Users, Safety, Security and Energy in Transport Infrastructure

R USERS, SAFETY, SECURITY AND ENERGY IN TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE

H2020-MG- 8.2b-2014 (Next generation transport infrastructure: resource efficient, smarter and safer) H2020 Coordination and Support Action Grant agreement number: 653670

Users, Safety, security and Energy In Transport Infrastructure USE-iT

Start date: 1 May 2015 Duration: 24 months

Deliverable D4.1

Report on energy efficiency and carbon intensity based on investigation across modes and domains

Main Editor(s) James Peeling (TRL), Sarah Reeves (TRL), Martin Lamb (TRL) Due Date 1st January 2016 Delivery Date 4th July 2017 Task number Task 4.1 Preliminary investigations across modes and domains Dissemination level PU

This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement no 653670

Project Coordinator Dr. Thierry Goger, FEHRL, Blvd de la Woluwe, 42/b3, 1200 Brussels, Belgium. Tel: +32 2 775 82 34, Fax: +32 2 775 8245. E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.useitandfoxprojects.eu

USE-iT Deliverable D4.1: Report on energy efficiency and carbon intensity based on investigations across modes and domains

Contributor(s) Main Contributor(s) James Peeling, TRL, UK +44 (0)1344770168, [email protected]

Sarah Reeves, TRL, UK +44 (0)1344 770562, [email protected]

Contributor(s) Elisabete Arsenio, LNEC, Portugal

(alphabetical order) Nataliia Bidnenko, DNDI, Ukraine

Dominic Leal, TRL, UK

Peter Saleh, AIT, Austria Libor Spicka, CDV, Czech Republic Henrietta Wallen Warner, VTI, Sweden

Ewa Zofka, IBDiM, Poland

Review Reviewer(s) 1. Martin Lamb, TRL, UK

2. Matt Wayman, TRL. UK

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Control Sheet Version History

Version Date Editor Summary of Modifications v0.1 2015/08/25 Sarah Reeves, TRL Outline structure and scope of report

James Peeling, TRL v0.2 2015/11/16 Restructured and drafted content of report Sarah Reeves, TRL

Complete first draft incorporating Martin Lamb’s v0.3 2015/11/30 James Peeling, TRL comments

Final version for submission to EC, taking into account V1.0 2015/12/14 Sarah Reeves, TRL consortium partner and Matt Wayman’s comments

Sarah Reeves, TRL Final version submitted to EC/INEA with changes after V2.0 2017/07/04 Adewole Adesiyun, FEHRL the final review meeting Miglė Paliukaitė, FEHRL

Final Version released by Circulated to

Name Date Recipient Date

Sarah Reeves, TRL Adewole Adesiyun, FEHRL 2017/07/04 Coordinator 2017/07/04 Miglė Paliukaitė, FEHRL

European Commission 2017/07/04

Disclaimer This deliverable report reflects only the authors view. The Agency is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains.

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Table of Contents

1 Introduction ...... 9 1.1 Project objectives ...... 10 1.2 Scope ...... 10 2 WP4 goals and objectives ...... 11 2.1 Background ...... 11 2.1.1 Direct greenhouse gas emissions ...... 11 2.1.2 Operational and embedded carbon ...... 13 2.1.3 Life-cycle assessment ...... 13 2.1.4 Reducing emissions ...... 14 2.1.5 Benefits of reducing carbon ...... 16 2.2 WP4 objectives ...... 16 3 Preliminary investigation across modes and domains ...... 17 3.1 High level state of the art review of existing technologies in carbon and energy reduction .. 17 3.1.1 Methodology ...... 17 3.1.2 Overview of findings ...... 18 3.2 Areas and concepts ...... 19 3.2.1 Powering transport ...... 19 3.2.2 Constructing and maintaining infrastructure and vehicles ...... 27 3.2.3 Operating and managing transport systems ...... 35 4 Conclusions and next steps ...... 44 4.1 Conclusions ...... 44 4.2 Next steps ...... 44

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Abbreviations Abbreviation Meaning

A-S-I Avoid, shift, improve

CO2 Carbon dioxide

EC European Commission

EMU Electric multiple units

EU European Union

FORx4 Forever open road, rail, river and runway

GDP Gross domestic product

GHG Greenhouse gas

HGV Heavy good vehicle

ICE Internal combustion engine

IPCC Intergovernmental panel on climate change

KPI Key performance indicators

LCA Life cycle assessment

LCC Life cycle cost

LED Light emitting diode

SSE Shore side electricity

WIM Weigh-in-motion

WP Work package

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Definitions Term Definition A change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties Climate change and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. (IPCC Glossary of Terms [1]) Genset A railway locomotive that uses multiple small generators for traction enabling scalable power, e.g. several diesel engines or a diesel and electric engine. Greenhouse gases are those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, which absorb and emit radiation at specific Greenhouse gas wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, by the atmosphere itself, and by clouds. This property causes the greenhouse effect. (From IPCC Glossary of Terms [1]).

List of Figures Figure 1. FORx4 programme [3] ...... 9 Figure 2. EU GHG emissions from transport by sector from 2012 data [4] ...... 12 Figure 3. EU GHG emissions from transport by mode from 2012 data [4] ...... 12 Figure 4. A-S-I approach developed as part of the Bridging the Gap initiative [15] ...... 15 Figure 5. WP4 technologies by concept ...... 18 Figure 6. Technologies by domain and mode ...... 19

List of Tables Table 1. Descriptions of the domains [3] ...... 10 Table 2. Example LCA results [10] and [11] ...... 14 Table 3. Literature review key words ...... 17 Table 4. WP4 areas and concepts ...... 18 Table 5. Technologies and approaches for improving fuel efficiency ...... 20 Table 6. Technologies and approaches for use of alternative fuels ...... 22 Table 7. Technologies and approaches for energy harvesting ...... 25 Table 8. Technologies and approaches for low carbon materials and design ...... 28 Table 9. Technologies and approaches for improved asset management ...... 31 Table 10. Technologies and approaches for efficient technology and automation...... 33 Table 11. Technologies and approaches for traffic management...... 36 Table 12. Technologies and approaches for sustainable procurement ...... 40 Table 13. Technologies and approaches for behaviour change ...... 42 Table 14. Areas and concepts...... 44

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Executive Summary

This report is a deliverable of USE-iT (Users, Safety, Security and Energy in Transport Infrastructure); a Horizon 2020 Coordination and Support Action (CSA) project managed by the Forum of European Highway Research Laboratories (FEHRL). The aim of USE-iT is to better understand the common challenges facing transport modes and in conjunction with stakeholders to produce a multi-modal research roadmap to develop technologies and approaches to addressing these challenges. In addition to a work package on management (WP1) and a work package on dissemination activities (WP5), USE-iT is divided into three technical Work Packages addressing important challenges facing all modes; providing better customer information (WP2); improving safety and safety (WP3) and reducing carbon emissions and energy consumption (WP4). This report relates to Work Package 4; reducing the carbon emissions and energy consumption associated with the transport sector.

Transport is one of the largest contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), and user of energy – mainly fossil fuels. Following the European Commission’s Transport White Paper [2], the EU transport sector needs to reduce its emissions by 60% by 2050 compared to 1990s levels, which represents a significant challenge for all modes. Over the past decade a multitude of different innovations have been developed which are designed to reduce carbon, however the difficulty for the industry is to identify which ones have the most potential to both reduce carbon and maintain/improve other vital characteristics such as safety, durability, affordability etc. In WP4 a significant number of technologies were identified which could help reduce energy and carbon; these have been categorised into three areas, each with three concepts, as shown below.

Area Concept Improving fuel efficiency Powering transport Use of alternative fuels Energy harvesting Low carbon materials and design Constructing and maintaining Improved asset management infrastructure and vehicles Efficient technology and automation Traffic management Operating and managing transport Sustainable procurement systems Behaviour change

An international literature review was carried out to identify technologies related to each concept. A total of 111 technologies were identified, the majority of which relate to the infrastructure and technology domains, and road and rail modes. The list produced is by no means exhaustive, but does represent a broad range of technologies or approaches that may be used in the transport sector to reduce carbon. The technologies are summarised in the body of this report, and described in more detail in the templates in Appendix B.

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The next step in the project is to discuss the technologies with key industry stakeholders from all modes in order to identify potential research topics that could benefit more than one transport mode. This will be done through:

• A stakeholder workshop to be held on 21st January 2016 in Brussels • A questionnaire sent out to stakeholders on 28th November 2015 • In-depth interviews with stakeholders to be carried out between December 2015 and February 2016.

The additional information gathered will be summarised in the next WP4 deliverable that will identify common research challenges across modes. The research topics from WP4 will be incorporated into the final USE-iT research agenda, together with the outputs from the other WPs. This research roadmap will be a useful resource in the development of investment strategies for multiple transport infrastructure funders including European, national and regional public bodies and private infrastructure investors.

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1 Introduction Users, Safety, Security and Energy in Transport Infrastructure (USE-iT) is a Horizon 2020 Coordination and Support Action (CSA) project with duration of two years, co-ordinated by the Forum of European Highway Research Laboratories (FEHRL). The project addresses MG. 8.2-2014 next generation transport infrastructure: resource efficiency, smarter and safer from the Horizon 2020 Work Programme 2014-2015 in the field of smart, green and integrated transport. In parallel with USE-iT, the Forever Open Infrastructure Across (X) all Transport Modes (FOX) project supports many of the same objectives and there are significant synergies, not least in generating significant stakeholder involvement from infrastructure owners and operators across the EU and beyond.

Both projects are expected to contribute to FEHRL’s FORx4 (Forever Open Road, Rail, River and Runway) initiative which aims to develop a common European transport infrastructure promoting mode neutral transport [3].

USE-iT builds on the FORx4 methodology in which the four transport modes (road, rail, water and air) were merged with the four shared domains (infrastructure, technology, governance and customer) to form a holistic transport system for the future. The methodology is shown graphically in Figure 1 and the domains are explained in detail in Table 1.

Figure 1. FORx4 programme [3]

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Table 1. Descriptions of the domains [3]

Domains Description

The transport network formed from Europe’s routes and interchanges, which includes Infrastructure the changes required in construction and maintenance, and the specifications used.

The information, communications, sensor and power systems that will support the future Technology transport network.

Governance The management, operations, investment and appraisal of the network.

The understanding of a customer’s motivation for travelling and choice of mode in order Customer to implement policy interventions to support political objectives.

1.1 Project objectives USE-iT will examine common challenges across the FORx4 domains and modes, identifying potential areas for transferring good practice and potential future areas for collaborative research. The specific objectives are to:

• Understand the state of the art in three technical areas: user information; safety and security; energy and carbon; across all four modes. • Determine opportunities for the transfer of knowledge and working practices across modes. • Develop common future research objectives covering at least two modes. • Bring together infrastructure owners, operators and other stakeholders from across the transport modes to facilitate knowledge transfer and develop a network for future cooperation. • Develop a Roadmap describing the research challenges and implementation steps to achieve greater cooperation and co-modal operations in the areas covered by the project.

1.2 Scope USE-iT is broken down into five work packages (WPs): • WP1: Project Management • WP2: User Information • WP3: Safety and Security • WP4: Energy and Carbon • WP5: Dissemination and exploitation/implementation

This report relates to WP4, which is focusing on technologies and approaches which have the potential to reduce carbon emissions and energy use in the transport sector, including methods of harvesting energy from transport.

WP4 is divided into the following Tasks: • Task 4.1(a) Preliminary investigation across modes • Task 4.1(b) Preliminary investigation across domains

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• Task 4.2 Workshop and prepare summary of findings • Task 4.3 Preparation of report • Task 4.4 Feedback workshop and summary of findings

The report is the first deliverable of WP4 and summarises the initial findings of the literature review carried out under Task 4.1a and 4.1b. This information will be used as the basis for the first project workshop (Task 4.2) in January 2016. 2 WP4 goals and objectives Reducing carbon emissions and energy use is a significant challenge for all transport modes, and is a strong driver for many of the new technologies being developed. WP4 will identify existing and potential technologies which can be employed to reduce carbon emissions and energy consumption in more than one mode. This may be through adapting technology used in one mode so that it is applicable to other modes or through collaborative research into a new technology with potential applications in more than one mode.

This section discusses the background to WP4 and the requirement to reduce the carbon emissions and energy use associated with transport. It then sets out the goals and objectives of WP4 and how it will support European actions to address this challenge.

2.1 Background Transport consumes 26.6% of the world’s energy, making it the second most energy consuming sector [4]. Much of this energy originates from burning fossil fuels, which emits large amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The IPCC [5] concludes it is very likely that GHG emissions have contributed to the observed change in climate and consequently increased incidents of floods, droughts, heatwaves and a rise in sea level rise. In the recent Conference of Parties (COP21) the EU committed to reduce GHG emissions compared to 1990 levels by at least 40% by 2030. Reducing carbon emissions and energy use is a significant challenge for all transport modes, and is a strong driver for many of the new technologies being developed. This section briefly describes the background to WP4 and the requirement to reduce the carbon emissions and energy use associated with transport.

2.1.1 Direct greenhouse gas emissions The majority of transport GHG emissions originate directly from the consumption of vehicle fuel. Direct transport emissions account for around a quarter (24.3%) of European GHGs second only to energy generation industry, as shown in Figure 2. In contrast to the decrease in emissions from other sectors, until 2008 transport emissions were increasing. Since 2008, transport emissions have started to decrease because of rising oil prices, increased efficiency of passenger cars and slower growth in mobility. However, transport emissions in 2012 were still over 20% higher than 1990 levels [6].

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5.0% Energy Industry

11.3% 29.2% Transport

Industry 12.5%

Residential and Commercial Agriculture 17.7% 24.3% Other

Figure 2. EU GHG emissions from transport by sector from 2012 data [6]

As shown in Figure 3, more than 70% of transport emissions are from road transport. Furthermore, road transport alone contributes to about 20% of the EU’s total emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2). There are also significant emissions from the aviation and maritime sectors, which are both experiencing growth [6].

0.6% 0.8%

12.8% Road Transport

Total Navigation 13.9% Total Civil Aviation

Rail Transport

71.9% Other

Figure 3. EU GHG emissions from transport by mode from 2012 data [6] Further increases in transport emissions are forecast for the future. In particular, emissions from aviation are projected to increase by 70% between 2005 and 2020 due to the rising number of

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international flights. Furthermore, potential mitigation strategies are limited due to long aircraft life and fewer fuel alternatives apart from biofuels [6]. Maritime emissions are also anticipated to increase due to ships becoming larger and limited take-up of technical and operational measures to reduce CO2 emissions [7]. While road transport has the largest share of transport emissions, targets set by EU legislation for 2015 were achieved in 2013 with emissions falling due to factors such as vehicle engine improvements [6].

Transport activity is predicted to increase in the future as economic growth fuels transport demand and the availability of transport drives development. Passenger transport demand has been increasing at a rate of about 1.7% per year, while freight traffic is anticipated to grow at an even more rapid rate, with increases of 2.8% per year on average [8]. Passenger trips and freight transport are predicted to become much longer with a larger share of intra-European movements and less regional/domestic trips being made. The continued growth and demand in passenger and freight transport could outweigh any potential mitigation unless transport emissions can be strongly decoupled from Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth [9].

2.1.2 Operational and embedded carbon In addition to the GHG emissions directly generated from vehicle fuel, the construction, maintenance, operation and decommissioning of transport infrastructure also has significant amounts of carbon and energy associated with it. Operational carbon refers to the amount of CO2 emitted by a construction product while it is used, such as the lighting and power that are required to allow it to serve its intended function [10]. While there have been attempts to reduce operational carbon through legislation, there has been an increasing focus on the importance of embodied (or embedded) carbon. This describes the carbon associated with the materials used in the construction product and can include one of the following processes [11]: • “Cradle-to-gate” – Includes the emissions from the extraction, transport and manufacturing processes required before products leave the factory. • “Cradle-to-site” – In addition to “cradle-to-gate” this also includes transport of the material to the site. • “Cradle-to-grave” – Includes the full life-cycle including the impacts associated with the product’s end-of-life such as demolition, recycling and disposal.

2.1.3 Life-cycle assessment Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a useful tool to identify the actions which generate the greatest emissions, and so where to focus efforts to reduce carbon. LCA can be defined as a systematic approach to evaluating environmental aspects of products and services, often from “cradle-to- grave”, covering the extraction of resource inputs to the eventual disposal of the product or its waste. LCA takes account of embodied energy, but also the resulting environmental impacts and process emissions throughout the supply chain. LCA can help to determine the energy split between different stages and highlight the areas that require attention. However, it can be limited by the paucity and uncertainty/variability of data.

The estimates produced by LCA studies of the GHG emissions associated with different transport modes vary considerably, but all show that vehicle operation is the largest source of emissions for all modes. The proportion of emissions differs between modes, for example a greater proportion of road and rail emissions relate to infrastructure construction and operation compared to sea and air, as there is a greater amount of infrastructure required for these modes. Emissions from infrastructure construction and operation are not insignificant. In some studies infrastructure

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construction, maintenance, operation and end of life are estimated to contribute as much as 35 to 40% for road [12], much of this from lighting. For rail infrastructure material use, e.g. steel for the tracks, is an important contributor of emissions. For sea emissions the construction of port facilities is a small contributor, but port operation can be as much as 16%. For air 93% of the emissions are due to the operation of the aircraft and infrastructure construction and operation is only 3%. Table 2 is based on published studies by Hill et al. [12] and Pollalis et al. [13] and provides an example of typical LCA results for the four modes.

Table 2. Example LCA results [12] and [13] % of GHG emissions Road Rail Sea Air Vehicle operation 69 79 82 93* Vehicle construction 4.7 5.5 1.4 4 Vehicle maintenance and repair 4.8 1.2 <1 NA Infrastructure construction 19.2 6.5 <1 1 Infrastructure operation, maintenance and repair 2.1 2.9 16.3 2 Disposal of vehicle and infrastructure <1 1.6 <1 NA * Direct plus fuel cycle emissions  Not included in study

LCA shows that for sea and air in particular, technologies addressing direct emissions from vehicle operation are by far the highest priority. For road, whilst direct vehicle emissions still form the greatest proportion, emissions from construction and operation also form a high total percentage. The importance of addressing emissions from construction and operation is likely to increase as direct GHG emissions are reduced as a result of alternative fuels and advances in vehicles.

2.1.4 Reducing emissions Significant reductions in GHG emissions from transport are required if the EU are to achieve their long-term goals. Therefore, the Commission carried out a number of programmes over the past few years as part of the Europe 2020 Strategy including the launch of the 2050 Roadmap; this strategy seeks to define the most cost-effective ways to reduce GHG emissions to achieve the long-term target of reducing overall emissions by 80% domestically [14] [15] [16].

The Roadmap considers the pathways for each of the sectors, identifying the magnitude of reductions required in each sector in 2030 and 2050 under a variety of scenarios. For the transport sector, the targets for 2030 range between +20% and -9% and the targets for 2050 range between +54% and -67% [14].

The vision for the future of the EU transport system is defined in European Commission which aims towards a 60% reduction in CO2 emissions [15]. Further goals include the following: • Halve the use of ‘conventionally-fuelled’ cars in urban transport by 2030 and phase them out of cities by 2050; • Low-carbon sustainable fuels in aviation to reach 40% by 2050; • 30% of road freight over 300km should shift to other modes such as rail and water by 2030, and be more than 50% by 2050;

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• By 2050, connect all core network airports to the rail network, preferably high speed; and ensure that all core seaports are sufficiently connected to the rail freight and, where possible, inland waterway system.

A summary of the targets set by governing bodies/organisations for reducing transport emissions is provided in Appendix B.

Other drivers for reducing carbon include the cost of energy and an increasingly aware public and media. There are a range of technical and non-technical actions which can help to reduce carbon emissions. “Bridging the Gap: Pathways for Transport in a Post 2012 process”, a multi-stakeholder initiative, is aimed to link climate change and land transport more closely and gain better recognition of its potential in mitigating GHG emissions.

As part of the initiative, GIZ [17] produced the Avoid-Shift-Improve (ASI) concept which aimed to achieve significant GHG emission reductions and reduced energy consumption, and promote alternative mobility solutions and to develop sustainable transport systems. The ASI concept is summarised in Figure 4. It includes the following: • “Avoid/Reduce” – Refers to the need to improve the efficiency of the transport system through ideas such as integrated land-use planning and transport demand management. • “Shift/Maintain” – Seeks to improve the trip efficiency by a modal shift from the most energy consuming transport modes (i.e. cars) to more environmentally friendly modes (i.e. walking, cycling and the use of public transport). The estimated potential shift by 2030 is 10-30%. • “Improve” – Focuses on vehicle and fuel efficiency, and the optimisation of transport infrastructure. It also involves improving the energy efficiency of transport modes and related vehicle technology. The estimated potential reduction by 2030 by improving fuel efficiency is 40-60%

Figure 4. A-S-I approach developed as part of the Bridging the Gap initiative [17]

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2.1.5 Benefits of reducing carbon In addition to the primary driver of reducing the transport sector’s contribution to damaging climate change, and meeting the legally binding targets designed to achieve this, there are a number of other good reasons for reducing energy consumption and carbon emissions. Improving energy efficiency will reduce energy costs, making transport affordable to all users, and contributes to energy security and conserving resources. In reducing carbon emissions, often other vehicle emissions, such as nitrogen and sulphur oxides are reduced, therefore improving air quality.

For these mitigation strategies to be implemented and the benefits realised, it is likely that policy intervention is required. There needs to be willingness for an individual or operators to change their current behaviour in regards to transport and take a longer term view in their decisions. This is particularly pertinent where payback of costs is long-term, as it is questionable as to whether individuals take account of future fuel savings when purchasing vehicles, or if operators and policymakers take into account long term operation and maintenance costs when making decisions about transport infrastructure. Overall, the relationship between intra and inter-generational issues will play an increasingly role in future transport policies.

2.2 WP4 objectives The ultimate goal of WP4 is to produce a research roadmap which helps to address the cross-modal challenge of reducing carbon and energy consumption in a more strategic manner, by sharing good practice and promoting collaborative research. In order to achieve this WP4 will:

• Review state-of-the-art technologies and approaches from all modes with the potential to reduce transport carbon emissions and/or energy use; • From these identify the technologies and good practice that are applicable to more than one mode or would benefit from a cross-modal approach; • Bring transport practitioners together from all modes to discuss these technologies and foster greater cross-modal collaboration and knowledge transfer; • Develop common research objectives relating to carbon and energy to be included in a cross- modal research roadmap.

WP4 findings will be disseminated, along with the other technical areas in WP5.

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3 Preliminary investigation across modes and domains This report summarises the findings of the preliminary investigation into the different technologies that have the potential to reduce carbon emissions and energy use (Task 4.1 (a) and (b)). These technologies will be examined in more detail with input from key stakeholders in subsequent tasks.

3.1 High level state of the art review of existing technologies in carbon and energy reduction

3.1.1 Methodology A state-of-the-art literature review was carried out across domains and modes by the TRL Library and Information Centre (LIC). The LIC provides professional information search, discovery, and supply services to TRL staff and external clients. A database expert prepared a set of key words relating to WP4’s scope, as shown in Table 3. An initial search with simple key words was run before the complexity of the terminology was increased to develop the scope and scale of the search.

Table 3. Literature review key words A B C Energy Consumption Infrastructure Fuel Efficiency Technology Carbon Capture Governance Reduction Customer Recycle Best practice Harvest Innovation Conservation

The key words were used to search the Transport Research International Documentation (TRID) database from 2005 to 2015. The advantages of TRID are that it is specifically for transport research and covers all modes and domains. The search generated a large number of abstracts relating to internationally published documents including journal papers and project reports. The details of the relevant documents were recorded in an Excel spreadsheet. This list of references was supplemented by the project partners, who added the details of key documents and projects that they were aware of (many of which they participated in).

Following an initial review of the topics covered by the references, three main areas were identified which the technologies contributed to. Each area was further divided into three concepts. The areas and concepts are listed in Table 4.

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Table 4. WP4 areas and concepts Area Concept Improving fuel efficiency Powering transport Use of alternative fuels Energy harvesting Low carbon materials and design Constructing and maintaining infrastructure Improved asset management and vehicles Efficient technology and automation Traffic management Operating and managing transport systems Sustainable procurement Behaviour change

The references relevant to each concept were identified and each concept assigned to a project partner for review. Using the references, a common USE-iT/FOX template was completed with information describing different technologies within the concept, their level of maturity, relevant modes, barriers to transferring to other modes etc. (see Appendix A). The information in these templates forms the basis of this report.

3.1.2 Overview of findings A total of 111 different technologies and approaches were identified by the project partners, distributed across the concepts as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. WP4 technologies by concept

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The technologies were classified by domain, existing and potential modes they were applicable and maturity. Maturity levels were defined as:

• Existing technology – In use today, although not necessarily widespread • Near-term opportunity – 2 to 5 years away from full commercialisation or a mature technology in a different sector • Long-term opportunity – 5 to 10 years away from full commercialisation

The majority of technologies identified were related to the technology and infrastructure domains, and road and rail modes (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Technologies by domain and mode

The following section provides a summary of the technologies in each of the WP4 concepts, together with an analysis of their barriers, opportunities, maturity and transferability to other modes. Further details on the individual technologies can be found in the concept templates in Appendix A.

3.2 Areas and concepts

3.2.1 Powering transport Direct carbon emissions from vehicle fuel accounts for around 80% of transport emissions, although this varies by mode. There is currently a heavy reliance on oil, with mainly fossil fuels used to power all modes of transport – 94% of transport energy comes from this. In some cases emissions are not direct; rail increasingly uses grid electricity, but in many countries a high proportion of grid energy is produced from fossil fuels.

This area has been split into three concepts: A. Improving fuel efficiency B. Use of alternative fuels C. Energy harvesting

A. Improving fuel efficiency This concept addresses technologies and approaches for improving fuel efficiency. Table 5 summarises the technologies and approaches including with their domains, maturity and cross- modal applicability.

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Table 5. Technologies and approaches for improving fuel efficiency Technology/approach Domain Maturity of Cross-modal technology/approach applicability Present Future Propulsion improving devices Technology Existing Water All Reducing weight of aircrafts Technology Existing Air All Wide-based single tyres (for Technology Existing Road Road lower weight/reduced rolling resistance) Powertrain technologies for Technology Near-term Road Water & HGVs Air Pneumatic boosters for HGVs Technology Near-term Road All Scrubbers Technology Near-term Water Water & Air

In-cab train signal system Infrastructure Near-term Rail Rail (ERTMS) On-board AGPS Infrastructure Near-term Air Air Aircraft Ground Propulsion Infrastructure Near-term Air Air Systems (AGPS) Single-engine taxiing Governance Near-term Air Road GHG optimised speed limits Governance Near-term Road All Vehicle platooning Governance Near-term Road Road Fuel efficiency improvements for Technology Long-term Road All light duty vehicles Graphene to reduce weight of Technology Long-term Road & Air All vehicles/aircrafts Economic instruments Governance Long-term All All

Opportunities The following opportunities were recognised for the technologies/approaches for improving fuel efficiency: • Improved affordability – Improving fuel efficiency can also decrease fuel costs and so the cost of travel. This could benefit those on lower incomes, but may increase travel. • Greater energy security – Less fuel use increases energy security and conserves natural resources. • Environmental benefits – As well as addressing fuel efficiency, many of the solutions provided additional environmental benefits such as reducing noise in the example of wide- based single tyres.

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Case Study – Aircraft Ground Propulsion Systems (AGPS) AGPS can be used for electrified aircraft taxi operations to reduce aircraft ground-movement-related fuel burn and emissions. One of the most promising systems is TaxiBot, a semi-robotic tow-bar-less system that uses a diesel engine and electrically driven wheels. This has been trialled in France and should be ready for operation in 2016. Potential benefits include fuel reductions for taxi operations and lower emissions, and co-benefits such as noise reduction. There is also a lower risk of foreign object damage compared to single-engine taxiing. This could create significant savings for airline operators. Barriers of using AGPS are that it could potentially impose large degrees of fatigue loading on the aircraft nose landing gear and reduce the longevity of these components. It is also suggested that additional infrastructure, such as roads and parking bays, will be needed to support them. This would result in higher construction costs (and associated carbon), and increased maintenance and operational costs [18].

