Importation of Fresh Chufle, macrosepala K. Schum., immature inflorescences into the Continental United States from El Salvador

A Pathway-initiated Pest Risk Assessment

April 5, 2010

Revision 03

Agency Contact:

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory Center for Plant Health Science and Technology

United States Department of Agriculture Plant Health Inspection Services Plant Protection and Quarantine 1730 Varsity Drive, Suite 300 Raleigh, NC 27606 Pest Risk Assessment for Chufle from El Salvador

Executive Summary

In this document we assessed the risk associated with the importation of fresh chufle, Calathea macrosepala K. Schum., immature inflorescences from El Salvador into the continental United States. Other than postharvest washing, drying, and sorting, we assumed no specialized phytosanitary treatments would be done. Several were found to be both quarantine species and likely to follow the pathway. We assessed these species and found that the Consequences of Introduction were negligible because the pests were unsuited for the climates in the continental United States, except in Southern Florida, and no Calathea spp. exist there. Since the lepidopteran had a Pest Risk Potential of Low, we did not list any risk mitigation options.

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Table of Contents

Executive Summary...... ii 1. Introduction...... 1 2. Risk Assessment ...... 2 2.1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action...... 2 2.2. Assessment of Weediness Potential of Calathea macrosepala ...... 2 2.3. Current Import Status, Decision History, and Pest Interceptions ...... 3 2.4. Pest Categorization: Identification of Quarantine Pests ...... 3 2.5. Pest Categorization: Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway...... 10 2.6. Consequences of Introduction...... 11 2.7. Likelihood of Introduction...... 12 3. Conclusion: Pest Risk Potentials ...... 13 4. Authors and Reviewers...... 15 5. Literature Cited ...... 15 6. Appendices...... 20 Appendix 1. Pests and pathogens intercepted on Calathea sp. at United States ports...... 20

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1. Introduction

This risk assessment was prepared by Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ), Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), in response to a request by the government of El Salvador to examine potential pest risks associated with the importation of fresh immature inflorescences of chufle, Calathea macrosepala K. Schum., into the continental United States. This pest risk assessment is pathway-initiated because it is based on risks associated with the importation of the commodity. This risk assessment is qualitative: we express risk as High, Medium, and Low, rather than in probabilities or frequencies. The methodology and rating criteria are explained in Pathway-initiated Pest Risk Assessments: Guidelines for Qualitative Assessments, Version 5.02 (PPQ, 2000).

Calathea macrosepala is a member of a large, perennial (250+ species) ,which grows throughoutLatin America. Members of the genus are distinguished by large oval leaves, 20-90 cm long, with thick ribs, which gave it the common name, “prayer plant”. Because of the attractive arrangement and size of the leaves, Calathea is used as an ornamental. Calathea macrosepala is drought tolerant, grows between sea level and 2000 m, and its distribution is limited to Central America. Its nearest relatives are C. latifolia and C. soconuscum (Kennedy, 1978).

The immature inflorescence—commonly called “chufle” (Calderon and Vasquez, 2005)—is harvested for consumption in Central (San Salvador Department) and Occidental (Ahuachapan and Morazan) El Salvador. The inflorescence is between 5 and 10 cm tall (Kennedy, 1978). Chufle is harvested by hand and then washed in diluted bleach, rinsed in cold water, and packed for shipment (Esquivel, 2005).

The Salvadoran government wishes to export chufle to the United States to take advantage of the expatriate and immigrant Salvadoran community in the U.S, marketing chufle especially in New York, Los Angeles, Miami, Houston, San Francisco, Washington D.C., Santa Ana, Chicago, Boston, Dallas, and New Orleans (Beatres-Marques et al., 2001; Hernández et al., 2003). The Salvadoran government estimates annual production of chufle at 5-10 tons, on 25-30 ha (Esquivel, 2005).

In creating the required pest risk analysis to import chufle into the United States, we faced two difficulties, 1) taxonomic confusion about the identity of chufle, and 2) a lack of information about pests affecting the crop in Central America. Chufle was identified as C. allouia in a few older references (Bernal and Correa, 1994 Esquivel, 2005) and in the original request to import chufle (Medrano, 2004), but C. macrosepala is the actual chufle plant. Calathea allouia is native to Northern South America and cultivated in Brazil for its starchy rhizome (Kennedy, 2007). Its native range does not extend Northward beyond Panama and does not overlap with C. macrosepala (Kennedy, 1978, 2007), the actual chufle plant. Other references contain a mixture of information about C. allouia and C. macrosepala (Bernal and Correa, 1994) or about C. allouia alone (Noda et al., 1994). Unfortunately, this made such references difficult to use. Secondly, since it has never been cultivated on a large scale, C. macrosepala has rarely been researched. Most research on Calathea spp. is on ornamentals in greenhouse production. Moreover, the only large scale presence of Calathea spp. in the United States is in greenhouse

Rev. 03 April 5, 2010 1 Pest Risk Assessment for Chufle from El Salvador production in Florida (Chase, 1982), which is agronomically very different from field cultivation in Central America (Chase, 1982, 1990; Leahy, 1991; Pappas and Paplomatas, 1998; Simone and Brunk, 1983). These difficulties suggest that a general risk assessment may be necessary because very little information exists about chufle, and some of that information is unreliable.

