altogether or they did it with a change in it. Lack of proper training is another reason which was considered while doing the analysis. In certain cases it was found that if the participants had been taught those sounds properly it would not have been difficult for them to pronounce them correctly. In certain cases it was found that the word pronounced incorrectly was frequently used in the mother tongue of the participants and therefore they tended to produce it the way they do in their L1. In some other cases it was the mother tongue of the participants which was found to have an effect on their L2 and did not let them pronounce words correctly. To put it plainly it was the researcher’s utmost effort to pin down the actual reason causing a certain divergence.

As regards the analysis first of all the consonant phonemes have been discussed one by one each and then pure or single vowels followed by the double vowels called also the diphthongs. Then the deviations found both in the passage and the dialogue have been presented and discussed. Finally stress deviations found in the twenty words selected from the passage have been given. Where possible for the researcher he has given the reasons also which became a cause of the stress deviations. In the pie charts and in the tables all multiple deviations have been given separately along with their number have been given to facilitate the readers of the work. First the deviation has been given and then its frequency in brackets. In the pie charts different colors have been used to make the details of the data findings prominent and easy to understand in a quick glance. It is important to mention here that only those deviations have been included in this chapter which were of significance with regard to the present work whereas some others were ignored as exceptions.

8.1 Analysis of the Consonants in the Wordlist

The phonological deviations found in the English language of the research participants were of different nature which have been discussed in this chapter. In order to go by the analysis in a systematic order, first the consonant phonemes of the language have been discussed one by one in the following.

160

8.1.1 The Phoneme /P/

The phoneme /P/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The interesting fact was that only two participants pronounced it correctly with aspiration as is done by the natives; the other forty-eight participants did it without it showing a very big trend of deviation. The phoneme was not properly pronounced because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage Aspiration /P/ Missing 2 48 96

/P/ Aspiration Missing

Pronounced Correctly, 2 Deviated, 48 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Deviation Percentage Percentage, 96

Analysis Chart and Table 1

The speakers of the Yousafzai dialect are familiar with two independent phonemes having aspiration as mutually a distinctive feature. In English the stop /p/ exists as two allophonic variations whereas in Urdu the given sounds (aspirated and unaspirated) occur in parallel distribution and hence each one of them is a separate phoneme in its own right. Owing to this, there is a tendency among the majority of

161

Pakistani people to produce an unaspirated /p/ until they are given an intensive training enough to help them overcome this psychological barrier (which exists due to internal resistance towards merging the aspirated and unaspirated /p/ as a single phoneme. It is due to their L1 training which bears an internal impact on their new speech habits to be acquired).

162

8.1.2 The Phoneme /b/

The phoneme /b/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The notable fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage /b/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/b/ No Deviation

Deviated, 0 Deviation Percentage, 0 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 2

In case of this sound a positive transfer (Stockwell 1965) is expected to take place due to the similarity between features of the Yousafzai dialect i.e. the L1 and the English

163 language i.e. the target language. It is to be noted that Urdu also shares similarity in this case with both the languages. Thus the participants here have obviously no reason to deviate from the phonetic features of the phoneme /b/ of the English language. /b/ is a sound having common phonetic contours in both the languages selected for the contrastive purposes.

Thus it can be concluded through Brown’s (1985) four-step contrastive analysis that the selected sounds do not differ to mark deviation of the /b/ of the English language as produced by the Yousafzai speakers from its RP features. It is corroborated through evidence provided by the statistical analysis of the data gathered in this regard.

164

8.1.3 The Phoneme /t/

The phoneme /t/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The amazing fact was that only two participants pronounced it correctly with aspiration as is done by the natives; the other forty-eight participants did it without it showing a very big trend of deviation. The phoneme was not properly pronounced because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage Aspiration /t/ Missing 2 48 96

/t/ Aspiration Missing

Pronounced Correctly, 2 Deviated, 48 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Deviation Percentage Percentage, 96

Analysis Chart and Table 3

165

The trend here clearly shows a negative transfer. The percentage of those who deviated from the RP features of this sound is found to be very high. Thus the deviation in this case suffices as evidence of deviation of the Yousafzai speakers of the English language. The cause of this deviation is clearly the absence of a sound having similar phonological features in Yousafzai Pashto. It is important to mention here that the aspirated /t/ does exist in Urdu and the participants who aspirated the sound might have had exposure or training in producing it. There should not be any problem for the Yousafzai speakers in producing it as aspiration is done by the Pashto speakers when underscoring or stressing something informally or humorously. The problem occurs in phonological distribution of these sounds because in English the aspirated and the unaspirated /t/ exist in complementary distribution whereas in Urdu and Pashto they are in parallel distribution. The first kind of distribution makes them as various (distinct) realizations of the same phoneme in different phonological contexts while the latter merits them as two separate independent phonemes in their own right. This phenomenon actually becomes the cause of this deviation from the RP for the Yousafzai Pashto speakers of the English language. They are obviously reluctant to treat them as allophones due to the psychological barrier/s disposed against the RP rule to the case in point.

166

8.1.4 The Phoneme /d/

The phoneme /d/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage /d/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/d/ No Deviation

Deviated, 0 Deviation Percentage, 0 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 4

167

The positive transfer can be seen in this case because of the similarity features of the phoneme /d/ between Yousafzai Pashto (the mother tongue) and the RP English. The articulatory features regarding place and manner of this sound in English are similar to the features it possesses in Yousafzai Pashto and in the Urdu language as well. The variational features of the sound, depending on its phonological context, are also similar to Urdu and Pashto. This is why the participants obviously had no problem in producing the /d/ sound with its features true to the RP version of it. Hence zero deviation is the result of all these reasons.

168

8.1.5 The Phoneme /k/

The phoneme /k/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The noteworthy fact was that only two participants pronounced it correctly with aspiration as is done by the natives; the other forty-eight participants did it without it showing a very big trend of deviation. The phoneme was not properly pronounced because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage Aspiration /k/ Missing 2 48 96

/k/ Aspiration Missing

Pronounced Correctly, 2 Deviated, 48 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Deviation Percentage Percentage, 96

Analysis Chart and Table 5

169

The /k/ sound in English has variants in complementary distribution. The important among these which could pose a problem to Pakistani speakers inclusive of Yousafzai are the aspirated and the unaspirated /k/. It is due to the different phonological distribution of these sounds in Pashto (Yousafzai dialect) and in Urdu as well. Both these sounds are in parallel distribution in these two Pakistani languages which causes similar problems for the Yousafzai learners/speakers of the English language. Thus the negative transfer has been evidenced heavily by the data gathered for the study. L1 influence is one of the highest to be noted here. Although the deviation is away from the RP but it goes along Urdu. This is why the deviation can be noted as a common feature to be found in Pakistani English. This common trend between Urdu and the Yousafzai speakers of English is a point of overlap where common features of Pakistani English are pooled up for a universal Pakistani variety of the language.

170

8.1.6 The Phoneme /g/

The phoneme /g/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage /g/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/g/ No Deviation

Deviated, 0 Deviation Percentage, 0 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 6

/g/ in English is a velar sound which has its equivalents in Yousafzai Pashto and in Urdu also. In view of the similarities between the languages to be contrasted here, a positive transfer is bound to occur. This is why the deviation in case of this sound is zero. It clearly proves that wherever the sounds of Pashto resemble those of English, both in place and manner of articulation, it facilitates the subjects.

171

8.1.7 The Phoneme /tʃ/

The phoneme /tʃ/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

/tʃ/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/tʃ/ No Deviation

Deviation Percentage, 0 Pronounced Correctly Deviated, 0 Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 7

172

The /tʃ/ sound of English has articulatory features corresponding to a sound segment in Pashto (Yousafzai) as well as Urdu. Naturally a positive transfer, therefore, was theoretically expected which can be found clearly in the statistical trend of the data.

There is zero deviation as per the results raised through the data analysis. Thus the /tʃ/ sound does not provide any basis of any contrast of the variety spoken by Yousafzai speakers of the English language with the variety spoken by Pakistanis in general or even RP speakers.

173

8.1.8 The Phoneme /dʒ/

The phoneme /dʒ/was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

/dʒ/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/dʒ/ No Deviation

Deviation Percentage, 0 Pronounced Correctly Deviated, 0 Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 8

174

The use of the /dʒ/ sound is hardly different from that of the /tʃ/ sound. The articulatory features of /dʒ/ in English resemble a sound segment in both Pashto (Yousafzai) and Urdu. Consequently, a positive transfer can be seen in case of the articulation of this sound. A zero deviation, as evidenced in the data, suffices to establish the argument that the /dʒ/ sound does not add to the contrastive features of the Yousafzai variety of the English language. This is instead a common feature of Pakistani English, Yousafzai Pakistani English and the RP.

175

8.1.9 The Phoneme /f/

The phoneme /f/was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage /f/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/f/ No Deviation

Deviated, 0 Deviation Percentage, 0 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 9

176

Both Yousafzai Pashto and Urdu have sounds corresponding both in place and manner of articulation to the /f/ sound. Therefore a positive transfer has been observed in case of this sound. Statistical data shows no deviation at all from the RP pronunciation of this sound. Such statistical trend proves /f/ not to serve as a distinct feature of the Yousafzai dialect. It is common among all the three varieties of English under discussion i.e. Yousafzai Pakistani English, Pakistani English and Received Pronunciation.

177

8.1.10 The Phoneme /v/

The phoneme /v/was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage /v/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/v/ No Deviation

Deviated, 0 Deviation Percentage, 0 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 10

Sound segments corresponding to /v/ exist both in Yousafzai Pashto and Urdu. Therefore a positive transfer is to be observed in the trends shown by the data in this case. A zero deviation suffices to establish that the phonetic features of this sound are a point of similarity among English, Yousafzai Pashto and Urdu. Hence it leads to the conclusion that the case of sound in point does not contribute to establish Yousafzai Pakistani English as a separate variety of English because it does not serve as a mark of distinction for it.

178

8.1.11 The Phoneme /Θ/

The phoneme /Θ/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The interesting fact was that only twenty-five participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; the other twenty-five participants did it the way is produced showing a very large trend of deviation. The ’ت‘ Urdu/Pashto alphabet letter phoneme was not properly pronounced because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage Changed to 50 25 25 ’ت‘ Θ/ Urdu/Pashto/

ت Θ/ Changed to Urdu/Pashto/

Pronounced Correctly, 25 Pronounced Correctly Deviation Percentage, 50 Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviated, 25

Analysis Chart and Table 11

179

The sound in this case is a fricative by manner of articulation while it is a dental sound of Pashto and Urdu however /ث/ with regard to its place of articulation. The resembles a lot in its phonetic contours to the /Θ/ sound of the English language. However, there occurs a problem because in ordinary speech the place of articulation of the Pashto and Urdu sound, given above, is tampered by the casualness of the speakers. In principle or going by the rule, the given sound of both Pashto and Urdu is a dental fricative with regard to its place and manner while its articulation in common speech is as alveolar fricative which resembles the /s/ sound of English. Consequent to this generally Pakistani speakers confuse /Θ/ sound with a dental plosive which can be said to be the .sound of both Pashto and Urdu /ت/ aspirated form of the

180

8.1.12 The Phoneme /Ð/

The phoneme /Ð/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives except one showing only a negligible trend of deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants except one is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage Pronounced with /Ð/ Aspiration 49 1 2

/Ð/ Pronounced with Aspiration

Deviation Percentage, 2 Pronounced Correctly Deviated, 1 Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 49

Analysis Chart and Table 12

181

This dental fricative of English has got corresponding sounds both in Pashto and Urdu. Therefore a positive transfer of L1 features can be concluded on the basis of the evidence provided by the statistical trends shown by the data. Only one deviation can be seen in the data analysis which is obviously negligible and can be attributed safely to carelessness on the part of the speaker. Thus the view can be established that the /d/ sound does not behave as a contributive feature in making Yousafzai Pakistani English as a distinct variety of Pakistani English.

182

8.1.13 The Phoneme /s/

The phoneme /s/was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

/s/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/s/ No Deviation

Deviated, 0 Deviation Percentage, 0 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 13

/s/ also has a case very similar to the sounds which are common among all the three languages i.e. Yousafzai Pashto, Urdu and the RP. It is an alveolar fricative corresponsive to which there exist sounds in the Yousafzai Pashto and Urdu. Thus as expected a positive transfer has been observed in the data analysis. Hence the sound does not serve as a distinctive feature for the variety of English used by the Pashto speakers of the Yousafzai dialect.

183

8.1.14 The Phoneme /z/

The phoneme /z/was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

/z/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/z/ No Deviation

Deviated, 0 Deviation Percentage, 0 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 14

/z/ being a voiced alveolar fricative of the English language has got corresponding sounds in Pashto as well as in Urdu. This obviously leads to the phenomenon of positive transfer of L1 features resulting in zero deviation as shown by the statistical trends of the data. Thus /z/ sound cannot be considered to be contributing towards making Yousafzai Pakistani English as a distinct variety of the Pakistani English.

184

8.1.15 The Phoneme /ʃ/

The phoneme /ʃ/was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

/ʃ/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/ʃ/ No Deviation

Deviation Percentage,0 Pronounced Correctly Deviated, 0 Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 15

The phoneme /ʃ/was also expected to have positive transfer owing to the existence of the corresponding sounds with similar articulatory features both in Pashto and Urdu. Therefore the statistical trends of the sound cannot be considered as a point of distinction for the English language spoken by the Yousafzai Pashto speaking people.

185

8.1.16 The Phoneme /ʒ/

The phoneme /ʒ/was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

/ʒ/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/ʒ/ No Deviation

Deviation

Percentage, 0

Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviated, 0 Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 16

There exist sounds with similar articulatory features in Pashto and Urdu as those of the /ʒ/ sound of English. Therefore, positive transfer of L1 features has been observed in case of this sound. Its proof is found in the zero deviation shown in the statistical trends of the data. Thus /ʒ/ sound does not tend to be a point of distinction in the specific variety of the English language used by the Pashto Yousafzai speakers of Pakistan.

186

8.1.17 The Phoneme /h/

The phoneme /h/was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage /h/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/h/ No Deviation

Deviated, 0 Deviation Percentage, 0 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 17

The /h/ sound is considered as a glottal fricative on the basis of its phonetic features. Sounds with similar features are found in Pashto and Urdu. Thus a positive transfer of the L1 features is the outcome as shown by the statistical results. The sound in question, therefore, is not a point of distinction for the variety of English spoken by the Yousafzai Pashto speaking people of the country.

187

8.1.18 The Phoneme /m/

The phoneme /m/was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

/m/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/m/ No Deviation

Deviated, 0 Deviation Percentage, 0 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 18

The /m/ sound in English is a bilabial nasal sound having voiced factures and with similar phonetic features there exist sounds both in Pashto and Urdu. Therefore, a positive transfer of the features is obvious. Its evidence can be found in the statistical trends of the data showing a zero deviation. Thus /m/ sound, as produced by the Yousafzai Pashto speakers of English, does not go to mark it as a distinct variety of Pakistani English.

188

8.1.19 The Phoneme /n/

The phoneme /n/was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

/n/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/n/ No Deviation

Deviated, 0 Deviation Percentage, 0 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 19

The /n/ sound of English as an alveolar nasal resembles Pashto and Urdu as both the languages have got a alveolar nasal sounds similar in their phonetic features to the sound in question. Hence, as a result of a positive transfer, a zero deviation is to be seen in the statistical analysis of the data. The /n/ sound therefore does not serve to give distinctive features to the variety of English used by Pashto Yousafzai speakers of English.

189

8.1.20 The Phoneme /ŋ/

The phoneme /ŋ/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives except one who pronounced it like /n/ sound showing only a negligible trend of deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants except one is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

/ŋ/ Produced like /n/ 49 1 2

/ŋ/ Produced like /n/

Deviation Percentage, 2 Pronounced Correctly Deviated, 1 Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 49

Analysis Chart and Table 20

190

The production of the /ŋ/sound does not create any problem for Pashto and Urdu speakers due to the similarity, in phonetic features, of the sounds in Urdu and Pashto. This similarity leads to a positive transfer of the features. It is reflected in the percentage and frequency of deviation which is absolutely negligible. Hence features of the /ŋ/ sound as produced by the Yousafzai Pashto speakers of English does not provide distinctive features to mark the variety spoken by them as distinct from the RP and Pakistani English.