AGPS (Wheeltug, 2015) [19]

Barriers The following barriers were recognised for the technologies/approaches for improving fuel efficiency: • Legislative barriers – New legislation may be required; for example, for the use of wide- based single tyres, there is currently no UK legislation for the use of these tyres. For vehicle platooning, many aspects need to be considered such as driver training and communication/advice for road users. • Performance – Further research is required for some technologies to determine performance in areas other than fuel efficiency. For example, for the wide-based single tyres, there is industry concern that they could be liable to higher wear rates, which would reduce their longevity. For single-engine taxiing, it is anticipated that take-offs will be slower as the engines require time to warm up. • Investment in infrastructure – Significant investment is required in infrastructure for some of the technologies to be fully rolled out; for example, AGPS will likely increase complexities for traditional airport operations. • Organisational issues – The governance solutions all contain organisational complexities and will require public acceptance for them to be fully implemented. For example, the use of GHG optimised speed limits might be controversial for road users due to the perception or reality that travel will take longer. Furthermore, it might impact on freight with less goods being transported in a given time period.

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Case Study – Fuel efficiency and propulsion improving devices for vehicles Potential improvements to the fuel efficiency of light duty vehicles using internal combustion engines (ICEs) address improvements to the engine and the powertrain. Examples of options include variable compression ratios, direct injection, cylinder deactivisiation, optimsing gearboxes and dual clutches. As well as improvements to the vehicles themselves and reducing the energy required for propulsion, options include improvements to a vehicle’s aerodynamics and reducing a vehicle’s weight by using lightweight materials. For new passenger cars, it is anticipated that many of the options discussed for ICEs will be taken up in the next five to ten years [20].

Transferability to other modes Many of the technologies/approaches have potential for cross-modal applications; for example, further research on the pneumatic boosters for HGVs could be carried out to determine how this technology can be transferrable for hybrid technology in the rail sector.

B. Use of alternative fuels This concept addresses technologies and approaches for the use of alternative fuels. Table 6 summarises the technologies and approaches including their domains, maturity and cross-modal applicability.

Table 6. Technologies and approaches for use of alternative fuels Technology/approach Domain Maturity of Cross-modal technology/approach applicability Present Future Dual power locomotives Technology Existing Rail Road Fuel cell vehicles e.g. hydrogen Technology Existing/Near-term Road & Road & as an energy source Rail Rail Biofuels (1st and 2nd generation) Technology Existing Road All such as bio-diesel, bio-ethanol and biogas Hybrid technology e.g. hybrid Technology Existing Road & All electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid Rail electric vehicles Hybrid User Forums Customer Existing Road All Battery electric vehicles Technology Near-term Road & All Rail Integrated technology e.g. Technology Near-term Road & All renewable energy to feed Rail electric vehicles Algal and lignin-based biofuels Technology Near-term Road All Smart grids Infrastructure Near-term Road & All Rail Charging schemes Governance Near-term Road All Graphene-assisted energy Technology Long-term Road All storage

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Opportunities The following opportunities were recognised for the technologies/approaches for using alternative fuels: • Reduced local air pollution – The main driver for introducing alternative fuels is that they can significantly reduce GHG emissions, however many also reduce local air pollutants improving air quality; for example battery electric vehicles produce no tailpipe emissions. Some electric vehicles can also reduce noise. • Reduced reliance on fossil fuels – The development of alternative fuels reduces the reliance on fossil fuels. • Improved fuel efficiency – Alternative fuels can be more efficient. A study by Prata et al. [21] recognised that the integrated energy systems of renewable energy sources could provide a total of 2.6 MWh/household/year. A study by Edenhofer et al. [22] found that the use of hybrid vehicles could result in a 20-30% reduction in fuel consumption. • Compatibility with EU policies – For the use of biofuels, policy is already in place encouraging their increased use.

Case Study – Hydrogen Fuel Cell Locomotives Fuel cells generate electricity from hydrogen that may be produced on-board or externally and stored on board after refuelling. The hydrogen locomotive design consists of a locomotive cab with batteries to drive electric traction motors, which are recharged by a fuel cell stack with light composite hydrogen fuel tanks, power electronics and battery ventilation.

Fuel cell powered light rail trains have been in service in China and Aruba since 2012 and fuel cell locomotives were used for rail infrastructure in the UK. The advantages of using hydrogen fuel cells are that they can reduce the amount of particulate pollution and GHG emissions released into the atmosphere. However, further research is still required with this technology as concerns exist with the storage capacity and the range between refuellings [23].

Schematic diagram of a fuel cell locomotive prototype [23]

Barriers The following barriers were recognised for the technologies/approaches for using alternative fuels:

• Further research – While the technology for alternative fuels is available, limitations still exist such as limited power range. For example, for battery powered and hybrid vehicles, ranges

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are still limited (e.g. for battery powered vehicles, currently between 100 and 160 km) and recharge times remain high, in excess of four hours. Further research and development is required to improve them and increase their potential for widespread deployment. Lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries will improve, but new battery technologies such as Li-air, Li-metal and Li-sulphur may be required to achieve much higher energy and power densities [22]. • High costs – As these technologies are still relatively new, the costs are high; for example, for battery powered vehicles, high battery costs lead to high vehicle rental prices. • Lack of infrastructure – Currently there is a lack of infrastructure to support the energy harvesting technology; for example, for battery powered road vehicles, recharging stations are limited in application and standards are not uniform. • Origin of production – For biofuels, there is a major concern that the benefits are offset by the loss of land converted to cropland for the production of biofuels. Therefore, this can have a negative impact on food prices, food consumption for the world’s poor and deforestation rates [24].

Case Study – Hybrid User Forums As part of the EU funded Hybrid Commercial Vehicle project, a hybrid user forum of (potential) users of heavy duty vehicles was set up. The main aim was to assess the market obstacles and real-world expectations/experience through annual workshops. It has provided a future insight as many participants wanted to know more about full electric solutions. The creation of the forum allowed suppliers to understand the needs and demands of their customers. However, the outcomes showed that the expectations were not always met and that it would be a major task for providers with regards to promoting and advancing the use of hybrid vehicles [25].

Transferability to other modes There are barriers to the transferability of some alternative fuels currently used in road and rail, to air and water applications. The potential of renewable energy sources in aviation for some biofuels (e.g. ethanol and methanol) are limited due to low energy density, while hydrogen fuel cells are also seen as unfeasible because new aircraft designs would be required to accommodate the changes. The use of battery power applications would only be applicable for small, light aircrafts or drones on short journeys due to battery range issues. A further barrier to transferability is that policies do not yet exist to introduce low-carbon biofuels into aviation.

For water transport there is potential for the use of alternative fuels such as natural gas, liquefied natural gas and methanol. Barriers for transferability include the need for energy policies and the development of infrastructure. However, there is the potential for integrated technology on ships as fuel cells can be used in combination with the power produced from wind turbines or solar cells.

C. Energy harvesting This concept addresses technologies and approaches for energy harvesting. Table 7 summarises the technologies and approaches including their domains, maturity and cross-modal applicability.

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Table 7. Technologies and approaches for energy harvesting Technology/approach Domain Maturity of Cross-modal technology/approach applicability Present Future Water and wind micro- Technology Existing Road All generation DC-Electrified railway systems – Technology Existing Rail Road Regenerative braking Photovoltaic applications Infrastructure Existing Road All Thermal collection with pipes Infrastructure Existing Road Rail & Air Induction heating Infrastructure Near-term Road Rail & Air Conversion of heat from thermal Infrastructure Near-term Road All collection into electricity Harvesting electric power energy Technology Long-term Road All e.g. from torsional vibration induced by internal combustion engines Thermoelectrical generators Infrastructure Long-term Road All Nanomaterials Infrastructure Long-term Road Rail & Air Piezoelectricity Infrastructure Long-term Road & Road & Rail Rail Phase change materials Infrastructure Long-term Road All Road surface photovoltaics Infrastructure Long-term Road Rail Graphene for photovoltaic Infrastructure Long-term Road All applications Harvesting energy from rail Infrastructure Long-term Rail All systems Green Road Concept Governance Long-term Road All

Opportunities The following opportunities were recognised for the technologies/approaches for energy harvesting: • Reduced emissions and reliance on fossil fuels – Development of renewable and “clean” technology reduces GHG emissions from operation and also, the reliance on fossil fuels. • Low maintenance requirements/operational costs – While initial costs are high for many energy harvesting technologies such as wind and water micro-generation, these have low maintenance requirements and few operational costs. • High efficiency rates – Efficiency rates of photovoltaic applications are high and expected to increase with time. • Retrofitting of technology – For wind micro-generation, the systems can be retrofitted onto existing highway structures. Photovoltaic panels can also be used as highway sound barriers, resulting in minimal impact to the road infrastructure.

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Case Study – Piezoelectricity Piezoelectric materials can be placed below the surface of the asphalt to create electrical energy. The technology works by producing electrical currents through the deformation of the piezoelectric material as vehicles cross the road. These devices have been implemented by the East Japan Railway Company under pedestrian subway station gates. The implementation of piezoelectricity, with continued research and development, could yield significant power outputs in the future and be transferrable to other modes such as airport runways and pedestrian walkways [26].

Applicability of piezoelectricity [26]

Barriers The following barriers were recognised for the technologies/approaches for energy harvesting: • High initial costs – Energy harvesting technologies have high initial costs and may have a long payback period depending on location and the financial incentives. • Constrained by local conditions – Energy harvesting technology is dependent on local conditions; for example, for photovoltaic applications, the efficiency is dependent on the amount of sunlight. Therefore, location of implementation with respect to latitude and topography is of paramount importance. • Rebuilding of infrastructure and user delays – For some energy harvesting technologies, significant rebuilding of infrastructure would be required to install some technologies; for example, thermal collection with the use of pipes would require the digging up of pavement infrastructure. This would have a knock-on effect for customers with increased user delays. • Further research and development – Many of the technologies require further research and development to improve their efficiency. For example, for regenerative braking, the energy recovered cannot always be utilised efficiently.

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Case Study – Regenerative Braking Regenerative braking is a mechanism available to DC electrified railways that convert kinetic energy from braking activities into an energy supply that can be used or stored. The main advantages of this technology are improved efficiency and reduced fuel usage by recycling waste energy. This solution has been tested on Line 3 of the Madrid metro in Spain. However, the energy recovered from regenerative braking systems cannot always be utilised efficiently, especially in areas where low traffic-densities are realised. There are a number of technologies which are emerging (such as improved energy storage systems and reversible traction substations) that could improve the efficiency of these systems. Also improvements to existing infrastructure may be needed to take full advantage of this technology [27].

Regenerative braking (DigitalTrends, 2013) [26]

Transferability to other modes Many of the technologies/approaches discussed have been classed as cross-modal; for example, photovoltaic applications have been incorporated into noise barriers in road infrastructure but these could be incorporated in similar fashion for the other three modes. For rail, recent examples have included solar bridges or solar-roofed tunnels in the UK and Belgium respectively. Blackfriars Bridge in London is now equipped with over 4,400 photovoltaic panels, providing 50% of the station’s energy and saving over 450,000 kg of CO2 [29].

3.2.2 Constructing and maintaining infrastructure and vehicles While powering vehicles is the main source of carbon emissions, the emissions associated with the construction, maintenance, operation and disposal of transport infrastructure is still significant. This section links with FOX (cross-modal approach in the area of construction, inspection, maintenance and recycle & reuse of transport infrastructure), especially WP5 on recycling.

This area has been split into three concepts: D. Low carbon materials and design E. Improved asset management F. Efficient technology and automation

D. Low carbon materials and design This concept addresses technologies and approaches for methods of low carbon materials and design. Table 8 summarises the technologies and approaches including their domains, maturity and cross-modal applicability.

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Table 8. Technologies and approaches for low carbon materials and design Technology/approach Domain Maturity of Cross-modal applicability technology/approach Present Future Warm mix asphalt Technology Existing Road Air Ground tyre rubber Technology Existing All All Use of recycled materials Technology Existing All All Recycled asphalt using cold Technology Existing Air Air recycling technique Recycled asphalt pavement Technology Existing Road Rail & Air (RAP) Guidance on production and Governance Existing All All application of asphalt mixes at lower process temperatures using energy-saving additives Self-healing concrete Technology Near-term Road & Dock & Rail airport infrastructure Hot asphalt mixes preparation Technology Near-term All All at lower process temperatures Soy fatty acids Technology Long-term All All Bio-oils Technology Long-term All All Organo Montmorillonite Technology Long-term All All nanoclay Bioasphalt from microalgae Technology Long-term All All

Opportunities The following opportunities were recognised for the technologies/approaches for low carbon materials and design: • Reduced fuel consumption – Less energy is required to heat the warm mix asphalt, therefore less fuel is used in the process. • Extension of the paving season – As warm mix asphalt can cool at lower temperatures, the paving season can be extended. It can also increase the potential of night-time paving. • Benefits associated with using recycled materials – Using recycled materials can significantly reduction embedded carbon. It can also lead to cradle-to-gate energy savings, reductions in the material production phase, conservation of natural resources and reductions in the amount of waste sent to landfill. For example the use of recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) reduces the demand for virgin aggregates in road construction. • Improved performance – Research has found improved performance for many low carbon materials; for example, warm mix asphalt has been found to produce pavements with higher densities and increased durability, while using soy fatty acids can decrease the viscosity and stiffness of asphalt binders.

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• Co-benefits – Using lower temperature materials can improve the health of workers by reducing their exposure to fumes and aerosols

Case Study – Self-healing concrete One near-term technology proposed is self-activating limestone-producing bacteria (bacillus pseudofirmus/sporosarcina). Bacteria can be activated by rainwater or atmospheric moisture, which starts to produce limestone that can eventually repair cracks. The invention can be applied in three forms: 1) a spray that can be applied to construction for small cracks that need repairing 2) a repair mortar for structural repair of large damage areas and 3) self-healing concrete itself, which can be mixed in quantities as needed. This is currently being researched and is aimed to extend the lifetime of concrete, therefore reducing maintenance operations and the associated emissions [30].

Barriers The following barriers were recognised for the technologies/approaches for low carbon materials and design: • Justification of cost – In some cases, the use of secondary and recycled materials cannot be economically justified when compared to current asphalt mixes. • Environmental concerns – For recycled materials, the implementation of appropriate quality control concerns are required because constituents present (such as rubber, leachates and tar) can potentially create environmental hazards. • Performance of final product – While there have been studies demonstrating the effective performance of using low carbon materials, concerns are often raised about the final product and whether it will achieve the desired end performance specification. For example, for RAP, there are procedures for classification to avoid a mix in heterogeneity. There are particular concerns over consistency and performance. • Further research and development – Research is required to investigate the potential of new technologies such as self-healing concrete, soy fatty acids, bio-oils, organo montmorillonite nanoclay, and the use of additives in hot asphalt mixes. • Larger batch operations – For warm mix asphalt, adapting the current production facilities to higher production facilities is a potential barrier. Adequate storage space is required for more material variations (whether recycled or based on additives).

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Case Study – Recycled materials A number of recycled materials have been used in asphalt production; for example, ground tyre rubber. Processed rubber from recycled tyres represents an alternative to conventional polymer modified bitumen and it has been widely used in North America and Europe since 1998. In the European market the most commonly used product is Road+, which is produced by Genen.

Asphalt containing ground tyre rubber can replace oil-based polymers, offsetting the associated carbon and energy used. Ground tyre rubber comes from a waste stream for which prices are relatively stable compared to today’s volatile oil prices. The USEPA has also stated favourable effects for the performance of the asphalt with increases in surface lifetime and durability, reductions in surface noise, reduced propensity to rutting and cracking, and improved workability allowing it to be laid in suboptimal conditions [31].

The incorporation of ground tyre rubber into road pavements could be a cause for environmental concern due to the high concentration of metals and organic materials arising from the previous use of the tyres, which could leach out of the road surface. This highlights the importance of a LCA approach [32].

A road in the USA containing ground tyre rubber [31]

Transferability to other modes The long-term technologies/approaches such as soy fatty acids and bio-oils all have cross-modal applicability. Several of the technologies such as warm-mix asphalt, RAP and self-healing concrete are being used or most applicable for road transport, but may be transferable to airports, ports or station car parks.

E. Improved asset management This concept addresses technologies and approaches for improvements to asset management which can reduce carbon emissions. Table 9 summarises the technologies and approaches including their domains, maturity and cross-modal applicability.

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Table 9. Technologies and approaches for improved asset management Technology/approach Domain Maturity of Cross-modal applicability technology/approach Present Future More efficient planning process Governance Existing Road & Road & Rail – e.g. urban planning Rail Optimised road maintenance Infrastructure Existing Road Road and resilience e.g. use of genetic algorithms Smart infrastructure e.g. digital Infrastructure Existing Road All technologies, road mounted (particularly camera and sensor systems rail) Integrated Transport and Land Governance Existing Road & Road & Rail Use Planning tools Rail Combined management Governance Existing Road Rail & Air strategies e.g. context-sensitive solutions, value engineering and asset management systems Traffic and transport demand Technology Near-term Road Road models Infrastructural ecology e.g. Infrastructure Near-term Road & Road & Rail promotes beneficial exchanges Rail across energy, water, waste and transportation service sectors Environmental Key Performance Governance Near-term Road All Indicators (E-KPIs) for optimised asset management

Opportunities The following opportunities were recognised for the technologies/approaches for improved asset management: • Reduced environmental impacts – Setting environmental KPIs can both help drive carbon reduction and improve other environmental issues. • Increased transparency between sectors – Asset management frameworks such as infrastructural ecology can promote beneficial exchanges between different sectors such as energy, water, waste and transportation services. • Adoption of polycentric city policies – More efficient planning processes can encourage the adoption of polycentric city policies, which can be implemented with green Transit Oriented Developments (TODs) and backed by quality transit. • Reduced operational shortfalls – Adding resilience into optimised road maintenance to address the changes in climate and extreme weather events can reduce operational shortfalls and a loss of profits/revenue. • Co-benefits – More efficient planning processes can create co-benefits such as the avoidance of sprawl costs and health gains. • Holistic and future-oriented approach – KPIs relating to sustainability can promote a holistic and future-oriented approach to asset management by utilising data to make planning decisions.

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Case Study – Environmental Key Performance Indicators (E-KPIs) for optimised asset management E-KPIs were proposed by the EVITA project (ERAnet Road 2 programme 2010-2013) for improved pavement and road asset management. These relate to total CO2 emissions using modelled emissions from traffic flows and vehicle emission factors. Recommendations for new E-KPIs are in the environmental areas of “noise”, “air and water” and “natural resources and greenhouse gas (GHG)”.

The assessment of the road infrastructure assets from the environmental point of view is of growing importance for stakeholders, particularly those affected by the negative impacts of the traffic. The use of E-KPIs is expected to promote advanced management strategies through optimised asset management.

The global use of E-KPIs for monitoring an existing road network, in the context of asset management practice, is still difficult because some of the parameters that are most relevant for a global assessment, such as GHG emissions or water pollution, are not exclusively attributed to road transport. However, the whole infrastructure life-cycle should be considered for this global evaluation [33] [34].

Barriers The following barriers were recognised for the technologies/approaches for improved asset management: • Urban planning complexities – Adapting the structure of urban transport due to more efficient planning processes creates cost and logistical barriers. • Funding issues – Lack of funding can reduce the opportunity of planning procedures such as optimised road maintenance; for example, transportation is facing problems in the USA where Departments of Transportation are struggling to fund standard maintenance and system expansion with environmental improvements. • Global use of E-KPIs parameters – Global use is difficult because the parameters that are most relevant for global assessment are not exclusively attributable to different modes of transport. • Quantifying parameters and data quality – The use of asset management systems are frequently challenged by parameters which are not quantifiable. Also, the availability and accuracy of data can be a barrier.

Transferability to other modes Many of the technologies and approaches discussed in this section such as the use of E-KPIs and more efficient planning processes are cross-modal and can be applied across domains too. This should be encouraged to increase transparency between modes and sectors, and essentially advance asset management procedures.

F. Efficient technology and automation This concept addresses technologies and approaches for efficient technology and automation. Table 10 summarises the technologies and approaches including their domains, maturity and cross-modal applicability.

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Table 10. Technologies and approaches for efficient technology and automation Cross-modal Maturity of Technology/approach Domain applicability technology/approach Present Future Enhanced reflective signage Technology Existing Road Rail & Air Smart lighting Technology Existing Rail (for All stations) LEDs Technology Existing Road All Gensets (multiple generators) Technology Existing Road Water e.g. diesel switcher locomotives with scalable power Diesel Multiple Units (DMUs) and Technology Existing Rail Rail Electric Multiple Units (EMUs) (self-propelled units) Energy use monitoring/Idle Technology Existing Water Water reduction control Autonomous road vehicles on Technology Near-term Road Rail non-dedicated infrastructure Road markings using Technology Near-term Road Air photoluminescence Dynamic road markings Technology Near-term Road Road Shore Side Electricity (SSE) Technology Near-term Sea Rail Graphene coatings Technology Long-term All All Wireless charging of vehicles Technology Long-term Road Rail & Air (Taxiing)

Opportunities The following opportunities were recognised for the technologies/approaches for efficient technology and automation: • Reduced local emissions – Many of the solutions reduce local air pollutants in addition to carbon emissions, such as the wireless charging of road vehicles where electric power can be extended to HGVs and buses reducing particulates, and shore side electricity where burning fuel on ships is reduced. Autonomous vehicles have the potential to reduce carbon emissions through optimised driving and routing. • Increased efficiency and fuel savings – Technologies such as Gensets, DMUs and EMUs increase periods of “switching off” thus resulting in fuel savings and increased energy efficiency. EMUs are more energy efficiency than DMUs. For the lighting technologies, increased energy efficiency is also apparent. • Reduction in maintenance costs – For example many of the lighting technologies have increased lifespans, minimising disposal and maintenance costs. • Retrofitting of technology – For Gensets, it is possible that the technology could be retrofitted to older locomotives. This would reduce the cost of upgrading infrastructure.

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Case Study – Autonomous vehicles on non-dedicated infrastructure Autonomous vehicles are road vehicles with the capability of driving without human input. Examples include the Google self-driving car project and the GATEway project (Greenwich Automated Transport Environment). Autonomous vehicles have the potential to reduce carbon emissions through optimised driving and routing. Mobility might be consumed as a service, potentially leading to fewer vehicles on the road which could therefore lead to less embodied carbon. While some research implies there could be an increase in fuel consumption through longer distances travelled, it is generally recognised that autonomous vehicles have the potential to lead to dramatic fuel savings and improvements in road safety and reduce congestion.

In the United States, several states have been producing legislation authorizing the testing of autonomous vehicles, starting with Nevada in 2011. There are currently no existing legislation and standards governing the use of autonomous vehicles in Europe. The main policy challenge is to verify their safety and reliability, and to create a legal framework to allow their testing and deployment on public roads. In addition, there is a lack of supporting infrastructure that is capable of communicating to vehicles in real-time and little scope for building segregated highways for autonomous vehicles and non-autonomous vehicles traffic. Communication systems between vehicles and infrastructure would also need to be secure against potential cyber threats [35] [36] [37].

Autonomous vehicle trial in TRL driving simulator (TRL, 2015) [36] Barriers The following barriers were recognised for the technologies/approaches for efficient technology and automation: • High initial costs – Although the technologies provide cost benefits over time, many have higher initial costs which act as a barrier to implementation. The use of enhanced reflective signage and LEDs both have high capital costs, but these are more than offset over time due to their efficiency, extended lifetime and low ongoing/maintenance costs. Furthermore, the cost of technologies such as Gensets and EMUs are much more expensive compared to what is currently used and EMUs would require electrified infrastructure. • Legislative barriers – For some solutions, new legislation may be required; for example, for enhanced reflected signage, highway specifications may need to be adapted. For autonomous vehicles, the main policy challenge is to verify their safety and reliability. • Safety – For smart lighting, safety is a concern with further research required to assess whether the quality of dimmer lighting falls within the recommended classes.

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• Research and development – For the use of graphene in dynamic road markings, further research is required to investigate the light emitting application of graphene as it is an early stage technology.

Case Study – Shore side electricity Shore side electricity (SSE) involves connecting ships to the port electricity network while they are at berth instead of using the auxiliary engines. In most locations, the energy mix used to produce SSE results in fewer emissions than burning fuel on the ships themselves. It can also create co-benefits as air pollutants are emitted at remote onshore electricity facilities, as opposed to ports near highly populated areas. One barrier to investment is that taxes are imposed on SSE, but not on fuels used in shipping, however this could be addressed either by a tax reduction on electricity used for SSE or by adding taxes on maritime shipping fuels. Some member states have already used this possibility to promote SSE [39].

SSE process [39]

Transferability to other modes Most of the technologies/approaches are transferable across modes; for example, SSE could potentially be used in rail applications for trains at stations and all the lighting technologies are cross- modal. For the wireless charging of road vehicles, this has the potential to remove range anxiety and should enable better speed control and traffic management, offering cross-concept opportunities.

3.2.3 Operating and managing transport systems More efficient operation and management of transport systems can play a key role in reducing GHG emissions. For example the London congestion charge is estimated to reduce CO2 emissions by 100,000 tonnes each year. This area has been split into three concepts: G. Traffic management H. Sustainable procurement I. Behaviour change

G. Traffic management This concept addresses technologies and approaches for traffic management. Table 11 summarises the technologies and approaches including their domains, maturity and cross-modal applicability.

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Table 11. Technologies and approaches for traffic management Technology/approach Domain Maturity of Cross-modal technology/approach applicability Present Future Vehicle fuel consumption and Technology Existing All All emission models Speed management e.g. Technology Existing Road All optimising speed limits Optimisation of traffic flow in Technology Existing Road Road cities Measures to reduce congestion Technology Existing Road All on main routes e.g. travel time and route advice information Access restriction for high Technology Existing Road Road emitting vehicles e.g. dynamic restrictions through environmental or green zones Built-in weigh-in motion (WIM) Technology Existing Road Rail systems Infrastructure for priced lanes Infrastructure Existing Road Road e.g. physical toll collection booths Congestion pricing Governance Existing Road Road Traffic information systems e.g. Governance Existing Road, Rail All to manage traffic on waterways & Air Use of WIM data e.g. collect info Governance Existing Road Rail like vehicle speed Traffic management policies e.g. Governance Existing All All to minimise fuel consumption Mass transit systems Governance Existing Road (bus) Road (bus) & Rail & Rail Bus Rapid Transit policies Governance Existing Road Rail Digital maps with speed limits Technology Near-term Road Road Eco-routing systems Technology Near-term All All Optimising routes e.g. improved Governance Near-term Road All road systems, freight logistics and efficiency at airports and ports Vehicle connectivity functions Technology Long-term Road Rail e.g. traffic signal controllers to reduce vehicle fuel consumption levels

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Opportunities The following opportunities were recognised for the technologies/approaches for traffic management: • Reduced congestion – Many of the traffic management approaches help to reduce congestion; for example, the use of congestion pricing, particularly during peak periods, helps to smooth or reduce traffic flows. Travel demand management can also ease congestion and delays by signal controls (dynamic signals designed to detect the presence of waiting vehicles) and ramp metering (signals on motorway ramps that control the flow of vehicles). • Reduced environmental impacts – Reducing speeds through speed management produces environmental benefits such as improved safety, air quality and energy security, and reduced noise. Trials in Netherlands have demonstrated the potential success of dynamic speed limits to reduce emissions. • Benefits to customers – Travel demand management could create benefits for customers such as less time spent in vehicles and healthier lifestyles with the promotion of walking, cycling and the usage of public transport. • Reduced fuel costs – Travel demand management approaches can reduce fuel consumption; for example, modernisation of the air traffic management system can lead to more direct routes allowing substantial savings in fuel. Optimising routes and speed restrictions also help to increase fuel efficiency. • Reduced damage to infrastructure – Weigh-in-motion can monitor and reduce the number of overweight vehicles, which can cause substantial damage to roads. • Cost – Traffic management methods such as lowering of the speed limits are not costly. However, they must be accompanied by other measures to achieve the full extent of the potential benefits.