To deal with those challenges, we chose to expand the analysis to include information for the genus Calathea in El Salvador and the neighboring countries of Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Belize, and Southern Mexico which covers part of the natural range of C. macrosepala. We expected this would also provide relevant information about other Calathea species whose pests might interact with C. macrosepala. Although no pest risk analysis can describe all conceivable risks, and expanding the geographic and taxonomic range of the analysis should improve the likelihood of characterizing relevant hazards, even if it includes a few pests with no significant association to chufle. In this document, we focused on risks associated with the immature inflorescence of C. macrosepala, and assumed that only those inflorescences will be imported.

2. Risk Assessment

A Pest Risk Assessment is a component of an overall Pest Risk Analysis. The Guidelines for Pest Risk Analysis (IPPC, 1997: ISPM #2) describe three stages in pest risk analysis. This document satisfies the requirements of FAO Stages 1 (initiation) and 2 (risk assessment), by separately considering each area of inquiry, as well as PestID Guidelines version 5.02 (PPQ, 2000).

We begin this Pest Risk Assessment by identifying the initiating event, conducting a weediness screening, and discussing past decisions on the commodity. We then identify and characterize the pests likely to be associated with C. macrosepala in El Salvador. Finally, we analyze in more detail the quarantine pests likely to follow the pathway with the imported commodity. In that analysis, we assess five risk elements associated with the Consequences of Introduction of pests into the United States. Likewise, we combine six sub-elements to assess the Likelihood of Introduction into the United States. Together, the Consequences of Introduction and the Likelihood of Introduction values form an evaluation of the Pest Risk Potential.

2.1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action

Importation into the continental United States of fresh chufle inflorescences grown in El Salvador is a potential pathway for the introduction of plant pests as indicated in MAG letter No. 285-2004 dated 15 October 2004 (MAG, 2004). Title 7 of the Code of Federal Regulations 319, Part 56 (7 CFR § 319.56) provides regulatory authority for the importation of fruits and vegetables from foreign sources into the United States.

2.2. Assessment of Weediness Potential of Calathea macrosepala

The results of screening for weed potential for chufle did not prompt a weed-initiated risk assessment (Table 1).

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Table 1. Weediness potential of Calathea macrosepala Calathea macrosepala K. Schum. Common Names: Chufle (Kennedy, 1978, 2007). Synonyms: None (NGRP, 2007). Phase 1 Calathea macrosepala is not included in the forty-one species of Calathea distributed in the United States (NGRP, 2007). Consequently, C. macrosepala is not widely distributed in the United States. Calathea spp. are only produced as ornamentals in the US (Chase, 1990). Phase 2 Invasive / Weediness Status: No Various sources (7 CFR § 360, 2007; Gunn and Ritchie, 1988; Holm et al., 1997; Holm et al., 1979; Holm et al., 1977; Reed, 1977; Skinner et al., 2005; Weber, 2003; WSSA, 2006). No Alien plant invaders of natural areas (Swearingen, 2005). No A Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall, 2007). No Other: (Liogier and Martorell, 2000; Landcare Research, 2005; NRCS, 2007). Phase 3 Summary and Conclusions: A weed-initiated risk assessment was not initiated for C. macrosepala because there is no evidence in the worldwide literature of invasive behavior by this plant, and the answers to the above questions are negative. The immature inflorescence is unlikely to lead to plant establishment. This commodity does not meet the IPPC definition of a quarantine pest (IPPC, 2007: ISPM #5). Thus, this pest risk assessment continues.

2.3. Current Import Status, Decision History, and Pest Interceptions

2.3.1. Decision History and Current Status We found no recorded proposals to import chufle into the United States.

2.3.2. Current Import Status Chufle immature inflorescences cannot enter the United States as a fresh market commodity pending an analysis of risks.

2.3.3. Pest Interceptions Since El Salvador is the only country where C. macrosepala is cultivated for consumption, we only examined interception records from that country. Only three interceptions have been made on C. macrosepala entering United States ports, for species of Arctiidae and , and Plesiothrips sp. (Thripidae) on Calathea “flowers” in passenger baggage (PestID, 2008). All other interceptions are for Calathea spp., C. macrosepala, and pests were reported at the genus level or above. This less detailed did not inform the analysis and therefore was not included in the pest list.