191

8.1.21 The Phoneme /l/

The phoneme /l/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage /l/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/l/ No Deviation

Deviated, 0 Deviation Percentage, 0 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 21

Lateral sounds with similar phonetic features are found in both Pashto and Urdu. Thus a positive transfer was but obvious in this case as evidenced by there being a zero deviation. In view of this the /l/ sound, as produced by the Yousafzai Pashto speakers of English, cannot be used as a distinct feature of the English spoken by these people.

192

8.1.22 The Phoneme /r/

The phoneme /r/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing only a mild deviation. Since this sound is present both in Pashto and Urdu which is pronounced fully unlike the English /r/. The /r/ produced by the research participants was more like the Pashto or Urdu one but at the same time not enabling it to become another phoneme to be marked separately as a deviation. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

/r/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/r/ No Deviation

Deviated, 0 Deviation Percentage, 0 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 22

There are different varieties of /r/ sound in English, such as rolled /r/, flapped /r/ etc. (it has its phonological features also, like intrusive /r/ etc.). This sound is one of the problematic ones for Pakistanis so it is not pronounced correctly.

193

8.1.23 The Phoneme /j/

The phoneme /j/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. Since this sound is present both in Pashto and Urdu, which is why Pashto speakers can pronounce it without any difficulty. The data has been given in the table in numerical form and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage /j/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/j/ No Deviation

Deviated, 0 Deviation Percentage, 0 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 23

A zero deviation in this case speaks about the positive transfer. It is due to the similar features of a sound that exists in both the languages i.e. Pashto and Urdu. The /j/ produced by Pashto speakers therefore does not go to serve as a distinctive feature of the English spoken by the Yousafzai Pashto speakers.

194

8.1.24 The Phoneme /w/

The phoneme /w/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The noteworthy fact was that only nineteen participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; the other thirty-one participants changed it to become the phoneme /v/ showing a very big trend of deviation. The phoneme was not properly pronounced because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage /w/ Changed to /v/ 19 31 62

/w/ Changed to /v/

Pronounced Correctly, 19 Pronounced Correctly Deviation Deviated Percentage, 62 Deviated, 31 Deviation Percentage

Analysis Chart and Table 24

195

The percentage of deviation is a clear evidence of a negative transfer. In both Pashto and Urdu there is a labio-dental fricative which is confused with the /w/ sound of English. Thus the deviation takes place due to the L1 influence resulting in the replacement of /w/ with a sound of Pashto and Urdu resembling the /v/ sound of the English language. Due to the non-existence of two distinct sounds in Pashto and Urdu corresponding to /v/ and /w/ of English, the Pashto and Urdu speakers tend to overlook the difference between /v/ and /w/. Training in this case makes difference and those who have been trained produce it correctly. Therefore the /w/ sound, as produced by Pashto speakers, makes it distinct from the RP but not from Pakistani English. Therefore, the deviated feature cannot be considered itself as a part of a sub-variety of Pakistani English rather it is a feature of the Pakistani English itself.

196

8.2 Analysis of the Long Vowels Given in the Wordlist

8.2.1 The Long Vowel /i:/

The long vowel /i:/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The noteworthy fact was that forty-six participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; the other four participants shortened it in length changing it to become like a short vowel showing a mild trend of deviation. The phoneme was not properly pronounced by a minority because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage /i:/ Shortened in Length 46 4 8

Shortened in Length

Deviation Percentage, 8 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviated, 4 Pronounced Correctly, 46

Analysis Chart and Table 25

197

The long vowels corresponding to /i:/ are found in Pashto and Urdu both. This vowel sound is part of the phonemic inventories of both Pashto and Urdu owing to which a positive transfer can be seen in the statistical results emerging from analysis of the data gathered. The percentage of those who deviated from the RP features of this vocalic sound is very low and can be attributed to the factors other than L1 influence. It can be ephemeral caused due to the confusion in the learning process of the users. The pedagogy in trend in our country focuses literacy skills only. The learning of English in Pakistan begins with literacy skills, therefore, the learners depend on the orthographic form of the word/s divorced from any regard to their pronunciation. The deviation in this case is not therefore a regular, stable and permanent feature of the Yousafzai Pashto variety of the English language.

198

8.2.2 The Long Vowel /ɔ:/

The long vowel /ɔ:/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that thirty-five participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; the other fifteen participants changing it to become a diphthong and a long vowel (as given below) showing a trend of deviation. The phoneme was not properly pronounced because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

Changed to /aʊ/ (4) and /ɑ:/ (11) /ɔ:/ 35 15 30

Changed to /aʊ/ (4) and /ɑ:/ (11)

Deviation Percentage, 30 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviated, 15 Pronounced Correctly, 35

Analysis Chart and Table 26

199

Both in Pashto and Urdu there exist vowels similar to the one in question here with regard to the position and the height of the tongue. However, lip-rounding which is characteristic of the given vowel in English is not to be found in case of both Urdu and Pashto. This feature is responsible for the deviation in this case. Lip-rounding creates confusion for the speakers and learners but for a clear minority only. It is because of the similarity in features other than the lip rounding only which the learners become familiar with at a very early stage in the learning process. Thus, the vowel here does not significantly contribute to the distinguishing/distinctive features of the English spoken by the Yousafzai Pashto speakers.

200

8.2.3 The Long Vowel /ɜ:/

The long vowel /ɜ:/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that thirty-nine participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; the other eleven participants changed it to become different sounds (as given below) showing a trend of deviation. The phoneme was not properly pronounced because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage Changed to /ʌ/ (9), /ər/ (1) and /ɪ/ (1) /ɜ:/ 39 11 22

Changed to /ʌ/ (9), /ər/ (1) and /ɪ/ (1)

Deviation Percentage, 22 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Deviated, 11 Correctly, 39

Analysis Chart and Table 27

201

The case of this vowel is very similar to the previous long vowel discussed earlier. Long central vowels exist both in Pashto and Urdu which tend to provide a positive transfer in this case. This is why the deviation frequency is realistically low. This deviation is due to the height of the tongue which is almost at the middle in case of the English vowel in contrast to the long vowel of Pashto which is low as well as that of Urdu. Thus the features of this vowel as produced by Yousafzai Pashto speakers of English does not significantly contribute to prove it as a separate variety of the Pakistani English.

202

8.2.4 The Long Vowel /ɑ:/

The long vowel /ɑ:/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that forty-nine participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; only one participant changed it to become a different vowel (as given below) showing a minor trend of deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants except one is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage Changed to /ɔ:/ /ɑ:/ 49 1 2

/ɑ:/ Changed to /ɔ:/

Deviation Percentage, 2 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviated, 1 Pronounced Correctly, 49

Analysis Chart and Table 28

203

The absence of deviation is due to the existence of such long both in Pashto and Urdu. Participants here are not only familiar with this vocalic sound but have a native’s practice in producing this sound. These factors, no doubt, lead to a positive transfer. Thus the vocalic sound here as produced by the Yousafzai Pashto speakers of English does not contribute to the distinctive features of the English spoken by them as a sub-variety of Pakistani English.

204

8.2.5 The Long Vowel /u:/

The long vowel /u:/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that forty-two participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; the other eight participants changed it to become different single and double vowels (as given below) showing an important trend of deviation. The phoneme was not properly pronounced because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

Changed to /ʊ/ (6), /ʊə/ (1) and /əʊ/ (1) /u:/ 42 8 16

/u:/ Changed to /ʊ/ (6), /ʊə/ (1) and /əʊ/ (1)

Deviation Percentage, 16 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviated, 8 Pronounced Correctly, 42

Analysis Chart and Table 29

205

The percentage of deviation here was not expected on the basis of contrastive features. A positive transfer was expected due to the existence of long back rounded vowel both in Pashto and Urdu. The deviation though low but is still significant in view of the existing similarity in features of the vocalic sounds of the languages under consideration here. Thus, the reasons for deviation can be traced to the nature of exposure the participants had during the learning process. Thus, the /u:/ sound as produced by the Yousafzai Pashto speakers does not provide sufficient data to mark it as a separate variety of Pakistani English.

206

8.3 Analysis of the Short Vowels

8.3.1 The Short Vowel /ɪ/

The short vowel /ɪ/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that forty-eight participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; the other two participants changed it to become a different single vowel (as given below) showing a minute trend of deviation. The reason for the phoneme being pronounced correctly by all the participants except two is its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been presented numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage Pronounced as /ɪ/ /e/ 48 2 4

/ɪ/ Pronounced as /e/

Deviation Percentage, 4

Pronounced Correctly Deviated, 2 Deviated Deviation Percentage

Pronounced Correctly, 48

Analysis Chart and Table 30

207

The case of this sound is in no way different from /ɑ:/. The deviation observed here is, though very little but still can be attributed to the factors similar to the ones working in case of the /ɑ:/ sound as discussed earlier. There exists a vocalic sound corresponding to /ɪ/ of English in both Pashto and Urdu. Hence, a positive transfer was expected which finds its sufficient evidence in the statistical trends showing deviation. The 4% deviation can be attributed to the nature of exposure the participants had during their learning process as there should be no difficulty in articulation on the basis of the contrastive analysis. Thus /ɪ/ sound also presents phonetic area of awarding no distinctive features to the way it is produced by the Yousafzai Pashto speaking people. It obviously means that the sound does not go along establishing English spoken by Pashto speakers as a separate variety.

208

8.3.2 The Short Vowel /e/

The short vowel /e/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that forty-six participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; the other four participants changed it to become different single vowels (as given below) showing a small trend of deviation. The phoneme was not properly pronounced by a few of the participants because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been presented numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

Pronounced as /ɪ/ (3) and /æ/ (1) /e/ 46 4 8

/e/ Pronounced as /ɪ/ (3) and /æ/ (1)

Deviation Percentage, 8

Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviated, 4 Deviation Percentage

Pronounced Correctly, 46

Analysis Chart and Table 31

209

Sounds corresponding to /e/ exist in Pashto and Urdu. Therefore a positive transfer was expected which was though not complete but still significantly dominant. The frequency of deviation is very low and can be attributed to accidental factors owing to the nature of exposure to the English language during the learning process of the participants. Thus, the sound in question does not lend, in the way it is produced, distinctive features to the English spoken by Pashto speakers of the Yousafzai dialect.

210

8.3.3 The Short Vowel /æ/

The short vowel /æ/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that forty-two participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; the other eight participants changed it to become different single and double vowels (as given below) showing a trend of deviation. The phoneme was not properly pronounced by a few participants because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been presented numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

Pronounced like /eɪ/ (5), /e/ (2) and /ɪ/ (1) /æ/ 42 8 16

/æ/ Pronounced like /eɪ/ (5), /e/ (2) and /ɪ/ (1)

Deviation Percentage, 16

Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviated, 8 Pronounced Correctly, 42

211

Analysis Chart and Table 32

A vocalic sound described as a low central (Madiha Ijaz) exists in Pashto of Yousafzai dialect which resembles in its features of low tongue position and relatively being closer to the front position for its being central than any of the back vowels. Also, lip rounding is not featured in both the English as well as the Pashto vowels in point. A positive transfer was expected in view of such features located through contrastive analysis which finds evidence in the statistical trend. However the deviation in this case cannot simply be attributed to the nature of exposure which was done in case of complete resemblance of the sounds. The difference created by the frontal position of /æ/ against the central position of the Pashto vocalic sound would have gone for a negative transfer resulting in the deviation from the RP. On the other hand in Urdu there exists a sound corresponding to /æ/ described as a low front (Saleem et al. 2002). It resembles the features of the English vocalic sound completely which means a complete positive transfer in case of an Urdu speaker. Thus the vowel sound here, as produced by the Yousafzai Pashto speakers, supplies distinctive features to some extent which might not be enough to rely on but still significant.

212

8.3.4 The Short Vowel /ʌ/

The Short Vowel /ʌ/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The sound is not difficult for Pashto speaking people owing to its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Phoneme Deviation/s Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage

/ʌ/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/ʌ/ No Deviation

Deviated, 0

Pronounced Correctly Deviation Deviated Percentage, 0 Deviation Percentage

Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 33

213

A vocalic sound described as a mid-central (Madiha Ijaz) in Pashto resembles the English vowel in point. Similarly there exists a vowel in Urdu resembling in its physical features with the English sound. It is described as a central with regard to the place of the tongue and middle with reference to its height. Thus the features of the Urdu sound closely resemble that of the English one. Therefore keeping in mind the resemblance both of Pashto and Urdu vowels in contrastive analysis, a positive transfer in case of the RP is expected while the distinction from the way it is produced by Urdu speakers is not expected at all. Hence the sound can be concluded as not being a distinctive feature of the sub-variety of English used by the Yousafzai Pashto speakers.

214

8.3.5 The Short Vowel /ɒ/

The short vowel /ɒ/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that forty-eight participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; the other two participants changed it to become different single and double vowels (as given below) showing a trend of deviation. The data has been presented numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

Pronounced like /əʊ/ (1) and /ɔ:/ (1) /ɒ/ 48 2 4

/ɒ/ Pronounced like /əʊ/ (1) and /ɔ:/ (1)

Deviated, 2

Pronounced Correctly Deviation Deviated Percentage, 4 Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 48

Analysis Chart and Table 34

215

So far as the case of this sound is concerned, it is different from the sounds of both Pashto and Urdu as they do not have short vocalic sounds involving close lip- rounding with the place of the tongue at the back. Therefore a negative transfer was likely which is not found here which obviously means that learners do not face so much trouble in learning and producing this sound. It is quite possibly due to a relatively open and long rounded vowel found in Pashto and Urdu. (Madiha and Saleem et al. 2002). The exposure and training in multiple languages (including both the native and the target language) naturally helps learners learn such sounds also which they may not have in their own language/s.

216

8.3.6 The Short Vowel /ʊ/

The Short Vowel /ʊ/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The sound is not difficult for Pashto speaking people owing to its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

/ʊ/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/ʊ/ No Deviation

Deviation Percentage, 0

Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviated, 0 Deviation Percentage

Pronounced Correctly, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 35

Short vocalic sounds corresponding to the vowel under consideration exist in Pashto and Urdu. Thus positive transfer is naturally expected which is evident from the zero deviation in this case. Hence the sound in question does not provide distinctive features to the variety of English spoken by the Yousafzai Pashto speaking people.

217

8.3.7 The Short Vowel /ə/

The short vowel /ə/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that forty participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; the other ten participants changed it to become different single vowels (as given below) showing a significant trend of deviation. The phoneme was not properly pronounced by a few participants because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been presented numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage Changed to /e/ (8) and /ɪ/ (2) /ə/ 40 10 20

/ə/ Changed to /e/ (8) and /ɪ/ (2)

Deviation Percentage, 20

Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviated, 10 Pronounced Correctly, 40

Analysis Chart and Table 36

218

/ə/ is a vocalic sound having special features in English. The deviation and problem constituted by this sound cannot be attributed to its phonetic features. It is because both in Pashto and Urdu there are vocalic sounds resembling this sound in their articulatory features (Madiha Ijaz and Saleem et al 2002). Thus due to lack of mutually contrasting features positive transfer is expected which is diluted due to some non- phonetic factors resulting in deviation. This can be traced to the non-phonetic nature of the written English and over-dependence of teaching on the orthographic form of the English language in Pakistan. The focus is mainly on the literacy skills at the heavy expense of oracy as they are not the concern in the pedagogical techniques under practice. Because of this the learners cannot do justice with the strong and weak vocalic positions. As the schwa /ə/ sound typically or most frequently comes in the weak position (syllables), it is not produced as such by the learners due to this lack of familiarity with it which is caused by faulty input. Thus this sound despite being problematic for the Pashto speakers cannot be considered as such as a mark of distinction with regard to Yousafzai English being a sub-variety of Pakistani English.