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Case Study – Congestion Pricing Congestion pricing provides efficient demand management strategy by inducing fees for users of the road infrastructure and facilities such as parking. This could also factor in reduced rates for those who use electric vehicles or carpooling. Priced lanes or sections of motorways can be operated using traditional systems such as roadway plazas (ticket system) or with minimal infrastructure intrusion/disruption such as electronic tolling or open-road tolling (see image below).

International cities such as Singapore, Stockholm, London and Oslo have implemented congestion pricing. According to a report by The Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, Stockholm reduced congestion and carbon emissions by 15-34% through its congestion pricing system. Further benefits include increased fuel efficiency through less idling and stopping/starting of vehicles.

There are political barriers with congestion pricing such as public opposition to increasing costs. Cultural barriers would also need to be broken by increasing acceptance of carpooling and reducing the dependency on cars. Public hearing and outreach meetings should be conducted to educate the public of congestion pricing benefits and changes in infrastructure [40].

Description of how open-road tolling works [41]

Barriers The following barriers were recognised for the technologies/approaches for traffic management: • High upfront costs – Congestion pricing would induce high upfront costs by converting existing systems and infrastructure. Furthermore, infrastructure for travel demand management approaches such as traffic lights and variable message signs would be expensive. • Updating databases – For speed management approaches, digital maps with updated speed limits need to be available. This requires extensive efforts to update necessary databases. • Increased traffic and GHG emissions – Successful travel demand management approaches can increase the capacity and attractiveness of routes, thus resulting in increased traffic. • Impact of optimising routes – The long-term impact of optimising routes has been deemed as being insufficient without changing mode or reducing carbon fuel intensity. • Increased travel time and user costs – Lowering speed limits will result in increased travel times for individual travellers and businesses.

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• Public opposition to schemes – Measures such as lowering speed limits and congestion pricing will have political barriers such as public opposition. Public education of the schemes would be necessary. • Regulation enforcement – For speed management approaches, legislation would be required to implement schemes; for example, to make it a requirement for all vehicles to have speed limiters.

Case Study – Weigh-in-motion (WIM) Overweight trucks damage the road infrastructure, increase the need for maintenance and contribute to GHG emissions. An efficient way of reducing the number of overweight trucks is to implement weigh-in-motion (WIM) systems that are designed to record axle and gross vehicle weights as they pass over a sensor. The weighing scales can either be built into the pavement or portable. Several different technologies are currently in use in built-in WIM systems such as bending plate, hydraulic load cell, and piezoelectric. WIM systems have been shown to decrease congestion and reduce vehicle operating costs at traditional weigh stations.

Although they are effective in detecting overweight trucks, WIM systems are costly and only their efficient allocation can justify the investment. Research by the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality demonstrate against WIM systems for all heavy trucks as this reduces the decelerating and accelerating to enter and exit a station. Thus, modern WIM systems compatible with electronic inspection (transponder based system) can be done at motorway speed and are recommended over static systems [42] [43] [44].

Example of sensor-based in-motion scales (Image from Cardinal Scale Manufacturing Co. [45]

Transferability to other modes Many of the technologies/approaches for traffic management are most applicable to road transport such as the congestion pricing and optimisation of traffic flow. This reflects the popularity of road transport and the large percentage of emissions that it creates compared to the other modes (Figure 3). However, there are some technologies/approaches, such as WIM systems and bus rapid transit policies that have applicability for the rail sector.

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H. Sustainable procurement This concept addresses technologies and approaches for sustainable procurement. Table 12 summarises the technologies and approaches including their domains, maturity and cross-modal applicability.

Table 12. Technologies and approaches for sustainable procurement Technology/approach Domain Maturity of Cross-modal technology/approach applicability Present Future Registry and inventory based Technology Existing All All emission calculators Life-cycle assessment calculators Technology Existing All All Life-cycle cost (LCC) added-value Technology Existing All All parameter Carbon emissions included in Customer Existing Road & All procurement decision by public Rail sector organisations Education of the public about Customer Existing Road & All Green Procurement (GP) Rail Uniform criteria for evaluating Governance Near-term All All and financing sustainable procurement Green vehicles e.g. cost benefits Customer Near-term Road Road and energy efficiency calculators to help convince public of the benefits

Opportunities The following opportunities were recognised for the technologies/approaches for sustainable procurement: • Establishing monetary benchmarks – The use of the LCC added-value parameter with the procurement approach can make environmental impacts measurable by the same standard, thus allowing monetary benchmarks to be established in the planning phase. • Low payback cost – While there are high initial costs, these can be offset by the environmental benefits of using cleaner and more fuel efficient vehicles. • Providing incentives – Benefits such as tax reductions for purchasing green vehicles can help to encourage Green Procurement. • Fiscal measures – The use of fiscal measures has been recommended by the Commission to aid the achievement of GHG emission reduction targets. This can be achieved by supplying orientated measures (technological requirements by vehicle manufacturers) or demand/behaviour orientated measures (additional efforts by other means of road transport and by consumers).

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• End user benefits – Sustainable procurement produces energy efficient vehicles for public transport, thus reducing emissions and contributing to improved air quality in urban areas.

Case Study – Emission calculators Emission calculators have been developed to support the decision making process for sustainable procurement. There are two types of calculators: • Registry/inventory based calculators – Most suitable for standardised voluntary reporting, carbon trading and regulatory compliance. • Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) calculators - Most suitable to compare one technology or mode against another in a systematic way.

In the USA, the federal data collection and reporting requirements through national databases support qualification of the use of alternative vehicle fuel combinations; this is done by collecting fuel consumption, electricity use and vehicle miles travelled to support the decision making process for GPP.

A new parameter, LCC Added-Value, has recently been developed to facilitate procurement of the most LCC-efficient alternative through fair design-build tendering. However, integration of environmental, aesthetic and user-cost considerations in bridge procurement decisions is also required. Higher initial costs can be outweighed by the environmental benefits and reduced operational costs as a result of lower fuel consumption [46].

Barriers The following barriers were recognised for the technologies/approaches for sustainable procurement: • Higher initial costs – More fuel-efficient and cleaner vehicles can be more expensive to purchase (although costs can be outweighed by future savings) which can hinder take-up of the vehicles. There may be higher initial costs associated with Green Procurement, although with economies of scale this may reduce with increased take-up. • Public opposition – It may be harder to convince the public of such benefits without solid cost-benefit analysis data, thus highlighting the importance of energy efficiency and emission calculators. • Need for legislation – Rules and legislation need to be developed to encourage green procurement and the usage of energy efficient vehicles and equipment-tax treaty incentives.

Transferability to other modes Green procurement is not mode-specific so therefore, the majority of the technologies/approaches discussed in this section are cross-modal.

I. Behaviour change This concept addresses technologies and approaches for behaviour change. Table 13 summarises the technologies and approaches including their domains, maturity and cross-modal applicability.

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Table 13. Technologies and approaches for behaviour change Technology/approach Domain Maturity of Cross-modal technology/approach applicability Present Future In-vehicle speed-limiters Technology Existing Road All Navigation systems with eco- Technology Existing Road All routing Internet e.g. may reduce Technology Existing Road (bus) All transport use & Rail Telematics for improving driver Technology Existing Road Rail behaviour Eco-driver training Governance Existing Road Rail Internalisation of external costs Governance Existing All All e.g. fuel taxes accompanied by economic instruments Fiscal measures e.g. different Governance Existing Road All charges, tax incentives Imposing and optimising speed Governance Existing Road Rail & limits Water Limiting the number of vehicles Governance Existing Road Road e.g. in Shanghai High density cities e.g. more Governance Existing Road Road densely populated, road space relocation, pedestrian-oriented design. Decreased number of days at Customer Existing Road & Road & work Rail Rail Non-motorised transport Customer Existing Road Road infrastructure and modal shift In-vehicle human machine Technology Near-term Road Road interface (HMI) for improving driver behaviour Inter-vehicle communication for Technology Near-term Road Road improving driver behaviour

Opportunities The following opportunities were recognised for the technologies/approaches for behaviour change: • Reduced environmental impacts – Reducing speeds through in-vehicle speed limiters and imposing and optimising speed limits produces environmental benefits such as improved safety, better air quality, energy security and reduced noise. • Reduced energy consumption – In-vehicle HMI, with careful interface design, can help individuals to reduce their energy consumption and alleviate the problem of range anxiety, one of the major obstacles with the uptake of low-carbon vehicles. Eco-driver training also has the potential to reduce energy consumption.

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• Increased uptake of public transport – Technologies and approaches for behaviour change through modal shift can help to increase mobility and encourage the use of public transport and non-motorised infrastructure such as walking and cycling.

Case Study – Modal shift Encouraging the use of alternative modes of transport is a key approach for promoting behaviour change. Non-motorised transport infrastructure such as walking and cycling, and the development of infrastructure such as footways, cycle tracks, raised walkways, designation of pedestrian zones and the provision of free/rental cycles in cities can all help to encourage a modal shift. For example, in Bangkok, the construction of sky walkways and lifts has increased mobility and the use of public transport. Potential barriers to this approach are public opposition. Schemes must be promoted effectively through events such as public hearing and outreach meetings [47].

Barriers The following barriers were recognised for the technologies/approaches for behaviour change: • User acceptance – Some of the technologies and approaches for behaviour change such as in-vehicle speed limiters, telematics for improving driver behaviour and limiting the number of vehicles on the roads may encounter public opposition and resistance to change. • Increased costs – A concern with technologies and approaches such as in-vehicle speed limiters and enforcement of speed limits is the economic consequences of longer travel times. • Adverse economic effects – The main barriers to approaches such as internalisation of external costs and fiscal measures is the fear for adverse economic effects such as business disadvantage of some countries’ national car industry. • Issues with eco-routing – Driver assistance devices can often fail to take account of real- world driving conditions; for example, if all drivers were to use the same technology, it would suggest the same eco-route thus increasing congestion.

Case Study – Eco-driver training Eco-driver training by promoting fuel-efficient driving behaviour is one approach that is being delivered in many countries by training drivers and pilots. Eco-driving has the potential to reduce CO2 emissions and fuel consumption in certain circumstances. The concern is whether the drivers will have the motivation to maintain what they learnt in the training and also, whether the training would be effective in congested city centre traffic. Concerns for eco-driver training can be somewhat combatted by developments in intelligent transport systems and technical developments to vehicles which are likely to automate much of the necessary driving style [19] [48] [49]

Transferability to other modes Some of the technologies and approaches discussed in this section can be transferable across all modes in the future such as in-vehicle speed limiters and eco-driver training. In addition, some of the economic measures discussed have considerable cross-modal applicability.

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4 Conclusions and next steps

4.1 Conclusions Reducing carbon and energy consumption is an important challenge for all transport modes. USE-iT WP4 aims to better understand common challenges and identify technologies with cross-modal potential. These will be used to develop a roadmap for cross modal research to foster technologies or approaches to reduce carbon emissions and energy consumption.

An international literature review was carried out and three areas for focus were identified; each of these were sub-divided into three concepts. The WP4 areas and concept are shown in Table 14.

Table 14. Areas and concepts Area Concept Improving fuel efficiency Powering transport Use of alternative fuels Energy harvesting Low carbon materials and design Constructing and maintaining Improved asset management infrastructure and vehicles Efficient technology and automation Traffic management Operating and managing transport Sustainable procurement systems Behaviour change

The literature review identified 111 different technologies or approaches with the potential to reduce transport carbon emissions and energy consumption. These were mainly in the technology and infrastructure domains and arose from the road and rail modes. Some technologies were mode specific, but many had potential applications in two or more modes. These technologies will form the basis for discussions with stakeholders with the aim of identifying common areas of interest which can be developed into a research roadmap.

There are a range of barriers and opportunities which are interdependent with one another; some of the technologies/approaches can solve one issue, but create another one. For example, the on-board AGPS presents the highest potential of all the technologies and approaches in the improving fuel efficiency concept for reducing emissions and fuel consumption; however, the installation also increases the weight of aircrafts resulting in greater fuel use. This highlights the importance of finding a balance between different technologies/approaches to address the most crucial needs.

4.2 Next steps The next step is to build on the information obtained from the literature review through a number of stakeholder engagement activities:

• Stakeholder workshop – On 21st January 2016 the preliminary findings will be presented to key stakeholders to obtain their feedback and stimulate discussion on common challenges and opportunities across modes.

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• Questionnaire – A wider range of stakeholder input will be sought via a joint USE-iT/FOX questionnaire. Box 1 shows the questions related to WP4. This was distributed in December 2015 and responses are expected in December 2015/January 2016. • Interviews – Additional detail will be obtained from key stakeholders through teleconference or face-to-face meetings December 2015 to February 2016.

This information will be used to identify common research topics and will be developed further in the cross-modal research roadmap.

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Box 1: WP4 Questionnaire 1. Is your organisation working towards binding national, European, internal or other targets to reduce the energy or carbon intensity of your operations?

Please tick all that apply: a) National Targets b) European Targets c) Internal Targets d) Other

Additional information box

2. Have these targets driven any changes within your organisation with the aim of reducing energy or carbon?

Yes / No

Additional information box

3. What are the barriers to undertaking additional activities to reduce carbon emissions?

a) Finance b) Technical limitations c) Issues with standards / specifications d) Other

Additional information box

4. Where do you see the greatest potential to reduce energy use / carbon emissions? a) Technology b) Infrastructure c) Vehicles d) Governance / procurement / targets for contractors e) Other

Additional information box

5. Does your organisation use any form of energy harvesting, renewable energy technologies?

Yes/No (if yes, please specify)

Additional information box

6. Do you see any potential for energy harvesting recovery in your sector?

Yes/No (Please provide the reasons for your answer below)

Additional informantion box

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References [1] IPCC, 2012: Glossary of terms. In: Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation [Field, C.B., V. Barros, T.F. Stocker, D. Qin, D.J. Dokken, K.L. Ebi, M.D. Mastrandrea, K.J. Mach, G.-K. Plattner, S.K. Allen, M. Tignor, and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY, USA, pp. 555-564. [2] European Commission, 2011. White Paper Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area – Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system COM(2011) 144 final [3] FEHRL, 2013 “FORx4 Forever Open Road, Runway and river: A co-modal transport initiative for research”, FEHRL, Brussels, Belgium [4] Davidson, O.G. (2012) “Vermont Law School: The ethical dimensions of energy policy”, last accessed on 27 Nov 15 from http://earthzine.org/2014/07/08/vermont-law-school-the- ethical-dimensions-of-energy-policy/ [5] IPCC, 2013: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)].Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. [6] European Commission (2015) “Climate action: Reducing emissions from transport”, last accessed on 16 Nov 2015 from http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/transport/index_en.htm

[7] European Commission (2013) “Time for international action on CO2 emissions from shipping”, Last accessed on 16 Nov 15 from http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/transport/shipping/docs/marine_transport_en.pdf [8] Sessa, C. and Enei, R. (2009) “EU Transport GHG: Routes to 2050? EU transport demand: Trends and drivers”, ISIS, Funded by the European Commission’s Directorate – General Environment [9] Sims R., R. Schaeffer, F. Creutzig, X. Cruz-Núñez, M. D’Agosto, D. Dimitriu, M.J. Figueroa Meza, L. Fulton, S. Kobayashi, O. Lah, A. McKinnon, P. Newman, M. Ouyang, J.J. Schauer, D. Sperling, and G. Tiwari, 2014: Transport. In: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. [10] McAlinden B (2015) “Embodied energy and carbon”, Institute of Civil Engineers (ICE), Last accessed on 17 Nov 15 from https://www.ice.org.uk/disciplines-and-resources/briefing- sheet/embodied-energy-and-carbon [11] Anderson, J. (n.d.) “Embodied carbon & EPDs”, Greenspec, Last accessed on 17 Nov 15 from http://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/embodied-energy/

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[12] Hill, N., Brannigan, C., Wynn D, Milnes R, van Essen H, den Boer E, van Grinsven A, Ligthart T, van Gijlswijk R (2012) “EU Transport GHG: Routes to 2050 II: Final Report Appendix 2: The role of GHG emissions from infrastructure construction, vehicle manufacturing, and ELVs in overall transport sector emissions”, Last accessed on 26 Nov 15 from http://www.eutransportghg2050.eu/cms/assets/Uploads/Reports/EU-Transport-GHG-2050- II-Task-2-FINAL-30Apr12.pdf [13] Pollalis, S. N., Georgoulias, A., Ramos, S. J. and Schodek, D. (2012) “Infrastructure Sustainability and Design”, Routledge [14] Hill, N., Brannigan, C., Smokers, R., Schroten, A., van Essen, H. and Skinner, I. (2012) “EU Transport GHG: Routes to 2050 II: Developing a better understanding of the secondary impacts and key sensitivities for the decarbonisation of the EU’s transport sector by 2050”, Last accessed on 17 Nov 15 from http://www.eutransportghg2050.eu/cms/?flush=1 [15] European Commission (2011a) “A Roadmap for moving to a competitive low carbon economy in 2050”, COM(2011) 112 final, European Commission, Brussels, last accessed on 17 Nov 15 from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:5db26ecc-ba4e-4de2-ae08- dba649109d18.0002.03/DOC_1&format=PDF [16] European Commission (2011b) “Roadmap to a single European Transport Area – Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system, COM(2011) 144 final , European Commission, Brussels, last accessed on 17 Nov from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal- content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52011DC0144&from=EN [17] Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) (n.d.) “Sustainable urban transport: Avoid-Shift-Improve (A-S-I), Division 44: Water, Energy, Transport, Last accessed on 17 Nov 15 from http://www.transport2020.org/publicationitem/1027/factsheet-avoid- shift-improve-a-s-i [18] Guo, R., Zhang, Y. and Wang, Q. (2014) “Comparison of emerging ground propulsion systems for electrified aircraft taxi operations”, Transportation Research Part C 44, p98-109 [19] Wheeltug (2015) “Image of AGPS” [20] Skinner, I., Van Essen, H., Smokers, R. and Hill, N. (2010) “EU Transport GHG: Routes to 2050? Towards the decarbonisation of the EU’s transport sector by 2050 [21] Prata, J., Arsenio, E. and Pontes, J. P. (2015) “Setting a city strategy for low carbon emissions: The role of electric vehicles, renewable energy and energy efficiency”, International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning 10(2), p190-202 [22] Edenhofer, O., Pichs-Madruga, R., Sokuna, Y., Minx, J. C., Farahani, E., Kadner, S., Seyboth, K., Adler, A., Baum, I., Brunner, S., Eickemeier, P., Kriemann, B., Savolainen, J., Schlomer, S., Von Stechow, C. and Zwickel, T. (2014) “Climate Change 2014 Mitigation of Climate Change – Working Group III Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change”, Cambridge University Press [23] Brecher, A., Sposato, J. and Kennedy, B. (2014) “Best practices and strategies for improving rail energy efficiency”, US Department of Transportation Federal Railroad Administration

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[24] Searchinger T, Heimlich R, Houghton R A, Dong F, Elobeid A, Fabiosa J, Tokgoz S, Hayes D and Yu T (2008) “Use of U.S. croplands for biofuels increases greenhouse gases through emissions from land-use change”, Science 319, p1238-1240 [25] Glotz-Richter, M. and Fenton, B. (2014) “Hybrid buses in Europe – expectations and experience presented in the Hybrid User Forum” [26] Ecochunk (2013) “The big question: Will piezoelectricity ever become a viable source of electricity”, last accessed on 26 November 2015 from http://www.ecochunk.com/7692/2013/09/07/the-big-question-will-piezoelectricity-ever- become-a-viable-source-of-electricity/ [27] López-López, A. J., Pecharromán, R.R., Fernández-Cardador, A. and Paloma Cucala, A. (2014) “Assessment of energy-saving techniques in direct-current-electrified mass transit systems”, Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies 38, p85-100 [28] DigitalTrends (2013) Image for regenerative braking [29] Solar Century (n.d.) “Blackfriars: taking it to the bridge”, last accessed on 26 November 2015 from http://www.solarcentury.com/uk/case-studies/blackfriars/ [30] Spinks, R. (2015) “The self-healing concrete that can fix its own cracks”, Guardian Sustainable Business Technology and Innovation, last accessed on 26 November 2015 from http://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2015/jun/29/the-self-healing-concrete- that-can-fix-its-own-cracks [31] United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (2015) “Ground rubber applications”, last accessed on 26 Nov 2015 from http://www3.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/materials/tires/ground.htm [32] Hassan, K. E., Elghali, L. and Sowerby, C. (2003) “Development of new materials for secondary and recycled aggregates in highway infrastructure”, Unpublished project report PR CPS/30/3, TRL Limited [33] Jamnik, J., Antunes, M. L., Turpin, K., Kokot, D., Weniger-Vycudil, A. and Cesbron, J. (2012) “EVITA – Environmental indicators for the total road infrastructure assets – Deliverable D4.2 – Practical guide for the use of E-KPIs in pavement management practice”, August 2012 [34] Lepert, P. and Weniger-Vyducil, A. (2012) “EVITA: Environmental key performance indicators” [35] Brown, A., Gonder, J. and Repac, B. (2014) “An analysis of possible energy impacts of automated vehicle” in G.Meyer and S.Beikers (eds) Road Vehicle Automation, Lecture notes in Mobility, Springer International Publishing Switzerland, p137-153 [36] Tsita, K. G. and Pilavichi, P. A. (2013) “Evaluation of next generation biomass derived fuels for the transport sector”, Energy Policy 62, p443-455 [37] The Institute of Engineering and Technology (IET) (2015) “Autonomous vehicles: A road transport perspective”, last accessed on 26 Nov 15 from http://www.theiet.org/sectors/transport/resources/autonomous-vehicles.cfm [38] TRL (2015) “Image of autonomous vehicles” [39] Winkel, R., Weddige, U., Johnsen, D., Hoen, V., Papaefthymiou, G. (2015) “Potential for Shore Side Electricity in Europe: Final Report”, Project Number: TRANL14441

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[40] Eliasson, J. (2014) “The Stockholm congestion charges: an overview”, Centre for Transport Studies Stockholm, CTS Working Paper 2014:7 [41] Massachusetts Department of Transportation (n.d.) “Image of how open-road tolling works” [42] Caponero, M. A. and Demozzi, A. (2013) “Very high-precision weigh-in-motion concept based on optical fiber technology”, TRB 2013 [43] Jeng, S-T., Chu, L. and Cetin, M. (2015) “Weigh-In-Motion Station Monitoring and Calibration Using Inductive Loop Signature Technology” TRB 2015 [44] Besinovic, N., Markovic, N. and Schonfield, P. (2013) “Optimal Allocation of Truck Inspection Stations Based on k-Shortest Paths” [45] Cardinal Scale Manufacturing Co. (2015) “Weigh-in-motion vehicle scales”, last accessed on 30 Nov 15 from http://www3.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/materials/tires/ground.htm [46] PB Americas, Inc., Cambridge Systematics, Inc., E.H. Pechans & Associates, Inc. and Euquant, Inc. (2013) “Incorporating greenhouse gas emissions into the collaborative decision-making process”, SHRP2 Capacity Research, TRB 2013 [47] Regmi, M. B. (2014) “Moving towards sustainable transport systems in Asia”, TRB Research Board 93rd Annual Meeting [48] Kay, A. I., Noland, R. B., and Rodier, C. J. (2014) “Transportation Futures: Policy scenarios for achieving greenhouse gas reduction targets”, San José, CA: Mineta National Transit Research Consortium [49] Alam, M. S. and McNabola, A. (2014) “A critical review and assessment of eco-driving policy and technology: Benefits and limitations”, Transport Policy 35, p42-49

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R USERS, SAFETY, SECURITY AND ENERGY IN TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE

Appendix A: Review Templates The review templates are in a separate pdf document.

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Appendix B: Emissions Targets Table B.1 - Emission targets for different governing bodies and organisations Governing Body Mode Target Deadline /Organisation European All modes Reduce GHG emissions to 20% below 2008 2030 Commission level. All modes Reduce GHG emissions by 60%, relative to 1990 2050 base year. Road 50% reduction in use of conventionally fuelled 2030 cars in urban transport mix. 100% reduction in use of conventionally fuelled 2050 cars in urban transport mix in cities. CO2 neutral city logistics in major urban centres. 2030 30% of road freight (travelling over 300km) 2030 shifts towards other modes (e.g. rail, waterborne). 50% of road freight (travelling over 300km) 2050 shifts towards other modes. Air Achieve 40% low-carbon (sustainable) fuel mix. 2050 Sea Reduce EU CO2 emissions, from maritime 2050 bunker fuels, by 40% (50% if feasible). FEHRL Road • Energy-efficiency of passenger and No freight transport (in kWh) + 10-20% vs a deadline best practice baseline. given • Net Zero energy consumed by road operators • 25% reduction (vs a best practice baseline) in embodied energy in materials. • Air quality, noise, natural habitat policy compliance. CER Rail European railways to reduce specific average 2030 CO2 emissions from train operations by 50% (relative to 1990 base year, measured by passenger-km & tonne-km). 30% reduction of specific CO2 emissions from 2020 rail traction (relative to 1990 baseline). CO2 neutral train operations 2050 30% reduction in energy consumption (pkm & 2030 tkm), compared to 1990 baseline 50% reduction in energy consumption (pkm & 2050 tkm), compared to 1990 baseline Airbus Group Air 50% reduction in CO2 emissions (relative to 2020 2006 levels) Carbon neutral growth 2020 ATAG Air Improve fleet fuel efficiency by 1.5% per 2020 annum

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Net carbon emissions from aviation will be 2020 - 2050 capped through carbon neutral growth 50% reduction in net aviation carbon emissions 2050 (relative to 2005 levels) Network Rail Rail 14% reduction in carbon intensity of electricity 2019 supply 25% reduction in CO2 emissions per passenger- 2019 km (England only) 28% reduction in CO2 emissions per passenger- 2019 km (Scotland only) ERTRAC Road 80% increase in urban passenger transport 2030 energy efficiency, relative to 2010 levels (measured in passenger-km/kWh) 40% increase in long-distance freight energy 2030 efficiency, relative to 2010 levels (measured in passenger-km/kWh) 25% biofuels and 5% electricity in energy pool 2030 ERRAC Rail Carbon neutral train operations 2050 50% reduction in specific energy consumption 2050 from train operations, relative to 1990 levels ACARE Air 1.5% per annum improvement in fleet fuel 2020 efficiency Carbon neutral growth 2020 onwards 50% reduction in net aviation carbon emissions, 2050 relative to 2005 levels ECTP Road 30% reduction in CO2 emissions linked to 2030 infrastructure (broken down below) Structural elements: 2020 • Zero CO2 emissions from cement • 20-25% increase in concrete thermal properties • 30-40% increase in thermal properties of steel-based products Finishes and envelope: 2020 • 20% reduction in embodied carbon in ceramic products • 20-30% increase in thermal properties of ceramic products • 50% reduction in production time/cost of all finishes • 30% or greater increase in thermal properties of advanced materials Glazed components/light directing elements: 2020 • 25% reduction in total manufacturing energy demand from glass production • 100% reduction in CO2 emissions from glass production

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• 50% reduction in NOx emissions from glass production Insulation materials: 2020 • 20% reduction in embodied carbon in traditional insulation materials • Decrease of thermal conductivity ( to 0.02-0.03 Wm-1k-1) for bio-based insulation materials Highways Road Traffic officer vehicle fleet improvements: 2050 England • 45% increase in vehicle efficiency • 100% vehicle fleet uptake • 70% reduction in the number of vehicles Network equipment: • 17% reduction in number of items of equipment • 100% increase in number of cameras • 200% increase in efficiency of equipment Employee business travel: • 50% reduction in carbon intensity of business travel • 60% reduction in distance travelled Buildings emissions: • 40% reduction in heating/cooling demand Network lighting: • 100% use of smart lighting and LEDs • 100% renewable energy on pedestrian crossing lamps • 100% use of renewable heat • 40% reduction of number of lamps • 75% energy reduction through dimming and switching off Water use in buildings: • 20% reduction in employee consumption Road user targets: 2050 • 10% reduction of emissions through uptake of autonomous vehicles • 50% improvement over Department of Transport forecast value for fuel efficiency of remaining petrol/diesel vehicles • Achieve minimum average speed of 60mph on previously congested links (550km of congested links in total)

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• 100% uptake of carbon capture and 2050 storage potential in materials sector • 39% increase in material efficiency through substitution and design • 43% reduction in metal use in asset base • 15% reduction in plastics used in asset base • 49% reduction in site office and fixed plant in asset base • 31% reduction in ready-mix concrete and ▪ cement used in asset base • 30% reduction in quarry sourced materials and asphalt used in asset base • 49% reduction in mobile plant used in asset base

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USERS, SAFETY, SECURITY AND ENERGY IN TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE

H2020-MG- 8.2b-2014 (Next generation transport infrastructure: resource efficient, smarter and safer) H2020 Coordination and Support Action Grant agreement number: 653670

Users, Safety, security and Energy In Transport Infrastructure USE-iT

Start date: 1 May 2015 Duration: 24 months

Deliverable D4.1

Report on energy efficiency and carbon intensity based on investigation across modes and domains Appendix A – Review templates

This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement no 653670

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Contents

A1. Powering transport ...... 3 A1.1 Improving fuel efficency ...... 3 A1.2 Alternative fuels ...... 15 A1.3 Energy harvesting ...... 50 A2. Constructing and maintaining infrastructure and vehicles ...... 61 A2.1 Low carbon materials and design ...... 61 A2.2 Improved asset management ...... 68 A2.3 Efficient technology and automation ...... 77 A3. Operating and managing transport systems ...... 86 A3.1 Traffic management ...... 86 A3.2 Sustainable procurement ...... 107 A3.3 Behaviour change ...... 111

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A1. Powering transport

A1.1 Improving fuel efficency

PROJECT USE-iT FOX REFINET

WP TITLE WP4 Energy and Carbon AREA Powering Transport CONCEPT Improving Fuel Efficiency Select applicable mode for the Air Rail Road Water concept (select mode) Many of the technologies covered are current practice but require significant investment in infrastructure or in the case of scrubbers, are limited in their MATURITY installation due to a recent drop in price differences between fuel types. The technologies are mostly new developments or future opportunities with small-scale trials carried out for PV collection, water micro-generation and aircraft ground propulsion systems.