2.4. Pest Categorization: Identification of Quarantine Pests

We developed a list of pests potentially associated with C. macrosepala or Calathea sp., and present in El Salvador and neighboring countries (Table 2). In the list we identify the following:

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(1) the presence or absence of the pests in El Salvador and neighboring countries and in the United States; (2) the references supporting an association between the pest and host; (3) the plant organs where the pest can be found where applicable; (4) the United States quarantine status of the pests; and (5) if the pest could follow the pathway into the continental United States via commercial shipments of chufle inflorescences.

A quarantine pest is defined as “a pest of potential economic importance to the area endangered thereby, but not yet present, or present, but not widely distributed and being officially controlled” (IPPC, 2007: ISPM #5). A pest is likely to follow the pathway for chufle if the pest is present in El Salvador, is associated with the immature inflorescence at the time of harvest, and remains viable with the immature inflorescence during harvesting, packing, and shipping. The possibility that a quarantine pest following the pathway could establish and spread throughout the United States depends on the presence of appropriate climatic and ecological conditions, including protected areas (such as greenhouses), where the presence of primary or alternative hosts and vectors are influential.

Table 2. Plant pests associated with Calathea sp. in El Salvador and neighboring countries Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host reference Plant part(s) Quaran- Follow association tine Pest pathway Acari: Tetranychidae Tetranychus urticae (Koch) SV (Calderon, 2005); Calderon and N/A No N/A U.S. (Fasulo, 2007) Vasquez, 2005 Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae Cephaloleia dilaticollis (Baly) PA (McKenna and McKenna and Leaf 2 (McKenna Yes No Ferrell, 2005) Ferrell, 2005 and Ferrell, 2005) Cephaloleia erichsonii (Baly) CR (McKenna and McKenna and Leaf (McKenna Yes No Ferrell, 2005) Ferrell, 2005 and Ferrell, 2005) Cephaloleia heliconiae CR (McKenna and McKenna and Leaf (McKenna Yes No (Uhmann) Ferrell, 2005) Ferrell, 2005 and Ferrell, 2005) Cephaloleia histronica (Baly) CR (McKenna and McKenna and Leaf (McKenna Yes No Ferrell, 2005) Ferrell, 2005 and Ferrell, 2005) Cephaloleia trivittata (Baly) NI (McKenna, 2005), McKenna, Leaf (McKenna Yes No CR (McKenna and 2005 and Ferrell, 2005) Ferrell, 2005) Cephaloleia stevensi (Baly) NI (McKenna, 2005) McKenna, Leaf (McKenna, Yes No 2005 2005) Diptera: Agromyzidae Liriomyza spp. SV (Calderon and Calderon and Leaf (Calderon Yes Yes Vasquez, 2005) Vasquez, 2005 and Vasquez, 2005)

1 The countries are abbreviated as follows: SV= El Salvador, BE= Belize , CR=Costa Rica, GU=Guatemala, HO: Honduras, NI= Nicaragua, PA=Panama, U.S. =United States 2 We based species consumption of leaves upon information about the genus, not species-specific information.

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Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host reference Plant part(s) Quaran- Follow association tine Pest pathway : Aleyrodidae Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) SV (Calderon and Calderon and N/A No N/A Vasquez, 2005)U.S. Vasquez, 2005 (CABI, 2007) Hemiptera: Abgrallaspis cyanophilli PA (Ben-Dov et al., Ben-Dov, et al., N/A No N/A (Signoret) 2001), U.S. (CABI, 2001 2007) Chrysomphalus dictyospermi SV (Ben-Dov et al., Ben-Dov et al., N/A No N/A (Morgan) 2001), U.S. (CABI, 2001 2007) Dysmicoccus brevipes SV, GU, HO, PA Ben-Dov et al., N/A No N/A (Cockerell) (Ben-Dov et al., 2001 2001) , U.S. (CABI, 2007) longirostris SV, CR, PA (Ben- Ben-Dov et al., N/A No N/A (Signoret) Dov et al., 2001), 2001 U.S. (CABI, 2007) Pinnaspis strachani (Cooley) NI, U.S. (Maes, Maes, 2004 N/A No N/A 2004), SV, PA (Ben- Dov et al., 2001) Lepidoptera: Arctiidae Selenaspidus articulatus HO, CR (CABI, CABI, 2006 N/A No N/A (Morgan) 2006); PA, SV, NI (Ben Dov et al., 2001), U.S. (CABI, 2006) Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae Calpodes ethlius GU (Janzen and Janzen and N/A No N/A Hallwachs, 2005) Hallwachs, U.S. ({McAuslane, 2005) 2007 #37}) Neoxeniades molion GU (Janzen and Janzen and Leaf (Janzen and Yes No Hallwachs, 2005) Hallwachs, Hallwachs, 2005) 2005) Quinta cannae GU (Janzen and Janzen and Leaf (Janzen and Yes No Hallwachs, 2005) Hallwachs, Hallwachs, 2005) 2005) Rhinthon cubana GU (Janzen and Janzen and Leaf (Janzen and Yes No Hallwachs, 2005) Hallwachs, Hallwachs, 2005) 2005) Saliana fusta GU (Janzen and Janzen and Leaf (Janzen and Yes No Hallwachs, 2005) Hallwachs, Hallwachs, 2005) 2005)