219

8.4 Analysis of the Diphthongs

8.4.1 The Diphthong /eɪ/

The diphthong /eɪ/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The sound is not difficult for Pashto speaking people owing to its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

/eɪ/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/eɪ/ No Deviation

Deviated, 0

Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Deviation Correctly, 50 Percentage, 0

Analysis Chart and Table 37

220

In the Pashto language four vowels have been identified (Madiha Ijaz). The first out of them corresponds to the one under discussion here. Thus a positive transfer was expected owing to the similarity discovered through contrastive analysis. However in Urdu there exist no diphthongal sounds because of which diphthongs create a problem for Pakistanis in general and specifically for those with Urdu as their first language (mother tongue). Therefore the situation produces an interesting case where the English spoken by the Pashto speakers resembles the RP in this particular feature but diverges from that of Pakistani speakers especially the Urdu speaking. Due to this the English of the Yousafzai Pashto speaking presents a sub-variety of Pakistani English differing from it in its diphthongal features.

221

8.4.2 The Diphthong /aɪ/

The diphthong /aɪ/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The sound is not difficult for Pashto speaking people owing to its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

/aɪ/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/aɪ/ No Deviation

Deviated, 0

Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Deviation Correctly, 50 Percentage, 0

Analysis Chart and Table 38

222

The case of the present sound is very similar to the one discussed earlier. Here again a positive transfer was likely owing to the similarity of the diphthongs of Pashto and English. In Pashto a diphthong exists corresponding to the one under discussion at the moment. It has been found evident in the zero deviation in the statistical results of the data. The case of Urdu and the Urdu speaking is similar to the previous diphthong discussed earlier. The successful production of the diphthong by the Pashto speaking converges their variety of English with the RP while makes it divergent from that of the Urdu speaking as there exists no such diphthong in their language. Thus the feature in point can be considered as a distinctive one with regard to the Pashto speaking variety of Pakistani English.

223

8.4.3 The Diphthong /ɔɪ/

The Diphthong /ɔɪ/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact is that only sixteen participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; the other thirty-four participants changed it to become a different diphthong (as given below) showing a very significant trend of deviation. The phoneme was not properly pronounced by a majority because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been presented numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Pronounced Correctly Deviated Percentage

Changed to /aɪ/ inserting

/ɔɪ/ /w/ before it 16 34 68

/ɔɪ/ Changed to /aɪ/ inserting /w/ before it

Deviation Percentage, 68 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviated, 34 Pronounced Deviation Percentage Correctly, 16

Analysis Chart and Table 39

224

As regards this diphthong, it mostly tends to be influenced by the written form of the language as in our country language is taught by using only written material and there is hardly any attention paid to the verbal aspect. Since the diphthong under discussion gets its representation by the symbols ‘oy’ in the written form, the individual sound of the letter ‘y’ takes /w/ sound which gets uttered as it is at the word level also. In other words it is not something to be blamed on the learners’ lack of capacity to do this sound as the problem lies elsewhere i.e. the way they have been told and trained by their language instructors who by and large are the product of the same system. Anyway the deviation percentage and frequency is high enough to be regarded as a feature of the variety of the English language spoken by the Yousafzai Pashto speakers.

225

8.4.4 The Diphthong /aʊ/

The diphthong /aʊ/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The sound is not difficult for Pashto speaking people owing to its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

/aʊ/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/aʊ/ No Deviation

Pronounced Correctly, 50

Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviated, 0 Deviation Percentage, 0 Deviation Percentage

Analysis Chart and Table 40

226

A diphthong in Pashto resembles the sound under discussion (Madiha Ijaz). Therefore naturally a positive transfer has been observed, as expected, in the statistical results of the data. Zero deviation clearly proves that the sound in point does not supply a basis to make it a distinctive feature of the English spoken by the Pashto speakers. However with regard to Pakistani English it stands to be a point of distinction as the Urdu speakers tend to replace diphthongs with pure vowels (single vowels/monophthongs) owing to the non-existence of the diphthongs in Urdu. Thus there can be seen a convergence of English spoken by the Pashto speaking with the RP and a divergence from the Pakistani English.

227

8.4.5 The Diphthong /əʊ/

The Diphthong /əʊ/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact is that forty participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; the other ten participants changed it to become different sounds (as given below) showing a trend of deviation. The phoneme was not properly pronounced by a few because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been presented numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

əʊ Change to 'o' (9) and /u:/ (1) 40 10 20

əʊChange to 'o' (9) and /u:/ (1)

Deviation Percentage, 20 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Pronounced Deviation Percentage Deviated, 10 Correctly, 40

Analysis Chart and Table 41

228

This diphthong does not have a corresponding diphthong in the Pashto language which starts as a glide from the central position with the height of the tongue at the middle position. Therefore, a negative transfer was expected which however has been diluted due to the resemblance of the diphthong of Pashto corresponding to /əʊ/. This would definitely have helped the participants in learning articulation of this diphthong. However the deviation still stands to be significant. It provides data to conclude contrast although it does not go far to prove the divergence of the English spoken by the Pashto speakers from the RP. On the other hand Pashto here resembles Urdu in contrastive analysis as both the languages do not have this vowel. But at the same time the Pashto and Urdu speakers might differ in their performance with the advantage to be enjoyed by the Pashto speakers.

229

8.4.6 The Diphthong /ɪə/

The Diphthong /ɪə/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact is that forty-three participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; the other ten participants changed it to become a different diphthong (as given below) showing a mild trend of deviation. The phoneme was not properly pronounced by a few participants because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been presented numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

/ɪə/ Changed to /eə/ 43 7 14

/ɪə/ Changed to /eə/

Deviation Percentage, 14 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviated, 7 Deviation Percentage Pronounced Correctly, 43

Analysis Chart and Table 42

230

Though no corresponding sounds with the diphthongal status can be found both in the inventory of Pashto and Urdu but still certain combinations of pure vowels resemble this diphthong of the English language. Thus there may not be a hundred percent positive transfer but still a support or facilitation is obviously possible in case of the production of this sound both by the Pashto speakers as well as the Urdu ones. The statistical results speak of the fact. The phenomenon here does not go any far to establish English of the Pashto speakers as a separate variety.

231

8.4.7 The Diphthong /eə/

The diphthong /eə/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact is that forty-two participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; the other eight participants changed it to become a different diphthong and surprisingly a triphthong also (as given below) showing a mild trend of deviation. The phoneme was not properly pronounced by a few participants because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been presented numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage Changed to /ɪə/ (7) and triphthong

/aɪə/ (1) /eə/ 42 8 16

/eə/ Changed to /ɪə/ (7) and triphthong /aɪə/ (1)

Deviation Percentage, 16 Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviated, 8 Pronounced Correctly, 42

Analysis Chart and Table 43

232

The case of this vowel resembles that of the previous one. No corresponding sound is found in Pashto. The case of Urdu is obvious. But certain combinations of pure vowels do resemble this diphthong rendering whereby this sound should not be problematic for Pashto and Urdu speakers. Thus, despite lack of positive transfer, supportive tendency was expected which is obvious in the statistical results with only eighteen percent deviation. In the light of all this the features of this diphthong as produced by the Pashto speakers do not contribute to render it a separate variety of Pakistani English.

233

8.4.8 The Diphthong /ʊə/

The diphthong /ʊə/ was given in the word list and was pronounced by fifty participants. The important fact was that all the participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives showing no deviation. The sound is not difficult for Pashto speaking people owing to its presence in the Pashto language. The data has been given in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Phoneme Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

/ʊə/ No Deviation 50 0 0

/ʊə/ No Deviation

Deviated, 0

Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Pronounced Deviation Correctly, 50 Percentage, 0

Analysis Chart and Table 44

234

Here again the vowel in question resembles certain combinations of pure vowels but does not correspond to any diphthong in Pashto. So absence of a positive transfer but facilitation was expected in this case. The percentage of deviation is zero which shows no divergence from the RP. Also, in case of Urdu similar results have been produced in studies due to the supporting factor of resembling combinations of the pure vowels. So the articulation of this diphthong does not supply the reason to consider the English of the Pashto speakers as a separate variety of Pakistani English.

8.5 The Deviations Identified in the Reading Passage

As mentioned before a reading passage was given to the participants to read aloud in addition to the dialogue and the wordlist containing phonemes to be able to determine the phonetic deviations in lengthy chunks of the English language. The deviations are listed below in the following.

235

8.5.1 Rhoticity

It is a general observation that most of the Pakistani people including the Pashto speaking speak rhotic English i.e. they pronounce /r/ sound in all positions. This generalization is established through this study. The passage used as the research tool was read by fifty participants. Out of those fifty, thirty-seven participants were rhotic in their reading and only thirteen participants read the passage in a non-rhotic way. The phoneme was not properly pronounced by a majority of participants because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been presented in the table and shown through the pie chart for the sake of clarity and convenience.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage Produced rhotic Rhoticity speech 13 37 74

Rhoticity: Produced rhotic speech

Correct Reading, 13 Correct Reading Deviation Deviated Percentage, 74 Deviation Percentage Deviated, 37

Analysis Chart and Table 45

236

As regards the /r/ sound, it is done by most Pakistani people because of its presence in both Pashto and Urdu. The sound done by the natives is different, both in place and manner, from that of Pashto and Urdu. Moreover it is not produced in the RP unless followed by a vowel sound. This therefore becomes too much for the non-native Pakistanis in general and the Yousafzai Pashto speakers in particular as they don’t have any such training or practice. Since it is always done in their respective mother tongue, they are not used to the phenomenon of not pronouncing it when it occurs before a consonant and otherwise when it is placed before a vowel. Moreover even if they give it a deliberate try, they cannot maintain it longer than a while only. In that case a negative transfer is normally likely which finds its evidence in a seventy-four percent high deviation. Thus rhotic speech is a shared feature of overall Pakistani English and the variety spoken by the Yousafzai Pashto speakers of the country. Hence both deviate from the RP to a high degree.

237

8.5.2 The Change of the Long Vowel /ɔ:/

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had different words containing the long vowel /ɔ:/. It was read aloud by fifty participants. The important fact was that twenty-two participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; the other twenty-eight participants changed it to become a different vowel (as given below) showing strong a trend of deviation. The phoneme was not properly pronounced by a majority of participants because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage Changed to /ɑ:/ The Long Vowel /ɔ:/ 22 28 56

The Long Vowel /ɔ:/ Changed to /ɑ:/

Correct Reading, 22 Deviation Correct Reading Percentage, Deviated 56 Deviation Percentage

Deviated, 28

Analysis Chart and Table 46

238

Open lip rounding is not present in the Pashto and Urdu vowels. Therefore /ɔ:/ involves problems for the speakers as evident from the statistical data. However, this phenomenon is common among Urdu speakers and hence other Pakistanis as well, therefore it cannot be considered as a basis for establishing the English of the Pashto speakers as a separate variety of Pakistani English.

239

8.5.3 The /v/ Sound in the Preposition ‘of’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the preposition ‘of’ containing the consonant sound /v/. It was read aloud by fifty participants. The surprising fact was that not even a single participant pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; thus showing a 100% trend of deviation. The phoneme was not properly pronounced by all the participants merely because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult at all for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage The /v/ Sound in 'of' Changed to /f/ 0 50 100

The /v/ Sound in 'of' Changed to /f/

Correct Reading, 0 Correct Reading Deviation Deviated Percentage, Deviation Percentage 100 Deviated, 50

Analysis Chart and Table 47

240

The phonetic influence of L1 cannot be considered as the cause for this deviation. It is to be traced in literacy-biased teaching trend in Pakistan. The letters rather than the sounds of the language are used as the basis of pronunciation. There the letter ‘f’ of the preposition ‘of’ misleads the learners as there is no practice of the listening skills in the learning process of the English language at any level during the formal education in our country. This feature is not limited to the English spoken by Pashto speakers only but it is a general feature of Pakistani English. Therefore on the basis of this feature the Pashto speakers do not diverge to show a different variety of Pakistani English.

241

8.5.4 Syllabic /l/ Taking a Vowel: /ə/

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had different words containing the syllabic consonant /l/. It was read aloud by fifty participants. The important fact was that only twelve participants pronounced it correctly as is done by the natives; the other thirty-eight participants pronounced it with a vowel before it i.e. a /ə/ (as given below) showing a very strong trend of deviation. The phoneme was not properly pronounced by a majority of participants because of lack of proper training and practice. In addition it is difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound as they do not have it in Pashto. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage

Syllabic /l/ Takes a Vowel Takes a /ə/ 12 38 76

Syllabic /l/ Takes a Vowel: Takes a /ə/

Correct Reading, 12

Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviation Deviated, 38 Percentage, 76

Analysis Chart and Table 48

242

Here again, lack of listening creates problems such as this. The same discussion which has already been done in case of the vowel schwa applies here as well. To enable the learners overcome such problems, it is very important to give them exposure to the correct form of the language.

243

8.5.5 Aspiration of the Plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had different words containing the plosive consonants /p/, /t/ and /k/. It was read aloud by fifty participants. The important fact was that only twelve participants pronounced them correctly with aspiration as is done by the natives; the other thirty-eight participants pronounced them without aspiration showing a very strong trend of deviation. The phonemes were not properly pronounced by the majority participants because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce these sounds with aspiration. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage Aspiration of the Plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/ No Aspiration 12 38 76

Aspiration of the Plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/: No Aspiration

Correct Reading, 12

Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviation Deviated, 38 Percentage, 76

Analysis Chart and Table 49

Critical discussion done already in case of these sounds individually applies here as well.

244

8.5.6 The Plosive /p/ Changed to the Fricative /f/

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had different words containing the plosive consonant /f/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The important fact was that forty-six participants pronounced it correctly without any divergence; the remaining four changed it to a fricative consonant /f/ showing only a mild trend of deviation dispelling the impression that a great majority of the Pashto speaking people change the consonant /p/ to a /f/. The phoneme was not properly pronounced by a few participants because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce this sound. The study has removed this misconception that Pashto speakers always interchange the two phonemes /p/ and /f/. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviate Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading d Percentage The Plosive /p/ Changed to /f/ 46 4 8

The Plosive /p/: Changed to /f/

Deviation Percentage, 8 Correct Reading Deviated Deviated, 4 Deviation Percentage

Correct Reading, 46

Analysis Chart and Table 50

245

Such a deviation and to this scale may be attributed to the casualness of the speaker or the accidental slip of the tongue under phonetic pressure as there is no clue for contrastive analysis in this case. Corresponding sound exists in Pashto so there is no reason for a negative transfer and no expectation for a deviation.

246

8.5.7 /h/ Pronounced in the Word ‘Hour’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘hour’ containing the letter ‘h’ without a sound value in pronunciation. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The important fact was that thirty-five participants pronounced the word (hour) correctly without pronouncing the silent letter ‘h’; the remaining fifteen pronounced it uttering even the silent letter giving it the sound value as /h/ showing a trend of deviation. It is more because of lack of exposure, training and practice and not so much owing to any technical phonetic reason. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage

The Word 'Hour' /aʊə/ Changed to /haʊər/ 35 15 30

The Word 'Hour' /aʊə/: Changed to /haʊər/

Deviation Percentage, 30

Correct Reading Correct Deviated Reading, 35 Deviation Percentage

Deviated, 15

Analysis Chart and Table 51

247

No Phonetic influence of the L1 can be considered responsible for it except the literacy based learning and teaching in where pronunciation depends on the orthographic form of the words. /h/ sound is produced here due to the presence of the letter ‘h’. Corresponding to the /h/ there is a sound in Pashto. Through literacy based learning the learner equates the letter ‘h’ with the /h/ sound. And tend to produce this sound wherever this letter occurs regardless of the correct pronunciation which is not known to them due to no listening practice.