Concept possibly applicable to Air Rail Road Water (select a mode)

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increasingly prevalent in modern highway by the increases in the materials longevity. Highway conditions. Enhanced materials now have signage [5]. specifications may need to be adapted, depending on greater lifespans than previous materials – the context of the installation [5]. minimizing disposal and ongoing costs. Improved manufacturing techniques of enhanced reflective materials have a lower impact on the environment than previous materials [5]. LEDs: The use LEDs for lighting instead of LEDs: These systems have high initial capital costs LEDs: LEDs have a precise distribution of traditional lighting systems [5]. LED road studs relative to traditional systems; however this is offset light, minimizing light wasted, thus are have been shown to be effective in improving by high efficiencies and low ongoing costs [5]. efficient for the task they are installed for. safety. They have extremely low energy requirements whilst also offering a higher quality of light. Maintenance costs are significantly lower than traditional means of lighting [5]. LED road studs have much higher cost that traditional retro-reflective studs, but much lower that standard lighting (including LED lighting). DC-Electrified Railway Systems – Regenerative DC-Electrified Railway Systems – Regenerative DC-Electrified Railway Systems – Braking: Regenerative braking is a mechanism Braking: The energy recovered from regenerative Regenerative Braking: Improved efficiency available to DC electrified railways that braking systems cannot always be utilised efficiently, and reduced fuel usage by recycling waste converts kinetic energy from braking activities especially in areas where low traffic-densities are energy [56]. into an energy supply that can be used or realised. However, there are a number of technologies stored. These are currently available on the which are emerging (such as improved energy storage market [56]. systems and reversible traction substations) that could improve the efficiency of these systems. Also improvements to existing infrastructure may be needed to take full advantage of this technology [56].

Powertrain Technologies for HGVs - Heat recovery systems, electrical drive turbo- compound, automated manual transmission, flywheels, hybrid, and stop-start electric [73].

Pneumatic Boosters for HGVs: a system injects Pneumatic Boosters for HGVs: Cannot be integrated Pneumatic Boosters for HGVs: The system compressed air into a turbocharged ICE [73]. into hybrid powertrains. Requires further evaluation can result in increased torque, leading to fuel and simulation in combination with hybrid technology (and associated cost) savings [73]. [73].

Wide-Base Single Tyres (lower weight/reduced Wide-Base Single Tyres: UK legislation does not Wide-Base Single Tyres: New generation rolling resistance): A range of tyres suitable for permit the use of these tyres on drive axles of vehicles wide-base tires allow substantial gains in fuel

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the drive axles of heavy trucks, commercially exceeding 40 tonnes. The benefits of these tyres can efficiency; hauling capacity; and advances in available [108]. be masked by the low rolling resistance of worn tyres. comfort-ride/vehicle stability. It is suggested There is also industry concern that low rolling they provide environmental benefits, such resistance tyres are subject to increased wear rates. emission and noise reductions and improved An additional barrier for further implementation is recycling rates at the end of service life [108]. that the upfront costs can be higher than traditional tyres. Issues within the rental/hire sector [201]. Improvements For Fuel Efficiency in Light Duty Improvements For Fuel Efficiency in Light Duty Improvements For Fuel Efficiency in Light Vehicles: Includes options such as variable Vehicles: [117]. Duty Vehicles: [117]. compression ratios, direct injection, cylinder deactivation, optimizing gearboxes and dual clutches. A number of options can be applied to reduce the energy needed for propulsion, including improvements to a vehicle‘s aerodynamics and reducing a vehicle‘s weight by using lightweight materials, as well as recovering waste heat generated, e.g. by braking. It is estimated that the above technologies will take a further 10 years before they enter the mainstream [117].

Wireless Charging of Road Vehicles: inductive Wireless Charging of Road Vehicles: requires Wireless Charging of Road Vehicles: enables technology used to power road vehicles, whilst significant investment in infrastructure and vehicles as electric power to extend to lorries and buses either stationary or dynamic charging as they well as power networks if it became widespread. reducing emissions. Removes range anxiety are driven along. Other options have above and enables smaller batteries for vehicles for ground technology akin to a rail pantograph. ‘last mile’ driving. Should also enable better speed control and traffic management. Scrubbers: For marine transportation a variety Scrubbers: Their implementation depends on the type Scrubbers: potential to reduce SOx emissions of seawater/freshwater systems exist for the of fuel used, and the price of that fuel [144]. with lower whole-life cycle energy scrubbing of exhaust gases [135]. Currently consumption and GHG emissions, making if implemented in accordance with EU/IMO SECA more viable to not switch to low sulphur fuels regulations for marine gas oil (MGO), LNG and [135]. HFO fuels. Limited installations at present due to recent drop in price differences between fuel types – delaying investment decisions [144]. Shore Side Electricity (SSE): Involves Shore Side Electricity (SSE): One major barrier to Shore Side Electricity (SSE): In most connecting ships to the port electricity network investment is that taxes are imposed on SSE, but not locations, the energy mix used to produce while they are at berth instead of using the on fuels used in shipping. This could be addressed SSE results in fewer emissions than burning auxiliary engines [175]. either by a tax reduction on electricity used for SSE or fuel on the ships themselves. It can also by added taxes on maritime shipping fuels. Some benefit health as air pollutants are emitted at member states have already used this possibility to remote onshore electricity facilities, as

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promote SSE [175]. opposed to ports near highly populated areas [175]. INFRASTRUCTURE Thermal Collection: The system has only been Thermal Collection: Existing construction Thermal Collection: Bituminous paved tested in small scale trials [5]. methodologies for carriageway rehabilitation need to surfaces can be used as thermal collectors, be adapted to allow for easy installation of equipment absorbing heat from sunlight, through the [5]. The greatest barrier to implementation is that the integration of fluid filled plastic tubes into the system requires significant rebuilding of existing roads pavement material; facilitating heat to allow for installation; resulting in delays for road exchange between the two [5]. Continuous users [5]. The novelty of the systems and lack of long thermal exchange accelerates surface term research has unclear implications for ongoing heating/cooling in the summer and winter cost liabilities [5]. Furthermore installation today may months. limit carriageway expansion in the future [5]

Photovoltaic Collection: The direct conversion Photovoltaic Collection: Despite large reductions in Photovoltaic Collection: Typically operating of sunlight into electricity. As with P.V. panels price they still present significant upfront costs with a with a lifespan of 20 years and require little found on buildings they can be incorporated relatively long pay pack. They are constrained by the maintenance/intervention. As such they into infrastructure such as: remote signal, amount of sunlight reaching the system, impacting present low operating costs. traffic signs, SOS phones, bin compactors etc. efficiency. This requires back-up systems, such as [5]. Currently in use for small scale applications, storage or battery systems, to be in place. At present with regards to road infrastructure in the UK. relatively low operating efficiencies – with further losses occurring from converting DC to AC.

Wind Micro-Generation: Utilises large blades Wind Micro-Generation: A key success factor is Wind Micro-Generation: The systems are to exploit passing winds to drive a turbine. The ensuring a continual supply of wind to the system. generally easy to install onto virgin ground, technology is becoming ever more popular for Existing structures and obstacles (natural or resulting in minimal intrusive ground works. electrical generation in remote locations [5]. manmade) affect the flow of wind, thus turbines They can be retrofitted onto existing highway require an uninterrupted wind source. They can also structures (e.g. gantries). Temporary systems be associated with noise pollution and could disrupt exist to provide support for short periods of local ecology (however the impact of the highway time (e.g. during road works). Associated itself is often far greater than that of the turbine). with low upfront and running costs – in Permanent systems require long-winded and time general the cost and energy performance consuming planning permission to meet local and decrease with system size, excluding planning national regulations. costs. Additional benefits are that heavy traffic flows may generate sufficient wind to power the system. In addition power can be exported back to the grid if connections are available [5]

Water Micro-Generation (Micro-Hydro): Water Micro-Generation (Micro-Hydro): There are a Water Micro-Generation (Micro-Hydro): Exploits the gravitational potential energy of a number of locational characteristics that need to be Relatively efficient, requiring low flows of mass of water flowing downhill to generate fulfilled, thus requiring extensive planning for each water and shallow gradients to generate

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electricity. This could be used to power individual system. Electrical output is dependent on electricity. As with wind, the system is only infrastructure – especially in remote locations flow and strongly affect by seasonality (winter months reliable if the suitable and continuous that experience heavy periods of rainfall. see heavier periods of rainfall). Construction can have feedstock of water is available. Systems have Currently limited in application, although small significant impact on local biodiversity and ecology. low associated impacts on biodiversity. The scale trials are underway [5]. Finally, unlike other micro-generation systems, hydro technology is simple in principle and has an require continued maintenance, increasing whole-life established history. Providing installation in costs [5]. suitable locations upfront and ongoing costs are relatively low. Again, power can be exported providing a suitable network exists [5]. Aircraft Ground Propulsion Systems (AGPS): Aircraft Ground Propulsion Systems (AGPS): External Aircraft Ground Propulsion Systems (AGPS): Towing vehicles (e.g. tractors) can utilise AGPS could potentially impose large degrees of Potential benefits include reductions in the alternative energy sources. The most promising fatigue loading on the aircraft nose landing gear – amount of fuel used during the process, is a system called TaxiBot (trialled in France and reducing the longevity of these components. It is also lower emissions and noise, and a lower risk ready for operation in 2016). It is a semi-robotic suggested that additional infrastructure (roads, of foreign object damage (a concern with tow-bar-less system that uses a diesel engine parking bays) will be needed to support them. This single-engine taxiing). Combined this could and electrically driven wheels [34]. would result in higher construction costs (and result in significant saving for airline associated carbon), and increased maintenance and operators [34]. operational costs. Furthermore these systems introduce new complexities into traditional airport operations [34].

On-board AGPS: Integrated systems would On-board AGPS: Both examples use the auxiliary On-board AGPS: These have the highest eliminate the disadvantages of external power unit to power motors in the wheels, which still potential to reduce emissions and fuel systems. An example would be additional require gains in operating efficiency and fuel usage. consumption [34]. electrical motors integrated into wheels of the The systems would result in increased weight for the landing gear. These have the highest potential aircraft [34]. to reduce emissions and fuel consumption. Existing systems include the WheelTug and Electric Green Taxiing System. These systems have successfully undergone feasibility testing. WheelTug announced an agreement with Airbus Group and is expected to be rolled out to 13 airlines across the world [34]. GOVERNANCE Single-Engine Taxiing: Requires less than all Single-Engine Taxiing: Increased responsibility on Single-Engine Taxiing: Studies have shown engines to be used to taxi prior to take off and airlines and pilots resulting in potential liabilities. Not reduced fuel consumption and emissions after landing [34]. operable under certain conditions, such as uphill reductions while using a single engine. Also slopes or slippery surfaces, or when de-icing activities the strategy can improve the engine life are underway. Further to this it requires the operator economy [34]. to have in-depth, up-to-date knowledge of each airport. It has also been shown to increase time for

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take-off as the other engines require time to warm up [34].

Co-Modality: Adopts the least GHG intensive Co-Modality: There are a number of technical and Co-Modality: Least GHG intensive routes are mode suited for each (or part of a) journey. organisational issues that limit the potential of co- adopted by passenger and freight transport. Implementation is limited by many factors, modality, especially with regards to logistics and Especially true for passenger transport in notably goods transported by freight vehicles. A freight. Technical issues include generally refer to urban areas where wider benefits are range of policy instruments exist for maximising costs, and in some cases environmental concern/cost realised such as: reductions in congestion; co-modal potential [117]. (taking into consideration the rebound effect). reductions in parking issues; enhanced social Organisational issues present even greater barriers, function of public transport; and reduced such as: information sharing/visibility; risk noise and air pollution. Other benefits distribution; the need for continual coordination and include enhanced communication between intermediation; and gain sharing [119]. mode operators [117]

Improved Spatial Planning: Optimising the Improved Spatial Planning: A key barrier for Improved Spatial Planning: Potential to structure of today’s planning system [117]. implementation is locational differences; different improve the efficiency of the transport geographies will have unique features, making it system through optimum designation of difficult to transpose approaches between locations. It services, employment and locations for would also require different administrative bodies, at residential hubs [117]. different levels, to work in collaboration whilst also managing to retain local autonomy [117].

GHG Optimised Speed Limits: Decreasing or GHG Optimised Speed Limits: A key concern is safety. GHG Optimised Speed Limits: Reduced GHG increasing speed limits on interurban roads. Likely to be controversial and unpopular with road emissions [117]. Not implemented on the basis of GHG users. For non-road modes it would could have emissions but are easy to impose with a significant cost implications as lowering limits would relatively short lead time [117]. Optimised mean less goods and passengers could be transported speed limits are currently used in shipping, in given time period (especially in the case of rail, and however for cost-only purposes. maritime vessels). With regards to airborne transport limits would be limited by what passengers and goods could physically withstand, alongside the technical issues of lower/higher speeds [117].

Economic Instruments: Introduction of Economic Instruments: To be successful, especially in Economic Instruments: Both could result in emissions trading or carbon-based fuel taxes. the case of emissions trading, they require cross lower GHG emissions and help to internalise [117]. border harmonisation. The level at which the market the externalities generated by fossil fuel use. sets the price of carbon is also a concern – the price Externalities would be wider than GHGs would need to high to realise any benefit. For aviation themselves; including air pollution, noise and and shipping many Bilateral Air Service Agreements wider infrastructural costs. Fuel taxes are would require modification, taking considerable time relatively easy to implement. These and negotiation [117]. instruments could also stimulate to the

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uptake of, and investment in, low-carbon vehicles and technologies [117].

Vehicle Platooning: Platoons of vehicles can Vehicle Platooning: The technology behind platooning Vehicle Platooning: Reducing drag leads to reduce drag leading to relatively high fuel for HGVs exists, however there are a number of improved fuel efficiency, reduced overall fuel savings. The largest drag reductions occur legislative barriers. These include: driver training; consumption [117]. between the first and last vehicles in formation platoon signage and identification; communication [117]. Not currently implemented, however a amongst operators, Highways England, and the police; recent feasibility study has concluded that regulations and advice for road users interacting with platooning for HGVs could be implemented in HGV platoons [132]. the near future [132].

CUSTOMER

References - Text

[5] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2014) Climate Change 2014 mitigation of Climate Change: Working Group III Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [online] Available at: https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg3/ipcc_wg3_ar5_full.pdf (Accessed: 29/09/2015)

[34] Guo, R., Zhang, Y., & Wang, Q. (2014). “Comparison of emerging ground propulsion systems for electrified aircraft taxi operations”. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies (44) pp. 98-109.

[56] López-López, Á. J., Pecharromán, R. R., Fernández-Cardador, A., & Cucala, A. P. (2014). “Assessment of energy-saving techniques in direct-current-electrified mass transit systems”. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies (38), pp. 85-100.

[73] Velazquez Abad, A., Cherrett, T., & Waterson, B. (2014). “Selecting low carbon technologies for heavy goods vehicles: a case study in the UK fast food supply chain”. [online] Available at: http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/361085/1/2014%20%5B75%5D%20Low%20Carbon%20HGVs%20TRB.pdf (Accessed: 29/09/2015)

[108] Al-Qadi, I., & Elseifi, M. (2015). “New generation of wide-base tires: impact on trucking operations, environment, and pavements”. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board. [online] Available at: http://trrjournalonline.trb.org/doi/abs/10.3141/2008-13 (Accessed: 29/09/2015)

[117] Skinner, I., van Essen, H., Smokers, R. & Hill, N. (2010) EU Transport GHG: Routes to 2050? [online] Available at: http://www.eutransportghg2050.eu/cms/assets/EU- Transport-GHG-2050-Final-Report-22-06-10.pdf (Accessed: 29/09/2015).

[118] Kay, D., & Hill, N. (2012). Opportunities to overcome the barriers to uptake of low emission technologies for each commercial vehicle duty cycle, report for the Task Force on Fuel Efficient, Low Emission HGV Technologies [online] Available at: http://www.lowcvp.org.uk/assets/reports/Opportunities%20for%20low%20emission%20HGVs%20- %20final%20report%202012.pdf (Accessed: 29/09/2015).

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[119] Rossi, S. (2012). ‘Challenges for Co-Modality in a Collaborative Environment’ [online] Available at: http://www.co3-project.eu/wo3/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/CO3-D-2- 3-Position-Paper-on-Co-modality_def.pdf (Accessed: 29/09/2015).

[132] Chan, E. (Ricardo UK), Gilhead, P. (Ricardo UK) & Mike McCarthy (TRL) (2014) Heavy vehicle platoons on UK roads: Technology review. Department for Transport.

[135] Ma, H., Steernberg, K. Riera-Palou, X. Tait, N. (2012). ‘Well-to-wake energy and greenhouse gas analysis of SOX abatement options for the marine industry’. Transportation Research Part D, 17(4), pp. 301-308.

[144] CE Delft (2015) The market for scrubbers. [online] Available at: http://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/The%20market%20for%20Scrubbers.pdf (Accessed: 29/09/2015).

[175] Winkel, R., Weddige, U., Johnson, D., Hoen, V. and Papaefthimiou, S. (2015) "Shore Side Electricity in Europe: Potential and environmental benefits", Energy Policy [online] Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421515300240

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Images

Enhanced Reflective Signage (Mactac, 2015) LEDs (TRL, 2015) Wide Base Single Tyre (Truckinginfo, 2015)

Regenerative Brakes (Digitaltrends, 2013) Improved Fuel Efficiency (TRL, 2015) Thermal Collectors (Cyclifier, 2004)

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Photovoltaic Roads (NCE, 2014) Wind Micro-Generation (Ecofriend, 2011) Water Micro-Generation (OPMag, 2015)

Single Engine Taxiing (AirlineReporter, 2013) On-board AGPS (Wheeltug, 2015) Co-Modality (Trafikverket, 2014)

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Improved Spatial Planning (Hutton, 2015) Economic Instruments (Heartland, 2014) Vehicle Platooning (Wucathy, 2012)

Marine Exhaust Scrubbers (worldmaritimenews, 2015)

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References – Images

AirlinerReporter.com (2013) From ramp to the runway without engine power. [image] Available at: http://www.airlinereporter.com/2013/07/from-the-ramp-to-the-runway- without-engine-power-really/ (Accessed 01/10/2015)

Cyclifier.com (2004) Project: Asphalt Collector. [image] Available at: http://www.cyclifier.org/project/asphalt-collector/ (Accessed 01/10/2015)

DigitalTrend.com (2013) Does general motors have a secret long range testing program in Canada. [image] Available at: http://www.digitaltrends.com/cars/does-general- motors-have-a-secret-long-range-ev-testing-program-in-canada/ (Accessed 01/10/2015)

EcoFriend.com (2011) Highways Power Plants Future. [image] Available at: http://www.ecofriend.com/highways-power-plants-future.html (Accessed 01/10/2015)

Heartland.com (2014) Pros and cons of a carbon tax for the energy industry. [image] Available at: http://blog.heartland.org/2014/05/pros-and-cons-of-a-carbon-tax-for-the- energy-industry/ (Accessed 01/10/2015)

Hutton University (2015) Spatial Planning Maps. [image] Available at: https://www.google.co.uk/search?q=spatial+planning&espv=2&biw=1280&bih=939&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAWoVChMIns6y2aWhyAIVyp2ACh2Nmwp B#tbm=isch&q=spatial+planning+maps&imgrc=X--c9IUp-Au_OM%3A (Accessed 01/10/2015)

MacTac.com (2015) Flexible Grade Relfective Signs. [image] Available at: http://www.allprint.co.uk/reflective-sign-making-vinyl-MAClite-5700-series.htm (Accessed 01/10/2015)

New Civil Engineer (2014) Energy Solar Roads Take Off. [image] Available at: http://www.nce.co.uk/features/energy-and-waste/energy-solar-roads-take- off/8669755.article(Accessed 01/10/2015)

Trafikverket.com (2014) Green corridor in the North Sea region. [image] Available at: http://www.trafikverket.se/en/startpage/Operations/Operations-railway/GreCor---Green- Corridor-in-the-North-Sea-Region/ (Accessed 01/10/2015)

Wheeltug (2015) Wheeltug. [online] Available at: http://www.wheeltug.gi/ (Accessed 01/10/2015)

Wucathy.com (2012) Green car congress. [image] Available at: http://www.wucathy.com/blog/?p=1075 (Accessed 01/10/2015)

World Maritime News (2015) Exhaust Gas Cleaning Systems. [image] Available at: http://worldmaritimenews.com/archives/123879/finnlines-orders-alfa-lavals-exhaust-gas- cleaning-systems/ (Accessed 01/10/2015)

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A1.2 Alternative fuels

PROJECT USE-iT FOX REFINET

WP TITLE WP4 Energy and Carbon AREA Powering Transport CONCEPT Alternative Fuels Select applicable mode for the Air Rail Road Water concept (select mode) Current practice: [31], [34], [166] State-of-the-art: [5], [71], [117], [154], [157], [159], [160], [162] [164], [167] New development: [29], [133],[140], [156] MATURITY Future opportunities: [12], [13], [33], [36], [42], [48], [133], [134], [135], [136], [137], [138],[139], [140], [141][143], [152], [153], [155], [158] and [161]

Concept possibly applicable to Air Rail Road Water (select a mode)

[5]: n.a. [data: (EEA, 2006), (ICCT, 2012a), (IEA, 2009), (IEA, 2011a), (IEA, 2012e); (NRC, 2013)] [12]: n.a. - liquefied natural gas will reduce the local and regional environmental impacts more relative to the other fuels [data: (Bengtsson et al., 2011), (Bengtsson et al., 2012), (ELCD, 2010), (JEC, 2008a), (JEC, 2008b). [13]: Urban environment [data: (EIA, 2012)] [29]: n.a (France) [data not available] [31]: n.a. [Forum] [33]: Sydney, Australia [data: collected in situ)] Specify location, type, placement [34]: n.a. - compares various emerging AGPS systems and presents a comprehensive review on the merits and demerits of each system, followed with the (e.g. public/private/professional local environmental impacts assessment of these systems [data: using operational data for the 10 busiest U.S. airports, (ASPM, 2012) ; (FAA, 2013), (ICAO, transport, transit, urban/motorway, 2007), (ICAO, 2008), (EEA, 1995), (ESA, 2012), (EEA, 2012), (EPA, 1992), (EPA, 2012), (ESA, 2012), (IATA, 2013a) , (IATA, 2013b), (USDOT, 2013). [Note: Data local road, highway, open sources] infrastructure/tunnel/bridge/rail [36]: California, USA [data: (UNEP, 2013); (UNECE, 2013), (TSI, 1009), (SMMT, 2013, (ITF, 2010), (IPPC, 2007), (EST, 2007), (EC, 2012a), (EC, 2012b)] station/airport/water port, city [39]: Vermont, USA [data: (collected in situ), (NHTS, 2009), (EIA, 2008)] center, suburbs, etc.) List existing, [42]: Europe [data: (ICG, 2010), (IEA, 2009), (IPTS, 2003), (IPTS, 2003), (IPTS, 2008), (EEA, 2008), (EEA, 2010), (EC, 2010a), (EC, 2010b)] potential projects if known. [48]: United Kingdom [data: (Tfl, 2013), (TSB, 2012), (NGVA, 1995), (NGVA, 2012a), (NGVA, 2012b), (NGVA, 2013), (IEA, 2010), (Dft, 2009), (NGVA, 2013)] [71]: USA [data not available] [117]: n.a. (Task 4 paper: Schroten, A. Brinke, L., van Essen, H. (CE Delft) and Skinner, I. (TEPR) (2012), Exploration of the potential for less transport- intensive paths to societal goals). [133]:USA, West coast, Inland river and East Coast cases; total fuel cycle analysis; evaluate the use of LNG as an alternative to distillate fuels; consideration of three vessel types (large ocean-going vessel [OGV], inland tug/tow, and coastwise OGV) [data: port databases of vessel calls; (BP, 2013), (TIAX LLC, 2007a), (TIAX LLC, 2007b).

