POLITICS and the challenges of the ANC’s military camps

Oliver Tambo was able to maintain the admiration and respect required of a leader whose central task was to sustain the unity of purpose of the liberation movement and to pursue the struggle, relentlessly, both at home and internationally.

By Gregory Houston

here is a perception among many the extremely difficult conditions of movement. It is for this reason that I in the liberation movement that 30 years of exile. In large part, many chose to explore Tambo’s relationship Tthe late President-General of people see his leadership style as being with the ordinary members of the the African National Congress (ANC), the main factor behind the relative ANC’s military wing, Umkhonto we Oliver Reginald ‘OR’ Tambo, has not success he had in maintaining cohesion Sizwe (MK) in the military camps been given sufficient recognition for within the movement. abroad. The focus is on three distinct the role he played in the liberation One of the most important ways situations or episodes: the MK camp struggle. They credit Tambo above to examine the leadership style of an at Kongwa in Tanzania; the ‘Hani all else with the role he played in individual is to look at the relationship Memorandum’; and the 1983/84 holding the movement together under with the rank-and-file members of the mutinies in the MK camps in Angola.

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Czechoslovakia. Tambo would address abandoned dilapidated railway station. Tanzania each group that was on its way for The MK group that was charged with The starting point is the period training. On their return OR would developing the camp started from immediately before the turn to armed once again meet with them. Chris scratch, collecting supplies, organising struggle in the early 1960s. Oliver recalls that: services, and sleeping in tents for a few Tambo, then Deputy President of the For Tambo, our well-being was years. They dug trenches and chopped African National Congress, was sent always important. Not well-being down trees, and eventually developed out of the country in the wake of the in terms of getting our food every a huge vegetable garden after laying in March 1960 to day. But Tambo wanted us to feel an water pipes to obtain water from a establish contacts for the ANC abroad important part of the organisation. We source about 10 kilometres from the and to promote international support were ordinary cadres. We were not camp5. for the ANC’s cause. However, the important names. But Tambo paid this Initially, morale was high in the banning of the liberation movements in attention to us regularly. Visiting us, camp, and the highly trained and April of that year, the wave of repression asking us about our experiences in the well equipped cadres were eager to that followed, the life sentences meted Soviet Union, about our courses, and take on the security forces. out to several prominent leaders of the also briefing us on what was happening However, some cadres who lived at ANC, and the wave of arrests after the during our absence in the country: the the camp equated life at Kongwa to trial decimated the leadership Rivonia arrests, the conviction of our imprisonment. They draw attention of the movement inside the country. leaders, the need for us to go back to to the difficulties the camp leadership In 1965, a decision was taken to had in obtaining food for the cadres, transfer leadership of the movement and the fact that the only clothes they to Oliver Tambo and others in exile. The MK group had were combat clothes. There were Thus, by the middle of the 1960s the that was charged with very few women in the camp, as well tasks of the exiled leadership had been as in the nearby village. Most of the dramatically expanded to include, developing the camp women they came into contact with among other things, providing training started from scratch, were prostitutes6. to young recruits of the ANC’s military collecting supplies, The most serious problem the wing, and waging the liberation ANC faced in the camps at the time, struggle. organising services, however, was that ‘people wanted During the early 1960s, large and sleeping in tents to go home, and they just did not numbers of young men and a smaller want to sit in Kongwa’. There was number of women were forced into for a few years. also a perception that the leadership exile. Once they took this decision, was not doing enough to find a way they had to be taken to the ANC offices help rebuild the organisation2. home for the cadres – that they were in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, where Simon Senna recalls that when his busy ‘living it up’ in Dar es Salaam7. they were met by the ANC leadership group returned from training in the At one point, after their hopes had in exile. It is this first meeting with the Soviet Union, Tambo cried when he been dashed several times, a group of leadership that provides one significant met them. ‘Seeing the type of army of cadres from Natal stole a military truck insight into OR’s style of leadership. the future which he was from the camp and drove to the ANC Chris Hani recalls such an episode in part of building, he cried. He was so headquarters in Morogoro to discuss the following terms: happy and excited and pleased’3. their grievances with the leadership. We were received by him. We were In 1965, the ANC established The group was arrested by Tanzanian addressed by him. We were inspired its main military camp in Kongwa, soldiers, and some ANC leaders wanted by him. Sort of quite convincing style Tanzania. By the end of the year the them to be punished as deserters. But of OR. He comes to see us whenever number of cadres based at the camp OR was among those who opposed he had time and to discuss with us, had grown to 500. There were a sanctioning them in any way. He was and to listen to us. To listen to our number of difficulties cadres faced one of the leaders who regularly visited own experiences; what we thought with the establishment of the camp: the camps, and he understood the were insignificant experiences. We shortages of food, clothes, medicines, frustrations they were facing because never thought they were important. But doctors, and proper accommodation. he listened to them. Tambo would come and listen to those The ANC had very limited resources, At the outset of the Wankie experiences1. and very little support was forthcoming Campaign, OR demonstrated another New recruits arriving in Dar es from other countries. Kongwa was a key characteristic of his style of Salaam at the time were given the dry, hot and dusty place plagued with leadership: to undergo some of the opportunity to join the military wing or disease. It was near a small village, experiences of the rank and file opt for further education. Most chose and the camp had to be prepared members of the movement. He joined to join MK. Hundreds of cadres were for the arrival of the large number the MK cadres who had been selected sent from Dar es Salaam to Morocco, of cadres who had been training at for the mission just prior to their Egypt, the Soviet Union, China and Odessa4. The only building was an departure, and slept with them in the