248

8.5.8 Consonant Cluster Utterance Difficulty

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had different words containing consonant clusters (consonants occurring in sequence without any vowel). The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The important fact was that thirty-five participants pronounced them correctly without any divergence; the remaining fifteen pronounced them inserting a vowel showing a trend of deviation. The clusters were not properly pronounced by some participants because of lack of proper training and practice otherwise it is not difficult for Pashto speaking people to produce them as we have them in Pashto. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Correct Deviation Title Deviation/s Reading Deviated Percentage

Consonant Clusters Uttered with Vowel Insertion 35 15 30

Consonant Clusters: Uttered with Vowel Insertion

Deviation Percentage, 30

Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Percentage Correct Deviated, 15 Reading, 35

Analysis Chart and Table 52

249

Consonant clusters are mostly hard to produce even by the native speakers and that is why they usually tend to elide (omit in speech) one of the consonants in the cluster (a group of consonants occurring in a row). Since our learning of the English language is literacy oriented, speakers normally tend to pronounce each and every letter which of course gets difficult for them to manage successfully. Moreover extensive exposure to the verbal form of the language is crucial from the learners’ point of view which we completely lack in our educational system. Naturally such a deviation does not seem to root from one’s mother tongue but from faulty teaching of the language. Due to its presence in the language of the Yousafzai Pashto speakers, it can be termed as a feature of overall Pakistani English.

250

8.5.9 /ɪ/ in the Word ‘Prefer’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘prefer’ containing the vowel /ɪ/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The important fact was that thirty participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct vowel; the remaining four changed it to another vowel sound /e/ showing a trend of deviation. The deviation is more because of the spelling and due to lack of practice and training. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Percentage

/ɪ/ in ‘Prefer’ Changed to /e/ 30 20 40

/ɪ/ in ‘Prefer’: Changed to /e/

Deviation Percentage, 40

Correct Reading Deviated Correct Deviation Percentage Reading, 30 Deviated, 20

Analysis Chart and Table 53

The letter ‘e’ of the English language is generally equated with the English vowel /e/ therefore the learners tend to produce /e/ wherever the letter ‘e’ occurs regardless of its correct pronunciation which they are never familiar with due to there being no practice of the language as far as listening is concerned.

251

8.5.10 /u:/ in the Word ‘Group’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘group’ containing the long vowel /u:/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The important fact was that thirty-two participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct vowel; the remaining eighteen changed it to a short vowel /ʊ/ showing a trend of deviation. The deviation is because of the word used quite frequently with a short vowel in Pashto and Urdu. Similarly lack of practice and training also are partially responsible because we tend to pronounce words in English the way we do in our respective mother tongue. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage

Changed to /ʊ/ /u:/ in the Word ‘Group’ 32 18 36

/u:/ in the Word ‘Group’: Changed to /ʊ/

Deviation Percentage, 36

Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Deviated, 18 Correct Percentage Reading, 32

Analysis Chart and Table 54

252

There are certain vowels which have shown a greater percentage of deviation in the passage reading than in single words. It is obviously due to the learning that is literacy based in which certain letters and words are fixed as representing particular sounds. Thus the deviation in producing sounds is not only affected by the phonetic influence of the L1 contrastive features but due to the different orthographic forms or combinations of letters representing the same sounds or same letters or their combinations representing different sounds. This is the case where the sound /u:/ does not pose a problem due to its phonetic features but the group of letters ‘ou’ which according to the speakers represents the /u/ sound. Those who pronounced it correctly might have linked ‘ou’ with /u:/ during their training.

253

8.5.11 /ɪ/ in the Word ‘Market’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘market’ containing the short vowel /ɪ/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The important fact was that thirty-one participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct vowel; the remaining nineteen changed it to a long vowel /i:/ showing a trend of deviation. The deviation is because of the word used quite frequently with a long vowel in Pashto and Urdu. Similarly lack of practice and training also are partially responsible because we tend to pronounce words in English the way we do in our respective mother tongue. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage

/ɪ/ in the Word ‘Market’ Changed to /i:/ 31 19 38

/ɪ/ in the Word ‘Market’: Changed to /i:/

Deviation Percentage, 38

Correct Reading Deviated Correct Deviation Percentage Deviated, 19 Reading, 31

Analysis Chart and Table 55

254

The problem here is not at the segmental level. The word ‘market’ exists as a loan (borrowed) word both in Urdu and Pashto. However its pronunciation has undergone a change during the process of indigenization. The pronunciation of the indigenized version of the word ‘market’ is /ma:rki:t/. It can be due to the tendency of Pashto to place stress on the second syllable in disyllabic words. However, the stronger reason is the lack of ear training or exposure to the RP version of the word.

255

8.5.12 /ɪ/ in the Word ‘Minute’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘minute’ containing the short vowel /ɪ/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The important fact was that forty-four participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct vowel; the remaining six changed it to a short vowel /ʌ/ showing a trend of deviation. The deviation is because of the word used quite frequently with the above mentioned short vowel in Pashto and Urdu. Similarly lack of practice and training also are partially responsible because we tend to pronounce words in English the way we do in our respective mother tongue. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage

/ɪ/ in the Word ‘Minute’ Changed to /ʌ/ 44 6 12

/ɪ/ in the Word ‘Minute’: Changed to /ʌ/

Deviation Percentage, 12 Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Percentage

Deviated, 6 Correct Reading, 44

Analysis Chart and Table 56

256

Since it is one of the most frequently used loan words both in Pashto and Urdu, the participants who pronounced it wrongly did it the way they do it in their own language i.e. its indigenized version. Lack of exposure and improper input can also be held responsible as the sound is not beyond the participants because they often do it in their routine communication.

257

8.5.13 /i:/ in the Word ‘Scenic’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘scenic’ containing the long vowel /i:/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The important fact was that thirty-four participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct vowel; the remaining sixteen changed it to a short vowel /e/ showing a sizeable trend of deviation. The deviation is because of the spelling of word. Mostly Pakistani English speakers tend to pronounce words according to their spelling because they are mostly taught by spelling and not through the phonology of the language; the word ‘scenic’ having the letter ‘e’ is one example in this regard. Similarly lack of practice and training also are partially responsible because we tend to pronounce words in English the way we do in our respective mother tongue. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage /i:/ in the Word ‘Scenic’ Changed to /e/ 34 16 32

/i:/ in the Word ‘Scenic’: Changed to /e/

Deviation Percentage, Correct Reading 32 Correct Deviated Reading, 34 Deviation Percentage

Deviated, 16

Analysis Chart and Table 57

258

As regards the noun from this adjective, it is one of the most frequently used loan words both in Pashto and Urdu, the participants who pronounced it wrongly did it because of the written form of the word having the letter ‘e’ in it. Lack of exposure and improper input can also be held responsible as the sound is not beyond the participants because they often do it in their routine communication.

259

8.5.14 /e/ in the Word ‘Entrance’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘entrance’ containing the short vowel /e/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The important fact was that forty-one participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct vowel; the remaining nine changed it to another short vowel /ɪ/ showing a slight trend of deviation. The deviation is because of the reason that phonology of the English language is not taught in our institutions. Similarly lack of practice is also there because there is no training as such. Moreover the word is used quite often in Pashto and Urdu, people tend to pronounce it in English also the way they do in their respective mother tongue. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage

Changed to /ɪ/ /e/ in the Word ‘Entrance’ 41 9 18

/e/ in the Word ‘Entrance’: Changed to /ɪ/

Deviation Percentage, 18 Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Percentage Correct Reading, 41 Deviated, 9

260

Analysis Chart and Table 58

As regards this noun, it is one of the most frequently used loan words both in Pashto and Urdu, the participants who pronounced it wrongly did it because of the local version of the word. Lack of exposure and improper input can also be held responsible as the sound in not beyond the participants because they often do it in their routine communication.

261

8.5.15 /e/ in the Word ‘Hotel’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘hotel’ containing the short vowel /e/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The important fact was that only twenty-two participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct vowel; the other twenty-eight people changed it to a short vowel /ə/ showing a huge trend of deviation. The deviation is because of the word used quite frequently with the above mentioned short vowel in Pashto and Urdu. It is important to mention here that the word has been borrowed by Urdu and Pashto from the English language and that is why its pronunciation carries the indigenous tinge. Similarly lack of practice and training also are partially responsible as there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the language and therefore we tend to pronounce words in English the way we do in our respective mother tongue. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage /e/ in the Word ‘Hotel’ Changed to /ə/ 22 28 56

/e/ in the Word ‘Hotel’: Changed to /ə/

Correct Reading, 22

Correct Reading Deviation Deviated Percentage, Deviation Percentage 56 Deviated, 28

262

Analysis Chart and Table 59

As regards this noun, it is one of the most frequently used loan words both in Pashto and Urdu, the participants who pronounced it wrongly did it because of the established indigenous verbal form of the word disregarding totally its written form having the letter ‘e’ in it. Lack of exposure and improper input can also be held responsible as the sound in not beyond the participants because they often do it in their routine communication.

263

8.5.16 /ʊə/ in the Word ‘Tourist’ The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘tourist’ containing the diphthong /ʊə/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The important fact was that forty-one participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound of the double vowel; the other nine people changed it to different long and short vowels (as given below) showing a diverse trend of deviation. The deviation is because of the word used quite frequently in Pashto and Urdu. Lack of practice and proper training are partially responsible because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the language and therefore we tend to pronounce words in English the way we think of the pronunciation being right. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Correct Deviation Title Deviation/s Reading Deviated Percentage

Changed to /u:/ (4), /ʊ/ (2) /ʊə/ in the Word and /ɔ:/ (3) ‘Tourist’ 41 9 18

/ʊə/ in the Word ‘Tourist’: Changed to /u:/ (4), /ʊ/ (2) and /ɔ:/ (3)

Deviation Percentage, 18

Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviated, 9 Correct Reading, 41

264

Analysis Chart and Table 60

As regards this noun, it is one of the most frequently used loan words both in Pashto and Urdu, the participants who pronounced it wrongly did it because of casualness or due to its written form having the letters ‘ou’. Lack of exposure and improper input can also be held responsible as the sound should not be beyond the participants because they often do it in their routine communication.

265

8.5.17 /əʊ/ in the Word ‘Go’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the simple word ‘go’ containing the diphthong /əʊ/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The important fact was that forty participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound of the double vowel; the other ten people changed it to a different monophthong (as given below) showing a linear trend of deviation. The deviation is because of lack of practice and proper training which are partially responsible because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the language and therefore we tend to pronounce words in English the way we think of their pronunciation to be right. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage

/əʊ/ in the Word Monophthongized ‘Go’ to 'o' 40 10 20

266

/əʊ/ in the Word ‘Go’: Monophthongized to 'o'

Deviation Percentage, 20

Correct Reading Deviated Correct Deviation Percentage Deviated, 10 Reading, 40

Analysis Chart and Table 61

As regards this verb, it is one of the most frequently used words in English, the participants who pronounced it wrongly did it because of the established indigenous verbal form of the word with due regard to its written form having the letter ‘o’ in it. In other words both because of the spoken and written form the word it was not correctly pronounced. Since we follow the written form more, it has its manifestation in the monophthongization of the diphthong as there is a single vowel letter in the spelling which tends to be pronounced as a pure vowel. Lack of exposure and improper input can also be held responsible as the sound in not beyond the participants because they often do it in their routine communication.

267

8.5.18 /ə/ in the Word ‘Alternatively’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the multisyllabic word ‘alternatively’ containing the monophthong /ə/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The most striking fact was that none of the participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound of the vowel; rather it was changed to a different diphthong (as given below) showing an absolutely linear trend of deviation. The deviation is because of lack of practice and proper training which are responsible because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the language and therefore we proceed to pronounce words in English the way we think of their pronunciation to be right. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Correct Deviation Title Deviation/s Reading Deviated Percentage Diphthongized to /ə/ in the Word /eɪ/ ‘Alternatively’ 0 50 100

268

/ə/ in the Word ‘Alternatively’: Monophthongized to /eɪ/

Correct Reading, 0

Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Deviated, 50 Deviation Percentage Percentage, 100

Analysis Chart and Table 62

As regards this word, it is one of the most difficult words in English for the non- native owing to its being a multi-syllabic word, the participants pronounced it wrongly because of the established indigenous verbal form of the word with due regard to its written form having the letter ‘a’ in it. In other words because of the written form the word it was not correctly pronounced. Since we follow the written form more, it has its manifestation in the diphphthongization of the monophthong as there is the letter ‘a’ in the spelling which tends to be pronounced as /eɪ/ the way the individual letter is pronounced. Lack of exposure and improper input can also be held responsible as the sound in not beyond the participants because they often do it in their routine communication.

269

8.5.19 The Definite Article ‘The’ Read as /Ðɪ/

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the definite article ‘the’ containing both a /ə/ and an /ɪ/ sound (depending on whether the following word begins with a consonant or a vowel). The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The interesting fact was that forty-one participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound of the vowel; whereas nine people pronounced it without bothering at all as to what followed next. The deviation is because of lack of practice and proper training which are responsible because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the language and therefore we proceed to pronounce words in English the way we think of their pronunciation to be right. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Correct Deviation Title Deviation/s Reading Deviated Percentage The Definite Article ‘The’ Read as /Ðɪ/ with no regard to which 41 9 18

270

sound followed

The Article ‘The’: Read as /Ðɪ/ with no regard to which sound followed

Deviation Percentage, 18

Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Percentage Correct Reading, 41 Deviated, 9

Analysis Chart and Table 63

As regards this word, it is one of the most frequently used words in English. The participants pronounced it wrongly because of a lack of knowledge, exposure and practice. In other words it is not a big deal for them to pronounce it correctly provided they know the correct form. Lack of exposure and improper input can therefore be held responsible for it.

271

8.5.20 /ə/ in the Words ‘About, Among and Arrive’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the words ‘about, among and arrive’ containing a /ə/ sound each in the beginning. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The interesting fact was that forty-three participants pronounced the words correctly with the correct sound value of the vowel; whereas seven people pronounced it changing it to an /e/ sound because of the letter ‘a’ in spelling. The deviation is owing to a lack of practice and proper training which are responsible because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the language and therefore we carry on pronouncing words in English the way we think of their pronunciation to be. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Correct Deviation Title Deviation/s Reading Deviated Percentage

/ə/ in the Words ‘About, Among and Arrive’ Changed to /e/ 43 7 14

272

/ə/ in the Words ‘About, Among and Arrive’: Changed to /e/

Deviation Percentage, 14

Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Percentage Correct Deviated, 7 Reading, 43

Analysis Chart and Table 64

As far as this sound is concerned, it is one of the difficult ones for the Pakistani people as it has multiple representations in the written form in the English language which gets problematic for the non-natives to manage successfully. In other words because of the written form of the words it was not correctly pronounced. Lack of exposure and improper input can be held responsible as the sound should not be beyond the research participants.