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134]: n.a. – It provides new knowledge about the life-cycle emissions of natural gas compared to traditional petroleum-based fuels in the marine sector. [data: (AAPA, 2013), (ANL, 2014), (IEA, 2012), (IEA, 2015), (IMO, 2013), (IMO, 2014a), (IMO, 2014b), (EC, 2013), (EP, 2012), (EP, 2014), (NREL, 2013), (TIAX LLC,2007a), (TIAX LLC,2007b), (UNCTAD,2013)]. [135]: n.a. – It investigates the well-to-wake energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of several key SOX abatement options in marine transportation. [data: (CONCAWE, 2009), (JRC/EUCAR/CONCAWE, 2008), (EPA, 2000), (EPA, 2011) [136]: n.a. - The aim of this study is to compare the life cycle environmental performance of methane, the energy carrier in LNG, and methanol as marine fuels, considering both natural gas and biomass as raw material. [data: (Bengtsson et al., 2011a, 2012b); (Cooper & Gustafsson, 2004), (NTM, 2008), (NTM, 2010), (CPM, 2013), (ELCD core database version II, 2010), (ELCD core database version II, 2011), (Schori & Frischknecht, 2012), (Edwards et al., 2007), (Edwards et al., 2011b), (Karlsson & Malm, 2005), (IPCC, 2007), (IMO, 2013a), (IMO, 2013b), (IMO, 2013c), (IES, 2012), (IEA, 2013), (EIA, 2013), [137]: China, Shanghai port. [data: (the data of CO2 emission factor and the net calorific value are supplied by 2006 IPCC Guidelines; the data of energy consumptions of road, rail and inland shipping transport are supplied by China Communication Yearbook 2011; Key data on the National Highway and Waterway Traffic Speed Survey Bulletin published by the Ministry of Communication in 2010. [138]: n.a. [data: (IMO, 2009), (IMO, 2010), (EU, 2011), (CBO, 2006)] [139]: case study n.a. [data: (IEA, 2007), (IEA, 2010), (ICAO, 2011), (ICAO, 2012), (IATA, 2009), (IPCC, 2001), (EU, 2008), (EC, 2006), (EC, 2011a), (EC, 2011b), (Boeing, 2012), (Airbus, 2011). [140]: case study n.a. - deals with the opportunities and challenges in the production of aviation biofuel from renewable feedstock [data: (IEA, 2006), (EIA, 2012), (ICAO, 2011), (Future transport fuels, 2011), (International air transport association report on alternative fuels, 2010), (IATA, 2011), (IATA, 2012), (IATA, 2013), (SAFN, 2011). [141]: case study n.a. - define the short-term sustainability objective as the ability to (1) maintain CO2 emissions at or below 2004 levels while (2) meeting increased mobility needs -measured in Revenue Passenger Kilometers (RPKs)- above historical levels. [data: (IPCC, 1999), (ICAO, 2000), (ICAO, 2006), (IATA, 2008a), (IATA, 2008b), (IEA, 2004), (IEA, 2008), (EIA, 2005), (WBSCD, 2004). [143]: Aveiro, Portugal [data: (EC, 2003), (EC, 2007), (EC, 2010), (EC, 2011), (IEA, 2012), (CE/INFRAS/ISI 2011), (IMPACT, 2008), (HEATCO, 2006), (ASNR, 2012), (APA, 2011), (INE, 2013), (DGEG, 2013) [152]: Greece [data: (OECD/IEA, 2007), (OECD/IEA, 2009a), (OECD/IEA, 2009b), (OECD/IEA, 2009c), (OECD/IEA, 2011a), (OECD/IEA, 2011b), (WWF, 2009), (IEA-AMF, 2009), (IEA-AMF, 2011), (IEA-HEV, 2011), (APEC, 2010), (World Bank, 2009)] [153]: n.a. [data: (AEA, 2007), (EERE, 2005)] [154]: n.a. [data: (WWF, 2009), (World Bank, 2009)], (OECD/IEA, 2008), (OECD/IEA, 2009a), (OECD/IEA, 2009b), (OECD/IEA, 2012a), (OECD/IEA, 2012b), (OECD/IEA, 2013), (ECOTEC, 2012), (ERTRAC, 2009), (UBS, 2010). [155]: Sweden [data: (WSP, 2013), (EC, 2011), (EC, 2014)] [156]: USA [data: (TTC, 2014), (Hydrogen Fueling Station Locations. Alternative fuels data center, 2014)]. [157]: n.a. [data obtained under laboratory conditions] [158]: Germany [data: (DIW Berlin’s power plant data-base), (German TSOs), (OECD/IEA 2013), (Egerer, 2014), [159]: n.a. [data: (IEE APEC, 2010), (EIA, 2013). [160]: n.a. [data: (SCADA – Supervisory control and data acquisition), (IEA, 2012), (IEA, 2010), (IET, 2012). [161]: Swedish mainland and the island Gotland - The goal of this study is to evaluate the life cycle performance of two alternative pathways to biofuels in the shipping industry: the ‘diesel route’ and the ‘gas route’. The diesel route comprises of a shift from heavy fuel oil to marine gas oil and then a gradual shift to biodiesel, whereas the gas route comprises of a shift to liquefied natural gas and then a gradual shift to liquefied biogas. [data: (IMO, 2006), (European-Commission, 2009a), (ISO, 2006a), (ISO, 2006b), (Baumann and Tillman, 2004), (Heijungs and Suh, 2002), (Rikstrafiken, 2010), (IPCC, 2007), (Huijbregts et al.,2000), (ELCD-core-database-version-II,2010a), (ELCD-core-database-version-II,2010b), (Andersson and Winnes, 2011), (Peterson, 2009), (Steen et al.,2008a,b), (NTM, 2008), (Cooper and Gustafsson, 2004), (Bernesson, 2004), (JEC, 2008), (Karlsson and Malm, 2005), (AEBIOM, 2011), (EEA,

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2006), (EC, 2009a), (EC, 2009b), (EC, 2011), (Eurostat, 2010), (Eurostat, 2011) (ISO, 2006a), (ISO, 2006b), (EIA, 2012), (SMTF, 2010). [162]: n.a. – it is presented an assessment of the contribution of gaseous and particulate emissions from oceangoing shipping to anthropogenic emissions and air quality, the degradation in human health and climate change. [data: (AMAP, 2006), (EPA, 2000), (EPA, 2002), (EPA, 2006), (European Commission and Entec UK Limited, 2005), (ICCT, 2007), (ICF, 2005), (IEA, 2003), (IEA, 2006), (IMF, 2004), (IMO, 1992), (IMO, 1998), (IPCC, 2007), (ISL, 1994), (ISO, 1987), (UNCTAD, 2007), (UNEP, 2002), (US, 2003), (US, 2001). [164]: case study n.a. - This report constitutes the aviation assessment component of the European 6th Framework project ‘ATTICA’, the ‘European Assessment of Transport Impacts on Climate Change and Ozone Depletion’. [data: (ACARE, 2001), (GbD, 2005), (IEA, 2007), (IPCC, 1999), (IPCC, 2000), (IPCC, 2001), (IPCC, 2007a), (IPCC, 2007b). [166]: Lithuania - transition towards sustainable mobility through the use of biofuels and implementation of the necessary policies to deliver the renewable energy targets. [data: (OECD-FAO, 2011), (LITBIOMA, 2008), (EEA, 2011). [167]: case study n.a. [data: SAF method for estimating the black carbon emissions reduction associated with burning paraffinic alternative jet fuels and blends of these with conventional jet fuels in gas turbines]

Provide status of development for STATUS OF DEVELOPMENT BARRIERS TO DEVELOPMENT OR IMPLEMENTATION OPPORTUNITIES AND BENEFITS FROM the originating concept (concept in DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION title); provide barriers and opportunities for cross modal application of the concept and for modes possibly “applicable to” (in addition to originating concept) DOMAINS TECHNOLOGY ROAD ROAD ROAD Battery electric vehicles: BEVs are powered by Battery electric vehicles: Commercially available BEVs Battery electric vehicles: BEVs operate at a electricity stored in batteries or an electric typically have a limited driving range of about 100 – drive-train efficiency of around 80 % motor connected to a transmission [153]. 160km, long recharge times of four hours or more compared with about 20 – 35 % for BEVs emit no tailpipe emissions and have (except with fast-charging or battery switching conventional ICE LDVs [5]. BEVs with a range potentially very low fuel-production emissions systems), and high battery costs that lead to relatively as low as 60 km and a simple home-charge (when using low-carbon electricity generation) high vehicle retail prices [5]. Battery electric vehicles set-up would be able to accommodate well [5]. suffer from technical limitations that put constraints over 90% of day-to-day driving. However the The option of BEVs as an alternative to on their general use in the transport sector [155]. EV incidence of running out of charge increases conventional internal combustion engine and battery costs are reducing but are still high. Lack markedly for vehicles below 24 kWh (170 km vehicles (ICEVs) is considered for many of infrastructure, and recharging standards are not range). Recharge time in itself has little countries [33]. uniform. Vehicle range anxiety. Lack of capital and impact on the feasibility of BEVs because electricity in some least developed countries [5]. vehicles spend the majority of their time Range can be dramatically impacted by both how a parked. BEVs appear particularly suited for vehicle is driven and use of electrical auxiliaries, and the majority of day-to-day city driving where while unsuitable for long, high-speed journeys without average journey speeds of 34 km/h are close some external re-charging options [33]. When to optimal in terms of maximising vehicle technological and economic characteristics of range [33]. electrical vehicles and hydrogen-fueled fuel cells will Lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries will likely be improved in the future, these vehicles might improve but new battery technologies become the alternative selection for road (e. g., Li-air, Li-metal, Li-sulphur) and ultra-

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transportation [152]. capacitors may be required to achieve much higher energy and power densities [5]. Integrated Technology (e.g. BEVs with Integrated Technology: BEV should be used when Integrated Technology: New drivetrains renewable energy; PHEV with renewable possible due to their high energy efficiency, but they including BEV would enable efficient use of energy, etc.): Integrated technology comprises have to be complemented by other vehicles to fulfill renewable energy sources in passenger the use of renewable energy to feed electric all the needs in the light duty transport sector [155]. vehicles [155]. The integrated energy system vehicles. The potential role of integrated of renewable energy sources could provide a energy and mobility systems, namely regarding total of 2.6 MWh/household.year. This value using renewable energy sources to represents 26.0% of the actual households’ generate electricity and to shift to greener needs for daily functional trips and it would vehicles leads to a more efficient and low provide 100.0% of the 2020´s energy carbon urban system [143]. mobility needs, avoiding around 1.3 tonnes CO2/household.year [143]. If BEVs penetrate Note: PHEV: Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles the market in greater proportions, annual energy consumption and related GHG emissions will stay lower during the entire observed period (considering the use renewable energy to produce electricity)[42].

Opportunities for BEVs and PHEVs based on renewable energy cited in [5]: Universal standards adopted for EV rechargers; Demonstration in green city areas with plug- in infrastructure; Decarbonized electricity; Smart grids based on renewable; EV subsidies; New business models, such as community car sharing.

Hybrid technology: that includes hybrid electric Hybrid technology: The connected vehicle technology Hybrid technology: Hybrid drive-trains can vehicles (HEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric (CVT) comprises different and complex optimization provide reductions up to 35 % compared to vehicles (PHEVs), which combine standard strategies [13]. PHEVs capable of grid recharging similar non-hybridized vehicle [5]. Micro internal combustion engines (ICEs) running on typically can operate on battery electricity for 20 to 50 hybrid vehicle exhibits a 14.13% of fuel petrol or diesel with an electric drivetrain km, but emit CO2 when their ICE is operating. The consumption improvement with respect to motor [153]. Both from the perspective of CO2 electric range of PHEVs is heavily dependent on the the conventional vehicle, 9.8% being reached reduction and of reducing dependence on fossil size of battery, design architectures, and control by the stop&start and regenerative braking fuels, the development of more efficient drive strategies for the operation of each mode [5]. From features. With the proposed real time trains is crucial [31]. These vehicles are quite the research point of view, the relatively small control law, a 4.3% fuel consumption

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affordable and allow significant fuel capacity of these hybridization systems requires to improvement has been demonstrated in real consumption reduction, in particular during design new energy management law that account for time driving condition [29]. The analysis urban driving [29]. PHEVs have been introduced these constraint [29]. suggests that PHEVs with CVT yielded to reduce fossil fuel consumption [13]. between 60 to 80 percent savings in energy consumption compared to PHEVs without the CVT [13]. Trucks and buses that operate largely in urban areas with a lot of stop-and- go travel can achieve substantial benefits from using electric hybrid or hydraulic hybrid drive-trains. Typically a 20 – 30 % reduction in fuel consumption can be achieved via hybridization [5]. Hybrid Commercial Vehicle project set an ambitious target in terms of fuel savings (30%) [31]. Energy consumption and related GHG emissions will be lower insofar as hybrid vehicles penetrate the market at a higher rate [42]. Fuel cell electric vehicles: FCEVS use hydrogen Fuel cell electric vehicles: Lower penetration of Fuel cell electric vehicles: Fuel cells typically as an energy source [153]. FCEVs can be hydrogen technology in the market [155] and high operate with a conversion efficiency of 54 – configured with conventional, hybrid, or plug-in cost increment [5]. 61 % (significantly better than [5]. FCVs hybrid drive-trains. The fuel cells generate produce no tailpipe emissions except water electricity from hydrogen that may be and can offer a driving range similar to generated on-board (by reforming natural gas, today’s gasoline / diesel LDVs [5]. Hydrogen- methanol, ammonia, or other hydrogen- fuelled fuel cell vehicles may become a containing fuel), or produced externally and feasible alternative considering biofuel and stored on-board after refueling [5]. The well-to- BEVs barriers [155]. An increased hydrogen wheel analysis reveal that the system demand may have a less than expected efficiencies for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are impact on the primary energy supply in comparable to those of methane gas vehicles, Sweden [155]. New drivetrains including even when biomethane is the energy source FCEV would enable efficient use of renewable [155]. As a complement to BEV, FCEV with energy sources in passenger vehicles [155]. If hydrogen are, in terms of effective use of HFCVs penetrate the market in greater energy sources, a more interesting alternative proportions, annual energy consumption and than ICEV with methane since it was found that related GHG emissions will stay lower during FCEV have a higher well-to-wheel energy the entire observed period (considering the efficiency from methane and biomass [155]. use renewable energy to produce electricity) [42]. Alternative fuels: The transportation sector is Alternative fuels: The evaluation of alternative fuels is Alternative fuels: It is concluded that changing radically to meet both climate change performed according to various criteria that include synthetic natural gas and electricity from and energy security concerns. Regarding the economic, technical, social and policy aspects [154]. biomass incineration are the most suitable cost variety and policy criteria applied to an The evaluation of alternative fuel modes is performed next generation biomass derived fuels for the

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AHP model (Analytic Hierarchy Process) leads according to cost and policy aspects. [152]. Biofuels transport sector [154]. Alternative fuels such to the conclusion that ICE with 1st and 2nd have a limited technical production potential [155]. All as Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) and Liquid generation biofuels are the best solution for the ethanol blends have similar or identical CO2 emissions Petroleum Gas (LPG) can be advantageous to future[152]. Different alternatives of fuels are to standard petrol, but increased volumetric and mitigate CO2 emissions [157]. These considered: biohydrogen, bio-synthetic gravimetric fuel consumption (rising to a very high solutions are also compatible to current EU natural gas, bio-dimethyl ether, bio-methanol, level for high blends such as E85). For ethanol blends policies that promote increased biofuels hydro thermal upgrading diesel, bio-ethanol, the environmental performance depends fully on the blending to conventional transportation algal biofuel and electricity from biomass origin of the ethanol and the sustainability and energy fuels. Biofuels are a clear choice for incineration [154]. Biogas is produced from the intensity of its production process [157]. In the alternative fuel selection since they reduce degradation of organic material from renewable and biofuels arena only bankable projects oil imports and increase employment at wastewater treatment plants, landfills, slurry can survive, especially in a reduced subsidy relatively lower cost [152]. pits or grass by anaerobic digestion [153]. environment [154]. Liquid biofuels derives from organic sources of Both electricity and hydrogen offer the material, including bioethanol, biodiesel, pure opportunity to use renewable energy from a plant oil (PPO) and used cooking oil (UCO)[153]. wide range of source in the transport sector, and both enable driving with zero local emissions. Given their range limitations it is likely that electric vehicles will be used more for short to medium distance trips in urbanised areas, while hydrogen could be more suited for applications where a larger range is required [117]. Hydrogen vehicles may include vehicles with internal combustion engines, but for the longer term fuel cell powered vehicles are expected to prevail [117]. Other aspects: Improving the efficiency of Other aspects: Lower fuel consumption can ICEVs aims to raise the fuel economy of trucks be achieved by reducing the loads that the by 50% and light-duty engines by 25% to 40% engine must overcome, such as aerodynamic through a variety of technology pathways [71]. forces, auxiliary components (including lighting and air conditioners), and rolling resistance. Changes that reduce energy loads include improved aerodynamics, more efficient auxiliaries, lower rolling-resistance tyres, and weight reduction. With vehicle performance held constant, reducing vehicle weight by 10 % gives a fuel economy improvement of about 7 %. Together, these non-drive-train changes offer potential fuel consumption reductions of around 25 %. Combined with improved engines and drive-

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train systems, overall LDV fuel consumption for new ICE-powered vehicles could be reduced by at least half by 2035 compared to 2005 [5]. AIR AIR AIR Alternative fuels: The properties of alternative Alternative fuels: Hydrogen aircraft are considered Alternative fuels: If total climate impact is aviation fuels are (1) reduced greenhouse gas only a very long run option due to hydrogen’s low considered then the impact of widespread emission (2) renewable resources (3) energy density and the difficulty of storing it on board, biofuel use may still be large [139]. compatibility with conventional fuel (4) which requires completely new aircraft designs and As emissions released during flight are sustainability and clean burning [140]. likely significant compromises in performance. For unlikely to change significantly when drop-in The potential for renewable energy sources in small, light aircraft, advanced battery electric / motor biofuels are substituted for Jet A, non-CO2 aviation consider ethanol and methanol systems could be deployed but would have limited climate impacts per flight will not show the unsuitable, particularly because of their low range [5]. same significant decrease as is seen in energy density. On the other hand it shall be Regarding renewable energy sources, the price gaps lifecycle CO2 [139]. noted that: (i) biodiesel as partial substitute for between bio and conventional jet fuels, sustainability Climate impacts in terms of global warming kerosene (which is the fuel mostly used in civil and financial problems in commercialization are major potential are less favourable than CO2 aviation and the majority of the emitted species concerns in the development of alternative jet fuels. climate impacts for biofuel use, dependent are produced by its combustion) would reduce Economic and environmental issues including land- on the time horizon of the chosen output fuel cycle carbon emissions; (ii) Synthetic water usage, greenhouse gas (GHG) and particulate climate metric. Results indicate that kerosene, produced from biomass feedstock emissions, fuel-food competition are the major widespread use of aviation biofuel may lead via the Fischer–Tropsch process, reduces fuel obstacles come across. Sustainability is a big obstacle to a scenario in which aviation growth is cycle carbon emissions as well, and (iii) Burning to overcome which depends mainly on the availability accompanied by flat or decreasing carbon LH2 would eliminate emissions of all carbon of feedstock and the fuel production route that bring emissions but an increasing total climate bearing species including soot, and sulphur out social, economic and environmental impacts. impact [139]. oxides [164]. The challenges in the development of alternative The use of alternative fuels (e.g. CH4 - The currently developing alternative fuels fuels for aviation are described in [140] as follows: methane, LH2 - Liquid hydrogen) could be an includes the following: Hydroprocessed Environmental challenges (*); production issues (**); option for reducing contrails because they renewable jet fuels; Fischer Tropsch fuels; Distribution problems; Feedstock availability and involved changes in EIH2O (water vapour Biodiesel; Liquid biohydrogen and sustainability, Compatibility of renewable jet fuels emission index) and Q (specific heat content biomethane, and Bio alcohols. Renewable with conventional fuels. of the fuel). Contrail is determined almost feedstocks are better sources for the (*)“One of the major issues that should be faced is the exclusively by thermodynamics principles and production of bio jet fuels. Some examples are: social and environmental impact of fuel production atmospheric conditions in which engine Camelina, Jatropha, Algae, Wastes, Halophytes and management. 2.5% of man-made carbon dioxide emissions are released. Technical mitigation [140]. The important advantages of these was from aviation sector in 2005 and it is expected to options for contrails are possible for those feedstock are (1) sustainability (2) carbon be come 4–4.7% by 2050” [140]. that: (i) lead to a decrease in the water dioxide recycling (3) renewability (4) eco- (**) “Cost effectiveness of the process and feedstock vapour emission index (EIH2O); (ii) lead to an friendly technology and (5) less dependence on flexibility are major hurdles related to production increase in the specific heat content of the petroleum supplying countries [140]. process”[140]. fuel (Q), or (iii) lead to a decrease of the overall propulsion efficiency [164]. Recent measurement campaigns for alternative aviation fuels indicate that black carbon

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emissions from gas turbines are reduced significantly with the use of alternative jet fuels that are low in aromatic content. This could have significant climate and air quality- related benefits that are currently not accounted for in environmental assessments of alternative jet fuels. Reducing the aromatic content in fuels would result in air quality and climate benefits [167]. The production of alternative aviation fuels from renewable bioresources is a highly promising technology which is expected to substitute the petroleum based fuels. Among the various processes and alternative fuels, hydroprocessed renewable jet fuel (HRJ) and Fisher Tropsch fuels (FT fuels) have the potential to replace the conventional jet fuels [140]. Considering the feedstock, non-edible oils, biomass and algae can contribute as potential feedstock, while algae can be used as raw material for the production of fuel in the regions such as Australia, Arabia, north- west Africa and deserts in the United States while evaluating their availability. The production process can be improved by adopting new production technologies and by the use of locally available feedstock which will bring out regional development [140].

Technological efficiency improvement: capture Technological efficiency improvement*: it is difficult Technological efficiency improvement: With a set of measures related to vehicle (i.e. to improve fuel efficiency during the en-route cruise increasing demand for air transportation aircraft) performance including; (1) improved phase of flight because of technology barriers, safety worldwide and decreasing marginal fuel engine design such as 3D compressor blades, requirements, and the mode of operations of air efficiency improvements, the contribution of (2) improved aerodynamics using laminar flow transportation [34]. aviation to climate change relative to other wing profiles, non-planar wings, active wings, sectors is projected to increase in the future (3) reduced aircraft empty weight through the (*) related to aircraft fuel efficiency performance. [141]. Fuel efficiency gains of 40 – 50 % in use of lightweight material such as composites, the 2030 – 2050 timeframe (compared to reconfigure airplane interior, etc. [141]. 2005) could come from weight reduction,

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aerodynamic and engine performance Transport energy demand per capita in Strategies to reduce the carbon intensities of fuel and improvements, and aircraft systems design developing and emerging economies is far the rate of reducing carbon intensity are constrained [5]. lower than in OECD countries but is expected to by challenges associated with energy storage and the increase at a much faster rate in the next relatively low energy density of low-carbon transport decades due to rising incomes and the fuels; integrated and sectoral studies broadly agree development of infrastructure [5]. that opportunities for fuel switching exist in the short term and will grow over time [5]. Renssen (2012), cited by [5] observed a The emissions intensity of aviation could decline by doubling of shipping and aviation emissions around 50 % in 2030 but the levelized costs of between 1990 and 2010. conserved carbon , although uncertain, are probably over USD 100 / tCO2eq. While it is expected that mitigation costs will decrease in the future, the magnitude of such reductions is uncertain [5]. High Speed Civil Transport (HSCT): The HSCT: The potential market for the HSCT is limited by HSCT: Increase transport speed and range technology for a commercial supersonic aircraft economic and environmental considerations [164]. [164]. – often referred to as ‘High Speed Civil Transport’ (HSCT) – is being developed in the United States, Europe, and Japan [164]. WATER WATER WATER Natural gas: it will reduce sulphur oxides and Natural gas: the adoption of liquefied natural gas Natural gas: a technology transition to particulate matter as local air pollutants; (LNG) fuels will depend on several energy policy, natural gas is not immediately climate however the contribution of natural gas as a infrastructure development and technological related neutral without further research (for marine fuel to reduce greenhouse gas drivers such as engine design innovations to reduce technological improvements) in both emissions will depend on how the natural gas methane slip during combustion and shipbuilding that upstream and downstream CH4 leakage is extracted, processed, distributed and used. accommodates naval architecture requirements control [134]. Considering the technology OECD America and OECD Europe demonstrate a matching onboard LNG fuel storage and propulsion transition from petroleum to liquefied consistent set of drivers favouring adoption of with and emerging LNG bunkering sector. Economic natural gas in marine transportation, the natural gas technology in marine transportation drivers such as the relative price advantage and its technology warming potential (TWP) shows [134]. regional variation and the expected demand for new that natural gas will achieve climate parity Continued improvements to minimize technology will affect how quickly natural gas fuels by within 30 years for diesel ignited engines, downstream emissions of methane during ne adopted by marine transport [134]. A full-scale though could take up to 190 years to reach vessel-engine operations will also contribute to conversion to LNG is less likely in the near term given climate parity with conventional fuels in a lower GHG emissions from marine applications better niche matches such as: (a) the better fit of LNG spark ignited engine without energy policy of natural gas fuels [133]. fuel to shorter transport routes that enable frequent and technology intervention [134]. Natural fueling (technology limit); (b) impractical long-term gas can meet or exceed environmental development of necessary LNG and delivery to ships standards economically if the observed price (infrastructure limit); and (c) multi-decade (up to 190 differences between gas and petroleum years) time before achieving fleetwide climate-neutral persist [134]. The contribution of natural gas performance of LNG in marine transportation [134]. to GHG reduction is important because growing supplies of natural gas can provide a

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feasible and economic alternative fuel to improve air quality in and near populated regions of the world [133]. Alternative marine fuels : Liquefied natural gas Alternative marine fuels: The possible reduction of Alternative marine fuels: LNG and methanol (LNG), liquefied biogas (LBG), methanol and the impact on climate change with LBG will depend on produced from natural gas will not reduce bio-methanol [136] the magnitude of the methane slip from the gas and the global warming potential in the life cycle. dual fuel engines [136]. The raw materials considered However, using methane and methanol for biofuel production in [136] are willow and forest produced from biomass is one possible residues which may represent a barrier in some pathway to reducing shipping greenhouse regions. gas emissions [136]. A transition to use of LNG or methanol produced from natural gas would significantly improve the overall environmental performance. However, the impact on climate change is of the same order of magnitude as with use of heavy fuel oil. It is only the use of LBG and bio-methanol that has the potential to reduce the climate impact [136]. A future demand for carbon neutral fuel production might shift the production from use of fossil resources to renewables. Which energy carrier that will be preferable will depend on if the methanol engines will be comparable with the gas engines regarding efficiency and exhaust emissions and on the magnitude of the methane slip from gas and dual fuel engines [136]. Biofuels: it will be possible to reduce the global Biofuels: Although biofuels can be used to decrease Biofuels: Since the use of gaseous fuels warming impact (GWI) from shipping by using the GWI from shipping, but it is possible that it is more promotes lower emission reductions during biofuels [161]. Bio-oils, such as palm oil, cost efficient to use the biomass in other sectors the life cycle it can be used to reduce the coconut oil, rapeseed oil, soya oil and others [161]. impact on human health from shipping [161]. have been suggested as fuel for small low power combustion engines. Recently, the first tests with biofuels have been made with land- based medium-speed diesel engines in the power range of several MW, and the first few commercial biofuel engines have been sold already by manufacturers. Bio-diesel, offer some potential to reduce particulate atter and are being evaluated for their potential to reduce CO2 emissions on a life-cycle basis

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(including carbon uptake during plant growth) [162]. Combination of technology (e.g. fuel cells and Combination of technology: The disadvantage of solar Combination of technology: The employing solar cells): Alternative power systems or the panels today is their huge price level along their size in of alternative propulsion (fuel cell, solar, combination of those with the traditional ship order to provide an appropriate power density [162]. wind-skysails and Magnus effect-flettner energy source could reduce GHG emissions Full electrification appears unlikely given the energy rotor) can help to mitigate the GHG from ships. A few commercial installations of storage requirements for long-range operations, emissions from maritime transport [166]. fuel cells (FC) onboard very small ships are although on-board solar power generation systems Wind propulsion systems such as kites and currently in use. Wind can be used as could be used to provide auxiliary power and is parafoils can provide lift and propulsion to propellant for ships in two ways, as a power already used for small craft [5]. reduce fuel consumption by up to 30 %, producer by wind turbines or as a thruster though average savings may be much less. producer by sails or similar devices. Photovoltaics and small wind turbines can Solar cells, as fuel cells, are the type of prime provide on-board electricity and be part of movers that produce energy without torque ‘cold ironing’ electric systems in ports [5]. [162]. Fuel cell systems (commonly solid-oxide) with electric motors could be used for propulsion, either with hydrogen fuel directly loaded and stored on board or with on-board reforming. However, the cost of such systems appears relatively high, as are nuclear power systems as used in some navy vessels [5]. INFRASTRUCTURE ROAD ROAD ROAD Technological efficiency improvement: capture Technological efficiency improvement*: it is difficult Technological efficiency improvement: With a set of measures related to vehicle (i.e. to improve fuel efficiency during the en-route cruise increasing demand for air transportation aircraft) performance including; (1) improved phase of flight because of technology barriers, safety worldwide and decreasing marginal fuel engine design such as 3D compressor blades, requirements, and the mode of operations of air efficiency improvements, the contribution of (2) improved aerodynamics using laminar flow transportation [34]. aviation to climate change relative to other wing profiles, non-planar wings, active wings, (*) related to aircraft fuel efficiency performance. sectors is projected to increase in the future (3) reduced aircraft empty weight through the [141]. Fuel efficiency gains of 40 – 50 % in use of lightweight material such as composites, Strategies to reduce the carbon intensities of fuel and the 2030 – 2050 timeframe (compared to reconfigure airplane interior, etc. [141]. the rate of reducing carbon intensity are constrained 2005) could come from weight reduction, by challenges associated with energy storage and the aerodynamic and engine performance Transport energy demand per capita in relatively low energy density of low-carbon transport improvements, and aircraft systems design developing and emerging economies is far fuels; integrated and sectoral studies broadly agree [5]. lower than in OECD countries but is expected to that opportunities for fuel switching exist in the short increase at a much faster rate in the next term and will grow over time [5]. decades due to rising incomes and the The emissions intensity of aviation could decline by development of infrastructure [5]. around 50 % in 2030 but the levelized costs of conserved carbon , although uncertain, are probably Renssen (2012), cited by [5] observed a over USD 100 / tCO2eq. While it is expected that doubling of shipping and aviation emissions mitigation costs will decrease in the future, the