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bush near the crossing point. According changed to confining them to a bush to Chris Hani: He was one of camp to the east of Lusaka12. MK cadre We spent a few days on the banks of the leaders who Isaac Makopo recalls that: the Zambezi River, about two kilometres For a start then, everybody was from the river and Tambo stayed with regularly visited ordered out of town and back to the us, slept there with us, in the open, not the camps, and Bush, a few miles out of , on your even in tents. We were just sleeping in way to Malawi. Then OR Tambo says: the bush. And this convinced us again he understood the “I'm going to operate from here, going of the type of leader that Tambo was. frustrations they were to be with the people in the camp, in A practical leader, an exemplary leader, the tents, in the Bush.” The area was and one who was prepared to share facing because he actually a game reserve. He would go the hardness of this very difficult and listened to them. to Lusaka only when he needed to – for demanding task with his soldiers8. example, on some diplomatic mission Justice Mpanza recalls that they tensions between supporters of the to meet some government officials13. used a rope to get to the bank of two had still not been resolved. Hani’s In this respect, Tambo felt that he the Zambezi River. He adds that: supporters were mainly from the Cape, had to experience camp life to better ‘the person who gave us a lot of and appeared to be unwilling to accept appreciate and understand the issues the encouragement was Tambo. Tambo the authority of Modise10. cadres were facing. This was something was the first person to cross using the On the other hand, the so-called he was to do again and again. rope, and he was in front of Modise. ‘Transvaal group’, supporters of Joe He went down the terrain and waited Modise, were angry that Hani and The 1983/84 Mutinies in Angola for us below – to lead us to our boat.’ others had been re-instated and that Another serious challenge to the Tambo and Modise remained on the Chris had been promoted to the ANC as a whole emanating from Zambian side of the river until all the political commissariat. They saw the the military camps occurred in 1983 cadres had crossed safely9. latter arising from pressure put on the and 1984 in Angola. The influx of leadership by cadres from the Cape, thousands of recruits during and The Hani Memorandum and in a meeting with Tambo and the immediately after the uprising However, it was in the wake of the Revolutionary Council in mid-1969 also saw an alarming infiltration of Wankie and Sipolilo campaigns that accused Tambo of also practising apartheid state agents. After joining the leadership was to face one of its tribalism by promoting Chris. One MK, they were distributed to ANC most serious threats. This arose as a commentator states that: ‘During this camps that were established in Angola consequence of the so-called ‘Hani meeting, Tambo demonstrated his from late 1976 onwards. Such agents Memorandum’, in which seven MK talent as a listener and his ability to were suspected of poisoning 500 cadres criticised the leadership. Among take criticism aimed at himself’11. cadres at the Novo Catengue camp the key charges was that the ANC Although Chris Hani and other in Angola in September 1977. Two leadership had become so comfortable cadres who had been promoted years later, in 1979, the South African in exile that it was not doing anything volunteered to step down from their Air Force attacked the camp, and it to conduct the struggle. The cadres had position, there were a number of serious was suspected that state agents in the also complained that the ANC and MK acts of ill-discipline carried out by MK camp had provided the enemy with leadership was not doing enough to cadres based in Lusaka at the time. In information about its location14. The escalate the struggle at home, which July 1969, the Zambian government ANC’s Security Department eventually appeared to be a personal attack on insisted that the ANC remove its MK uncovered about 20 agents, some Tambo. A Military Tribunal suspended cadres to Tanzania, which was soon holding senior positions in various the seven from the ANC on the 25th of departments of the ANC and entrusted March 1969. The majority of members Tambo felt that with sensitive information. Agents in of the tribunal which considered the military camps were instructed to punishment of the seven signatories he had to experience stir up discontent by drawing attention were in favour of the death penalty, but camp life to better to the harsh elements of life in the it was Mzwai Piliso, and subsequently camps and the failure of the ANC to OR, who opposed this and instead appreciate and deploy many of its trained cadres to recommended their expulsion. They understand the infiltrate South Africa15. were subsequently given amnesty and The first mutiny occurred in 1983, re-instated at the insistence of OR and issues the cadres when a group of cadres demanded other leaders. were facing. This was to be sent back home to engage with The Hani Memorandum and the the enemy. When permission to do events immediately following created something he was to so was not forthcoming, they refused a rift between , MK do again and to be disarmed and fired shots into commander-in-chief, and Chris Hani. the air. The mutiny was resolved Luli Callinicos notes that by 1972 the again. peacefully. However, this was followed