273

8.5.21 /æ/ in ‘As’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘as’ containing the /æ/ sound. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-six participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound value of the vowel; whereas only four people pronounced it diphthongizing it to /eɪ/ sound because of the letter ‘a’ in spelling. The deviation is owing to lack of practice and proper training which are responsible because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the language and therefore we go on pronouncing words in English the way we think of their pronunciation would be. The sound has been discussed earlier as well in the short vowels section which can be read for further understanding of the sound. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage

Changed to /eɪ/ /æ/ in ‘As’ 46 4 8

274

/æ/ in ‘As’: Changed to /eɪ/

Deviation Percentage, 8

Correct Reading Deviated Deviated, 4 Deviation Percentage

Correct Reading, 46

Analysis Chart and Table 65

8.5.22 The Diphthong /eɪ/ in the Word ‘Take’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘take’ containing the diphthong /eɪ/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-four participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound value of the vowel; whereas only six people pronounced it monophthongizing it to become a long and a short vowel (as given below) because of the letter ‘a’ in spelling. The deviation is owing to lack of practice, exposure and proper training which are responsible because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the language and therefore we go on pronouncing words in English the way we think of their pronunciation would be. Another reason is teaching language by depending merely on the written form of the language which at times does not go with its verbal form as one letter may have multiple sound values depending on the linguistic context. Due attention should be paid to the multiple sound values which each letter of the English alphabet may have to avoid mispronunciation of such otherwise simple words. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Correct Deviation Title Deviation/s Reading Deviated Percentage

275

Changed to /æ/ (5) and The Diphthong /eɪ/

/ɑ:/ (1) in the Word ‘Take’ 44 6 12

/eɪ/ in the Word ‘Take’: Changed to /æ/ (5) and /ɑ:/ (1)

Deviation Percentage, 12

Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Percentage

Deviated, 6 Correct Reading, 44

Analysis Chart and Table 66

8.5.23 /u:/ in the Word ‘Through’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘through’ containing the long vowel /u:/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-two participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound value of the vowel; whereas eight people pronounced it monophthongizing it a short vowel (as given below) because of the complex spelling of the word. The deviation is owing to lack of proper training which is responsible because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the language and therefore we go on pronouncing words in English the way we think of their pronunciation would be. Moreover we are taught the English language generally depending upon the literacy skills which becomes a problem when the learners come upon such written forms which are not fully compatible with their pronunciation. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage

276

/u:/ in the Word Changed to /ɒ/ ‘Through’: 42 8 16

/u:/ in the Word ‘Through’: Changed to /ɒ/

Deviation Percentage, 16

Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Percentage Correct Deviated, 8 Reading, 42

Analysis Chart and Table 67

8.5.24 /e/ in the Word ‘Every’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘every’ containing the short vowel /e/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-nine participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound value of the vowel; whereas only one person pronounced it diphthongizing the vowel (given below). The deviation in the given word can be termed as a negligible exception as the percentage is too low to be considered a feature of Pakistani or Yousafzai Pashto English. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage

277

/e/ in the Word Changed to /eɪ/ ‘Every’ 49 1 2

/e/ in the Word ‘Every’: Changed to /eɪ/

Deviation Deviated, 1 Percentage, 2 Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Percentage

Correct Reading, 49

Analysis Chart and Table 68

8.5.25 /e/ in the Word ‘Ready’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘ready’ containing the short vowel /e/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-seven participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound value of the vowel; whereas only three people pronounced it changing it to another short vowel (as given below). This deviation is at times found in the pronunciation of the vowel /e/ but in this specific case the deviation percentage is not high enough to qualify being considered as a feature either of Pakistani English or Pashto Yousafzai English. The deviation percentage being that low implies casualness on the part of the subjects. Practice and exposure in this case can be a way out. The data however has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make it more clear and easy to understand.

278

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage /e/ in the Word ‘Ready’: Changed to /æ/ 47 3 6

/e/ in the Word ‘Ready’: Changed to /æ/

Deviation Percentage, 6

Deviated, 3 Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Percentage

Correct Reading, 47

Analysis Chart and Table 69

8.5.26 The Triphthong /aʊə/ ‘Hour’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘hour’ containing the triphthong /aʊə/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-seven participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound value of the vowel; whereas only three people pronounced it changing it to a vowel and consonant combination (as given below). This deviation is owing to a lack of proper teaching as phonology is not taught as a subject in our country at early level education. Moreover the deviation percentage being that low implies casualness on the part of the subjects. Practice and exposure in this case can be a way out. The data has been presented

279 numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage

The Triphthong /aʊə/ Changed to

/ɑ:r/ ‘Hour’ 47 3 6

The Triphthong /aʊə/ ‘Hour’: Changed to /ɑ:r/

Deviation Percentage, 6

Deviated, 3 Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Percentage

Correct Reading, 47

Analysis Chart and Table 70

8.5.27 /ɪ/ in the Words ‘Sit, If and Hill’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the words ‘sit, if, and hill’ containing the vowel /ɪ/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty participants pronounced the words correctly with the correct sound value of the vowel; whereas ten people pronounced them changing the vowel to /e/ (as given below). The percentage of the deviation is not high enough to be looked on as a feature of Pakistani Yousafzai Pashto English. It is owing to a lack proper teaching as phonology is not taught as a subject in our country at early level education. The data has

280 been presented numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Correct Deviation Title Deviation/s Reading Deviated Percentage

/ɪ/ in the Words ‘Sit, If and

Hill’ Changed to /e/ 40 10 20

/ɪ/ in the Words ‘Sit, If and Hill’: Changed to /e/

Deviation Percentage, 20

Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviated, 10 Correct Reading, 40

Analysis Chart and Table 71

The deviation percentage being twenty percent implies casualness on the part of the subjects on the one hand and a lack of exposure on the other. Practice and exposure in this case can be a way out to improve the student’s language.

281

8.5.28 /æ/ in the Words ‘Enthusiastic and Grand’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the words ‘enthusiastic’ and ‘grand’ containing the short vowel /æ/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-three participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound value of the vowel; whereas seven people pronounced it as another short vowel (given below) because of the complex spelling of the first word and because of the letter ‘a’ in the second. The deviation is owing to lack of proper training and practice which are responsible because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language and therefore we go on pronouncing words in English the way we

282 think of their pronunciation to be. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Correct Deviation Title Deviation/s Reading Deviated Percentage Changed to /æ/ in the Words /ɑ:/ ‘Enthusiastic and Grand’: 43 7 14

/æ/ in the Words ‘Enthusiastic and Grand’: Changed to /ɑ:/

Deviation Percentage, 14

Correct Reading Deviated Deviated, 7 Deviation Percentage

Correct Reading, 43

Analysis Chart and Table 72

Literacy based teaching can be termed to have caused this deviation. The solution to the problem is to turn our attention to the oracy skills of the language too’

8.5.29 /ɑ:/ in the Words ‘Park and Staff’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the words ‘park’ and ‘staff’ containing the long vowel /ɑ:/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-two participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound value of the vowel; whereas eight people pronounced it as another long vowel (as given below) because of the sound value of the letter ‘a’ being /ɔ:/ at times. The deviation

283 is owing to a lack of proper training and practice also which are responsible because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language and therefore we go on pronouncing words in English the way we think of their pronunciation to be. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Correct Deviation Title Deviation/s Reading Deviated Percentage /ɑ:/ in the Words ‘Park and Changed to /ɔ:/ Staff’ 42 8 16

/ɑ:/ in the Words ‘Park and Staff’: Changed to /ɔ:/

Deviation Percentage, 16

Correct Reading Deviated Deviated, 8 Deviation Percentage

Correct Reading, 42

Analysis Chart and Table 73

The deviation can be termed as casualness on the part of the speakers as there is nothing so complex or different in the sound to be seen from the dimension of a negative transfer.

284

8.5.30 /k/ in the Word ‘Luxury’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘luxury’ containing the consonant /k/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The surprising fact was that only one participant pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound value of the consonant; whereas forty-nine people pronounced it as another consonant (as given below) because of the altogether different sound value of the letters

285 in the spelling of the word. The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice also which are responsible because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language and therefore we go on pronouncing words in English the way we think of their pronunciation to be. The focus only on the literacy skills proves counterproductive as far as correct verbal form of any word is concerned. Similarly we hardly ever try to search for the correct pronunciation of words due to which wrong forms become so common that they qualify for consideration to be marked as a feature of Pakistani English. The word is quite frequently used in Pashto and Urdu and the participants pronounced the word the way they are used to pronouncing it in their mother tongue. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage /k/ in the Word ‘Luxury’ Changed to /g/ 1 49 98

/k/ in the Word ‘Luxury’: Changed to /g/

Correct Reading, 1

Correct Reading Deviated, 49 Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviation Percentage, 98

Analysis Chart and Table 74

8.5.31 /ʃ/ in the Word ‘Luxury’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘luxury’ containing the consonant /ʃ/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The surprising fact was that only two participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound value of the

286 consonant; whereas forty-eight people pronounced it as another consonant (as given below) because of the altogether different sound value of the letters in the spelling of the word. The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice also which are responsible because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language and therefore we go on pronouncing words in English the way we think of their pronunciation to be. Additionally the word is quite frequently used in Pashto and Urdu and the participants pronounced the word the way they are used to pronouncing it in their mother tongue. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage

/ʃ/ in the Word

‘Luxury’: Changed to /ʒ/ 2 48 96

/ʃ/ in the Word ‘Luxury’: Changed to /ʒ/

Correct Reading, 2

Correct Reading Deviated Deviated, 48 Deviation Percentage Deviation Percentage, 96

Analysis Chart and Table 75

8.5.32 /æ/ in the Word ‘Transport’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘transport’ containing the short vowel /æ/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The surprising fact was that only one participant pronounced the word

287 correctly with the correct sound value of the vowel; whereas forty-nine people pronounced it as another vowel (as given below) because of the letter ‘a’ in the spelling of the word. The word is used excessively in Pashto and Urdu and that is why the participants pronounced it the way they do it in the above mentioned languages. The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice also which are responsible because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language and therefore we go on pronouncing words in English the way we think of their pronunciation to be. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage Changed to /æ/ in the Word /ɑ:/ ‘Transport’ 1 49 98

/æ/ in the Word ‘Transport’: Changed to /ɑ:/

Correct Reading, 1

Correct Reading Deviated, 49 Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviation Percentage, 98

Analysis Chart and Table 76

8.5.33 The Second Syllable in the Word ‘Minutes’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘minutes’. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-six

288 participants pronounced the word correctly; whereas just four people deviated and dropped the second syllable altogether. The word is used most frequently in Pashto and Urdu as a loan word and since we do not have a substitute of it in our respective languages and that is why the participants pronounced it the way they do it in their own languages. The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice also because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language and therefore we go on pronouncing words in English the way we think of their pronunciation to be. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Correct Deviation Title Deviation/s Reading Deviated Percentage The Second Syllable in the Word Dropped ‘Minutes’ altogether 46 4 8

The Second Syllable in the Word ‘Minutes’: Dropped altogether

Deviation Percentage, 8

Correct Reading Deviated, 4 Deviated Deviation Percentage Correct Reading, 46

Analysis Chart and Table 77

8.5.34 /æ/ in the Word ‘Grand’

289

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘grand’ containing the short vowel /æ/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-seven participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound value of the vowel; whereas three people pronounced it diphthongizing it to the vowel (given below) because of the letter ‘a’ in the spelling. The deviation is owing to lack of proper training and practice because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language and therefore we go on pronouncing words in English the way we think of their pronunciation to be. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage Diphthongized to /æ/ in the Word /eɪ/ ‘Grand’ 47 3 6

/æ/ in the Word ‘Grand’: Diphthongized to /eɪ/

Deviation Percentage, 6

Deviated, 3 Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Percentage

Correct Reading, 47

Analysis Chart and Table 78

8.5.35 /e/ in the Word ‘Get’

290

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the words ‘get’ containing the short vowel /e/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-eight participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound value of the vowel; however two people pronounced it changing it to the vowel (given below). The deviation is one of the exceptions and is owing to a lack of proper training and practice because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. It may be due to the casualness on the part of the research participants. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage

Changed to /ɪ/ /e/ in the Word ‘Get’ 48 2 4

/e/ in the Word ‘Get’: Changed to /ɪ/

Deviation Percentage, 4 Deviated, 2 Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Percentage

Correct Reading, 48

Analysis Chart and Table 79

291

8.5.36 /v/ in the Word ‘Have’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘have’ containing the consonant /v/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-five participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound value of the consonant; whereas five people pronounced it changing it to the bilabial consonant (given below) because of the letter ‘e’ in the spelling. The deviation is owing to lack of proper training and practice because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language and therefore we go on pronouncing words in English the way we think of their pronunciation to be. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage /v/ in the Word Changed to ‘Have’ /w/ 45 5 10

/v/ in the Word ‘Have’: Changed to /w/

Deviation Percentage, 10

Correct Reading Deviated, 5 Deviated Deviation Percentage

Correct Reading, 45

Analysis Chart and Table 80

292

8.5.37 /ɪ/ in the Word ‘Sit’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘sit’ containing the short vowel /ɪ/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-seven participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound value of the vowel; whereas three people pronounced it diphthongizing it to the vowel (given below) because of lack of proper training and practice because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language and therefore we go on pronouncing words in English the way we think of their pronunciation to be. Other than this the deviation is too different to be accounted for in terms of the mother tongue of the students. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage Diphthongized to

/aɪ/ /ɪ/ in the Word ‘Sit’ 47 3 6

/ɪ/ in the Word ‘Sit’: Diphthongized to /aɪ/

Deviation Percentage, 6

Deviated, 3 Correct Reading Deviated Deviation Percentage

Correct Reading, 47

Analysis Chart and Table 81

293

8.5.38 /ɔɪ/ in the Word ‘Enjoy’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘enjoy’ containing the diphthong /ɔɪ/. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-three participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound value; whereas seven people pronounced the diphthong changing it to another double vowel (as given below). The word is used excessively in Pashto and Urdu as a loan word and that is why the participants pronounced it differently. Moreover the difference between the two diphthongs is really subtle which at times is confusing. The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice also because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Title Deviation/s Correct Reading Deviated Percentage /ɔɪ/ in the Word Changed to /aɪ/ ‘Enjoy’ 43 7 14

/ɔɪ/ in the Word ‘Enjoy’: Changed to /aɪ/

Deviation Percentage, 14

Correct Reading Deviated Deviated, 7 Deviation Percentage Correct Reading, 43

Analysis Chart and Table 82

294

8.6 Deviations Identified in the Dialogue

Some deviations were noted in the dialogue as well which was given to the research participants to read; they are discussed one by one in the following. The deviations identified in the passage and mentioned before have not been included to avoid repetition. Owing to this reason their number is not as big as that of the deviations found in the reading passage.

295

8.6.1 /ɪ/ in the Word ‘Private’

The dialogue given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘private’ containing the monophthong /ɪ/. It was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that only nineteen participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound value of the vowel; whereas thirty-one people pronounced it diphthongizing it to the vowel given below in the table and the chart. The word is used excessively in Pashto and Urdu as a loan word and that is why the participants pronounced it the way they do it in Pashto and Urdu. The percentage of divergence is enough to be considered a feature of Pakistani Pashto Yousafzai variety of the English language. The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice also because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Title Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage Diphthongized to /ɪ/ in the Word

/eɪ/ ‘Private’ 19 31 62

/ɪ/ in the Word ‘Private’: Diphthongized to /eɪ/

Pronounced Correctly, 19

Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviation Percentage, 62 Deviated, 31

Analysis Chart and Table 83

296

8.6.2 /ɒ/ in the Word ‘Everybody’

The dialogue given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘everybody’ containing the monophthong /ɒ/. It was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that all the participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound value of the vowel; none pronounced it incorrectly as shown below in the table and the chart. The word is used excessively in Pashto and Urdu and that is why the participants pronounced it the way they do it in Pashto and Urdu. The correct pronunciation is because of proper training and practice as they have the sound in their language which clearly indicates a positive transfer of the L1 phonological feature/s. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Title Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

/ɒ/in the Word

‘Everybody’ 0 50 0 0

/ʌ/ No Deviation

Deviated, 0

Pronounced Correctly Deviation Deviated Percentage, 0 Deviation Percentage

Pronounced Correctly, 50

297

Analysis Chart and Table 84

8.6.3 /eɪ/ in the Word ‘Basic’

The dialogue given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘basic’ containing the diphthong /eɪ/. It was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that thirty-three participants pronounced the word correctly with the correct sound value of the vowel; whereas seventeen people pronounced it monophthongizing it to the vowel given below in the table and the pie chart. The word is used excessively in Pashto and Urdu but even then it was pronounced with this change. The deviation is owing to the form of the word with the letter ‘a’ in it. Similarly lack of proper training and practice should also be considered because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Pronounced Deviation Title Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

/eɪ/ in the Word Monophthongized to ‘Basic’ /æ/ 33 17 34

/eɪ/ in the Word ‘Basic’: Monophthongized to /æ/ Pronounced Correctly, 33

Pronounced Correctly Deviated Deviation Deviation Percentage Percentage, 34

Deviated, 17

298

Analysis Chart and Table 85

8.7 Stress Analysis

Out of the passage given to read to the research participants twenty multisyllabic words were selected for stress analysis. Most of the words on the list are high frequency words and are used in our daily routine language. The analysis is given in the following.