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between 1990 and 2010. magnitude of such reductions is uncertain [5]. High Speed Civil Transport (HSCT): The HSCT: The potential market for the HSCT is limited by HSCT: Increase transport speed and range technology for a commercial supersonic aircraft economic and environmental considerations [164]. [164]. – often referred to as ‘High Speed Civil Transport’ (HSCT) – is being developed in the United States, Europe, and Japan [164]. AIR AIR Ground support equipment and Ground support equipment and infrastructures: Aviation infrastructure consists infrastructures: Investments in non-road primarily of airport terminals, runways/tarmacs infrastructure can result in some reduction of and ground support equipment (GSE). These road congestion, the GHG effect depends aspects of aviation infrastructure are found at strongly on the specific case. When a true airport sites but their use depends on both the shift from road is achieved, GHG emission size and function of the airport. Aviation reduction can be significant, but when most infrastructures are complex and different of the traffic on the new infrastructure comes infrastructure systems are generally owned or from other (non-road or aviation) modes, the operated by different organisations or GHG impact can be neutral or sometimes companies, resulting in different impacts on even negative [117]. energy and GHG emissions [117]. To reduce fuel consumption and emissions during surface movement at airports, The total emissions from infrastructure innovative control strategies and construction and operation are estimated to technologies of alternative taxiing systems account for around 3.2% of lifecycle emissions have been developed in recent years. Besides from aviation. This is very small compared to the single-engine taxiing, engineless taxiing the 92.7% of GHG emissions due to the with innovative AGPS has shown the most operation of aircraft (i.e. jet fuel lifecycle promise and could be ready in the very near emissions) [117]. future. These engineless taxiing methods can be categorized into two groups: (1) external AGPS with tractors/vehicles attached to aircraft for towing and (2) on-board AGPS with motors installed in the wheels [34]. Alternative AGPS can significantly reduce fuel burn and emissions during taxiing compared with conventional scenarios. On-board AGPS shows the best performance in emissions reduction, and external AGPS consumes the least fuel [34]. WATER WATER WATER Alternative fuels (to short sea shipping): Heavy Alternative fuels (to short sea shipping): Raw Alternative fuels (to short sea shipping): The Fuel Oil (HFO), Marine Gas Oil (MGO), biomass- materials are not distributed evenly around the world; methane-based fuels LNG, LBGar (liquefied

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to-liquid (BTL), rapeseed methyl ester (RME), also, infrastructure for fuel distribution must be built biogas from agricultural residues) and LBGfr liquefied natural gas (LNG) and liquefied biogas [12]. (liquefied biogas from forest residues) have (LBG) [12]. Ships powered using alternative fuels such as nuclear lower acidification potential, eutrophication power or hydrogen require ports that are able to store potential and human health impact than the and handle these fuels [117]. fuels of diesel quality[12]. Whilst the range of infrastructure that makes up ports Some port GHG footprinting studies have can be quite extensive, little literature currently exists shown that the impacts of port operation are that considers the embedded CO2 emissions split roughly 40%:40%:20% for direct associated with its production [117]. emissions due to fuel consumption of port vessels and equipment, electricity consumption of port equipment and offices, and emissions due to travel (commuting and business) by port staff [117]. Equipment: The GHG emissions can be Equipment: It will improve the energy mitigated by optimizing conventional efficiency (auxiliary systems, heat propulsion and related to improving the exchangers, econometer) and avoiding of efficiency of fuel-handling equipment [166]. over-dimensioning [166]. Scrubber system: used with current heavy fuel Scrubber system: The contributions from scrubber oils, has the potential to reduce SOX emissions consumables and seawater acidification are relatively with lower well-to-wake energy consumption small compared to the other parts, and the and greenhouse gas emissions than switching combustion phase is still the dominant contributor to production of low sulfur fuels at the refinery [135]. [135]. GOVERNANCE ROAD ROAD ROAD Electric technology: The continual Electric technology: Despite the environmental and Electric technology: Electric vehicles may development of electric vehicle power train, economic benefits, electric vehicles charging bring about numerous benefits, such as lower battery and charger technologies have further introduce negative impactson the existing network emissions of various air pollutants and noise, improved the electric vehicle technologies for operation. Appropriate charging management increasing energy efficiency compared to wider uptake [159]. Effective policies must be strategies can be implemented to cater for this issue internal combustion engines, and the developed and implemented which promote [159]. The overall energy requirements of electric substitution of oil as the main primary energy the installation of the appropriate required vehicles should not be of concern to policy makers for source for road transport [158]. PEVs reduce energy infrastructure and the use of electric the time being whereas their impact on peak loads petroleum consumption and reduce (CO2 and hydrogen-fuelled vehicles. Electric and should be. The policy makers should be aware that emissions and criteria pollutants, relative to hydrogen-fuelled vehicles need to reach cost-optimized charging not only increases the conventional vehicles [71]. Furthermore, significant market shares. The environmental utilization of renewable energy, but also of low-cost electric vehicle integration in the smart grid impact of the applied electric and hydrogen- emission-intensive plants. If the introduction of can bring many potential opportunities, fuelled vehicles must be such that it leads to a electric mobility is linked to the use of renewable especially from the perspective of vehicle-to- significant net reduction in GHG emissions. This energy, as repeatedly stated by the German grid technology and as the solution for the relates to the WTW GHG emissions associated government, it has to be made sure that a renewable energy intermittency issue [159]. with energy use and probably to a lesser extent corresponding amount of renewables is added to the PEVs are an acknowledged means to achieve to the embedded GHG emissions associated system. Cost-driven charging, which resembles sustainability, economic, and policy goals

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with vehicle manufacturing and market-driven or profit-optimizing charging in a [71]. BEVs and PHEVs opportunities are: decommissioning [117]. All in all the perfectly competitive market, can only lead to Decarbonized electricity; EV subsidies; New implementation of electricity and hydrogen as emission-optimal outcomes if emission externalities business models, such as community car GHG reduction options for the transport sector are correctly priced – as, for example, in a sensitivity sharing [5]. Policy can drive incentives for is a transition that involves drastic and analysis that assumes double CO2 prices. Otherwise, new technologies. There are incentives for structural changes in both the transport and cost-driven charging may lead to above-average PHEVs that are implicit in present the energy sector and that will take several specific emissions, and even to higher emissions regulations. For example, the CAFE costs of decades to start up, roll out and complete. compared to the user-driven mode. Accordingly, compliance benefits are robust across Governments and stakeholders in the market policy makers should make sure that CO2 emissions automakers. Automakers and policy makers need endurance and a long term vision to are adequately priced. Controlled charging of future set the conditions under which a technology manage this transition in an effective way. electric vehicle fleets interacts with other potential will or will not succeed [71]. EV impacts on Mitigating risks and taking away uncertainties is sources of flexibility in the system [158]. Green the system peak load could be substantially an important part of that [117]. The point most policies aimed to promote the use of low carbon reduced if vehicle owners would agree to frequently mentioned by operators in Hybrid vehicles (with a specific focus on electric motors) may have not the full battery capacity charged as buses forum was political interest and support bring some disproportionate impacts in society due to quickly as possible after connecting to the [31]. changes in mobility (some aspects are restricted by grid, but only a (possibly large) fraction of it parameters of the case study itself). Subsidies tested [158]. External funding was seen as the tend to reduce user costs but are not as successful in largest influencing factor (18) to accepting reducing emissions and may only benefit the more higher costs for hybrid vehicles, but political affluent in society who may also benefit from reduced pressure (14) and increasing fuel prices (13) operating costs [36]. were also seen as important driving forces – more important than CO2 reduction (10) and general emission reduction (10) [31]. Biofuels: Biofuels have been expected to Biofuels: A robust biofuels policy strategy should be Biofuels: Research and development of new contribute significantly to future GHG emission developed. This should take the complexity of the (2nd generation) biofuels production reductions in the transport sector, as they can issues into account and arrive at realistic estimates for processes needs to be promoted and theoretically offer significant GHG savings and biofuels supply and GHG emission reduction achieved incentivised, to ensure a diverse biomass use there is a large global potential (at least in in the future. This strategy should take into account in the future that does not compete with the theory) and they do not require a completely land use and its impacts on GHG emissions and other food sector nor lead to significant negative new infrastructure or engine technology. sustainability issues and also consider alternative uses impacts from land use change. Potential However, there are still quite a number of risks of the biomass. Is not only important for agricultural compatibility problems of the biofuels with and uncertainties related to actually achieving commodities, it is also important for waste and existing vehicles or engines may need to be this potential [117]. residues: these are often in use for other purposes. addressed. In addition, policies need to be Shifting them towards the biofuels sector will cause a developed for biofuels use in aviation and shift to other, perhaps less sustainable feedstocks in maritime shipping, two sectors that have to the other sectors. The biofuels strategy should thus operate in a global context and thus may not only be looking at transport, but it should be require implementation of global biofuels (or positioned in the larger context of increasing global rather renewable energy) policies in the food and feed demand, and take into account that longer term [117]. other industries are also aiming to switch to low- carbon materials in the coming decades [117].

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Natural gas: Small scale and low cost policy Natural gas: The CO2 emissions of natural interventions were identified, at national level gas present lower local air pollutants [48]. including maintaining tax differentials; easing payload restrictions; and limited support for refuelling facilities alongside local policy initiatives, that could help to kick-start the market of natural gas at least at a niche level [48]. A capital cost of refueling station [48]. Lack of refuelling infrastructure [48]. Other policy options: Policy-makers have a Charging schemes: A new approach to range of options and should consider the mitigate the potential negative impacts of following: (i) develop a transition strategy and electric vehicle charging on the power engage in scenario planning on a cooperative distribution infrastructure. Unlike basis with industry stakeholders; (ii) identify optimization-based approaches to electric potential ‘lead adopters’ and develop a strategy vehicle charge management, which have for strategic niche management; (iii) develop been proposed by others, our method does stakeholder partnerships with industry and not require information about the vehicles consumer groups; (iv) promote the adoption of future state (e.g., battery state of charge, a new sociotechnological regime through arrival time, departure time, etc.) in order to awareness campaigns and education compute a charging schedule. Our approach, programmes; (v) change the taxation structure in contrast, allows the charging behavior of by taxing negative externalities such as GHG vehicles to adapt to constraints in a power emissions and creating positive incentives system, in near real-time. This new approach through excise relief and subsidies; and (vi) requires very little data from the vehicles, ensure a consistent mix of policy and regulatory and what information it does need is signals, which offer long-term certainty [153]. anonymous to the central aggregator, and thus the new approach maintains privacy. This new approach to power delivery mimics the means by which data is moved through communication networks [39]. AIR AIR AIR Alternative fuels (and energy policies): There Alternative fuels: (and energy policies) Shortage of Alternative fuels (and energy policies): the are several types and sources of fuels that inducements and programmes to scale up sustainable use of biofuels provides a respite from could be used in the aviation industry as production and carbon prices and allows airline profitability replacement of traditional jet fuels. Biofuels distribution of feedstock, lack of cost effective to fare better than the baseline or the carbon comprise fuels from (1) 1st generation biofuels technologies for production of biojet fuels are the pricing scenarios produced from sugars, starches, oils or fats, existing complications that slow down the research in alone[141]. that compete with food production and can this field [140]. have negative environmental impacts such as Limited synergies between the use of biofuels and Production and commercialization of bio jet deforestation, (2) 2nd generation biofuels carbon pricing were identified in [141]. fuels can influence land, water and food made from sustainable sources of biomass such resources, biodiversity and can make as forest residues, industry residues, municipal What is necessary in assessing whether biofuels offer economical and social impacts [140].

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waste and sustainable grown biomass and (3) an advantage over conventional kerosene is a 3rd generation biofuels made from sustainable, complete life-cycle analysis, including accounting for Policies need to be developed for biofuels non-food biomass sources such as algae, switch other potential associated GHG emissions (e.g. N2O since it have to operate in a global context grass, jatropha, babassu and halophytes [141]. from fertilized land)[164]. and thus may require implementation of global biofuels (or rather renewable energy) In aviation, policies do not yet exist to policies in the longer term. Once the policies introduce low-carbon biofuels. However, the are implemented, the effects should be projected GHG emission reductions from monitored critically, as the market may the possible future use of biofuels, as assumed respond differently than expected [117]. by the aviation industry, vary between 19 % of its adopted total emission reduction goal The ACARE (Advisory Council for Aeronautical (Sustainable Aviation, 2008) to over 50 % (IATA, Research in Europe) published visionary goals 2009),depending on the assumptions made for in 2001 for a greener future air traffic system, the other reduction options that include comprising technology development to energy efficiency, improved operation and reduce 50% of CO2 emissions per trading emission permits [5]. passenger.km and 80% for NOX considering the year of reference 2000 [164]. The energy efficiency of aircraft has improved It has been suggested that for the historically without any policies in force, but improvements in CO2, 40% will come from with the rate of fuel consumption reducing over the airframe, 40% from the engine and 20% time from an initial 3 – 6 % in the 1950s to from improved operations [164]. between 1 % and 2 % per year at the beginning of the 21st century (Pulles et al., 2002; Fulton For the aviation system efficiency, the use of and Eads, 2004; Bows et al., 2005; Peeters) market policies to reduce GHG emissions is and Middel, 2007; Peeters et al., 2009), cited by compelling because it introduces a price [5]. signal that influences mitigation actions across the entire system [5]. Operational efficiency improvements: Operational efficiency improvements: A Operational efficiency improvements: include strategy, designed to achieve effects of airline operations (e.g. aircraft weight environmentally optimum flight routings reductions by removing unnecessary onboard (avoiding ice supersaturated air masses) equipment) and air traffic control operations especially for flights in the evening and night (e.g. fuel optimized flight path, altitude, hours, is now being investigated as part of reduced ATC delays, etc.) [141]. the German climate protection programme [164]. Strategies that focus on short-term Growing public and political pressures are likely improvements of the fleet are more effective to further target air transportation to reduce its from a CO2 emissions perspective [141]. greenhouse gas emissions [141]. Improving air traffic management can reduce CO2 emissions through more direct routings Operational efficiency improvements are and flying at optimum altitudes and speeds. achieved by changing the airline and air traffic Efficiency improvements of ground service

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control operations of the aircraft. This is equipment and electric auxiliary power units achieved by (1) aircraft weight reduction such can provide some additional GHG reductions as reducing fuel ferrying practices, limiting the [5]. number and weight of baggage, etc. (2) optimize flight operations for fuel consumption which includes measures such as reduce cruise speed, optimize climb/descent paths, operate at optimum cruise level, use continuous decent approach, etc. and (3) optimize ground operations such as single engine taxi, optimize ground paths, minimize queuing, use tow-tugs instead of engine power for taxing, etc [141].

Mitigation of aviation’s effects on climate change and the ozone layer may be first understood as a technological problem, namely to reduce emissions of CO2, NOx, H2O, and aerosols. Technological solutions generally have a long research and development lead time to being available to airlines (and the fleet has a turnover time of approximately 20–25 years), but new operational procedures may provide an additional possibility to reduce the climate impacts of aviation.[164] Technological efficiency improvement: The rate of introduction of major aircraft design concepts could be slow without significant policy incentives, regulations at the regional or global level, or further increases in fuel prices. Retrofit opportunities, such as engine replacement and adding ‘winglets’, can also provide significant reductions [5]. Policy incentives for demand shift and behavior change (e.g. alternative mode choice): Substitution modes and modified behaviors can include teleconferencing for business travelers, choosing vacation locations closer for leisure travelers. In order to provide substitution transportation modes, governments may provide incentives to build and use rail for short-haul trips or

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car-pool, buses, etc [141]. Market based incentives (e.g. carbon pricing and taxes): can be used as a mechanism to increase the effective price of fuel and reduce demand through the price-demand elasticity relationship.[141] Fuel consumption and CO2 emissions can also be impacted through carbon pricing mechanisms such as cap and trade system or direct taxation. [141] WATER WATER WATER Speed sailing: it is a key variable in maritime Speed sailing: If the speed limit is an imposed Speed sailing (reduction): Possible side- transportation [138]. measure and: (i) if the speed limit is above the optimal effects include: (i) Building more ships to speed that is voluntary chosen and (ii) if it bellow, it match demand throughput, with more CO2 may cause distortions in the market and costs that associated with shipbuilding and recycling; (ii) exceed the benefits of speed reduction [138]. Increasing cargo inventory costs due to delayed delivery; (iii) Increasing freight rates due to a reduction in tonne-mile capacity; (iv) Inducing reverse modal shifts to land-based modes (mainly road) that would increase the overall CO2 level, and (v) Implications on ship safety [138]. Intermodal transport: Increasing the Intermodal transport: For international proportion of railway-sea transportation and shipping, combined technical and operational river-sea transportation to a reasonable level measures have been estimated to potentially will achieve great energy saving, emission reduce energy use and CO2 emissions by up reduction and economic benefits [137]. to 43 % per t-km between 2007 and 2020 and by up to 60 % by 2050 [5]. Biofuels: Policies need to be developed for biofuels since it have to operate in a global context and thus may require implementation of global biofuels (or rather renewable energy) policies in the longer term. Once the policies are implemented, the effects should be monitored critically, as the market may respond differently than expected [117]. CUSTOMER ROAD ROAD ROAD Low carbon vehicles: Survey and study results Low carbon vehicles: There are two methods to Low carbon vehicles: There is a relation indicated that drivers like the feel of EVs, improve PHEV market acceptability. The first is between total cost of ownership (TCO) model including the smooth acceleration, good dramatic technology improvements related to battery and consumer acceptability. In the available

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launch, and regenerative braking. Further, cost to lower the incremental costs of PHEVs. The literature on vehicle TCO, there is a owners report that PEVs are simple to drive. second is policy or macroeconomic forces that result philosophical interest in the metric of vehicle Studies also indicated that the most limiting in gasoline prices in the range of $5 per gallon [71]. payback period, informed by the assumption factor in market growth will be the consumer The EV technology has some challenges, that include that rational PHEV consumers will insist on experience with PEVs. Most of the drivers and the slow turnover in the automobile market, high recouping their investment in the costs of households interviewed in the various studies purchase prices, and consumer unfamiliarity with PHEV components with equivalent or greater were satisfied with PEVs [71]. technology or electricity as a fuel [71]. Related to low benefits. Although these studies report TCO, carbon vehicles (with a specific focus on electric payback period, and net benefits, consumers motors), regulatory penalties adoption would achieve do not report performing TCO calculations to Periodic questionnaires and annual workshops the greatest GHG emission reductions but this also inform their vehicle-type decision making. It clearly demonstrate a gap between user imposes large costs on customers [36]. appears the payback period is a sensitive expectations and the experience of practical metric of TCO and consumer acceptability operation of hybrid buses – especially in terms [71]. Consumer preference surveys show that of fuel consumption, reliability/availability and some consumers are willing to purchase maintenance [31]. Considering the same PHEVs with longer payback periods. The payback period is a sensitive metric of Hybrid User Forum organized by the RTD comparison between technologies. Cost project Hybrid Commercial Vehicles, reductions will incrementally improve the there’s also growing interest in full electric consumer acceptability of PHEVs. Vehicle solutions – not only with battery-buses but as supply and vehicle demand must be well with trolley-buses and trolley-battery considered to predict market penetration hybrids [31]. [71]. Opportunities include lower vehicle operating cost, owners’ positive reactions, and numerous designs to meet customer needs [71]. Natural gas: Higher capital cost of natural gas vehicle Natural gas: The natural gas fuel cost is lower and Limited choice of vehicle [48]. [48]. AIR Operational efficiency improvements: The reason for lower effective CO2 emissions reduction is induced demand generated by the reduction of operating cost and airfares. Passengers are the primary beneficiaries of improved efficiency and reduced fuel consumption. The competitive behavior of airlines leads them to translate most of the savings in operating costs achieved from the gains in efficiency to lower costs for the passengers.[141] WATER Navigation operations: General reduction of

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speed, avoiding idling of engine, maneuvering as little as possible and the choice of optimal travel routes represent the set of measures for GHG mitigation from maritime transport [166]. Vessel speed reduction is seen as the single most effective measure to reduce GHG emissions from water transport [166].

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[5] IPCC (2014). Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. [12] Bengtsson, S. ; Fridell, E. & Andersson, K. (2014). Fuels for short sea shipping: A comparative assessment with focus on environmental impact, J Engineering for the Maritime Environment 2014, Vol 228(1) 44–54. [13] Bhavsar, et al. (2014). Energy Consumption Reduction Strategies for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles with Connected Vehicle Technology in an Urban Environment. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, 2424, pp. 29-38. [29] Fotaine, et al. (2014). Automotive fuel economy improvement by micro hybridization. Transport Arena 2014, Paris. [31] Glotz-Richter et al (2014). Hybrid Buses in Europe – expectations and experience presented in the Hybrid User Forum. Transportation Research Board 2014 Annual Meeting. [33] Greaves, S.; Backman, H. & Ellison, A. B. (2014). An empirical assessment of the feasibility of battery electric vehicles for day-to-day driving. Transportation Research Part A 66, pp. 226–237. [34] Guo et al. (2014). Comparison of emerging ground propulsion systems for electrified aircraft taxi operations. Transportation Research Part C 44, pp. 98–109 [36] Harrison, G. & Shepherd, S. (2014). An interdisciplinary study to explore impacts from policies for the introduction of low carbon vehicles. Transportation Planning and Technology, Vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 98–117. [39] Hines, P et al. (2014). Understanding and Managing the Impacts of Electric Vehicles on Electric Power Distribution Systems. A Report from the University of Vermont Transportation Research Center. TRC Report 14-010. [42] Janic, M. (2014). Estimating the long-term effects of different passenger car technologies on energy/fuel consumption and emissions of greenhouse gases in Europe. Transportation Planning and Technology, Vol. 37, No. 5, pp. 409–429. [48] Kirk, J.L.; Bristow, A. L. & Zanni, A. M. (2014). Exploring the market for Compressed Natural Gas light commercial vehicles in the United Kingdom. Transportation Research Part D 29, pp. 22–31. [71] TRB (2014). Sustainable Energy and Transportation Strategies, Researchm and Data. Summary of a Conference. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C. [117] Hill et al (2012). Developing a better understanding of the secondary impacts and key sensitives for the decarbonisation of the EU´s transport sector by 2050. Final Project report produced as part of a contract between European Commisson Directorate-General Climate Action and AEA Technology plc. [133] Corbett, J.J.; Thomson, H; Winebrake, J.J. (2014). Natural gas for Waterborne Freight Transport: a life cycle emissions assessment with case studies. Prepared for U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration. [134] Thomson, H. Corbett, J.J. Winebrake, J.J. (2015). Natural gas as a marine fuel. Energy Policy, volume 87, 153-167. [135] Ma, H.; Steernberg, K.; Riera-Palou, X. & Tait, N. (2012). Well-to-wake energy and greenhouse gas analysis of SOX abatement options for the marine industry. Transportation Research Part D 17, pp. 301–308 [136] Brynolf,S. Fridell, E. Andersson,K. (2014). Environmental assessment of marine fuels: liquefied natural gas, liquefied biogas, methanol and bio-methanol. Journal of Cleaner Production, volume 74, 86-95.

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[137] Jiang, B. Li, J. Mao, X. (2012). Container Ports Multimodal Transport in China from the View of Low Carbon. The Asian Journal on Shipping and Logistics, Volume 28:3, pp. 321-344. [138] Psaraftis, H. N. & Kontovas, C. A., 2013. Speed models for energy-efficient maritime transportation: A taxonomy and survey. Transportation Research Part C, Volume 26, pp. 331-351. [139] Krammer, P. et al. (2013). Climate-neutrality versus carbon-neutrality for aviation biofuel policy. Transportation Research Part D 23, pp. 64–72 [140] Hari, et al. (2015). Aviation biofuel from renewable resources: Routes, opportunities and challenges. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42, pp. 1234–1244 [141] Sgouridis, et al (2011). Air transportation in a carbon constrained world: Long-term dynamics of policies and strategies for mitigating the carbon footprint of commercial aviation. Transportation Research Part A 45, pp. 1077-1091. [143] Prata, J.; Arsenio E. & Pontes, J.P. (2015). Setting a city strategy for low carbon emissions: the role of electric vehicles, renewable energy and energy efficiency. International Journal for Sustainable Development Planning, Volume 10 (2), pp. 190-122. [152] Tsita, K.G. & Pilavahi, P.A. (2012). Evaluation of alternative fuels for the Greek road transport sector using the analytic hierarchy process. Energy Policy 48, 677–686. [153] Browne, D.; O’Mahony, M. & Caulfield B. (2012). How should barriers to alternative fuels and vehicles be classified and potential policies to promote innovative technologies be evaluated? Journal of Cleaner Production 35. pp. 140-151 [154] Tsita, K.G. & Pilavahi, P.A. (2013). Evaluation of next generation biomass derived fuels for the transport sector. Energy Policy 62, 443–455 [155] Larsson, M. et al. (2015). Energy system analysis of the implications of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in the Swedish road transport system. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 40, pp. 11722-11729. [156] Richardson, I.A. et al. (2015). Low-cost, transportable hydrogen fueling station for early market adoption of fuel cell electric vehicles. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 40, pp. 8122-8127. [157] Bielaczyc, P. et al. (2015). The Impact of Alternative Fuels on Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Emissions of Greenhouse Gases from Vehicles Featuring SI Engines. Energy Procedia 66, pp. 21 – 24. [158] Schill, W.P.; Gerbaulet, C. (2015). Power system impacts of electric vehicles in Germany: Charging with coal or renewables? Applied Energy 156 (2015) 185–196. [159] Tan, K.M.; Ramachandaramurthy, Yong, Y.J. (2016]. Integration of electric vehicles in smart grid: A review on vehicle to grid technologies and optimization techniques. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53, pp. 720–732 [160] Yong, Y.J. et al. (2015]. A review on the state-of-the-art technologies of electric vehicle, its impacts and prospects. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49, pp. 365– 385. [161] Bengtsson, S.; Fridell, E. & . Andersson, K., 2012. Environmental assessment of two pathways towards the use of bioufuels in shipping. Energy Policy 44, pp. 451-463. [162] Eyring V. et al. (2010). Transport impacts on atmosphere and climate: Shipping. Atmospheric Environment 44, pp. 4735–4771 [164] Lee D.S. et al. (2010). Transport impacts on atmosphere and climate: Aviation. Atmospheric Environment Volume 44, Issue 37, pp. 4678–4734 [166] Raslavičius et al. (2014]. Biofuels, sustainability and the transport sector in Lithuania. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 32, pp. 328–346 [167] Speth R.S. et al. (2015). Black carbon emissions reductions from combustion of alternative jet fuels. Atmospheric Environment 105, pp. 37-42

Images - Road

Hydrogen station component cost distribution in [156].

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Image source: [156] Richardson, I.A. et al. (2015). Low-cost, transportable hydrogen fueling station for early market adoption of fuel cell electric vehicles. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 40, pp. 8122-8127.

Relation diagram for V2G types, V2G services, optimization objectives and constraints in [159].