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Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host reference Plant part(s) Quaran- Follow association tine Pest pathway Saliana triangularis GU (Janzen and Janzen and Leaf (Janzen and Yes No Hallwachs, 2005) Hallwachs, Hallwachs, 2005) 2005) Lepidoptera: Noctuiidae Rivula leucosticta GU (Janzen and Janzen and Leaf (Janzen and Yes No Hallwachs, 2005) Hallwachs, Hallwachs, 2005) 2005) Spodoptera spp. SV(PestID, 2008) PestID, 2008 Leaf (PestID, Yes Yes 2008) Lepidoptera: Caligo atreus (Kollar) PA (Penz et al., Penz et al., Leaf (Penz et al., Yes No 1999); GU (Janzen 1999 1999) and Hallwachs, 2005) Caligo eurilochus sulanus PA(Penz et al., 1999) Penz et al., Leaf (Penz et al., Yes No (Fruhstorfer) 1999 1999) Caligo illioneus oberon CR (Devries, 1997a) Penz et al., Leaf (Devries, Yes No (Butler) 1999 1997a) Caligo memnon (C and R SV (Penz et al., 1999) Penz et al., Leaf (Penz et al., Yes No Felder) 1999 1999) Caligo telamonius GU (Janzen and Janzen and Leaf (Janzen and Yes No Hallwachs, 2005) Hallwachs, Hallwachs, 2005) 2005 Cissia confusa (Staudinger) SV (Devries, 1997a); Devries, 1997a Leaf, flower Yes No3 CR (Robinson et al., (Devries, 1997a) 2007) Megeuptychia antonoe SV (Devries, 1997a) Devries, 1997a Leaf (Devries, Yes No Cramer 1997a) Opsiphanes bogotanus Distant CR (Devries, 1997a) Devries, 1997a Leaf, flower, Yes No3 (Devries, 1997a) Opsiphanes tamarindi GU (Janzen and Janzen and Leaf (Janzen and Yes No Hallwachs, 2005) Hallwachs, Hallwachs, 2005) 2005 Pierella helvetia helvetia SV (Devries, 1997a); Devries, 1997a Leaf, flower, Yes No3 (Godman and Salvin) GU (Janzen and (Devries, 1997a) Hallwachs, 2005) Lepidoptera: Riodinidae elvina (Stichel) SV(Devries, 1997b); Devries, 1997b Inflorescence, Yes Yes GU (Janzen and leaf, flower Hallwachs, 2005) (Devries, 1997a) (Westwood) SV (Devries, 1997b) Devries, 1997b Inflorescence, Yes Yes leaf, flower (Devries, 1997a)

3 The pests are associated with flowers, but Devries (1997a) specifically indicated that no association existed with immature inflorescences.