8.7.1 The Word ‘Hillside’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘hillside’ with stress on the first syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-four participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas six people pronounced it stressing both the syllables equally. The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice also because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. Moreover when new vocabulary items are taught and learned, usually no attention is given as to which of the syllables is to be stressed. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Word Deviation/s Stressed Correctly Deviated Percentage Hillside Both syllables stressed 44 6 12

299

Hillside: Both syllables stressed

Deviation Percentage, 12

Stressed Correctly Deviated, 6 Deviated Deviation Percentage Stressed Correctly, 44

Analysis Chart and Table 86

8.7.2 The Word ‘Water’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘water’ with stress on the first syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The interesting fact was that twenty-five participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas the other twenty-five people pronounced it stressing both the syllables equally. The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice also because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. Moreover when new vocabulary items are taught and learned, usually no attention is given as to which of the syllables is to be stressed. Although the word is very common as it is most frequently used, even then there is deviation in terms of the stress. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Word Deviation/s Stressed Correctly Deviated Percentage Water Both syllables stressed 25 25 50

300

Water: Both syllables stressed

Deviation Stressed Correctly, Percentage, 50 25 Stressed Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviated, 25

Analysis Chart and Table 87

8.7.3 The Word ‘Summer’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘summer’ with stress on the first syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The interesting fact was that twenty-eight participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas out of the other twenty-two people, twenty-one pronounced it stressing both the syllables equally and only one stressed the second. The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice also because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. Moreover when new vocabulary items are taught and learned, usually no attention is given as to which of the syllables is to be stressed. Although the word is very common as it is most frequently used, even then there is deviation in terms of the stress. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Word Deviation/s Stressed Correctly Deviated Percentage Both syllables stressed (21), Summer second stressed (1) 28 22 44

301

Summer: Both syllables stressed (21), second stressed (1)

Deviation Percentage, 44 Stressed Correctly, 28 Stressed Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviated, 22

Analysis Chart and Table 88

8.7.4 The Word ‘Enthusiastic’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘enthusiastic’ with stress on the fourth syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The interesting fact was that forty-five participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas the other five people showed diverse deviations as given below. The deviations are owing to a lack of proper training and practice also because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. Moreover when new vocabulary items are taught and learned, usually no attention is given as to which of the syllables is to be stressed. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Word Deviation/s Stressed Correctly Deviated Percentage All syllables stressed (2), 1st stressed (1), 2nd Enthusiastic stressed(1), could not read 45 5 10

302

altogether (1)

Enthusiastic: All syllables stressed (2), 1st stressed (1), 2nd stressed(1), could not read altogether (1)

Deviation Percentage, 10

Stressed Correctly Deviated, 5 Deviated Deviation Percentage

Stressed Correctly, 45

Analysis Chart and Table 89

8.7.5 The Word ‘Northern’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘northern’ with stress on the first syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The interesting fact was that forty-six participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas the other four people, pronounced it with stress on both the syllables equally and the second syllable only (detail given below). The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice also because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. Moreover when new vocabulary items are taught and learned, usually no attention is given as to which of the syllables is to be stressed. Although the word is a common one as it is frequently used, even then there is deviation in terms of the stress. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Word Deviation/s Stressed Correctly Deviated Percentage

303

Both syllables stressed (1), Northern 2nd stressed (3) 46 4 8

Northern: Both syllables stressed (1), 2nd stressed (3)

Deviation Percentage, 8

Deviated, 4 Stressed Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage

Stressed Correctly, 46

Analysis Chart and Table 90

8.7.6 The Word ‘Sunshine’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘sunshine’ with stress on the first syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The surprising fact was that twenty-three participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas the other twenty-seven people, pronounced it with stress on both the syllables equally and the second syllable only (detail given below). The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice also because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. Moreover when new vocabulary items are taught and learned, usually no attention is given as to which of the syllables is to be stressed. Although the word is a common one as it is frequently used, even then there is deviation in terms of the stress. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

304

Deviation Word Deviation/s Stressed Correctly Deviated Percentage Both syllables stressed (20), Sunshine: 2nd stressed (7) 23 27 54

Sunshine: Both syllables stressed (20), 2nd stressed (7)

Stressed Deviation Correctly, 23 Percentage, 54 Stressed Correctly Deviated Deviated, 27 Deviation Percentage

Analysis Chart and Table 91

8.7.7 The Word ‘Directly’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘directly’ with stress on the second syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The surprising fact was that thirty-seven participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas the other thirteen people, pronounced it with varying stress (detail given below). The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice also because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. Moreover when new vocabulary items are taught and learned, usually no attention is given as to which of the syllables is to be stressed. Although the word is a common one as it is frequently used, even then there is deviation in terms of the stress. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Word Deviation/s Stressed Correctly Deviated Percentage

305

1st two syllables stressed (8), all stressed alike (2), not

pronounced clearly (2) and Directly 1st stressed (1) 37 13 26

Directly: 1st two syllables stressed (8), all stressed alike (2), not pronounced clearly (2) and 1st stressed (1)

Deviation Percentage, 26

Stressed Stressed Correctly Correctly, 37 Deviated Deviation Percentage

Deviated, 13

Analysis Chart and Table 92

8.7.8 The Word ‘Overlooking’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘overlooking’ with stress on the third syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-one participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas the remaining nine, pronounced it with varying stress (detail given below). The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice also because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. Moreover when new vocabulary items are taught and learned, usually no attention is given as to which of the syllables is to be stressed. Although the word is a common one as it is frequently used, even then there is deviation in terms of the stress. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Stressed Deviation Word Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage Overlooking: 1st and 3rd syllable stressed (3), 41 9 18

306

1st stressed (4), all equally stressed (1) and not pronounced clearly (1)

Overlooking: 1st and 3rd syllable stressed (3), 1st stressed (4), all equally stressed (1) and not pronounced clearly (1)

Deviation Percentage, 18

Stressed Correctly Deviated Stressed Deviation Percentage Deviated, 9 Correctly, 41

Analysis Chart and Table 93

8.7.9 The Word ‘Tourist’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘tourist’ with stress on the first syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The surprising fact was that forty-nine participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas just one participant could not pronounce the word clearly. The word is a common one as it is frequently used and that is why there is no deviation in terms of its pronunciation. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Stressed Deviation Word Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage Tourist: Not clearly pronounced 49 1 2

307

Tourist: Not clearly pronounced

Deviated, 1 Deviation Percentage, 2

Stressed Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage

Stressed Correctly, 49

Analysis Chart and Table 94

8.7.10 The Word ‘Hotel’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘hotel’ with stress on the second syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The surprising fact was that fifteen participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas the remaining thirty-five, pronounced it with varying stress (detail given below). The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice also because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. Moreover when new vocabulary items are taught and learned, usually no attention is given as to which of the syllables is to be stressed. Although the word is a common one as it is frequently used and that is why it was produced by the participants the way they do it speaking their mother tongue. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

308

Deviation Word Deviation/s Stressed Correctly Deviated Percentage 1st syllable stressed (34) and Hotels both stressed (1) 15 35 70

Hotels: 1st syllable stressed (34) and both stressed (1)

Stressed Correctly, 15

Stressed Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviation Deviated, 35 Percentage, 70

Analysis Chart and Table 95

8.7.11 The Word ‘Prefer’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘prefer’ with stress on the second syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that only twenty participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas the other thirty, pronounced it with varying stress (detail given below). The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice also because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. Moreover when new vocabulary items are taught and learned, usually no attention is given as to which of the syllables is to be stressed. Although the word is a common one as it is frequently used, even then there is deviation in terms of the stress because the participants pronounced it the way they do it in their mother tongue. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

309

Deviation Word Deviation/s Stressed Correctly Deviated Percentage 1st syllable stressed (24), both Prefer stressed equally (6) 20 30 60

Prefer: 1st syllable stressed (24), both stressed equally (6)

Stressed Correctly, 20

Stressed Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviation Percentage, 60 Deviated, 30

Analysis Chart and Table 96

8.7.12 The Word ‘Transport’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘transport’ with stress on the first syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that only twenty-nine participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas the other twenty-one, pronounced it with varying stress (detail given below). The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice also because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. Moreover when new vocabulary items are taught and learned, usually no attention is given as to which of the syllables is to be stressed. Although the word is a common one as it is frequently used, even then there is deviation in terms of the stress because the participants pronounced it the way they do it in their mother tongue. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Word Deviation/s Stressed Correctly Deviated Deviation

310

Percentage Both syllables stressed (16), 2nd stressed (4) and Transport pronounced flatly (1) 29 21 42

Transport: Both syllables stressed (16), 2nd stressed (4) and pronounced flatly (1)

Stressed Correctly, 29

Stressed Correctly Deviation Deviated Percentage, 42 Deviation Percentage

Deviated, 21

Analysis Chart and Table 97

8.7.13 The Word ‘Minutes’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘minutes’ with stress on the first syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas the remaining ten, pronounced it with varying stress (detail given below). The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice also because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. Moreover when new vocabulary items are taught and learned, usually no attention is given as to which of the syllables is to be stressed. Although the word is a very common one as it is most frequently used, even then there is deviation in terms of the stress because the participants pronounced it the way they do it in their mother tongue. The data has been

311 given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Stressed Deviation Word Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage Both the syllables equally stressed (7), Minutes 2nd syllable stressed (3) 40 10 20

Minutes: Both the syllables equally stressed (7), 2nd syllable stressed (3)

Deviation Percentage, 20

Stressed Stressed Correctly Correctly, 40 Deviated Deviation Percentage

Deviated, 10

Analysis Chart and Table 98

8.7.14 The Word ‘Market’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘market’ with stress on the first syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that thirty-nine participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas the remaining eleven, pronounced it with varying stress (detail given below). The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. Moreover when new vocabulary items are taught and learned, usually no attention is given as to which of the syllables is to be stressed. Although the word is a very common one as it is most frequently used, even then there is deviation in terms of the stress because the participants pronounced it the way they do it in their mother tongue. The data has been given numerically in the

312 table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Word Deviation/s Stressed Correctly Deviated Percentage Both syllables stressed equally (9), Market 2nd syllable stressed (2) 39 11 22

Market: Both syllables stressed equally (9), 2nd syllable stressed (2)

Deviation Percentage, 22 Stressed Stressed Correctly Correctly, 39 Deviated Deviation Percentage

Deviated, 11

Analysis Chart and Table 99

8.7.15 The Word ‘Cricket’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘cricket’ with stress on the first syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that thirty-nine participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas the remaining eleven, pronounced it with varying stress (detail given below). The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. Moreover when new vocabulary items are taught and learned, usually no attention is given as to which of the syllables is to be stressed. Although the word is a very common one as it is most frequently used, even then there is deviation in terms of the stress because the participants pronounced it the way they do it

313 in their mother tongue. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Word Deviation/s Stressed Correctly Deviated Percentage Both the syllables stressed (9) Cricket and the 2nd one stressed (2) 39 11 22

Cricket: Both the syllables stressed (9) and the 2nd one stressed (2)

Deviation Percentage, 22 Stressed Stressed Correctly Correctly, 39 Deviated Deviation Percentage

Deviated, 11

Analysis Chart and Table 100

8.7.16 The Word ‘Entrance’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘entrance’ with stress on the first syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-three participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas the remaining seven, pronounced it with varying stress (detail given below). The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. Moreover when new vocabulary items are taught and learned, usually no attention is given as to which of the syllables is to be stressed. Although the word is a very common one as it is most frequently used, even then there is deviation in terms of the stress because the

314 participants pronounced it the way they do it in their mother tongue. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Word Deviation/s Stressed Correctly Deviated Percentage Both the syllables stressed (3) Entrance and the 2nd one stressed (4) 43 7 14

Entrance: Both the syllables stressed (3) and the 2nd one stressed (4)

Deviation Percentage, 14

Stressed Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviated, 7 Stressed Correctly, 43

Analysis Chart and Table 101

8.7.17 The Word ‘Alternatively’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘alternatively’ with stress on the second syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The surprising fact was that only four participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas the other forty-six, pronounced it with varying stress (detail given below). The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. Moreover when new vocabulary items are taught and learned, usually no attention is given as to which of the syllables is to be stressed. Although the word is a very common one as it is most frequently used, even then there is deviation in terms of the stress because the participants pronounced it the way they do it in their mother tongue. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

315

Deviation Word Deviation/s Stressed Correctly Deviated Percentage 1st syllable stressed (15), the 3rd one stressed (13), 4th (5),

1st and 3rd (4), 1st three (2), 1st

four (2), the 3rd one

additionally stressed (2), all

stressed (2) and 2nd, 3rd and 4th Alternatively stressed (1) 4 46 92

Alternatively: 1st syllable stressed (15), the 3rd one stressed (13), 4th (5), 1st and 3rd (4), 1st three (2), 1st four (2), the 3rd one additionally stressed (2), all stressed (2) and 2nd, 3rd and 4th stressed (1)

Stressed Correctly, 4

Stressed Correctly Deviated, 46 Deviated Deviation Percentage Deviation Percentage, 92

Analysis Chart and Table 102

8.7.18 The Word ‘Probably’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘probably’ with stress on the first syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that thirty-three participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas the remaining seventeen, pronounced it with varying stress (detail given below). The deviation is owing to a lack of proper training and practice because there is no formal teaching of the phonology of the English language. Moreover when new vocabulary items are taught and learned, usually no attention is given as to which of the syllables is to be stressed. Although the word is a very common one as it is most frequently used, even then there is deviation in terms of the stress because the participants pronounced it the way they do it in their mother tongue. The data has been

316 given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

Deviation Word Deviation/s Stressed Correctly Deviated Percentage 2nd syllable stressed (11), 1st two stressed (4), all stressed (1), 1st Probably and last one stressed (1) 33 17 34

Probably: 2nd syllable stressed (11), 1st two stressed (4), all stressed (1), 1st and last one stressed (1)

Stressed Correctly, 33

Stressed Correctly Deviation Deviated Percentage, 34 Deviation Percentage

Deviated, 17

Analysis Chart and Table 103

8.7.19 The Word ‘Air-conditioned’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘air- conditioned’ with stress on the first syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-nine participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas only one pronounced it indistinctly. The deviation is an exception because it is only one which is negligible. The word is a very common one as it is most frequently used that is why there is no deviation in terms of the stress. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

317

Stressed Deviation Word Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage

Not clearly Air-conditioned: pronounced 49 1 2

Air-conditioned: Not clearly pronounced

Deviation Percentage, 2

Stressed Correctly Deviated, 1 Deviated Deviation Percentage

Stressed Correctly, 49

Analysis Chart and Table 104

8.7.20 The Word ‘Luxury’

The passage given to the research participants to read aloud had the word ‘luxury’ with stress on the first syllable. The passage was read aloud by fifty participants. The fact was that forty-nine participants pronounced the word stressed correctly; whereas just one participant, pronounced it with a different stress (detail given below). Since the word is a very common one as it is most frequently used, and that is why there is negligible deviation in terms of the stress. The data has been given numerically in the table and shown in the pie chart below to make the data more clear and easy to understand.

318

Stressed Deviation Word Deviation/s Correctly Deviated Percentage 1st two syllables Luxury stressed 49 1 2

Luxury: 1st two syllables stressed

Deviation Deviated, 1 Percentage, 2

Stressed Correctly Deviated Deviation Percentage

Stressed Correctly, 49

Analysis Chart and Table 105

CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

319

Conclusion

It is an established fact that every individual’s speech is different from that of the others. We are different linguistically even in our mother tongue and that is where we get the concept of idiolect from. Different idiolects combine to make a dialect of a community. At individual level our individual speech is our identity and at collective level we are recognized by the collective ways of speech of the particular community which we belong to. If an L1 may vary from case to case, it is more likely to have diversity in ways of speech when we take into consideration an L2 because there are some additional factors also in the backdrop which bring about variation. Change and variation is a normal phenomenon when we talk of language. Regarding an L2 we need to consider a number of other factors which are not significant from the point of an L1. In this study an effort has been made to the same end. The deviations marked and shown in the data lead to the fact that some of the features identified in the speech habits of the Yousafzai Pashto speaking people represent a separate variety of the language in its own right whereas others point to the fact that it shares features both with Pakistani English (in general) and with the RP as well. However the researcher found that every deviation cannot be considered to be a feature of the Yousafzai English; it is rather a mistake which should be looked on as such and duly addressed by improving our language training standards.

