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Environmental Health Criteria 171 Environmental Health Criteria 171 DIESEL FUEL AND EXHAUST EMISSIONS Please note that the layout and pagination of this web version are not identical with the printed version. Diesel fuel and exhaust emissions (EHC 171, 1996) UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME ON CHEMICAL SAFETY ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA 171 DIESEL FUEL AND EXHAUST EMISSIONS This report contains the collective views of an international group of experts and does not necessarily represent the decisions or the stated policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, or the World Health Organization. Environmental Health Criteria 171 DIESEL FUEL AND EXHAUST EMISSIONS First draft prepared by the staff members of the Fraunhofer Institute of Toxicology and Aerosol Research, Germany, under the coordination of Dr. G. Rosner Published under the joint sponsorship of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, and the World Health Organization, and produced within the framework if the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals. World Health Organization Geneva, 1996 The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) is a joint venture of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, and the World Health Organization. The main objective of the IPCS is to carry out and disseminate evaluations of the effects of chemicals on human health and the quality of the environment. Supporting activities include the development of epidemiological, experimental laboratory, and risk-assessment methods that could produce internationally comparable results, and the Page 1 of 287 Diesel fuel and exhaust emissions (EHC 171, 1996) development of manpower in the field of toxicology. Other activities carried out by the IPCS include the development of know-how for coping with chemical accidents, coordination of laboratory testing and epidemiological studies, and promotion of research on the mechanisms of the biological action of chemicals. WHO Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Diesel Fuel and exhaust emission (Environmental health criteria ; 171) 1.Air pollutants, Enviromental 2.Air pollution 3.Fueloils I.International Programme on Chemical Safety II.Series ISBN 92 4 157171 3 (NLM Classification: WA 754) ISSN 0250-863X The World Health Organization welcomes requests for permission to reproduce or translate its publications, in part or in full. Applications and enquiries should be addressed to the Office of Publications, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, which will be glad to provide the latest information on any changes made to the text, plans for new editions, and reprints and translations already available. (c) World Health Organization 1996 Publications of the World Health Organization enjoy copyright protection in accordance with the provisions of Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention. All rights reserved. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers' products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. CONTENTS NOTE TO READERS OF THE CRITERIA MONOGRAPHS PREAMBLE ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA FOR DIESEL FUEL AND EXHAUST EMISSIONS WHO DRAFTING GROUP ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA FOR DIESEL FUEL AND EXHAUST EMISSIONS WHO TASK GROUP ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA FOR DIESEL FUEL AND EXHAUST EMISSIONS PART A: DIESEL FUEL A1. SUMMARY A1.1 Identity, physical and chemical properties, and analytical methods A1.2 Sources of human and environmental exposure A1.3 Environmental transport, distribution, and transformation Page 2 of 287 Diesel fuel and exhaust emissions (EHC 171, 1996) A1.4 Environmental levels and human exposure A1.5 Effects on laboratory mammals and in vitro test systems A1.6 Effects on humans A1.7 Effects on other organisms in the laboratory and the field A1.8 Evaluation of human health risks A1.9 Evaluation of effects on the environment A2. IDENTITY, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, AND ANALYTICAL METHODS A2.1 Identity A2.1.1 Fuel components A2.1.1.1 Alkanes A2.1.1.2 Alkenes A2.1.1.3 Aromatic compounds A2.1.1.4 Sulfur A2.1.2 Fuel additives A2.1.2.1 Cetane number improvers A2.1.2.2 Smoke suppressors A2.1.2.3 Flow improvers A2.1.2.4 Cloud-point depressors A2.1.2.5 Wax anti-settling additives A2.1.2.6 Other additives A2.1.3 Quality aspects of diesel fuels A2.1.3.1 Ignition performance and cetane number A2.1.3.2 Density A2.1.3.3 Sulfur content A2.1.3.4 Viscosity A2.1.3.5 Cold-flow properties A2.2 Physical and chemical properties A2.3 Analytical methods A2.4 Conversion factors A3. SOURCES OF HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE A3.1 Natural occurrence A3.2 Anthropogenic sources A3.2.1 Production and use A3.2.1.1 Production process A3.2.1.2 Use A3.2.1.3 Production and consumption levels A3.2.2 Emissions during production and use A3.2.2.1 Air A3.2.2.2 Water A3.2.2.3 Soil A3.2.3 Accidental releases to the environment A4. ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSPORT, DISTRIBUTION, AND TRANSFORMATION A4.1 Transport and distribution between media A4.1.1 Evaporation from and dissolution in the aqueous phase A4.1.2 Transport in and adsorption onto soil and sediment A4.1.2.1 Soil A4.1.2.2 Sediment A4.2 Transformation and removal A4.2.1 Photooxidation A4.2.2 Biodegradation A4.2.2.1 Microbial degradation A4.2.2.2 Phytoplankton and marine algae A4.2.2.3 Invertebrates and vertebrates A4.2.3 Bioaccumulation A4.2.4 Tainting A4.2.5 Entry into the food chain Page 3 of 287 Diesel fuel and exhaust emissions (EHC 171, 1996) A4.3 Ultimate fate after use A4.3.1 Use in motor vehicles A4.3.2 Spills A4.3.3 Disposal A5. ENVIRONMENTAL LEVELS AND HUMAN EXPOSURE A5.1 Environmental levels A5.2 Exposure of the general population A5.3 Occupational exposure during manufacture, formulation, or use A6. KINETICS AND METABOLISM IN LABORATORY ANIMALS AND HUMANS A7. EFFECTS ON LABORATORY MAMMALS AND IN VITRO TEST SYSTEMS A7.1 Single exposure A7.2 Short-term exposure A7.2.1 Subacute exposure A7.2.1.1 Dermal exposure A7.2.1.2 Inhalation A7.2.2 Subchronic exposure A7.2.2.1 Dermal exposure A7.2.2.2 Inhalation A7.3 Long-term exposure A7.3.1 Dermal exposure A7.3.2 Inhalation A7.4 Dermal and ocular irritation; dermal sensitization A7.4.1 Dermal irritation A7.4.2 Ocular irritation A7.4.3 Sensitization A7.5 Reproductive toxicity, embryotoxicity, and teratogenicity A7.6 Mutagenicity and related end-points A7.6.1 In vitro A7.6.2 In vivo A7.7 Carcinogenicity A7.7.1 Dermal exposure A7.7.2 Inhalation A8. EFFECTS ON HUMANS A8.1 Exposure of the general population A8.2 Occupational exposure A9. EFFECTS ON OTHER ORGANISMS IN THE LABORATORY AND THE FIELD A9.1 Laboratory experiments A9.1.1 Microorganisms A9.1.1.1 Water A9.1.1.2 Soil A9.1.2 Aquatic organisms A9.1.2.1 Plants (phytoplankton) A9.1.2.2 Invertebrates A9.1.3 Terrestrial organisms A9.1.3.1 Plants A9.1.3.2 Invertebrates A9.1.3.3 Vertebrates A9.2 Field observations A9.2.1 Microorganisms. A9.2.1.1 Water A9.2.1.2 Soil A9.2.2 Aquatic organism A9.2.3 Terrestrial organisms A9.2.3.1 Plants A9.2.3.2 Invertebrates A9.2.3.3 Vertebrates A10. EVALUATION OF HUMAN HEALTH RISKS AND EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT A10.1 Evaluation of human health risks A10.1.1 Exposure of the general population Page 4 of 287 Diesel fuel and exhaust emissions (EHC 171, 1996) A10.1.2 Occupational exposure A10.1.3 Non-neoplastic effects A10.1.4 Neoplastic effects A10.2 Evaluation of effects on the environment A11. RECOMMENDATIONS A11.1 Recommendations for the protection of human health A11.2 Recommendation for the protection of the environment A11.3 Recommendations for further research A12. PREVIOUS EVALUATIONS BY INTERNATIONAL BODIES PART B: DIESEL EXHAUST EMISSIONS B1. SUMMARY B1.1 Identity, physical and chemical properties, and analytical methods B1.2 Sources of human and environmental exposure B1.3 Environmental transport, distribution, and transformation B1.4 Environmental levels and human exposure B1.5 Kinetics and metabolism in laboratory animals and humans B1.5.1 Deposition B1.5.2 Retention and clearance of particles B1.5.3 Retention and clearance of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons adsorbed onto diesel soot B1.5.4 Metabolism B1.6 Effects on laboratory mammals and in vitro test systems B1.7 Effects on humans B1.8 Effects on other organisms in the laboratory and the field B1.9 Evaluation of human health risks B1.9.1 Non-neoplastic effects B1.9.2 Neoplastic effects B1.10 Evaluation of effects on the environment B2. IDENTITY AND ANALYTICAL METHODS B2.1 Identity B2.1.1 Chemical composition of diesel exhaust gases B2.1.2 Type and composition of emitted particulate matter B2.2 Analytical methods B2.2.1 Sampling B2.2.1.1 Sampling from undiluted exhaust gas (raw gas sampling) B2.2.1.2 Sampling from diluted exhaust (dilution tube sampling) B2.2.2 Extraction from particles B2.2.3 Clean-up and fractionation B2.2.4 Chemical analysis B2.3 Conversion factors B3.
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