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Historically Low Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in Koalas (Phascolarctos

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Historically Low Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in Koalas (Phascolarctos Tsangaras et al. BMC Genetics 2012, 13:92 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2156/13/92 RESEARCH ARTICLE Open Access Historically low mitochondrial DNA diversity in koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) Kyriakos Tsangaras1, María C Ávila-Arcos2, Yasuko Ishida3, Kristofer M Helgen4, Alfred L Roca3 and Alex D Greenwood1* Abstract Background: The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) is an arboreal marsupial that was historically widespread across eastern Australia until the end of the 19th century when it suffered a steep population decline. Hunting for the fur trade, habitat conversion, and disease contributed to a precipitous reduction in koala population size during the late 1800s and early 1900s. To examine the effects of these reductions in population size on koala genetic diversity, we sequenced part of the hypervariable region of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in koala museum specimens collected in the 19th and 20th centuries, hypothesizing that the historical samples would exhibit greater genetic diversity. Results: The mtDNA haplotypes present in historical museum samples were identical to haplotypes found in modern koala populations, and no novel haplotypes were detected. Rarefaction analyses suggested that the mtDNA genetic diversity present in the museum samples was similar to that of modern koalas. Conclusions: Low mtDNA diversity may have been present in koala populations prior to recent population declines. When considering management strategies, low genetic diversity of the mtDNA hypervariable region may not indicate recent inbreeding or founder events but may reflect an older historical pattern for koalas. Background among the most notable nineteenth-century naturalists Though distributed widely across eastern Australia, the working in Australia, discussed the rarity of the koala and koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) was apparently a rare the impacts of Aboriginal hunting upon it, and speculated animal at the time of the first European settlement of that it was likely to decline to extinction. Instead, hunting Australia. Many of the relatively large mammals of east- pressure diminished during much of the 19th century, and ern Australia (such as kangaroos, possums, quolls, and koala numbers are believed to have risen drastically, such the dingo) were first documented by Europeans almost that the koala was apparently a common animal by the immediately after the settlement of modern-day Sydney in middle to late 1800s across much of eastern Australia [1]. 1788, but the first European sighting of a koala was not Soon after their numbers increased, koala fur became a reported until 1798. The first live specimen was secured highly valued commodity, and the koala was hunted with and brought to Sydney in 1803, and very few detailed tremendous intensity for the international fur trade. accounts of the animal appeared in the decade that fol- Throughout the late 1800s and early 1900s, millions of lowed. Remarkably, it was not until 1816, nearly three dec- koalas are thought to have been killed for their fur every ades after the arrival of Britain’s First Fleet to Botany Bay, year. Koala declines from intensive hunting during this that the koala was studied in sufficient detail to be given period were also exacerbated by habitat conversion leading its original scientific name, Lipurus cinereus [1]. Most stu- to habitat loss and range fragmentation (the great majority dents of the koala have attributed the rarity of the animal of relevant koala habitat present at European settlement in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to the had been cleared by the twentieth century) [1]. Many his- impacts of hunting by Aboriginal Australians. John Gould, torical reports also describe mass declines of koalas from various epidemic diseases, dating back to the 1880s [1]. * Correspondence: [email protected] By the 1930s, from the combined effects of hunting, 1 Leibniz-Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Berlin 10315, Germany habitat conversion, and disease, koala populations had Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © 2012 Tsangaras et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Tsangaras et al. BMC Genetics 2012, 13:92 Page 2 of 11 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2156/13/92 been extirpated across much of southern Australia and designed to amplify fragments of 73 bp and 112 bp were greatly diminished in the northern range of the (excluding primer lengths) of this mtDNA region and species [2,3]. were tested on a modern koala DNA dilution series. The A severe decrease in population size has been shown primers were designed to target small amplicons to ac- to lead to loss of genetic diversity in other species [4]. commodate the potential degradation that has often been For example, the US grey wolf (Canis lupus) lost diver- observed