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Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host reference Plant part(s) Quaran- Follow association tine Pest pathway Eurybia patrona (Weymer) SV (Devries, 1997b) Devries, 1997b Leaf, stem, Yes Yes inflorescence (Devries, 1997a) Eurybia unxia (Godman and CR (Devries, 1997b) Devries, 1997b Leaf, flower Yes Yes Salvin) (Devries, 1997a) Riodinidae spp. SV (PestID, 2008) Devries, 1997b; Leaf, stem Yes Yes PestID, 2008 (PestID, 2008) Lepidoptera: Saturniidae Automeris banus GU (Janzen and Janzen and Leaf (Janzen and Yes No Hallwachs, 2005) Hallwachs, Hallwachs, 2005) 2005 Thysanoptera: Thripidae Plesiothrips spp. SV (PestID, 2008) PestID, 2008 Leaf, stem, Yes Yes flower (PestID, 2008) BACTERIA Psuedomonas cichorii SV (Calderon and Calderon and N/A No N/A Vasquez, 2005); U.S Vasquez, 2005 (Leahy, 1991). FUNGI and CHROMISTANS Alternaria alternata (Fr.:Fr.) SV (Escobar, 2003), Chase, 1990; NA No NA Keissl. (Ascomycetes: GT, HN, MX, PA, Farr et al., 2008 Pleosporales) U.S. (Farr et al., 2008) Alternaria sp. Ness SV (Calderon and Calderon and N/A No N/A (Dothideomycetes: Vasquez, 2005), U.S. Vasquez, 2005 Pleosporales) (Chase, 1990) Botrytis cinerea Pers.: Fr. SV (Farr et al., 2008); Calderon and NA No NA (Teleomorph: Botryotinia U.S. (Alfieri et al., Vasquez, 2005; fuckeliana (de Bary) 1993) Farr et al., 2008 Whetzel (Ascomycetes: Helotiales) Cercospora calatheae Viégas PA (Farr et al., 2007); Farr et al., 2007 N/A No N/A & Chupp (Ascomycetes: U.S. (FL) (Alfieri et Mycosphaerellales) al., 1993) Cochliobolus lunatus R.R. SV (Acuña, 1976; PestID, 2008; NA No NA Nelson & Haasis McGuire Jr. and Lins and [Anamorph: Curvularia Crandall, 1967), U.S. Coelho, 2004 lunata (Wakker) Boedjin] (Farr et al., 2008) (Ascomycetes: Pleosporales) Colletotrichum dematium NI, GT, MX, U.S. Farr et al., NA No NA (Pers.:Fr.) Grove (Farr et al., 2008) 2007, 2008 (Ascomycetes: Phyllachorales)

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Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host reference Plant part(s) Quaran- Follow association tine Pest pathway Colletotrichum SV, U.S. (Farr et al., Farr et al., NA No NA gloeosporioides (Penz.) 2008) 2008; Pappas Penz. & Sacc. and Syn: C. agaves Cavara Paplomatas, (Teleomorph: Glomerella 1998 cingulata (Stoneman) Spauld. & H. Schrenk) Ascomycetes: Incertae sedis Deightoniella torulosa (Syd.) NI, PA (Farr et al., Lins and NA No NA M.B. Ellis 2008), U.S. (limited Coelho, 2004 Syn: Helminthosporium to FL, PR, HI, and torulosum (Syd.) S.F. VI) (Farr et al., 2008) Ashby (Ascomycetes, Incertae sedis) Fusarium moniliforme J. CR, GT, HN, NI, U.S. Farr et al., NA No NA Sheld. (Farr et al., 2008) 2008; UNL- Syn: F. verticillioides Nematology, (Sacc.) Nirenberg 2000 (Teleomorph: Gibberella moniliformis Wineland (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales) Fusarium oxysporum Schltdl.: SV (Farr et al., 2008; Miller, 1994 NA No NA Fr. (Ascomycetes: MAG, 2005; McGuire Chase, 1990 Hypocreales) Jr. and Crandall, 1967), U.S. (CABI, 2007; Farr et al., 2008) Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc. CR, HN, MX, NI Calderon and NA No NA [Teleomorph: (Farr et al., 2008), Vasquez, 2005; Haematonectria U.S. (Farr et al., Miller, 1994 hematococca (Berk. and 2008) Broome) Samuels and Rossman] (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales) Mycena citricolor (Berk. and SV (CABI, 2007; Wellman, 1977 Leaf Yes No M.A. Curtis) Sacc. FEDECAME, 1960; (FEDECAME, (Basidiomycetes: González et al., 1960; Wellman, Agaricales) 2001), U.S. (PR, VI, 1977), Stems, and FL) (CABI, 2006; Fruits (González Farr et al., 2008) et al., 2001) Myrothecium roridum Tode: SV, GT, CR, U.S. Farr et al., NA No NA Fr. (Ascomycetes: (Farr et al., 2008) 2008, Henny et Hypocreales) al., 1991

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Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host reference Plant part(s) Quaran- Follow association tine Pest pathway Periconia byssoides Pers. SV, PA, U.S. (Farr et Farr et al., 2008 NA No NA Syn: P. pycnospora Fresen al., 2008) (Ascomycetes: Incertae sedis) Puccinia sp. CR (PestID, 2008) PestID, 2008 Leaf (PestID, Yes Yes (Urediniomycetes, 2008) Uredinales) Puccinia thaliae Dietel CR, GT, PA (Farr et Farr et al., 2007 N/A No N/A Syn: P. cannae (G. Winter) al., 2008), U.S. Henn., Uredo cannae G. (Sivanesan, 1970) Winter (Urediniomycetes: Uredinales) Pyricularia oryzae Cavara SV, U.S. (CABI, Pappas and NA No NA Anamorph: Magnaporthe 2006) Paplomatas, (, Incertae 1998 sedis) Rhizoctonia solani J.G. Kühn SV, NI, HN, PA, CR, Farr et al., 2008 NA No NA Teleomorph: GT, BZ, US (Farr et Thanatephorus cucumeris al., 2008) (A.B. Frank) Donk (Basidiomycetes: Ceratobasidiales) bunodes (Berk. & SV (Farr et al., 2008; Farr et al., 2008 NA No NA Broome) Sacc. MAG, 2005), U.S. (Ascomycetes: ) (Farr et al., 2008, Hoopen and Krauss, 2006) NEMATODES Aphelenchoides besseyi SV (CABI, 2007), de Oliveira and NA No NA Christie U.S. (CABI, 2007; Kubo, 2001 Ferris, 2007) Helicotylenchus dihystera SV, U.S. (CABI, Gandarilla NA No NA (Cobb) Sher 2007) Basterrechea and Fernández Gonzálvez, 2002 Meloidogyne incognita SV, U.S. (CABI, de Oliveira and NA No NA (Kofoid & White) 2007) Kubo, 2001 Chitwood Radopholus similis (Cobb) SV (Calderon and UNL- N/A No N/A Thorne Vasquez, 2005), U.S. Nematology, (EPPO, 1990) 2000