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[159] Tan, K.M.; Ramachandaramurthy, Yong, Y.J. (2016]. Integration of electric vehicles in smart grid: A review on vehicle to grid technologies and optimization techniques. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53, pp. 720–732

Fuel consumption – a) experienced (top graph) b) expected (bottom graph) [31]

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[31] Glotz-Richter et al (2014). Hybrid Buses in Europe – expectations and experience presented in the Hybrid User Forum. Transportation Research Board 2014 Annual Meeting.

Maintenance costs – a) experienced (top graph) b) expected (bottom graph) [31]

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[31] Glotz-Richter et al (2014). Hybrid Buses in Europe – expectations and experience presented in the Hybrid User Forum. Transportation Research Board 2014 Annual Meeting.

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Figures (Air)

Figure - Direct transport GHG emission reductions for each mode and fuel type option decomposed into activity (passenger or freight movements); energy intensity (specific energy inputs linked with occupancy rate); fuel carbon intensity (including non-CO2 GHG emissions); and system infrastructure and modal choice. These can be summated for each modal option into total direct GHG emissions. Notes: p-km = passenger-km; t-km = tonne-km; CNG = compressed natural gas; LPG = liquid petroleum gas (Creutzig et al., 2011; Bongardt et al., 2013). [5]

Source: [5] IPCC (2014). Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

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Figure - Overview of biojet fuel production routes, renewable sources and various alternative aviation fuels [140].

Source: [140] Hari, et al. (2015). Aviation biofuel from renewable resources: Routes, opportunities and challenges. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42, pp. 1234–1244

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General architecture of the Global Airline Industry Dynamics (GAID) model showing key dynamics, inputs and outputs [141].

Source: [141] Sgouridis, et al (2011). Air transportation in a carbon constrained world: Long-term dynamics of policies and strategies for mitigating the carbon footprint of commercial aviation. Transportation Research Part A 45, pp. 1077-1091.

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Projected evolution of Revenue Passenger Kilometers and CO2 emissions from 2004 to 2024 from the simulation of the GAID model [141].

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Life-cycle emissions in aviation [117]

Source: [117] Hill et al (2012). Developing a better understanding of the secondary impacts and key sensitives for the decarbonisation of the EU´s transport sector by 2050. Final Project report produced as part of a contract between European Commisson Directorate-General Climate Action and AEA Technology plc.

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Comparison by transport mode of the proportion of GHG emissions from vehicle manufacture and disposal versus emissions resulting from in-use energy consumption [117]

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Figures - Water

Overview of the fuels for short sea shipping included in (Source: [12]).

Image source: [12] Bengtsson, S. ; Fridell, E. & Andersson, K. (2014). Fuels for short sea shipping: A comparative assessment with focus on environmental impact, J Engineering for the Maritime Environment 2014, Vol 228(1) 44–54.

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Aspects to consider when selecting future marine fuels (source: [136]).

Image source: [136] Brynolf,S. Fridell, E. Andersson,K. (2014). Environmental assessment of marine fuels: liquefied natural gas, liquefied biogas, methanol and bio-methanol. Journal of Cleaner Production, volume 74, 86-95.

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Description of two routs investigated in this study toward the use of biofuels in shipping (source: [161]).

Image source: [161] Bengtsson, S.; Fridell, E. & . Andersson, K., 2012. Environmental assessment of two pathways towards the use of bioufuels in shipping. Energy Policy 44, pp. 451-463.

Fuel consumption versus speed (in knots) for a VLCC (Source: 138)

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[138] Psaraftis, H. N. & Kontovas, C. A., 2013. Speed models for energy-efficient maritime transportation: A taxonomy and survey. Transportation Research Part C, Volume 26, pp. 331-351.

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A1.3 Energy harvesting

PROJECT USE-iT FOX REFINET

WP TITLE WP4 Energy & Carbon AREA Powering Transport CONCEPT Energy Harvesting

Select applicable mode for the Air Rail Road Water concept (select mode) The technology covered is a new development with little research conducted on harvesting energy from pavements by piezoelectricity. The infrastructure MATURITY covered is more mature but comes with practical issues such as requiring significant rebuilding of the road structure.

Concept possibly applicable to Air Rail Road Water (select a mode)

Specify location, type, placement (e.g. public/private/professional transport, transit, urban/motorway, local road, highway, open infrastructure/tunnel/bridge/rail station/airport/water port, city center, suburbs, etc.) List existing, potential projects if known. Provide status of development for STATUS OF DEVELOPMENT (reference to TRL) BARRIERS TO DEVELOPMENT OR IMPLEMENTATION OPPORTUNITIES AND BENEFITS FROM the originating concept (concept in DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION title); provide barriers and opportunities for cross modal application of the concept and for modes possibly “applicable to” (in addition to originating concept) DOMAINS TECHNOLOGY General view: Ad Photovoltaic: Ad Airports: The prospective uses are either electricity’s Photovoltaics are generally costly to install. While the New configuration of sensor geometry using production, district heating or cooling for modules have typical life spans of 20 years, the pay ceramic/polymer composite will be nearby facilities, de-icing pavement’s surface or back periods are relatively long when compared to investigated using laboratory testing and powering wireless networks and monitoring other technologies. theoretical analysis. The energy conversion pavements conditions along with the efficiency, fatigue life, and integrity with enhancement of their self-healing process Photovoltaics are naturally constrained by the amount pavement material will be considered in

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of daylight / sunlight. As such photovoltaics are less sensor development. Simulation results will Thermal collection, photovoltaic collection, efficient in overcast conditions and do not generate be used for optimizing placement of sensor wind microgeneration, water microgeneration, energy during the night time. Therefore, in most arrays in pavements to maximize the amount efficient use of new materials. cases, a storage or battery powered system is required of total energy harvested. to provide a back-up in the event that there is not Harvesting electric power energy from torsional enough solar energy to generate the necessary levels Ad Photovoltaic: vibration induced by internal combustion (IC) of energy. As such, the installation of such equipment Photovoltaic installations can operate for engines. is very sensitive to the particular latitude of any many years after their initial set-up, with location and also the immediate geographical location little maintenance or intervention therefore Ad piezoelectricity: and topography. after the initial capital cost of building any Harvesting energy from pavements by solar power plant, operating costs are piezoelectricity is a new research field with Ad Wind microgeneration: extremely low compared to existing power opportunities and challenges. Although the Wind, localisation, environmental factors (noise), technologies. Experimental high efficiency harvested energy could be at small-scale, it can visual impact, efficiency solar cells already have efficiencies of over be used for a wide range of applications in 40% and efficiencies are rapidly rising while transportation system such as lighting, snow Ad Water microgeneration: mass-production costs are now falling. melting, and traffic signal control in addition to Site, output, seasonality, construction, maintenance direct energy storage. e.g. PV panels on buses: The main idea behind the roof battery panels is to provide Limitation: an additional source of energy to power In practice, the power output can be drastically devices such as LED lighting and ticketing reduced due to many limiting factors that may machines while reducing the fuel result in mismatch between the excitation and consumption in regular city traffic by up to the resonance frequencies. Recently, few percent. piezoelectric energy harvesting using coupled magnets has been proposed to enhance Ad Wind microgeneration: bandwidth and therefore the harvesting Easy installation, retrofit, mobility, low costs, efficiency. power export, moving traffic

Ad Water microgeneration: Efficiency, reliability, biodiversity, low costs, power export INFRASTRUCTURE Asphalt solar collectors combined with pipes; Ad thermal collection: Ad Airports: photovoltaic applications (PV); piezoelectrical Implementation is most effective when infrastructure The effect of pavement characteristics (layer and thermoelectrical generators; induction rehabilitation allows the installation of the network of material and stiffness) on energy harvesting heating and; phase change materials and solar collection tubes and the associated heat potential will be evaluated. Numerical nanomaterials. exchange equipment relatively easily. Construction models for simulating energy harvesting methodologies need to be modified to allow the performance in pavements under dynamic The development of alternate low-cost and installation of the equipment. multi-wheel loading will be developed. The reliable distribute power sources would fill an research outcome will lead to development acute need to replace traditional batteries or Barriers to implementation of this technological of smart pavements with multifunction and

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electricity supply. To this need, energy solution mainly relate to practical issues. The greatest eventually generate renewable electrical harvesting of ambient vibrations and barrier to implementation is that the system requires energy from waste energy. pneumatic vortices induced by running subway significant rebuilding of the road structure to make trains is proposed to enable self-sufficient allowance for the installation of the thermal collection wireless sensor nodes and/or many other pipework and associated heat exchange equipment. surveillance devices. On an existing road the works would require closure Vibration-like railroad track deflections induced of the highway whilst this equipment was installed. by passing trains. Therefore, this technology can be associated with high costs and long installation times leading to delays.

GOVERNANCE The questions that need to be answered so as to analyze efficiently the implementation of more than one technology at a prospective roadway system like the “Green Road Concept” are: - How is the flow of energy and how the interface(s) affect it?

- How the integration of those technologies will enable the thermal and mechanical performance of the pavement structure? - Which factors determine the energy efficiency? - Are the technologies overlapped efficiently or there are gaps at their performance and function? - Which are the prospective costs and payback period?

Ad PIARC: The reduction of energy consumption in the context of highway infrastructure (for example, variable messaging signage, traffic signals and highway lighting) in order to reduce energy emissions and carbon intensity; or the generation of energy in the context of highway infrastructure (for example, the use of solar panels in highway structures and pavements) in order to reduce reliance on fossil fuels

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CUSTOMER Beneficiaries are Road owners, road operators, infrastructure operators  smart grids The cost/benefit must be evaluated in high details including the maintenance costs

Roads with high and regular frequencies of vehicles are preferred.

No one can deny that combining altogether energy harvesting technologies and implementing at large scale plants like roads and paved surfaces is intriguing, challenging and promising. If prospective roadway concepts can be designed to harvest energy in an economic manner, then this would have long- term benefit for developing sustainable pavements by preventing rutting, UHI effects while simultaneously moderating energy consumption problems and why not ensure safe driving conditions.

For customers (seen as road users), nothing would change or even be better (increased road surface quality; safer road condition)

References

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Proposed research to develop a broadband hybrid Broadband Hybrid Electromagnetic and electromagnetic and piezoelectric harvesters (that rely on New York, University Transportation http://www.utrc2.org/re Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting from ambient vibrations and pneumatic vortices induced by trains). 1 Rail Technology U.S.A. Research Centre search/projects/pneuma Ambient Vibrations and Pneumatic Vortices This will power distributed sensor nodes that detect obstacles 2014 (Ya Wang) tic-vortices-subway Induced by Running Subway Trains and train motion, preventing incidents of people falling onto rail tracks.

Developing new designs for piezoelectric transducers for Atlantic improved energy harvesting (applied to airport runway City pavements). The study will examine new configurations , sensor Internatio https://cait.rutgers.edu/ Technology geometries, and conversion efficiencies - all with regards to Centre for Advanced Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting in Airport nal cait/research/piezoelect 3 Air Infrastruct pavement characteristics. Also developing models to determine Infrastructure and transportation Pavement Airport, ric-energy-harvesting- ure optimal placement of sensors, in pavements, so the maximum ( Dr Patrick Szary) USA airport-pavement amount of energy can be harvested. Essentially developing 2015 - smart pavements with multifunction and ability to generate 2016 renewable electricity.

http://www.piarc.org/en Review/qualitative assessment of available technologies to /order-library/20938-en- Technology UK/ U.S.A. Alternative Solutions for Fossil Fuels for the generate energy for road transport, to reduce energy used by World Road Association Alternative%20solutions 4 Road Infrastruct / France Road System existing infrastructure. (Tech includes: PV & thermal collection, (PIARC Technical Committee A.1) %20for%20fossil%20fuel ure 2014 new materials, wind & water micro generation) s%20for%20the%20road %20system.htm

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This paper presents a piezoelectric energy harvester (PEH), which harvests electric power energy from torsional vibration Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting from International Journal of http://rd.springer.com/a Road Korea induced by internal combustion (IC) engines. he primary 47 Torsional Vibration in Internal Combustion Technology Automotive Technology rticle/10.1007%2Fs1223 Rail 2014 harvesting performance of the PEH prototype is experimentally Engines (Kim, G. W.) 9-015-0066-6#page-1 validated through laboratory tests using a low-inertia dynamometer.

An efficient electromagnetic energy harvester featured with mechanical motion rectifier (MMR) was designed to recover energy from the vibration-like railroad track deflections induced by passing trains. Compared to typical existing vibration energy harvester technologies can only harvest sub-watts or milliwatts University Transportation Energy Harvesting from Rail Track for U.S.A. http://trid.trb.org/view. 54 Rail Technology power applications, the proposed harvester is designed to Research Centre, NY Transportation Safety and Monitoring 2014 aspx?id=1301231 power major track-side accessories and possibly make railroad (Lin, T., J. Wang, et al.) independent from national grid. Bench test of the harvester prototype illustrate the advantages of the MMR based harvester, including up to 71% mechanical efficiency and 50W power output.

Research on piezoelectric energy harvesting technology is presented. Among all coupling modes of piezoelectricity, 33- mode is chosen to test the feasibility of implementing Technology Virginia, piezoelectric energy harvesting on public roadways. The energy Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting on Public Transportation Research Board http://trid.trb.org/view. 80 Road Infrastruct U.S.A. harvesting systems designed and fabricated are then subjected Roadways (Xiong, H., L. Wang, et al. ) aspx?id=1289860 ure 2014 to lab testing and prior being installed on-site. Procedures of installation plan are also briefly presented in this work. The power spectrums calculated from the measured voltage and current spectrums is also presented in this paper.

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The purpose of this paper is to explore the vibration characteristic of asphalt pavement with various structures for harvesting mechanical energy via finite element analysis (FEA) Technology and analytic model. The results show that the vibration American Society of Civil http://ascelibrary.org/do Test and Analysis of Vibration Characteristic 87 Road Infrastruct 2014 frequency of typical semi-rigid asphalt pavement is between 10 Engineers i/abs/10.1061/97807844 for Asphalt Pavement Energy Harvesting ure Hz and 20 Hz, which is far lower than frequency of typical (Zhao, H., L. Qin, et al.) 13326.002 piezoelectric transducers. The fundamental frequency of asphalt pavement decreases with increasing thickness and mass of surface, base and subbase.

Energy harvesting technologies from road infrastructure is a new research territory that encompasses technologies that capture the wasted energy occurred at pavements, accumulate and store it for later use. Their most enticing characteristic is that they already offer extended paved surfaces. Paved surfaces with conductive pipes, PV sound barriers, nanomaterials or http://kth.diva- Road Phase Change Materials, piezosensors and thermoelectrical MSc Dissertation 89 A review on energy harvesting from roads Technology 2012 portal.org/smash/get/di Rail generators and induction heating technique are just the most (Symeoni, A.) va2:549685/FULLTEXT01 updated representatives. Their outputs can be listed as production of electric energy and district heating and cooling, de-icing surfaces or powering wireless networks and monitoring pavements conditions along with the enhancement of their self- healing process. The objective of this thesis is to review them and identify their strong and weak points. In the upward trend of renewable energy growth, several proposals have been made concerning energy harvesting devices in transportation infrastructure networks. The objective, concerning higher power extraction, is to supply power to auxiliary systems (e.g. road lights or information Procedia-Social and Behavioural panels), thus, satisfying the requirement for sustainable http://www.sciencedirec Energy Harvesting Applications in Road Sciences 91 Technology 2012 transportation infrastructures. The purpose of this paper is to t.com/science/article/pii Transportation Infrastructure Networks Rail (Gkoumas, K., De Gaudenzi, O., & define a broader framework of energy extraction for /S1877042812028224# Petrini, F.) transportation infrastructure networks. Within this framework, a novel device for the vibration energy harvesting, based on piezoelectric material, is modelled in a commercial FEM (Finite Element Method) code, in order to optimally extract energy from wind-induced vibrations.

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This paper discusses the development and testing of a renewable energy source for powering wireless sensors used to monitor the structural health of bridges. Traditional power cables or battery replacement are excessively expensive or infeasible in this type of application. An inertial power generator has been developed that can harvest traffic-induced bridge vibrations. Vibrations on bridges have very low acceleration (0.1–0.5 m s−2), low frequency (2–30 Hz), and they http://deepblue.lib.umic are non-periodic. A novel parametric frequency-increased Journal of Mechanics and h.edu/bitstream/handle/ Harvesting traffic-induced vibrations for Road generator (PFIG) is developed to address these challenges. The Microengineering 92 Technology 2011 2027.42/90794/0960- structural health monitoring of bridges Rail fabricated device can generate a peak power of 57 μW and an (Galchev, T. V., McCullagh, J., 1317_21_10_104005.pdf average power of 2.3 μW from an input acceleration of 0.54 m Peterson, R. L., & Najafi, K.) ?sequence=1 s−2 at only 2 Hz. The generator is capable of operating over an unprecedentedly large acceleration (0.54–9.8 m s−2) and frequency range (up to 30 Hz) without any modifications or tuning. Its performance was tested along the length of a suspension bridge and it generated 0.5–0.75 μW of average power without manipulation during installation or tuning at each bridge location. A preliminary power conversion system has also been developed. Abstract: The report aims to identify new technologies for energy harvesting and the ability to use them in the road and the surrounding road area. The survey focuses on the materials and methods that may be used in the Swedish (cold) climate. The report can be useful for planning of new infrastructure when you want to make use of renewable energy and wants to reduce the environmental impact. Considering today’s Annika Jägerbrand and Frerik Energy production from roads and road 2014, 95 Road Technology technological conditions, the following techniques may be Hellman, VTI Rapport 821, 2014 environments. A literature review. Sweden relevant: photovoltaics, geothermal energy, piezoelectric (in Swedish) technology, wind energy or bioenergy. There are, however, many factors holding back the development of new innovative systems for energy production in roads and their environment. Some important factors are for example that maintenance costs will increase or that the maintenance of the road will become more difficult.

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http://ac.els- cdn.com/S18770428120 28224/1-s2.0- infrastruct S1877042812028224- Energy harvesting applications in 104 Road ure, TRA, 2012 main.pdf?_tid=882fdeee transportation infrastructure networks technology -5804-11e5-97f7- 00000aacb35f&acdnat=1 441921399_bca04c656b fcc0b28efe9f9fe6140a53

http://www.eco- business.com/news/sma rt-humps-clean- energy/?utm_medium=e mail&utm_campaign=Se Use of speed bumps to produce electricity from the kinetic Eco-business (2015). Smart p+16+newsletter&utm_c Singapore, energy of decelerating road vehicles. The product is called 116 Smart' humps: Clean Energy Road Technology humps: Clean energy. 15 ontent=Sep+16+newslet 2015 Movnetic and is produced by a company called Transkinect. It is September 2015. ter+Version+B+CID_af9e being trialled on an industrial estate in Singapore. 547ccee0b3b0188ffa060 97b7c9f&utm_source=C ampaign%20Monitor&ut m_term=Smart%20hum ps%20Clean%20energy

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Images

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A2. Constructing and maintaining infrastructure and vehicles

A2.1 Low carbon materials and design

PROJECT USE-iT FOX REFINET

WP TITLE WP4 Energy and Carbon AREA Constructing and Maintaining Infrastructure and Vehicles CONCEPT Low Carbon Materials and Design

Select applicable mode for the Air Rail Road Water concept (select mode) Some of the technologies and infrastructure are current practice such as the use of recycled material, but they require further research before widespread MATURITY implementation can occur. Two of the technologies, smart lighting and self-healing concrete, are future opportunities that are being investigated.

Concept possibly applicable to Air Rail Road Water (select a mode)

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lighting effect when traffic flows are low [96]. suit each road type could lead to large gains in energy efficiency concern [96].

Warm Mix Asphalt: A current technology using Warm Mix Asphalt: There are very few barriers to its Warm Mix Asphalt: Less energy is required a variety of techniques to produce, and allow implementation. One barrier for adaption from the EU to heat the mix, thus less fuel is required. for subsequent construction, of asphalt at market to the US market is adapting low batch Resulting in cost savings and reduced carbon lower temperatures. Established in Europe for production facilities found in Europe to higher dioxide emissions from production. It can the last 10 years [109, 124, 125, 126]. In the US, production facilities. Coarse aggregates used in the extend the paving season as it can cool in Federal Aviation Authority (FAA) sponsored mix must also be very dry [109, 124, 125, 126]. lower temperatures, additionally allowing airports are not allowed to use WMA for night time paving to be more feasible. runway construction. Increased performance, higher densities and durability. Overall costs of the material are typically lower than their traditional counterpart mixture. Reduced exposure to workers of fumes and aerosols. Improved field compaction [109, 124, 125, 126]. Self-Healing Concrete: Self-activating Self-Healing Concrete: Currently under research [131]. Self-Healing Concrete: Extending the lifetime limestone-producing bacteria (bacillus of concrete, thus reducing the need for new pseudofirmus/sporosarcina) mixed into concrete and thus associated carbon concrete, activated by rainwater. Currently emissions [131]. under research [131].

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Hot asphalt mixes preparation at lower Hot asphalt mixes preparation at lower process Hot asphalt mixes preparation at lower process temperatures: Preparation of hot temperatures: There is a need in continuing studies process temperatures: The technology will asphalt mixes is carried out at high process on the development of an integrated approach to the promote saving fuel and energy resources at temperatures and accompanied by significant use of additives of various types. the preparation and placement of asphalt emission of harmful substances into the The developed Guidance does not cover all energy- paving mixtures and at road building; atmosphere. Use of energy-saving additives saving technologies of asphalt mixes preparation reducing harmful emissions into the allows reducing process temperature of asphalt environment, improving working conditions mixes preparation by 20 ° C - 40 ° C. Thus there of road workers, enhancing durability and is a reduction of harmful emissions into the quality of pavement by decreasing the aging environment in the process of preparation of of bitumen during mixtures preparation. asphalt mixes and in the process of their placement. In particular, carbon dioxide emissions are reduced by about 30%. Moreover, reduction of process temperature of asphalt mixes preparation allows reducing thermal-oxidative aging of bitumen, reducing energy resources consumption and improving employee's working conditions. [149] Basing on the applied technology Guidance setting out the technological parameters of preparation of asphalt mixes at lower process temperatures using energy-saving additives was developed. [150] INFRASTRUCTURE Use of Recycled Materials: Use over Use of Recycled Materials: In some cases the use of Use of Recycled Materials: Including: conventional virgin material used in highway secondary materials cannot be economically justified significant reductions in global warming construction offer a range of benefits. Greater – when sorting, reprocessing, and transport costs can potential, cradle-to-gate energy savings – uptake of secondary materials could be amount. The use of recycled materials requires reductions in material production phase implemented through financial or regulatory implementation of appropriate quality control (mining, transportation, processing), incentives; greater information on the measures. Some constituents present in recycled reductions in water use. This results in the availability and application of material use; materials (such as rubber, leachates, tars) can pose conservation of scarce natural resources; support for further research; development of environmental hazards. There can also be a lack of reductions in the amount of waste sent to specifications for use of secondary materials confidence that the final product will achieve its end landfill; more economical use of space on [110, 123]. (Technology) performance specification. In most cases the only landfill sites. Generally, stockpiles are closer barrier for wider application is economic constraints to urban centres than quarries, reducing and quality assurance [110, 123]. transport costs and associated emissions [110, 123].

Organic and mineral road mixes composed of Organic and mineral road mixes composed of RAP Organic and mineral road mixes composed RAP (recycled asphalt pavement) produced (recycled asphalt pavement) produced using cold of RAP (recycled asphalt pavement) using cold recycling technique: Based on the recycling technique: The technology needs updating produced using cold recycling technique: results of laboratory and field studies technical to be applicable on the roads and streets of This technology reduces costs for purchasing

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requirements and test methods for milled settlements. Obviously, additional studies should be and transporting new materials to the organic and mineral materials produced using conducted to investigate the opportunity of using this construction site and removes the necessity cold recycling technology were established. method on concrete pavements. of transporting used materials to landfills This technology involves reuse of pavement thereby improving environmental safety of materials. This technique can be used for the the area where the works are performed. rehabilitation of public roads. Using this technique about 1000 km of highways was constructed in Ukraine. [151] Ground Tyre Rubber: Processed rubber from Ground Tyre Rubber: Already widely used throughout Ground Tyre Rubber: It can replace oil-based recycled tyres it represents an alternative to Europe (especially Germany) and the USA [129]. polymers, offsetting the associated carbon conventional polymer modified bitumen used and energy. Also it comes from a waste in asphalt highway construction. Widely used in stream for which prices are relatively stable North America and Europe since 1998 [129]. In compared to today’s volatile oil prices. The the European market the most commonly used USEPA cites the material as being cost product is Road+, which is produced by Genen. effective in the long term; increases surface lifetime and durability; reduces surface noise; and can lead to shorter breaking distances [129]. It is also claimed the material can reduce rutting, cracking, lower laying temperatures, minimise tackiness and has improved workability – allowing it to be laid in suboptimal conditions.

Recycled Asphalt Pavement (RAP): Utilising Recycled Asphalt Pavement (RAP): Appropriate Recycled Asphalt Pavement (RAP): Reducing reclaimed asphalt pavement as an aggregate in classification and management of RAP supplies is the need for virgin aggregates (and their Hot and Warm asphalt mixture. Currently crucial to avoid mix in heterogeneity. As with using associated carbon emissions) for road implemented across Europe. In the UK 10-15% any recycled material there are concerns over quality construction [119, 120, 121, 122]. recycled aggregates are seen as good practice assurance; consistency, durability and performance, [119, 120, 121, 122]. and mixture design procedures [119, 120, 121, 122].

Soy Fatty Acids: A product of soybean oil; it Soy Fatty Acids: Further research is needed into this Soy Fatty Acids: Early research suggests they could be used as a modifier for asphalt binders potential modifier [112]. decrease the viscosity and stiffness of asphalt [112]. binders, allowing them to become more workable [112].

Bio-oils: Derived from the fast pyrolysis of red Bio-oils: Further research is needed into this potential Bio-oils: Early research suggests they could oak wood residues (Res bio-oil) as a bio-binder modifier [112]. replace crude-oil based binders [112]. [112].

Organo Montmorillonite Nanoclay: A potential Organo Montmorillonite Nanoclay: Further research Organo Montmorillonite Nanoclay: Early alternative modifier to sustain durability of is needed into this potential modifier [112]. research indicates that Organo Mt improves

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asphalt pavement [112]. the short-term aging resistance of base bitumen. It is suggested that it can be an alternative modifier used in bitumen to sustain the durability of asphalt pavements [112].

Bioasphalt from Microalgae: Using a Bioasphalt from Microalgae: Research into the Bioasphalt from Microalgae: Using hydrothermal liquefaction process, converting material is still in its infancy and may not hold the microalgae derived binders would utilise waste biomass into bio-crude oil. Early research necessary engineering properties to meet standard waste stocks from the cosmetics and textiles has concluded similar viscous properties thus specifications [111]. industries. It has a high yield rate resulting in have the potential to act as a binder, also able lower competition between arable lands for to cope with typical road loading [111]. food crops [111].

GOVERNANCE Light Dimming/Switching Off: Dimming or Light Dimming/Switching Off: In the UK there are no Light Dimming/Switching Off: Implemented switching off street lighting. In the UK Local barriers for implementation. Local Authorities have no as a cost saving measure. Reductions in Authorities are implementing both. Dimming is statutory requirements to provide public lighting electricity result in carbon savings [130]. an option for LED systems. For older lanterns [130]. switching off is the only option. This approach is under implementation by the majority of local authorities across the UK [130]. CUSTOMER

References - Text [96] Swedish National Road and Transport research Institute (2011) Potential for more energy-efficient road and street lighting: comparison between dimming and different types of light sources [online] Available at: http://www.vti.se/en/publications/pdf/potential-for-more-energy-efficient-road-and-street-lighting-comparison-between-dimming-and- different-types-of-light-sources.pdf (Accessed: 29/09/2015)

[120] Valdés, G., Pérez-Jiménez, F., Miró, R., Martínez, A., & Botella, R. (2011). ‘Experimental study of recycled asphalt mixtures with high percentages of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP’). Construction and Building Materials, 25(3), pp. 1289-1297.

[121] WRAP (2007) Environmental impact of higher recycled content in construction projects [online] Available at: http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/Environmental%20assessment%20report%20FINAL%20011007.pdf (Accessed: 29/09/2015).