in archival museum samples. We attempted sity due to widespread extirpation of local populations. DNA extractions and PCR on 29 different museum sam- Leonard et al. [5] demonstrated using modern and ples originally collected from the 1870s to the 1980s museum samples that the museum wolf samples had (Table 1). Across the 29 samples, we were able to amplify twice the diversity of modern conspecifics. The decrease and sequence both of the mtDNA fragments from in numbers of koalas would likewise suggest that the spe- 15 samples representing 14 individual koalas (Table 1). cies may exhibit reduced genetic diversity due to popula- An additional 1 sample was successfully amplified and tion bottlenecks. Reduced genetic diversity is associated sequenced for only the 73 bp mtDNA fragment, poten- with a variety of potential threats in affected populations, tially indicating that the DNA from that sample was such as a decrease in population fitness due to inbreed- more highly degraded. Thirteen samples failed to amplify ing, expression of deleterious recessive alleles, reduced for both of the mtDNA fragments. The amplicons were disease resistance, and lack of heterosis [2,6]. sequenced using two approaches: GS FLX and Sanger Several molecular markers have been used to examine direct sequencing (see Materials and Methods for details). the genetic variability of modern Australian koala popu- The seven GS FLX analyzed samples displayed minimal lations; these have shown that genetic diversity within levels of the damage usually associated with ancient and gene flow between koala populations is low [3,7-9]. DNA (Figure 1) and the results were found to be compar- Houlden et al. [10] examined 860 bp of mtDNA hyper- able between the two approaches. Thus, direct Sanger variable region in 208 koalas from 16 populations sequencing of amplicons appeared to be an appropriate throughout Australia. Koala mtDNA haplotype diversity strategy for these museum samples. within populations averaged H= 0.18, which was only The sequences from the two adjacent mtDNA seg- one-fifth the level of diversity detected in an Australian ments indicated that 4 unique haplotypes were present omnivore, the greater bilby (Macrotis lagotis). Genetic dif- across the 14 koalas (Table 1, Figure 2A). Each of the ferentiation among the koala populations of Queensland four museum sample mtDNA haplotypes was identical and New South Wales was found to be high, while koala to one of the previously reported modern haplotypes populations from Victoria were little differentiated [10], identified by Houlden et al. [10], and Fowler et al. [11]. presumably due to their recent descent from few indivi- No novel mtDNA haplotype was detected among the duals from the French and Philip Islands. Fowler et al. historical samples. [11] examined 670 bp of the same mtDNA hypervariable Minimum spanning networks were generated to dem- region studied by Houlden et al. [10] from 96 koalas in onstrate the relationships across the mtDNA haplotypes five southeastern Queensland populations. Haplotype (Figure 2A). The koala archival samples carried haplo- diversity within populations was estimated as H= 0.37, types identical to modern haplotypes K1, K3, K4, and higher than Houlden et al. [10] but still much lower K5. Only one or few mutations separated these haplo- than bilby diversity. types [8,10,11]. All but one of the sequenced museum The historical DNA diversity present among koalas can samples were collected in northern Australia. The haplo- be examined using museum specimens, as mtDNA ana- types observed among northern Australian museum lyses from museum samples have been reported from samples (K3, K4 and K5) were also found among modern many species including Australian wildlife [12-14]. We samples collected in northern Australia only (K3, K5), or hypothesized that, compared to modern koalas, there were found in both northern and southern modern would be greater genetic diversity in the museum speci- koalas (K4) (Figure 2). Only one of the museum samples mens, particularly those collected in the 1800s and early from southern Australia was successfully sequenced. The 1900s, before (or at the beginning of) the most recent pro- haplotype for this koala (Pci-AM M12482; Table 1) was longed historical population decline. Using ancient DNA identical to a haplotype characteristic of modern southern approaches, the diversity of historical haplotypes in the koalas (haplotype K1, Figure 2). Thus for the koala mu- museum koalas was compared to the diversity present in seum specimens, the geographic distribution of haplotypes modern koalas. proved consistent with those of modern koalas. The number of museum sample sequences that we were Results able to obtain was lower than the number of modern The koala has an 860 bp hypervariable mtDNA region samples that have previously been sequenced. Rarefac- that is adenine and thymine rich. Primer sets were tion analysis was used to estimate expected haplotype Tsangaras et al. BMC Genetics 2012, 13:92 Page 3 of 11 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2156/13/92 Table 1 Koala samples and sequencing information Koala sample origins Designation/ museum no.
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