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Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host reference Plant part(s) Quaran- Follow association tine Pest pathway Xiphinema americanum Cobb SV, U.S. (CABI, Gandarilla NA No NA 2007) Basterrechea and Fernández Gonzálvez, 2002 VIRUSES and VIROIDS Cucumber mosaic virus SV, U.S. (CABI, Chase, 1990; N/A No N/A 2007) Henley et al., 2007 ALGAE Cephaleuros virescens Kűnze SV (Acuña, 1976), Wellman, 1977 NA No NA Trentepohliaceae U.S. (Holcomb, 1986; Mullen and Hagan, 2003)

2.5. Pest Categorization: Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway

Quarantine pests expected to follow the pathway, i.e., be included in commercial shipments of chufle (Table 4), will be analyzed in detail in this risk assessment [Steps 5-7 (PPQ, 2000)]. Other quarantine plant pests in this assessment which were not further scrutinized may be potentially detrimental to agricultural production systems of the United States or the natural environment. Pests identified only at the genus level or higher were not analyzed if the group already occurs in the United States. However, we recognize that individual species within those taxonomic groups are potential pests that may not occur in the United States. The IPPC guidelines do not require risk assessment of pests identified only by genus (IPPC, 2007: ISPM #2). By necessity, pest risk assessments focus on those organisms for which adequate biological and taxonomic information is available. There may be many species within a genus, and we cannot reasonably assume identical biology for all organisms within a genus. The lack of species identification may indicate the limits of current taxonomic knowledge, or inadequacy of the life stage or quality of the specimen submitted for species identification. The lack of identification at the specific level does not allow clear identification of quarantine status.

Pests of chufle likely to follow the pathway, but reported at the genus or less detailed taxonomic level which already occur in the United States are included in Table 3. However, they are not analyzed in this risk assessment. Pests reported only by genus are: Liriomyza spp., Plesiothrips spp., Spodoptera spp., Alternaria sp., and Puccinia sp. The lack of specific biological information on any given organism should not be equated with low risk, since vague taxonomic identifications can hide the occurrence of known or unknown quarantine pests. If the pests identified in this risk assessment at a genus, family, or order level are intercepted on chufle from El Salvador in the future, their species specific determination should follow. Quarantine action can be taken where appropriate and a re-evaluation of their risk may be necessary.

None of these arthropods has a geographic range that includes the United States which implies that they are quarantine pests and that they can be treated as such, if they are discovered during a

Rev. 03 April 5, 2010 10 Pest Risk Assessment for Chufle from El Salvador port of entry inspection. If more information becomes available concerning these pests in the future, they can be analyzed to determine their potential ability to colonize and cause damage.

We found four quarantine pests that could follow the pathway: E. elvina, E. lycisca, E. patrona, and E. unxia, which are all Lepidoptera: Riodinidae. We found only very limited information for E. unxia. Because of this, and because of the similarities in behavior and distribution of all four species, we analyzed them together, and noted any exceptions for particular species.

2.6. Consequences of Introduction

USDA estimates the Consequences of Introduction using five risk elements: climate-host interaction, host range, dispersal potential, economic impact, and environmental impact. They assign a Low (1 point), Medium (2 points), or High (3 points) to each Risk Element and add the Risk Elements to produce a Cumulative Risk Rating for each pest analyzed (PPQ, 2000). Table 3 summarizes the Consequences of Introduction values.