Recommendations

As the present work has been done on the English language which is used as an L2 in Pakistani context, the following recommendations have been made drawn from the conclusion of the study.

1) First of all it must be accepted as a fact that no matter how best a person may be at an L2; still they cannot be a good competition with the ones who have acquired that particular language as their mother tongue. In simple words those who have learned a second

320

language speak language distinctly differently from those who are the natives. It is a reality which is hard to be denied. However it can be improved reasonably if the environment needed to teach and learn language is a favorable one. In other words our language is distinct which must be appreciated and recognized as per one of the objectives of the present work stated in the first chapter.

2) Given that it is an established fact that language changes regionally as well as socially but in order to make it conform to the recognized standard, it should be taught properly. English in Pakistan is taught like a subject and not truly like a language. Language teaching and learning need a proper environment which is unfortunately lacking in our country because of which there is quite a lot of variation in our language. This variation is caused because of our being from a different region and at times due to improper teaching which should be improved to check unnecessary and rapid deviation from the established norm.

3) Language teaching can be improved if all the four skills of the language i.e. listening, speaking, reading and writing are paid equal attention to which will enable the students to be linguistically competent overall. Deviations despite that will be due to the mother tongue influence which is a reality and a focal point of the present study as stated in the objectives.

4) To minimize the mother tongue influence such steps be taken and methodologies be used to focus all the skills of the language equally and there should be a variety of activities to develop each skill fully. Those techniques and methodologies be made use of so that no aspect of any of the four skills gets neglected. It will help us learn English better with the least of L1 influence. In that case the difference will not be owing to faulty teaching but due to actual mother tongue influence which can be said to be a separate variety of the English language.

5) Speaking skills be paid extra attention so that students are expressive and eloquent and their speech habits do not stray too far from the standard. Similarly they should be trained

321

on such lines so that they do not have any serious accent and pronunciation problem which might entail intelligibility issues.

6) Maximum interactive strategies be used to give a chance to the students to use language as much as they should so that the language used in our region remains a variety of the English language. It will help it become a variety worth recognition as per the objectives of the present thesis.

7) After due input students should be given a chance to give their output so that their performance is gauged on the spot and where needed remedial work could be done to avoid any major linguistic deviations likely to compromise successful communication.

8) Some deviations might be caused by a lack of exposure to the target language for which the mother tongue cannot be held responsible. Moreover an anxiety-free environment should be provided so that effective learning may take place as some linguistic deviations are caused by this factor also. For smooth learning and better output on part of the learner a pleasant learning environment is highly desirable.

9) Some deviations may be a result of the students’ unresolved queries which should be taken positively and resolved duly so that they improve on daily basis. Unaddressed mistakes cannot be associated with the mother tongue of the learner or with the phenomenon of language change.

10) In order to check linguistic mistakes in a non-threatening manner, there should be variety in different classroom activities so that students have ample choice and participation time with multiple linguistic aspects being covered simultaneously. If it is done, only those deviations will be left in the language which are truly a result of the mother tongue influence. In plain terms mistakes do not constitute a different language variety and it cannot be recognized either.

322

11) We can improve English language teaching by incorporating multiple language skills as they reinforce each other and the learners will manifest an overall improvement. This will be a check on the conformity of the language which will help it attain a position internationally.

12) In our classes there is hardly any chance for students to participate in language classes as our teaching is teacher-centered. Teachers must try their level best to establish rapport with their students in language classes so that there is maximum communication between them without there being a breach in it. If language teaching is improved, our language will not have those additional features for which poor teaching is the reason. A language variety does not mean a poor version of it.

13) Proper input is required when learners are being taught the foreign language. Only then can we expect them to come up with the correct form of the language. Our students mostly do not get enough exposure to the target language as a result of which their language tends to deviate from the standard form of the language. In that case neither the learners nor their L1 can be blamed. The point to be made here is that they ought to be exposed to multiple accents and pronunciations so that they could have language material to compare their own language with. Moreover it will enable them to pick up language in a much better and easier way.

14) There is hardly any student participation in the classroom. It is recommended that the culture of activity-based teaching should be promoted so that the learners are given maximum time to practice language in the class. In case of any mistakes, correction can be made by the peers or the teacher.

15) Activities which require verbal interaction must be encouraged and promoted so that in addition to other mistakes, pronunciation divergences can be addressed to first establish and then maintain uniformity.

323

16) Phonology should be taught to the students as a compulsory subject from the very beginning of the schooling so that the learners are well familiar with the rules of the language and they are able to practice it accordingly. Language theory and practice must happen simultaneously.

17) Well-trained language teachers should be deputed at early school level so that exposure to the correct form of the language can be ensured in the early years of the students’ life which is a crucial period in language learning. Those teachers who are teaching language at the basic level must be qualified and motivated to do their job in a result oriented way.

18) It is a well-known fact that all the sounds of a language cannot be produced by the foreign language users. If it applies, this must be properly highlighted to the students so that they can take extra care while learning and producing those sounds. To be able to do this, the language teacher has to know the phonology of both the languages i.e. the native and the target language so that a comparative and contrastive analysis of the two languages can be done by the teachers to facilitate learning the target language to the utmost.

19) Serious initiative needs to be taken at government level to bring uniformity in our educational system. Since there are multiple layers in our educational system, there are multiple layers at the linguistic level also. People with the same qualification have varied linguistic competence owing to there being an enormous difference in different educational institutions in commission under different systems. By the time students reach the university level, there have evolved different varieties of the English language which get promoted by the educated class by means of frequent interactive sessions and discussions with each other in the language.

20) As mentioned above linguistic output is directly related with the input. Those who study in such institutions in which getting exposure to a better form of the language is not a big deal, their language tends to be better in all domains including pronunciation. Since the majority of Pakistani people are poor as they do not have the means and resources and

324

cannot afford quality education which becomes a big reason for their poor performance in language as well. In other words our linguistic ability depends on the social class that we are from.

21) Language learning depends a lot on the appropriate use of up to date technology which is not incorporated in our educational institutions owing to which students in our country suffer as far as first-rate linguistic competence is concerned. It is suggested that teachers at individual level and institutions at collective level must strive really hard to attain a satisfactory level of overall linguistic competence.

22) Language teaching should be done in a methodical way. It must start from the basic sounds i.e. phonemes of the target language along with their place and manner of articulation for desirable learning results. The goal of native-like language ability can be achieved only if teaching methodologies are revised and improved. Unfortunately in our country language teaching starts from the letters of the alphabet which is not the right way as the sound value of a particular letter may vary in different words which may constitute difficulties for the students.

23) We must resort to using the audio-visual aids in language teaching so the learners could be given exposure to the native language through them. Their not being used is one of the causes of there being divergences in our language. Proper teaching of the language may help reduce many language problems which otherwise become a feature to our language.

24) Both aural and oral skills should be taught right from the very beginning of education as in our country both of them have been neglected almost altogether which is not the right way of teaching a foreign/second language. One skill must not be promoted at the expense of the others. In Pakistan only reading and writing skills are normally focused without any regard to the other two which are no less important than reading and writing. Owing to the same reason Pakistanis are neither good speakers nor good listeners. This problem should be overcome by the collective effort of language teachers, scholars and educational experts.

325

25) Language skills reinforce each other. It is therefore recommended that the practice of neglecting the aural and oral skills needs to be discouraged at educational policy level in the interest of the overall growth of the English language. Subtle details of the language, such as the difference between /w/ and /v/, can only be explained if language is taught paying due attention to all its particulars and niceties.

26) While teaching vocabulary items stress is not paid any consideration because of which most of the Pakistani people tend to show great deviations in the stress pattern of the vocabulary items. This is clearly shown by great deviation percentage in the data as discussed in the previous chapter.

27) Our learners often lack confidence as they are usually likely to be ridiculed by others because of which Pakistani students do not make efforts to speak like the natives do; if they do, they are running the risk of being the odd one out cases.

28) In Pakistan mostly people get their early education in villages or small towns where they do not get exposure to the prestige form of the language. As early years of one’s life are crucial with regard to language learning, whatever input they are given, it becomes an integral part of their being which they carry along themselves for the rest of their life. I n that case wrong language habits get fossilized. As an example from the data we can consider the phoneme /v/ in the pronunciation of the preposition ‘of’ with an extremely high deviation percentage.

29) It is very important that the students be made fully aware of the subtle details of the target language so they take extra care of them while using it. An appropriate example in this case is our rhotic speech which has a very great deviation percentage as has been shown in the chapter of data analysis.

30) Mother tongue influence ought to be minimized by making the students aware of those linguistic areas where L1 is likely to encroach upon the L2; phonology being on the top

326

of everything. As an example here we can have aspirated and unaspirated plosives which we do not really bother about because in English they are allophones whereas for Pakistani Pashto speaking students they are distinct morphemes. It is because of this reason that the deviation rate is very high as shown in the data analysis in the previous chapter.

31) Students should be explained the influence of the different regional languages of the country so that the speakers of any L1 are careful when they use the target language. If students are mindful of them, they will try to produce better form of the language. Diphthongs can be an appropriate example from the data in this connection in which Pashto speaking students cannot at times maintain the glide from one vowel position to the next one.

32) We must try to change our attitude towards the English language, which when we speak makes us conscious because of which our performance is affected and resultantly we tend to speak the deviated form of the language. In classes the language teachers should try to help students overcome the anxiety and fear of using the target language. For that they should be involved in class activities in order to ensure maximum participation. It will make them confident language users as they will be used to it due to their frequent participation in all the classroom activities being done. They will not have the fear of being ridiculed in case they make a linguistic mistake. The teachers must ensure that language learning takes place in a care and fear-free environment.

33) All those phonemes which have been identified by the language experts to be problematic for the students should be mentioned clearly to facilitate language learning. From the data the syllabic consonant /l/ can be considered here with a big percentage of deviation as shown in the chapter of data analysis.

34) All such social and individual factors which bring about deviations in the language should be explained to the students so that they are wary of them and resultantly they are able to produce a sound language. In this regard we can take into consideration the word

327

‘hotel’ from the data with a big deviation percentage. Since the word is commonly used in Pashto and Urdu as a loan vocabulary item, it is generally pronounced in English the way the speakers do it in their respective native language.

35) The limitations of the foreigners should be vividly explained to the students so that learners have them in their mind and don’t start underrating their potential and ability. An example of this could be intonation i.e. the rise and fall in speech especially at sentence level to give the utterances new meanings. Another instance could be those phonemes which one language (native or target) may have but not the other.

36) As regards Pashto speakers, they have a culture and a way of thinking of their own. In fact they take pride in using their own language and think that other languages are not superior to theirs which psychologically becomes a hurdle to proper learning of the language. Although it is difficult but this mode of thinking needs to be checked at policy level by the government.

37) Those phonetic deviations which hamper intelligibility should be addressed on priority basis so that communication is not at stake and the interlocutors are able to convey what they want meaningfully. Such deviations are of serious nature and must be treated immediately so that it does not become the habit of the students to go along making mistakes. The example of this is the interchange of the phonemes /p/ and /f/ which a low percentage of Pashto speakers do as shown in the chapter of the data analysis.

38) Apparently minor mistakes should not be taken lightly as sometimes they turn out to be a hurdle to successful communication. Similarly they put the general conformity at stake which is not in the interest of a certain variety of a language. The example in this context can be the placement of stress at a wrong syllable in a word e.g. desert, if stressed on the first syllable is a noun and verb if done on the second.

39) Multiple learning styles should be appreciated by the language teachers and the lesson should be so planned so that it caters to the needs and ways of learning of all the students

328

and none of them goes neglected. By doing so, the teacher can exploit the diverse linguistic potential of the students to enable them to learn and benefit from one another.

40) Sounds having a minute difference between them should be focused well so the learners are careful about their pronunciation. Phonemes like /v/ and /w/ are examples in this regard. Similarly learners at times confuse the difference between the diphthongs /ɪə/ and

/eə/ and the short vowel /ɒ/ and the long vowel /ɔ:/.

41) At state policy level there should be a uniform system of education so that everyone enjoys equal right to quality education. This will help promote a uniform language without much divergence being there in the different parts of the country.

42) Direct method of teaching language should be used so that the space for the mother tongue influence can be minimized. Both the native and the target language have separate systems of phonology and they should be kept apart in the interest of proper learning of the language. Moreover maximum verbal participation should be encouraged so that their phonological mistakes in addition to others could be effectively corrected.

43) It ought to be accepted as a fact that L1 influence is indispensible, it can only be minimized but not removed altogether. Keeping this fact in mind the language teachers should plan their lessons and strategize accordingly. Moreover if there are minor deviations in the language of the pupils due to the L1, they must not become a cause of disappointment for the teacher or the students.

44) More and yet more research should be conducted on Pakistani varieties of the English language so that students have exposure to all of them and they have a chance to go for the best and the most polished one.

45) A lot of research needs to be done on our indigenous languages also so that they could be promoted and better understood by the language learners. In the light of the findings of

329

the researches done, language teaching methodologies be revisited and the weaknesses should be marked and removed.

46) Language syllabi ought to be revised and updated and such material be taught through which maximum language learning can take place in the best possible way. The material must include that form of the language which is the standard and is used by the educated natives. Despite that differences are likely to be there as the variety will share some features with the standard and will manifest some of its own i.e. indigenous as stated in the main and sub-hypotheses of this research work and found as such in the data as well.

47) Contemporary and modern-day language teaching techniques should be used which are more helpful and are in vogue as well across the world to keep a check on the local form of the language for establishing harmony with the standard. As shown in the data we cannot blame the L1 for every wrong that is seen in the target language.

48) Students and teachers be motivated to learn the most sophisticated and advanced form of the target language which will help us become communicatively competent internationally. It will add prestige to our language which will help us in getting our language globally recognized as per one of the objectives of this research thesis.

49) Given that we are different and our language is therefore bound to be different from the other existing forms of the language but it should not be distinct from others due to a lack of proper investment into it. It is strongly recommended that awareness be given to both the teachers and students to plan language teaching and learning individually and collectively for the best possible product in the form of a language which is really close to the standard.

50) Being linguistically different is perfectly natural and this should be shared with the learners to enable them to overcome their psychological learning barriers. Students’ fear of failure and foreign language anxiety is at times the reason of deviation from the norm which ought to be reduced so that they are not worried of making mistakes.

330

51) The word ‘mistakes’ is threatening; it should be avoided. Euphemistic terms such as ‘attempts’ or ‘deviations’ should be used which will help promote a healthy and friendly environment which is crucial because it aids learning. Language teachers should be trained on this so that they don’t get harsh with the students in case of any differences found in their language unless they are too serious to hamper communication drastically. The differences will be a reflection of our way of speech as long as they lie within reason. Difference is variety which is stated both in the objectives and hypotheses of the present work.

52) Students should not be snubbed or ridiculed by the teachers for speaking language in a slightly different way as it is extremely detrimental to the teaching learning process. Students psychologically take it badly and do not feel comfortable in classes with such teachers. It is mandatory to have a favorable relationship with students in a language class or else learning may suffer. Moreover it must be understood that our language is bound to slightly deviate from the norm because our articulators are meant to manage the mother tongue and not the target language.

53) A proper English language teaching (ELT) culture needs to be developed in which professionally competent, motivated and hardworking teachers should be hired for the challenging and demanding job of language teaching. Language teaching should not be equated with teaching an ordinary subject. It is an altogether different domain and ought to be taken accordingly.

54) Language teaching requires to be done quite methodically and systematically; not the way it is done in our country in majority cases. It is unfortunate to deal with language the way we try to learn and teach it. Early age exposure to the accepted correct form of the language is crucial. Once the articulators stop further growth, a foreign language becomes really hard to be followed in its entirety.

