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Aerial Stars: Femininity, Celebrity & Glamour in the Representations of Female Aerialists in the UK & USA in the 1920S and Early 1930S

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Aerial Stars: Femininity, Celebrity & Glamour in the Representations of Female Aerialists in the UK & USA in the 1920S and Early 1930S Aerial Stars: Femininity, Celebrity & Glamour in the Representations of Female Aerialists in the UK & USA in the 1920s and Early 1930s Submitted by Catherine Jane Holmes to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Drama in December 2016 This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature: ………………………………………………………….. 1 Abstract Female solo aerialists of the 1920s and early 1930s were internationally popular performers in the largest live mass entertainment of the period in the UK and USA. Yet these aerialists and this period in circus history have been largely forgotten by scholars. I address this omission by arguing these stars should be remembered for how they contributed to strength being incorporated into some stereotypes of femininity. Analysing in detail Lillian Leitzel, Luisita Leers and, to a lesser extent the Flying Codonas, I employ a cross-disciplinary methodology unique to aerial scholarship that uses embodied understanding to reinvigorate archival resources. This approach allows me to build on the wider scholarly histories of Peta Tait, drawing important conclusions about the form including how weightlessness is constructed and risk is performed. In the introduction I re-evaluate the nostalgic histories of circus to establish circus’ and aerialists’ popularity in this period, before exploring how engagements shaped careers. Chapter 1 considers the difference in experiencing aerialists in the USA and UK by bringing together previously unrelated data on circus, variety and vaudeville venues. Aerialists made good celebrities because their acts, located above audience members’ heads, challenged the conventional relationship between ticket prices and sightlines. Chapter 2 explores how the kinaesthetic fantasy evoked by experiencing aerial action created glamour and how glamour had the power to reframe femininity in the 1920s. Glamour and celebrity have often been confused and Chapter 3 distinguishes the two before considering what characterises aerial celebrity. Reconfiguring Joseph Roach’s public intimacy as skilful vulnerability allows me to analyse how risk was gendered and performed in relationship to skill. The gendering of risk leads me to consider what in society contributed to aerial stardom by drawing upon Richard Dyer’s argument that celebrities embody a cultural ambiguity. Female aerialists reframed their femininity in a similar way to women who aspired to the modern girl stereotype in wider society. In the final chapter I expand on the activity of the modern girl, comparing strategies used by young exercising women to female aerialists. This enables me to draw conclusions about how witnessing these stars tapped into national ideas of citizenship, and to designate aerialists as the first to use the power of glamour to make muscular femininity acceptable. 2 Contents INTRODUCTION 11 THE PERFORMERS: LILLIAN LEITZEL, LUISITA LEERS & THE FLYING CODONAS 13 HISTORIOGRAPHICAL APPROACH 18 HISTORICISING 1920S & EARLY 1930S CIRCUS 21 CIRCUS SOURCES 25 PRIMARY & EXPERIENTIAL SOURCES 27 CIRCUS SCHOLARSHIP 30 AERIAL SCHOLARSHIP 34 RE-EVALUATING CIRCUS NARRATIVES OF POPULARITY 37 1920S AMERICAN CIRCUS: THE ERA OF THE RINGLING CIRCUS GIANT 39 1920S BRITISH CIRCUS & BERTRAM MILLS: RIDING THE WAVE OF POPULAR INTEREST 44 IMPLICATIONS OF POPULARITY AND DECLINE ON PERFORMERS’ CAREERS 47 CELEBRITY CIRCUSES, PERFORMER PROFILE & FEMALE AGENCY 50 1. PLACING THE CIRCUS CELEBRITY: HOW PERFORMANCE SPACES FRAMED FEMALE AERIALISTS 57 DEFINING SPACE & PLACE 60 PLACES OF AERIAL PRACTICE 62 THE TEMPORARY AMERICAN CIRCUS TENT 63 TEMPORARILY MADE CIRCUS 69 MADISON SQUARE GARDEN 70 LONDON OLYMPIA 75 PERMANENT NON-CIRCUS PLACES 82 MORE THAN JUST A DUMB SHOW – RE-EVALUATING STATUS OUTSIDE THE CIRCUS 87 CONCLUSION: TRANSFORMATIVE PRACTICES 91 2. TO GLAMOUR: GLAMOUR, CIRCUS & THE FEMALE AERIALIST 93 UNPICKING GLAMOUR 94 HISTORICISING GLAMOUR: THE MODERN GIRL & THE POPULAR FILM STAR 100 3 GLAMOUR & AERIAL PERFORMANCE – THE FICTION OF GRACEFUL WEIGHTLESSNESS 103 LILLIAN LEITZEL & GLAMOROUS INTERWAR CIRCUS 111 LILLIAN LEITZEL: A GLAMOROUSLY COMPOSED ACT 112 LILLIAN LEITZEL: PERFORMANCE OF A BOLD PERSONALITY 118 CONCLUSION: TO GLAMOUR 121 3. AERIAL CELEBRITY & SHOWMANSHIP: THE PERFORMANCE OF SKILL & RISK 124 CELEBRITY 125 DEFINING AERIAL CELEBRITY: PERFORMING PUBLIC INTIMACY AS SKILFUL VULNERABILITY 128 RISKILY GENDERED FEMALE 132 LUISITA LEERS: CERTAINLY SKILLED, BUT RISKY ENOUGH? 