Eurybia spp. (, E. lycisca, E. patrona, and E. unxia) Risk ratings Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction Low (1) All four lepidopteran are limited to tropical rain forest habitats (Devries, 1997). The only climate zone in the continental United States that corresponds to the area is zone 11 in Southern Florida (PERAL, 2008). Risk Element 2: Host Range Medium (2) All four lepidopteran have only been observed feeding on Calathea spp. The genus Eurybia has only been observed on Marantaceae and Zinigiberacaceae (Devries, 1997). Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential Low (1) The flying abilities of the four lepidopteran are limited by their small size. The largest of the four has a 30-35 mm wingspan and is described as a rapid flyer (Devries, 1997). These characteristics suggest that long-distance flight is not likely. No member of the family Riodinidae (“metalmarks”) is reported as being a strong flier. The limited area in which each member of the genus is found and its limited flying ability suggests limited ability to disperse. Risk Element 4: Economic Impact Low (1) Eurybia elvina is known to be a prodigious consumer of Calathea flowers and seeds (Devries, 1997). The other three species may also severely damage the ability of chufle to reproduce, as they all consume the inflorescence. However, damage appears limited to lowering chufle production. Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact Low (1) No members of Calathea are listed as endangered in the United States. The genus appears restricted to Calathea so effects on other plant or animal species appear unlikely.

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Table 3. Summary of Risk Ratings for Consequences of Introduction Pest Climate/ Host Host Range Dispersal Economic Environ. Cumulative Interaction Potential Impact Impact Risk Ratinga Eurybia elvina Low (1) Medium (2) Low (1) Low (1) Low (1) Low (6) Eurybia lycisca Low (1) Medium (2) Low (1) Low (1) Low (1) Low (6) Eurybia patrona Low (1) Medium (2) Low (1) Low (1) Low (1) Low (6) Eurybia uxnia Low (1) Medium (2) Low (1) Low (1) Low (1) Low (6) a Low = 5-8 points; Medium = 9-12 points; High = 13-15 points.

2.7. Likelihood of Introduction

The likelihood of a pest being introduced and establishing a reproductive population is dependent on a series of six independent events: 1) the quantity of the commodity imported, 2) the ability of the pest to survive post-harvest treatment, 3) the ability of the pest to survive shipment, 4) the probability the pest will not be detected at the port of entry, 5) the likelihood that it will be moved to a suitable habitat, and 6) the probability that it will come into contact with suitable host material (PPQ, 2000). We evaluated these six elements below.

2.7.1. Quantity of product imported annually The market for chufle in the United States is limited. The primary intended consumers are Salvadoran ex-patriots and recent immigrants. Chufle could only be marketed in communities with sufficient size to justify the costs of shipping and to quickly consume the product before it spoils. Only a few areas in the United States meet those criteria (Hernández et al., 2003). The quantities to be shipped to the United States are likely to be small until these markets are developed so the likely number of containers is less than 10 (Hernández et al., 2003) and the risk associated with the quantity being imported is Low.

2.7.2. Survive postharvest treatment The most likely postharvest treatments are washing and culling damaged inflorescences (Esquivel, 2005). Washing would remove large larvae and culling could remove visibly damaged inflorescences and further address visible arthropods. Recently hatched lepidopteran could easily escape visual detection and washing. Thus the risk associated with surviving post harvest treatment is Medium.

2.7.3. Survive shipment Lepidoptera have been intercepted on Calathea spp. from Costa Rica,on flower shipments, Their presence does demonstrate that lepidoptera can survive transport on flowers. The shipping time is so short, a few hours by air (the most likely method of entry), that it should not be significant source of lepidopteran mortality compared to post harvest treatment or the climate at the exporting or receiving port. The risk of surviving the shipment is High.

2.7.4. Not detected at port of entry Small lepidoterans or microlepidopterans are frequently missed at ports-of-entry because they are too small for easy visual detections. Especially if damage to the fruit is slight, inspectors may not take the time required for a close visual inspection to find freshly hatched lepidopteran. Since

Rev. 03 April 5, 2010 12 Pest Risk Assessment for Chufle from El Salvador

Eurybia spp. may be small, they are more likely to escape detection. However, most larval stages are visually detectable, so there is a chance that inspection can intercept Eurybia sp. . Thus, the risk is Medium.

2.7.5. Imported or moved to an area with an environment suitable for survival The only environment suitable for the Eurybia spp. in the United States is South Florida. Since the Salvadoran government has targeted Miami as a market for Salvadoran products, chufle is highly likely to be imported into South Florida (Hernández et al., 2003). The risk associated with importation into a suitable area is High.

2.7.6. Come into contact with host material suitable for reproduction Calathea spp. are not native to the continental United States: Calathea is only found in greenhouse production and as an ornamental in gardens (Chase, 1990; Leahy, 1991; Poole et al., 1991). The quantity of ornamental plants and their wide dispersal would prevent the growth of a successful colony. Normal phytosanitary measures in U.S. greenhouse production would probably prevent Eurybia from entering and colonizing a greenhouse. Even if Eurybia could enter a greenhouse in the United States, it would probably be detected and eliminated easily. The risk associated with finding suitable host material is Low.