22 THE THINKER POLITICS by a growing number of incidents and the mutineers were arrested and if not managed properly, have the of indiscipline, such as pilfering or sent to Camp 3222. Chris Hani and potential to result in implosion. This sabotaging of supplies, smoking dagga, Gertrude Shope were subsequently places a number of demands on rape and murder in the camps and dispatched by OR to Camp 32 where the leadership of the organisation, neighbouring villages16. some of the cadres who had been particularly in moments where there is Meanwhile, the ANC had agreed to arrested for mutiny were incarcerated. dissatisfaction with the leadership itself a request by the Angolan authorities They found conditions in the camp among the rank-and-file members of to provide assistance in its war with to be terrible, and immediately the organisation. From the outset, the UNITA rebels. Cadres from MK demanded that changes be instituted23. the ANC in exile was inadequately were deployed, and participated in In part, while very little blame was prepared for the task of accommodating mine-defusing, laying ambushes and placed directly on Tambo for these and providing training to the influx patrolling duties. Subsequently, MK events, his cautious way of dealing of guerrillas in the early 1960s. Nor was called upon to participate in attacks with matters was regarded by some were the conditions suitable for it to on the UNITA stronghold17. Groups as part of the problem. One cadre wage a guerrilla war, based as it was of MK cadres were subsequently characterised OR’s decision-making thousands of kilometres from the South dispersed among FAPLA (armed process as follows: ‘It doesn’t matter African border. However, both in his wing of MPLA) units in the area. The how contentious a question is, we are early contacts with new recruits, and Angolans subsequently made a request not going to take a decision by vote. with trained guerrillas in the camps for more MK cadres to be deployed thereafter, Oliver Tambo was able to against UNITA, and an additional 104 maintain the admiration and respect cadres were sent to the area. Discipline Liberation required of a leader whose central task soon broke down in the camp set up movements in exile was to sustain the unity of purpose of by these cadres, and at the camp of the liberation movement and to pursue Mustafa where other MK cadres were experience a host the struggle, relentlessly, both at home based. This led to the recall of about of problems, which, and internationally.  60 cadres, who were sent to Viana if not managed camp in Luanda. This group was References followed by another 40 who returned properly, have the 1 Interviews with Chris Hani conducted by Luli to Viana without permission. Both Callinicos, SACP Offices, Rissik Street, Johannesburg, potential to result in 23 and 31 March 1993. groups refused to surrender their arms 2 Ibid. 3 Interview with Simon Senna conducted by Sifiso when they arrived at the camp, as was implosion. This places Ndlovu, 10 March 2002, SADET Oral History Project customary, and order rapidly declined (SOHP). 