133 LILLIAN LEITZEL: EXPERT SHOWMAN & PREEMINENT CIRCUS CELEBRITY 137 THE PLANCHE TURN: SHOWMANSHIP & PERFORMING STIGMATA RISK 137 THE PLANCHE TURN: SHOWMANSHIP & THE BALANCING OF CHARISMATA SKILL 142 RISK & SKILL IN MEDIA COVERAGE OF LEITZEL 145 CONCLUSION: SKILFUL VULNERABILITY 153 4. PERFORMING & NEGOTIATING MUSCULAR FEMININITY: AERIAL CELEBRITY & THE MODERN GIRL 155 THE MODERN GIRL & GENDER BLURRING 158 THE MODERN GIRL & THE FEMALE AERIALIST 161 LUISITA LEERS: A RISING STAR & GENDER NEGOTIATOR 163 LILLIAN LEITZEL: SOPHISTICATED CELEBRITY GENDER NEGOTIATOR 169 A GENDER BLURRING ACT 170 SEXUAL TENSIONS IN COSTUME & PERFORMANCE STYLE 173 VARIED PRESS PRESENTATIONS OF FEMININITY & STRENGTH 178 THE FLYING CODONAS: THE ORNAMENTAL FEMININE ELEMENT 181 CONCLUSION: FEMALE MUSCULARITY 185 4 5. THE FEMALE AERIALIST AND FEMALE EXERCISE: ABSORBING FEMALE ACTIVITY INTO FEMININITY 188 FEMALE PHYSICAL EXERCISE IN THE 1920S AND EARLY 1930S 191 THE PROBLEM OF VISIBLE EXERTION 197 BODILY CONTROL 198 EXPERIENCING AERIAL ACTION – FEMINISING GRACE & FRENETIC ACTIVITY 204 THE PROBLEM OF MUSCULARITY 210 THE PROBLEM OF COMPETITION 215 CONCLUSION: EXERTION, MUSCLE & COMPETITION REFRAMED AS FEMININE 218 CONCLUSION: REFLECTING UPON A COMPOSITE IMAGE 221 BIBLIOGRAPHY 229 APPENDIX: IMAGE CLEARANCES 258 5 Tables & Illustrations Illustrations: Figure 1: Atwell, HA (1925) Photograph of RBBBC midway to big top, Chicago, CWi2338, Circus World Museum, Baraboo, Wisconsin 63 Figure 2: Barnum & Bailey Circus (1903) ‘The White City of Canvas’ illustration, from Official Programme and Book of Wonders Combined of Barnum & Bailey's Greatest Show on Earth, CWi2343, Circus World Museum, Baraboo, Wisconsin 65 Figure 3: Atwell, HA (1925) Photograph of panoramic interior of the RBBBC big top, CWi 2337, Circus World Museum, Baraboo, Wisconsin 66 Figure 4: (1921) Interior of Madison Square Garden circus, 30 April, credit: Wurts Bros. (New York, N.Y.)/Museum of the City of New York. X2010.11.2422 71 Figure 5: London Olympia interior photograph (1921-2) Cyril Mills Collection, THM/196 Box 10 'Photographs' book, © V&A Theatre and Performance Archives 76 Figure 6: Bertram Mills Circus (1924) Plan of Circus and Prices of Seats in 1924-5 Olympia programme, Cyril Mills Collection, GB 71 THM/196/1/3/1, © V&A Theatre and Performance Archives 79 Figure 7: Bertram Mills Circus (1922) Plan of Circus and Fair from 14 January programme, MM/REF/TH/SU/CI/32, Mander & Mitchenson Collection, University of Bristol Theatre Collection 81 Figure 8: (circa 1910) Palace Theatre, view of the stage from balcony, credit: Wurts Bros. (New York, N.Y.)/Museum of the City of New York. X2010.7.1.1577 83 Figure 9: Campbell-Gray (1913) Image of The Palladium stage and Mr Eustace Gray's Palladium Minstrels, MM/REF/TH/LO/PAL/9, Mander & Mitchenson Collection, University of Bristol Theatre Collection 84 Figure 10: Atwell (1931) Lillian Leitzel performing on Roman Rings, glass plate negative, CWi 873, Circus World Museum, Baraboo, Wisconsin 115 Figure 11: Photograph of Lillian Leitzel performing a planche turn, CWi 2578, Circus World Museum, Baraboo, Wisconsin 116 Figure 12: Photograph of Leitzel and her maid, Mabel Clemings, CWi 2573, Circus World Museum, Baraboo, Wisconsin 121 Figure 13: ‘Dainty Miss Leitzel’ (1925) Ringling Bros & Barnum & Bailey, Collection of the John and Mable Ringling Museum of Art, Tibbals Collection, ht2001468. Trademarks for Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey® and The Greatest Show On Earth® used with permission of Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey® and Feld Entertainment, Inc. 150 Figure 14: Luisita Leers feature images (1931) Ringling Bros and Barnum & Bailey Combined Show, The Greatest Show on Earth Magazine and Daily Review (‘road’/tenting version), CWM Mss 3, Circus World Museum, Baraboo, WI 165 Figure 15 Atwell (circa 1925) Photograph of Lillian Leitzel hanging from Roman Rings, edit of CWi 873 glass plate negative, CW Small Collection ‘Lillian Leitzel on rings and other apparatus folders’, Circus World Museum, Baraboo, WI 174 6 Figure 16: Tegge, Timothy (2016) Photograph of Lillian Leitzel's Vaudeville/Variety Costume, Codona Family Collection from the collection of Timothy Noel Tegge/Tegge Circus Archives 177 Figure 17: Luisita Leers feature image (1929) Ringling Bros and Barnum & Bailey Combined Show Magazine and Daily Review (‘road’/tenting version), CWM Mss3, Circus World Museum, Baraboo, Wisconsin 211 Tables: Table 1: Comparison of the largest venues circus, vaudeville and variety venues in Britain and America 63 Table 2: Leitzel's attributes and activities as described in five national feature articles 180 Table 3: Image Clearances & Evidence by Page Number 258 7 Author’s Declaration Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders
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