2.7.7. Cumulative Risk Ratings A Cumulative Risk Rating for the Likelihood of Introduction was obtained by summing the six sub-elements together (Table 4). Overall, the three Eurybia spp. have a Medium likelihood (12), of introduction and establishment in the United States.

Table 4. Summary of Risk Ratings for Likelihood of Introduction Pest Quantity Survive Survive Not Moved to Contact Cumulative imported post-harvest ship- detected suitable host Risk Ratinga treatment ment habitat material Eurybia elvina Low (1) Med (2) High (3) Med (2) High (3) Low (1) Medium (12) Eurybia lycisca Low (1) Med (2) High (3) Med (2) High (3) Low (1) Medium (12) Eurybia patrona Low (1) Med (2) High (3) Med (2) High (3) Low (1) Medium (12) Eurybia uxnia Low (1) Med (2) High (3) Med (2) High (3) Low (1) Medium (12) a Low = 6–9 points; Medium = 10–14 points; High = 15–18 points

3. Conclusion: Pest Risk Potentials

We summarize Pest Risk Potential by summing the two cumulative risk ratings for Consequences of Introduction and Likelihood of Introduction (PPQ, 2000). The Pest Risk Potential of a pest is a qualitative estimation of risk that is expressed in terms of Low, Medium, or High. According to the Guidelines for Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessments, Version 5.02 (PPQ, 2000), port of entry inspection provides sufficient phytosanitary security for pests assigned Low pest risk potentials, while specific phytosanitary measures may be necessary for Medium pest risk potentials and are strongly recommended for High pest risk potentials. With a

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Consequence of Introduction score of 6 and a Likelihood of Introduction score of 12, the overall Pest Risk Potential for Eurybia spp. is Low (18) (Table 5). No specific phytosanitary measures, beyond port inspection, are required since the ability of these Eurybia spp. to colonize the United States and do damage is very limited.

Table 5. Pest Risk Potentials Pest Consequences of Likelihood of Cumulative Introduction Introduction Risk Ratinga Eurybia elvina Low (6) Medium (12) Low (18) Eurybia lycisca Low (6) Medium (12) Low (18) Eurybia patrona Low (6) Medium (12) Low (18) Eurybia uxnia Low (6) Medium (12) Low (18) a Low =11-18 points; Medium = 19-26 points; High = 27-33 point

4. Authors and Reviewers

Prepared by: John Rogers, Risk Analyst1

Reviewers: Dan Borchert, Entomologist1 Lisa Ferguson, Plant Pathologist1 Ashley Jackson, Editorial Assistant1

1 USDA-APHIS-PPQ-CPHST-PERAL

5. Literature Cited

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6. Appendices

Appendix 1. Pests and pathogens intercepted on Calathea sp. at United States ports. Data are from 1985 to 2007 (PestID, 2008). Pest Origin Arctiidae, Species Of El Salvador Cephalalges Sp. (Curculionidae) Costa Rica Cephaloleia Sp. (Chrysomelidae) Costa Rica Cerichrestus Sp. (Chrysomelidae) Costa Rica Cicadellidae, Species Of Costa Rica Cochliobolus Sp. Mexico Crambidae, Species Of Costa Rica Deroceras laeve (Müller) (Agriolimacidae) *Non-Rep* Costa Rica Dysmicoccus Sp. (Pseudococcidae) Costa Rica Eleodes Sp. (Tenebrionidae) Mexico Epermeniidae, Species Of Costa Rica Gelechiidae, Species Of Costa Rica Glyphipterigidae, Species Of Costa Rica Helicarionidae, Species Of Costa Rica Hesperiidae, Species Of Costa Rica Lepidoptera, Species Of Costa Rica Listroderes Sp. (Curculionidae) Mexico Lycaenidae, Species Of Costa Rica Margarodidae, Species Of Costa Rica Megathymidae, Species Of Costa Rica Microlepidoptera, Species Of Costa Rica Pallifera costaricensis (Mörch) (Philomycidae) Costa Rica Plesiothrips Sp. (Thripidae) El Salvador Pseudococcidae, Species Of Costa Rica Pterophoridae, Species Of Costa Rica Pyralidae, Species Of Costa Rica Pyraloidea, Species Of Nicaragua Riodinidae, Species Of El Salvador Sarasinula plebeia (Fischer) (Veronicellidae) Costa Rica Succinea costaricana Von Martens (Succineidae) Costa Rica Tettigoniidae, Species Of Costa Rica Thyrididae, Species Of Costa Rica Tineidae, Species Of Costa Rica Tortricidae, Species Of Costa Rica

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