4 18 a number of demands Interview with Lawrence Phokanoka conducted by in the camp . Siphamandla Zondi, 1 July 2001, Ga-Mankopane, In February 1984, a committee on the leadership SADET Oral History Project. 5 Michele Berger, They fought for freedom: Chris was sent to Viana by MK’s Military of the organisation, Hani, Maskew Miller Longman, 1994, 13; Interview with Isaac Makopo conducted by Sifiso Ndlovu, Headquarters to resolve the problems. 24 November 2000, Pretoria, SADET Oral History Chris Hani was a member of this particularly in Project. 6 Interview with Isaac Lesibe Maphoto conducted by committee, and he went into the camp moments where there Siphamandla Zondi, 2 May 2001, Pietersburg, SADET unarmed to speak to the mutineers. Oral History Project. is dissatisfaction 7 Interview with Walter Msimang conducted by Ben He persuaded them to lay down their Magubane and Gregory Houston, 22 June 2003, arms and to attend a meeting to discuss Midrand, SADET Oral History Project. with the leadership 8 Interviews with Chris Hani conducted by Luli 19 their problems . The cadres elected a Callinicos. itself among the rank- 9 Interview with Justice Mpanza conducted by Jabulani ‘Committee of Ten’ to hold discussions Sithole and Bernard Magubane, 12 October 2001, with the military committee. However, and-file members of Durban, SADET Oral History Project. 10 on the day scheduled for a meeting Callinicos, Oliver Tambo: Beyond the Engeli the organisation. Mountains, David Philip Publishers, Claremont, 2004, between the two committees a FAPLA 345. 11 Hugh Macmillan, ‘After Morogoro: the continuing unit entered the camp with the crisis in the African National Congress (of South Africa) intention of disarming the MK cadres. We must reach a consensus. That in , 1969–1971’, Social Dynamics: A journal of African studies, 35:2, 299. A confrontation followed, and three became our tradition. That was the 12 Ibid., 298. 13 Interview with Isaac Makopo. people were killed. The members of character of our movement under the 14 James Ngculu, The honour to serve: Recollections of the Committee of Ten and a number leadership of that man, uNdima’24. But an Umkhonto Soldier, David Philip, Claremont, 2010, 20 45ff. of other cadres were arrested . it was Tambo who took the initiative 15 Callinicos, Oliver Tambo, 456. Another mutiny broke out at Pango and led the process to institute changes 16 Ibid., 457. 17 Ibid., 458. camp, where the mutineers used that would make life easier for MK 18 Ibid., 458-9. machine guns and heavy weapons. The cadres in many respects. 19 Berger, They fought for freedom, 33. 20 Callinicos, Oliver Tambo, 459. camp commanders and several other 21 Ibid., 461. 21 22 Berger, They fought for freedom, 33. cadres were killed . An MK unit led by Conclusion 23 Callinicos, Oliver Tambo, 461-2. Timothy Mokoena attacked the camp Liberation movements in exile 24 Interview with John Nkadimeng conducted by Sifiso Ndlovu, 27 May 2001, Johannesburg, SADET Oral and took it over. Order was restored, experience a host of problems, which, History Project.

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