331

55) Language teaching should not be confined to the reading of the text book only; it ought to be a full package with a plan to properly exploit and execute. Unfortunately our students are just made to read aloud a passage or a story etc. and the teacher translates it into Urdu or the respective mother tongue of the students which is not enough at all. In that case the product becomes wrong rather than different.

56) Given that the mother tongue influence is an agreed phenomenon but it should not only be the L1 of the students to be held responsible in all cases; a lot depends on the fact as to how the learners have been trained and also in what environment. To put it simply mother tongue of the learner/s can only be responsible when all the steps and measures required to teach a foreign language have already been taken.

57) As regards Pashto speakers, the present researcher found that most of the research participants were able to pronounce most of the phonemes given in the wordlist implying that they have the potential but it needs to be polished through teaching and proper input. The same can be concluded for the speakers of the other regional languages of Pakistan. To put it clearly it is not so much the mother tongue but the teaching which is responsible for most of the deviations identified in the Pashto speaking participants of the present work. It calls for immediate attention at individual, collective and state educational policy level to address the issues at hand.

58) The study showed that just a few sounds were found problematic for the Pashto speakers the detail of which has been given in chapter 8 in the form of their rate of occurrence and percentage as well. If they are handled carefully right from the very beginning, their number can be reduced even further. In this regard the example of our rhotic speech can be given which can be improved if learners are explained and made to practice how and where the /r/ sound should be done. The same goes for aspiration of the consonant sounds /p/, /t/ and /k/ and some other deviations which can be corrected mentioned and discussed in the data analysis in the previous chapter i.e. chapter 8.

332

59) An interesting and a very significant point to remember is that an absolute uniformity in language is almost impossible because regional and social variation in it is a reality and that is why there are social as well as regional dialects even in those countries where English is spoken as a first language. We can take the example of the countries such as Britain and the United States of America where there are several dialects despite the fact that their educational system is very strong in terms of its being the same and uniform everywhere. In Pakistan therefore it would be too much to expect an absolutely identical variety of the language in all its regions where there is a variety of languages, cultures and systems of education operating side by side.

60) The present research work has identified some misconceptions such as the Pashto speaking people not being able to do certain sounds such as the consonant phonemes /p/ and /f/. Through the wok the researcher found and realized that a very big majority were able to pronounce them. There was a very low percentage of the participants who interchanged the phonemes with each other. The fact and figures have been given in chapter 8 of the data analysis. In order to find and remove more such misconceptions, more projects on Pashto and other regional languages of our country should be taken to educate ourselves even more about them for a better planning for future.

61) As mentioned before there are different social and regional varieties even of the English language in our country; maybe we could well start working on the standard form of Pakistan English even so that we could have an even better position to get it recognized the world over. Although its acceptance internationally is more political than a linguistic matter but there will be no harm in giving it a try. This will be a breakthrough and a step forward in claiming, asserting and projecting a separate English linguistic identity of our own in a region already exceptionally fertile in linguistic richness.

62) The participants included in the present study sounded potentially different from the users of the English language who are essentially the speakers of the other regional languages of our country; this reinforces the researcher’s claim of there being different varieties of the English language used in the country.

333

63) In the course of research the researcher found the participants using no rise and fall in their reading as is done by the natives and a stress pattern of their own. Their language had a pronounced flavor of Pashto suggesting covertly thereby the existence of a language one may possibly name Pashto English.

64) Stress is a complex area for Pakistani people to manage successfully as our respective languages do not have it as such. This is why words on the list used as research instrument to examine stress were pronounced with multiple deviations as discussed in detail in the data analysis. It is suggested that when giving new vocabulary items to the students, the language teachers must mention which syllable is to be stressed. Similarly learners must use such dictionaries in which stress is marked on the syllables along with their phonemic transcription. Students must inculcate the habit of using the standard copy of a good dictionary. Moreover if possible they must listen to the standard form of the vocabulary items on different sources such as the internet or an electronic dictionary.

65) At the end the researcher would recommend that a lot more research must be done in this area because he could not cover all the related issues and aspects. He has done his bit which certainly is not enough and the author is aware of this shortcoming.

References

Aitchison, J., & Agnihotri, R. K. (1985, April). ’I deny that I’m incapable of not working all night’: Divergence of negative structures in British and Indian English. In International conference on English historical linguistics (4th) Papers from the 4th International conference on English historical linguistics(pp. 3-14).

Algeo, J. (2001). The Cambridge History of the English Language. Volume VI: English in North America. Cambridge University Press, 110 Midland Ave., Port Chester, NY 10573-4930.

334

Asher, J. J., & Garcia, R. (1969). The optimal age to learn a foreign language.The Modern Language Journal, 53(5), 334-341.

Baldridge, J. (2002). Linguistic and Social Characteristics of Indian English. Language in India, 2(4).

Bansal, R. K. (1976). The Intelligibility of Indian English. Monograph No. 4.

Bansal, R. K. (1978). The phonology of Indian English. Indian writings in English. Madras: Orient Longman, 101-113.

Banting, E. (2002). Afghanistan-The Culture. Crabtree Publishing Company.

Beardsmore, H. B. 1882, Bilingualism: Basic Principles, Tieto, Avon.

Brooks-Lewis, K. A. (2009). Adult learners’ perceptions of the incorporation of their L1 in foreign language teaching and learning. Applied Linguistics, 30(2), 216-235.

Brosnan, M., Demetre, J., Hamill, S., Robson, K., Shepherd, H., & Cody, G. (2002). Executive functioning in adults and children with developmental dyslexia. Neuropsychologia, 40(12), 2144-2155.

Brown, A. (1989) Models, standards, targets/goals and norms in pronunciation teaching. World Englishes, 8(2),

Brown, P. L. (2009). Invisible Immigrants, Old and Left With ‘Nobody to Talk To.’. New York Times, 1.

Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Campbell, J. H., & Shapiro, J. (2008). Afghanistan Index.

Carroll, J. B. (1964). Language and thought.

Chaswal, K. K. (1973). A comparative study of the intonation of English and Hindi. CIEFL, Hyderabad, India.

Cook, V. (2001). Using the first language in the classroom. Canadian Modern Language Review/La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes, 57(3), 402-423.

Corder, S. P. (1971). Idiosyncratic dialects and error analysis. IRAL-International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 9(2), 147-160.

Cummins, J. (1981). Age on arrival and immigrant second language learning in Canada: A reassessment.

335

Dechert, H. W. (1983). How a story is done in a second language. Strategies in interlanguage communication, 175-195.

Dulay, H. C., & Burt, M. K. (1972). You Can't Learn without Goofing: An Analysis of Children's Second Language" Errors.".

Dulay, H. C., Burt, M. K., & Krashen, S. D. (1982). Language two. Oxford Univ Pr.

Dupree, L. (1978). Language and politics in Afghanistan. Language and civilization change in South Asia, 131-141.

Ellis, R. (1997). Second language acquisition. The United States: Oxford.

Flege, J. E. (1999). Age of learning and second language speech. Second language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis, 101-131.

Flege, J. E., Munro, M. J., & MacKay, I. R. (1995). Factors affecting strength of perceived foreign accent in a second language. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 97(5), 3125-3134.

Fries, C. C. (1945). Teaching and learning English as a Foreign Language.

Gargesh, R. (2008). Indian English: Phonology. Varieties of English: Africa, South and Southeast Asia. New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 231-243.

Haugen, E. (1953). The Norwegian language in America. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Univ. of.

Haugen, E. (1956). The syllable in linguistic description. For Roman Jakobson, 213-221.

Haugen, E., & Mithun, M. (2003). Borrowing. Frawley, WJ (2nd ed). International encyclopedia of linguistics, 242-47.

Henderson, J. B. (1984) Velopharyngeal function in oral and nasal vowels. Doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT. Ijaz, M. Phonemic Inventory of Pashto. https://scholar.google.com.pk/scholar?q=Phonemic+Inventory+of+Pashto&btnG=&hl=e n&as_sdt=0%2C5 (Accessed: 04-12-2014 at 20: 30)

James, C. (1969). Deeper contrastive study. IRAL-International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 7(2), 83-96.

John W Oller Jr, Jack C Richards 1973 Newbury House Publishers, Inc., 68 Middle Road, Rowley, Massachusetts 01969

Jüngel, M., Kindler, E., & Weber, M. (2000). The Petri net markup language.Petri Net Newsletter, 59(24-29), 103-104.

336

Kachru, B. B. (1985). Standards, codification, and sociolinguistic realism: The English language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk & H. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and literature (pp. 11—30).

Kachru, B. B. 1986. The alchemy of English: the spread, functions and models of non-native Englishes. Oxford: Pergamon

KACHRU, B.B. (1994). «The speaking tree: a medium of plural canons». In ALATIS, J.A.(ed.).

Educational linguistics, crosscultural communication, and global interdependence (Georgetown Round Table on Language and Linguistics, 1994), 6-22. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press.

Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics Across Cultures: Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers.

Littlewood, W. T. (1973). A comparison of first language acquisition and second language learning. Praxis des neusprachlichen Unterrichts, 20(4), 343-348.

Long, M. H. (1990). Maturational constraints on language development. Studies in second language acquisition, 12(03), 251-285.

Lorenz, Manfred, 1990, „Die Entwicklung des Paschto als moderne Literatursprache“, Istvān Fodor, Claude Hagge (Eds.), Language Reform: History and Future. Hamburg: Buske, 105-125.

M. Saleem, H. Kabir, K. Riaz, M. Rafique, N. Khalid and R. Shahid. (2002). Urdu Consonantal and Vocalic Sounds. CRULP Annual Student Report 2002, CRULP, NUCES, Pakistan.

Mandelbaum, D. G. (1970). Society in India: Continuity and change (Vol. 1). Univ of California Press.

Marsh P, Maki P. 1976. Efficiency of arithmetic operations in bilinguals as a function of language, Memory and cognition, 4, 459-464.

McCarthy, J. J. (1994). The phonetics and phonology of Semitic pharyngeals.

Pandey, P. K. (1990). Hindi schwa deletion. Lingua, 82(4), 277-311.

Paradowski, M. B. (2011). Multilingualism–assessing benefits. Issues in Promoting Multilingualism, 335.

Parasher, S. V. (1991). Indian English: functions and forms (Vol. 19). Bahri Publications.

Patkowski, M. S. (1990). Age and accent in a second language: A reply to James Emil Flege. Applied linguistics, 11(1), 73-89.

Peter, R. (1983). English phonetics and phonology.

337

Pu Y, Liu HL, Spinks JA, Mahankali S, Xiong J, Feng CM, Tan LH, Fox PT Gao JH (2001). “Cerebral hemodynamic response in Chinese (first) and English (second) language processing revealed by event related functional MRI” Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 19: 643-647.

Rutherford, W. E., & Smith, M. S. (1987). Grammar and second language teaching: A book of readings. Newbury House.

Sahgal, A., & Agnihotri, R. K. (1985). Syntax^ The common bond: Acceptability of syntactic deviances in Indian English. English World-Wide, 6(1), 117-129.

Sahgal, A., & Agnihotri, R. K. (1988). Indian English phonology: A sociolinguistic perspective. English World-Wide, 9(1), 51-64.

Sethi, J. (1971). Intonation of Statements & Questions in Panjabi (No. 6). Hyderabad, India: Central Institute of English.

Singleton, D. (1989). Language acquisition: The age factor. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters,

Spooner, B. (1994). Are we teaching Persian? or Farsi? or Dari? or Tojiki?.Persian Studies in America, Bethesda, MD: Iranbooks (IBEX Publishers), 175-90.

Stockwell, R. P. (1965). The grammatical structures of English and Spanish(Vol. 4). University of Chicago Press.

Strange, W. (Ed.). (1995). Speech perception and linguistic experience: Issues in cross-language research. York Press.

Swan, D., & Goswami, U. (1997). Phonological awareness deficits in developmental dyslexia and the phonological representations hypothesis.Journal of experimental child psychology, 66(1), 18-41.

Taylor, B. P. (1975). Adult language learning strategies and their pedagogical implications. TESOL quarterly, 391-399.

Thomas, K. W. (1976). Conflict and conflict management. In M. D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally.

Trudgill, P. (1992). Introducing language and society. Penguin English.

Trudgill, P., & J. Hannah. 1982. 2nd edn, International English: A Guide to Varieties of Standard English. London: Edward Arnold.

Wardhaugh, R. (1970). The contrastive analysis hypothesis. TESOL Quarterly, 4: 123-130.

338

Wardhaugh, R. (1970). The contrastive analysis hypothesis. TESOL quarterly, 123-130.

Warrier, (Mohanan) Tara. 1976. The Phonetics and Phonology of . MLitt. Thesis, CIEFL, Hyderabad, India

Weinreich, U. (1957). On the description of phonic interference. WORD-JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL LINGUISTIC ASSOCIATION, 13(1), 1-11.

Weinreich, Uriel 1953, Language in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Linguistic Circle of New York.

Whitman, R. L. (1970). Contrastive analysis: Problems and procedures.Language Learning, 20(2), 191-197.

Widjaja, V., & Winskel, H. (2004). Phonological awareness and word reading in a transparent orthography: Preliminary findings on Indonesian. In Proceedings on the 10th Australian International Conference on Speech Science & Technology.

Yule, George, 1996. Pragmatics. Oxford University Press, Oxford. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashto_alphabet (Accessed 26-04-2015 At; 11:45) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashto_dialects (Accessed 25-05-2015 At; 09:50) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashto_alphabet (Accessed 27-05-2015 At; 10:53) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashto_language (Accessed 25-04-2015 At; 10:53)

http://ritongarasti.blogspot.com/2013/05/organ-of-speech-function-manner-and.html (Accessed 25-04-2015 At; 10:53) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_phonology (Accessed 25-04-2015 At; 10:53) https://www.google.com.pk/search?q=English+vowel+chart&biw=1103&bih=555&noj=1&tbm =isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=0CBwQsARqFQoTCIz_t86ejMYCFYI4FAodD UkEqQ#imgrc (Accessed 25-04-2015 At; 10:53)

339

i

Appendix A

Word Lists Containing English Phonemes

Consonants

Pen Bed

Ten Did

Cat Good

Chin June

Feel Voice

Thin Then

Soon Zoo

Ship Vision

Hat Man

Nine Sing

Light Red

Yes Win

ii

Long Vowels

Feed Dawn

Shirt Pass

Pool

Short Vowels

Sit Ten

Cat Run

Got Look

Allow

Diphthongs

Say My

Boy How

Go Dear

Fair Poor

iii

Appendix B

Passage

The Hillside Water Park is an ideal place for anyone who wants to have fun and cool down during the hot summer months. It is open seven days a week from 7am to 8.30pm and the enthusiastic staff are ready to help you enjoy your visit. So how do you get there? The park can be found in the northern part of Sunshine City and sits on a hill directly overlooking the tourist area and beach, which is how it gets its name. If you are staying in one of the local hotels, you can walk to the park but it will take about half an hour and, of course, it’s all uphill. So you may prefer to go by public transport. The local buses will take you there for a small charge and these run every 15 minutes from the Grand Hotel. The number 45 takes you through the market and then up to the water park. This is a more scenic route and takes a little longer than the number 57 bus, which goes straight along Beach Road, turns left into Cricket Street and then arrives within 10 minutes at the park entrance. Alternatively, you can take a taxi and if you are in a group or family this is probably the best option. However, don’t expect your cab to be air-conditioned as very few have this luxury.

iv

Appendix C

Dialogue

MAN As a medical student, how do you feel about the idea of private health care?

WOMAN I am really against it. I think it is everybody’s basic right to receive free medical treatment.

MAN Yes... but …look at the mess the National Health Service is in here! The hospitals are over- crowded; the young doctors are doing 16-hour shifts. It’s exploitation!

WOMAN Yes, but at least we have a health service.

MAN Well, I think basic treatment should be available in public hospitals, but if people have the money they should also be able to have private treatment.

WOMAN Ah, but then you have a dual system, one for the rich and one for the poor.