[122] U.S. Department of Transport (2011) Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement in Asphalt Mixtures: State of the Practice [online] Available at: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/infrastructure/pavements/11021/11021.pdf (Accessed: 29/09/2015).

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[123] USEPA (2009) Using Recycled Industrial Materials in Roadways [online] Available at: http://www3.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/imr/pdfs/roadways.pdf (Accessed: 29/09/2015).

[124] University of Connecticut Technology Transfer Centre (2011) Tech Brief: The many benefits of Warm Mix Asphalt [online] Available at: http://www.t2center.uconn.edu/pdfs/2011-6%20-%20Benefits%20of%20Warm%20Mix%20Asphalt.pdf (Accessed: 29/09/2015).

[125] U.S. Department of Transport (2008) [online] Available at: http://international.fhwa.dot.gov/pubs/pl08007/pl08007.pdf (Accessed: 29/09/2015).

[126] Prowell, B.D. (2007) The international technology scanning program summary report: Warm mix asphalt [online] Available at: http://www.warmmixasphalt.com/submissions/38_20071219_Warm%20Mix%20Asphalt%20Summary%20Report%20Final%20091607.pdf (Accessed: 29/09/2015).

[127] Houses of Parliament (2013) Post Note: Autonomous Road Vehicles, (443), [online] Available at: www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/POST-PN-443.pdf (Accessed: 29/09/2015).

[128] Parker, D. (2014) Energy: Solar roads take off, New Civil Engineer, 16 September, [online] Available at: http://www.nce.co.uk/features/energy-and-waste/energy-solar- roads-take-off/8669755.article (Accessed: 29/09/2015).

[129] USEPA (2015) Ground Tyre Rubber Application. [online] Available at: http://www3.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/materials/tires/ground.htm (Accessed: 29/09/2015).

[130] Graham, G. (2014) ‘Three quarters of councils are switching off or dimming streetlights’. The Telegraph [online] 22 December. Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/council-spending/11306827/Three-quartfrom%20cradle%20to%20gateers-of-councils-are-switching-off-or-dimming-streetlights.html (Accessed: 05/10/2015).

[131] Spinks, R. (2015) ‘The self-healing concrete that can fix its own cracks’. The Guardian [online] 29 June. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/sustainable- business/2015/jun/29/the-self-healing-concrete-that-can-fix-its-own-cracks. (Accessed: 05/10/2015).

[149] R&D report on the topic: "Basing on different types of organic binders new durable materials, energy- and resource-saving technologies of construction and repair of roads are to be developed" 2013. In Ukrainian available at: http://www.dorndi.org.ua/sites/default/files/zvit_tas_etap_2.3_ostatochna.doc.

[150] State Standard of Ukraine DSTU-N B V.2.7-ХХХ:201Х «Guidance on production and application of asphalt mixes at lower process temperatures using energy-saving additives» , 2015. Iin Ukrainian available at http://www.dorndi.org.ua/sites/default/files/dstu-n_energozberigayuchi_persha_redakciya.docx.

[151] State Standard SOU 45.2-00018112 -061:2011 Organic and mineral road mixes composed of RAP (recycled asphalt pavement) produced using cold recycling technique. State Standard SOU 42.1-37641918-127:2014 Organic and mineral road mixes composed of RAP (recycled asphalt pavement) produced using cold recycling technique. Test procedure. Available in Ukrainian at http://dorndi.org.ua/sites/default/files/sou_061-2011.pdf.

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Images

Ground Tyre Rubber (CalRecycle, 2015) Warm Mix Asphalt (WMAC, 2015) Recycled Materials (Screen Machine, 2015)

References – Images

CalRecycle (2015) Tyre Derived Material Feedstock. [image] Available at: http://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/tires/products/Feedstock/default.htm (Accessed: 29/09/2015).

Screen Machine (2015) Recycling materials from a demolition site. [image] Available at: http://www.screenmachine.com/demolition-crushing-screening.php (Accessed: 29/09/2015).

WMAC (2015) Warm Mix Asphalt Certification. [online] Available at: http://www.warmmixasphaltcertification.com/ (Accessed: 29/09/2015).

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A2.2 Improved asset management

PROJECT USE-iT FOX REFINET

WP TITLE WP4 Energy and Carbon AREA Constructing and Maintaining Infrastructures and Vehicles CONCEPT Improved Asset Management Select applicable mode for the Air Rail Road Water concept (select mode) Current practice: [17] State-of-the-art: [5], [7], [17], [44], [52], [71], [113], [114], [117] MATURITY New development: Environmental KPIs: [169], [170]; Mesoscopic fuel consumption and CO2 models: [2]; Phase Change Materials: [90] The Vermont Integrated Land-use and Transportation Carbon Estimator (VILTCE): [106] Future opportunities: [5], [7], [24],[117]

Concept possibly applicable to Air Rail Road Water (select a mode)

[2]: USA, Virginia. [5]: USA (IPPC data) [7]:Australia Specify location, type, placement [17]:n.a. (e.g. public/private/professional [24]:n.a. transport, transit, urban/motorway, [44]: USA (cleaner, greener ports) local road, highway, open [52]: USA (transportation planning agencies such as State DoT and MPOs and Local transportation planning agencies) infrastructure/tunnel/bridge/rail [71]: USA station/airport/water port, city [90]: Belgian Road Research Centre. center, suburbs, etc.) List existing, [106]: case study (tool application) at Chittenden County, Vermont, USA. potential projects if known. [113]: USA [114]: World (passenger transport). [115]: Europe [169], [170]: European research (ERAnet Road 2 programme 2010-2013) Provide status of development for STATUS OF DEVELOPMENT BARRIERS TO DEVELOPMENT OR IMPLEMENTATION OPPORTUNITIES AND BENEFITS FROM the originating concept (concept in DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION title); provide barriers and opportunities for cross modal application of the concept and for modes possibly “applicable to” (in addition to originating concept)

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DOMAINS TECHNOLOGY Sustainable energy technologies: Sustainable energy technologies: policy and Sustainable energy technologies: Today, passenger transport worldwide is technology options are equally complicated by a Adopting sustainable energy technologies, responsible for almost 15 percent of number of considerations that include pricing and practices, and policies to reduce petroleum anthropogenic energy-related emissions of financing, efficiency and greenhouse gas (GHG) consumption and GHG emissions faces carbon dioxide (CO2), the most abundant standards, alternative vehicle and fuel technologies, numerous challenges. energy efficiency greenhouse gas [114]. In the United States, the equity of access, energy and transportation improvements are very important, but are transportation sector currently accounts for infrastructure needs, and operational enhancements not enough. [71]. approximately two-thirds of the petroleum [71]. “Without question, a radical transformation consumption and one-third of greenhouse gas of the present energy system will be required (GHG) emissions. Highway vehicles account for over the coming decades.” [71] more than 80% of transportation energy use and GHG emissions. Reducing petroleum Radical fuel efficiency improvements in the consumption enhances energy security and world's automobile fleet—along with slows climate change [71]. continuations of past trends in the energy intensity of other passenger transport modes—could curtail the projected 2050 baseline emissions level by about 40 percent. Simultaneous substitution of oil products by natural gas could reduce CO2 emissions by another 25 percent and ultimately lead to emission stabilization at 1.2 billion tons of carbon in 2050; any further significant reduction in CO2 emissions would require the largescale introduction of zero-carbon fuels [114].

Phase Change Materials (PCMs): A research Phase Change Materials (PCMs): Partial results in [90] Phase Change Materials (PCMs): It appears project tested the incorporation of phase seem encouraging, but the thermal effect of the PCMs essential to continue investigating change materials (PCMs) into the surface as conditioned remains relatively limited. any technical solution which makes it courses of road pavements, mainly in sensitive possible to increase the amounts of PCMs in areas, to delay pavement freezing. The selected pavements [90]. PCMs are n-tetradecane-type paraffin waxes with a solidification temperature of 2 °C or 5 °C. [90]. INFRASTRUCTURE System infrastructure efficiency: System infrastructure efficiency: System infrastructure efficiency: Modal shift by public transport, cycling and Examples of barriers include: Availability of rail, bus, Opportunities: Investment in quality transit walking displacing private motor vehicle use; ferry, and other quality transit options; Density of infrastructure, density of adjacent land use, people to allow more access to services; Levels of and high level of services using innovative services; Time barriers on roads without right of way; financing that builds in these features. Public perceptions[5]. Cultural barriers and lack of safe Multiple co-benefits especially where cycling infrastructure and regulations; Harsh walkability health benefits are a focus [5].

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climate[5].

More efficient planning process (note: it is More efficient planning process: More efficient planning process: included in system infrastructure efficiency): As barriers, planning and design policies can work Opportunity for large-scale adoption of Urban planning by reducing the distances to against walkability of a city by too easily allowing polycentric city policies and walkable urban travel within urban areas is proposed in [5] cars into walking city areas; Lack of density and designs creating walking city in historic integration with transit; Culture of walkability are centres and new ones.; Cultural programmes cited in [5]. is cited in [5]. Opportunities for the widespread polycentric city policies implemented with green TODs, backed by quality transit; Multiple co-benefits in sprawl costs avoided and health gains [5].

Optimized road maintenance and resilience: Optimized road maintenance and resilience: Optimized maintenance and resilience: In the USA, Changes in climate and extreme weather For Australia, there is evidence that state and transportation is facing a funding crisis. Many state events not only bring direct damage to local government investment in maintenance is DOTs are unable to fund standard maintenance, much infrastructure assets, but can also cause not currently optimized [7]. less system expansion or environmental operational shortfalls and a loss of profits improvements [71]. and revenue [7].

Smart infrastructure: Environmental benefits Smart infrastructure: In Australia, smart can be derived from dynamic coordinated infrastructure in the form of digital freeway ramp signals. For example, technologies will provide opportunities to coordinated signals on Melbourne’s Monash improve productivity and contribute to Freeway have saved 16,500 litres of petrol sustainability. For example, road-mounted and led to a 40 tonne reduction in camera and sensor systems enable better greenhouse gas emissions a day, as well as infrastructure management by detecting rerouting traffic, at a relatively low cost [7]. congestion, collisions and road works, providing motorists with alerts and re-routing uggestions, reducing travel times, reducing fuel consumption and energy demand, and enabling better use of existing infrastructure [7].

Infrastructural ecology: Infrastructural Infrastructural ecology: Infrastructural ecology" is described as a planning and design ecology reduces collective system costs, framework that promotes beneficial exchanges improve performance, and reduce across the energy, water, waste, and environmental and social impacts. Asset transportation service sectors [17]. design may also capitalize on adjacent or local land uses, and utilize untapped

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constructed or natural system resources. Networked infrastructure facilities are integrated, multipurpose, and synergistic; they reduce carbon intensity and greenhouse gas emissions, assimilate the free work of natural systems, and can enhance the community in which they are situated [17].

Improved construction materials for Improved construction materials for infrastructures (GHG intensity): The key infrastructures (GHG intensity): The materials and components influencing the potential GHG intensity of European overall GHG footprint for the construction of production of the mentioned key material is new transport infrastructure and vehicles (and anticipated to reduce by between 30% and factoring in recycling benefits) include: 55% from 2010 to 2050, depending on the iron/steel, aluminium, plastics, material [117]. cement/concrete and batteries [117].

The evidence shows that emissions related to road construction, maintenance, operation and end-of-life may range from just a few per cent to typically 10%-15% of total road lifecycle GHG emissions. However, there are also sources that state that 35% to over 40% of the GHG emissions for the full road infrastructure system including vehicle production and use can be attributed to the road construction, maintenance and operation [117]. There are a number of methods and processes that could be employed in the road transport sector to reduce the GHG emissions at the road construction stage, including the use of alternative materials and low carbon energy [117].

GOVERNANCE Environmental Key Performance Indicators for Environmental Key Performance Indicators for Environmental Key Performance Indicators optimized Asset Management: Environmental optimized Asset Management: for optimized Asset Management: The

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KPIs (E-KPIs) for improved pavement and road Although E-KPIs are becoming more important, there assessment of the road infrastructure assets asset management have been proposed by the is still a learning process in the road administrations to from the environmental point of view EVITA project (ERAnet Road 2 programme speak not only from sustainability but to take over and becomes more and more importance for the 2010-2013) and include those relate to total improve the results of (research) projects like EVITA different types of stakeholders, which are CO2 emissions using modelled emissions from into practice [170]. affected especially by negative impacts of the traffic flows and vehicle emission factors. [169], The global use of E-KPIs for monitoring an existing traffic. It is important for a holistic, future [170]. road network, in the context of asset management oriented asset management approach to EVITA project provides an inventory of existing practice is still difficult due to the fact that some of assess the environmental situation on an KPIs and road stakeholders and the parameters that are most relevant for a global objective base using uniform E-KPIs [170]. recommendations for new E-KPIs for the assessment, such as green-house gas emissions or Through using E-KPIs, road managers will get environmental areas “noise”, water pollution, are not exclusively attributed to road better data for their decisions. The final “air and water” and “natural resources and transport. On the other hand, the whole infrastructure benefit will be better environment and better greenhouse gas (GHG)” [170]. life-cycle should be considered for this global balance of different stakeholder expectations E-KPIs should represent the environmental evaluation [169]. [169]. performance of a road section, of a partial road The input data needed for calculation of the E-KPI network or of the whole road network [170]. have different levels of availability to National Road Road infrastructure assets are still mainly Administrations [169]. managed balancing road user expectations (travel time, vehicle operating costs, traffic Insufficient regulatory support and key performance safety) against road owners budget restrictions indicators (KPIs) covering logistics and efficiency are using road owners technical knowledge. pointed out as barriers for system optimization by Environmental effects are nowadays often improved road systems, freight logistics and efficiency mentioned, but seldom fully considered due to at airports and ports [5]. lack of data and knowledge [169]. Actions to improve the environmental impacts of port infrastructures are described in [44].

Traffic and transportation demand strategies: Traffic and transportation demand ongoing modelling work. For example, project [2] strategies: funded by the US Department of Transportation will The outcome of the project [2] will be better develop mesoscopic models that estimate vehicle fuel tools for evaluating the energy and consumption levels using less detailed data. The input environmental impacts of alternative traffic to the model will include the average roadway speed, and transportation management strategies. delay, and number of vehicle stops to estimate fuel consumption levels. It will consider testing the model in a microscopic traffic simulation software and comparing the procedure against the use of a microscopic analysis [2]. Habitat Conservation Plans (HCP): The Habitat Conservation Plans (HCP): the HCP development of transportation infrastructure model is growing in popularity and holds requires a long planning, funding, and promise for further development as an

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implementation cycle that often takes over a approach to both habitat preservation and decade for a particular project. Environmental infrastructure development. This approach mitigation is usually planned and implemented promises potential benefits including late in this process and project-by-project. reduced project delays, lower mitigation and Habitat Conservation Plans (HCPs) provide an transaction costs, and improved conditions alternative model and are becoming for the affected species [52]. increasingly popular, consisting of early In the USA, the HCP model is increasingly regional mitigation needs assessment and being used to provide Endangered Species advanced planning for habitat or landscape- Act approval for transportation projects, level impacts from multiple infrastructure including those with a federal nexus. By projects [52]. incorporating planned transportation projects into HCP planning, agencies have been able to expedite environmental clearances and gain certainty by approaching conservation from an area-wide perspective as opposed to standard project-by project mitigation. HCPs can facilitate environmental clearance of transportation projects of all types and sizes, and this flexibility allows for participation that can benefit both state and local transportation agencies [52]. Integrated Transport and Land Use Planning tools: The Vermont Integrated Land-use and Transportation Carbon Estimator (VILTCE) is a new tool intended for metropolitan planning organizations and regional planners to calculate the spatial fluxes of Carbon sequestration and emissions from the combined land use and transportation sectors for their region of interest under current and future development scenarios [106]. CUSTOMER Environmental Key Performance Indicators for optimized Asset Management: New E-KPIs proposed by the EVITA project were described considered its relevance to stakeholders and included users of the asset (it was indicated the relevance of the indicator to society, neighbours, road owners and operators and users) [169]. For example, the relevance of the environmental index for GHG – Emissions rate for CO2 emissions from vehicles was

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considered of low relevance to road users but of high relevance for society.

Combined management strategies: Context- Combined management strategies: Context- sensitive solutions, value engineering or value sensitive solutions, value engineering or analysis, and asset management systems are all value analysis, and asset management strategic processes or systems with common systems are challenged by the measurement objectives, even if they have different of performance in areas that are more emphases. All place a high value on customer difficult to quantify [113]. satisfaction, stakeholder values, and the These combined tools and systems can be delivery or maintenance of safe facilities [113]. used as part of strategic and systematic approaches that have a significant potential for the delivery of transportation assets with greater sustainability and public funding and support for transportation, the community, and the natural environment [113].

References

[2] Virginia Tech University ( ). Develop Mesoscopic Fuel Consumption and CO2 Emission Models for Use in Eco-routing Systems. Research Project 2014-2016.

[5] Intergovernmental panel on Climate Change – IPCC (2014). Climate change 2014: mitigation of climate change (Ch. 8: Transport). IPCC,USA.

[7] Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development, Australian Gov. (2014). Trends: Infrastructure and transport to 2030.

[17] Brown, H. (2014). Infrastructural Ecologies: A Macroscopic Framework for Sustainable Public Works, International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure 2014, American Society of Civil Engineers, pp960-971.

[24] Delucchi, M. and K. S. Kurani (2013). How to Have Sustainable Transportation without Making People Drive Less or Give Up Suburban Living, Journal of Urban Planning and Development, Vol. 140, Issue 4 (December 2014).

[44] Karpovich, T. (2014). Environmental summary : channelling energy into a cleaner, greener port, Serial Helen Delich Bentley Port of Baltimore, USA.

[52] Lederman, J. and M. Wachs(2013). Habitat Conservation Plans: Preserving Endangered Species and Delivering Transportation Projects, Transportation Research Board 2014 Annual Meeting, USA.

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[71] Turnbull, K. F.(2012).Sustainable Energy and Transportation Strategies, Research, and Data. Summary of a Conference, Transportation Research Board, USA.

[90] Cocu, X., Nicaise, D. and Rachidi, S. (2012) The use of phase change materials to delay pavement freezing, Belgian Road Research Centre.

[106] Mika, A. Jenkis, J.C. et al. (2014).Vermont Integrated Land Use and Transportation Carbon Estimator, Transportation Research Record nº 2191, pp 119-127.

[113] Venner, M., Ostria, S. et al. (2007).Context-Sensitive Solutions, Value Engineering, and Asset Management: Creating and Maintaining Value, Improving Accountability, and Reaching for Sustainability, Transportation Research Record nº 2025, pp 72-80, USA.

[114] Shafer, A. (2000).Carbon Dioxide Emissions from World Passenger Transport: Reduction Options, Transportation Research Record nº 1738, USA.

[117] Hill, N. et al. (2012).Transport GHG: Routes to 2050 project. (Report - The role of GHG emissions from infrastructure construction, vehicle manufacturing, and ELVs in overall transport emissions)

[169] JAMNIK, J.; ANTUNES, M. L.; TURPIN, K.; KOKOT, D.; WENINGER-VYCUDIL, A.; CESBRON, J.. “EVITA-Environmental Indicators for the Total Road Infrastructure Assets - Deliverable D4.2 - Practical Guide for the use of E-KPIs in pavement management practice”. August 2012.

[170] Leper, P. and Weninger-Vycudil, V. (2012). EVITA – Environmental Key Performance Indicators. Conference Paper to EPAM4.

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Figures:

Estimates of future EU GHG intensity of key materials (above) and current proportion of production of key materials in Europe compared to the rest of the world (below)

Source: [117] Hill, N. et al. (2012).Transport GHG: Routes to 2050 project. (Report - The role of GHG emissions from infrastructure construction, vehicle manufacturing, and ELVs in overall transport emissions)

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A2.3 Efficient technology and automation

PROJECT USE-iT FOX REFINET

WP TITLE WP4 Energy and Carbon AREA Constructing and Maintaining Infrastructure and Vehicles CONCEPT Efficient Technology and Automation Select applicable mode for the Air Rail Road Water concept (select mode) Technologies and infrastructure cover a mix of current practice, new development and future opportunities. Many rail technologies identified (e.g. EMUs) MATURITY are current practice in the US but are still very expensive. New developments such as autonomous vehicles and hydrogen fuel cells have been trialled and require further research.

Concept possibly applicable to Air Rail Road Water (select a mode)

Specify location, type, placement (e.g. public/private/professional transport, transit, urban/motorway, local road, highway, open infrastructure/tunnel/bridge/rail station/airport/water port, city center, suburbs, etc.) List existing, potential projects if known. Provide status of development for STATUS OF DEVELOPMENT (reference to TRL) BARRIERS TO DEVELOPMENT OR IMPLEMENTATION OPPORTUNITIES AND BENEFITS FROM the originating concept (concept in DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION title); provide barriers and opportunities for cross modal application of the concept and for modes possibly “applicable to” (in addition to originating concept) DOMAINS TECHNOLOGY Autonomous Vehicles (AVs): Road vehicles Autonomous Vehicles (AVs): Technological Autonomous Vehicles (AVs): Potential to with the capability of driving without human innovation, commercial scale market penetration, reduce carbon emission through optimised input. There are 6 levels of automation, ranging adaption of existing regulatory and legal frameworks. driving, routing etc. Mobility might be from No Automation to Full Automation [145]. In Europe, and the UK, there are no existing consumed as a service, potentially leading to Prototypes have been developed and are legislation/standards governing their use. The main fewer vehicles on the road which could lead currently being tested .In the USA AV trials on policy challenge is to verify their safety and reliability to less embodied carbon. However there is public roads are underway and trials in and to create a legal framework to allow their testing research suggesting that they also have the Greenwich, UK, are set to commence soon [16, and deployment on public roads. Lack of supporting potential to increase fuel consumption

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127]. It is expected that AVs used for HGV infrastructure that is capable of communicating to through effects such as longer distances platooning will reach the market sooner than vehicles in real-time – however in Europe there is little travelled, increased use of transportation, passenger AVs [146]. scope for building segregated highways for AV/non-AV increased travel speeds. However it is traffic, placing greater emphasis on the robustness of generally recognised that AVs have the the technology. Communication systems between potential to lead to dramatic fuel savings – vehicles and infrastructure would need to be secure however unintended consequences can be against cyber threats and protect user privacy. Human realised. They could lead to improvements in factors also present a significant barrier for road safety, reduce congestion and benefit implementation [147]. Liability and insurance issues wider traffic management [16, 127]. also present a significant barrier [16, 127]. Gensets (Diesel Generators) – Switcher Gensets (Diesel Generators) – Switcher Locomotives Gensets (Diesel Generators) – Switcher Locomotives with Scalable Power: A unit made with Scalable Power: New modern Gensets can be up Locomotives with Scalable Power: Through up from a series of small diesel engines. When to six times more expensive than older, less efficient switching-off leads to savings in fuel, running power to the loco is not required, within a models. [15]. costs and a reduction in carbon and air certain timeframe, engines are shut down, or quality emissions. Possible to retrofit older enter sleep mode automatically. Commercially locomotives [15]. available and widely used in North America [15].

Diesel Multiple Units (DMUs)/Electric Multiple Diesel Multiple Units (DMUs)/Electric Multiple Units Diesel Multiple Units (DMUs)/Electric Units (EMUs): DMUs maybe a combination of (EMUs): EMUs are extremely expensive and their Multiple Units (EMUs): DMUs in combination diesel/electric/mechanical/hydraulic units. application requires electrified infrastructure [15]. with power driven wheels achieve faster EMUs are self-propelled railcars, powered by acceleration than locomotive pulled trains. the third DC rail. Currently in use on commuter They also offer greater energy efficiency. railroads across North America and Europe EMUs achieve higher speeds than DMUs and [15]. are furthermore energy efficient [15].

Energy Use Monitoring/Idle Reduction Control Energy Use Monitoring/Idle Reduction Devices: These systems reduce the amount of Control Devices: All enable locomotive energy used whilst the locomotive is idle. Such systems to become more energy efficient systems include: Shore Connection Systems; [15]. Auxiliary Power Units; Automatic Engine Stop Start; Assist Displays; Event Recorder Automated Download. The types of systems are widely available in North America [15]

Dual Power Locomotives: A hybrid electro- Dual Power Locomotives: Reduced fuel diesel locomotive that utilises an on-board consumption and increased energy efficiency rechargeable energy storage system. Currently [15]. used across the globe. The London Underground Tube trains being a prominent

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example [15].

Battery Electric Locomotive: A battery Battery Electric Locomotive: Technological Battery Electric Locomotive: Early research powered electric locomotive. Prototype under improvements in lead-carbon batteries are needed to does not indicate specific benefits, however testing in North America [15]. improve their storage capacity [15]. operating from battery power would lead to decreased emissions [15].

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Locomotives: Based on a Hydrogen Fuel Cell Locomotives: Improvements in Hydrogen Fuel Cell Locomotives: Reduced commercial diesel hybrid model it includes fuel cell technology [15]. weight as diesel fuel tanks (and their batteries which drive electric traction motors, contents) is no longer required [15]. re-energised by a fuel cell stack. Fuel cell powered light rail trains have been in service in China and Aruba in 2012. Fuel Cell locomotives were used for rail infrastructure in the UK. However further research and development is required [15].

Hydrogen Fuel Cells for Road Vehicles: Fuel Hydrogen Fuel Cells for Road Vehicles: It has a low Hydrogen Fuel Cells for Road Vehicles: Zero cells electrochemical systems, combining volumetric energy content which presents challenges emissions, HFC vehicles only emit heat and hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, when storing hydrogen (requiring extremely high water. Hydrogen can be produced from a heat and water [148]. In 2013 the fuel cell pressures, low temperature, or chemical processes to diverse range of domestic resources (with industry achieved sales in excess of $1bn compact). To become more competitive in the market near zero GHG production emissions) thus (representing 35,000 units), however a large the cost of fuel cell production will have to decrease providing a power supply secure against proportion of these sales occurred in the USA significantly [152]. international developments [152]. [148]. Propulsion Improving Devices: A number of Propulsion Improving Devices: While initial costs are Propulsion Improving Devices: They can lead devices designed to improve suboptimal ship seen to be relatively low, the devices can have much to minor (0-5%) savings in propulsion fuel design, or to improve near-optimal designs by larger maintenance costs. consumption and are available for all exploiting phenomena considers secondary in medium and low speed ships. The measures the normal ship design process. Devices are general low to medium-low in initial cost. include: Wake equalising and flow separation alleviating devices; pre-swirl devices; post-swirl devices; high-efficiency propellers. These technologies exist and are in application – they are best suited as a corrective measure for hydrodynamic problems. INFRASTRUCTURE Road Surface Photovoltaics (PV): Prefabricated Road Surface Photovoltaics (PV): Research is needed Road Surface Photovoltaics (PV): Renewable, PV road units (SolaRoad and Solar Roadways). into the durability of these structures. As they are clean generation of electricity. Other Being tested at field scale in the Netherlands prefabricated it requires the removal of existing roads. features, such as LED lighting, and USA respectively [128]. The effect of shading is also a key concern for microprocessors, and heating elements could implementation. If implemented on a national scale a be incorporated adding a wider set of

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major challenge would be storing surplus electricity – benefits [128]. peak production is improbable to overlap with peak demand. These prefab units are likely to be costly [128].

LEDs: The use LEDs for lighting instead of LEDs: These systems have high initial capital costs LEDs: LEDs have a precise distribution of traditional lighting systems [5] relative to traditional systems; however this is offset light, minimizing light wasted, thus are by high efficiencies and low ongoing costs [5]. efficient for the task they are installed for. They have extremely low energy requirements whilst also offering a higher quality of light. Maintenance costs are significantly lower than traditional means of lighting [5]. Wireless Charging Roads (Inductive Charging): Wireless Charging Roads: Barriers include: charging Wireless Charging Roads: Charging is Relying on electromagnetic induction, a primary times, infrastructural costs (retrofitting and the cost of inductive, removing the need for cables and coil using an alternating current generates a the individual systems); interoperability between overhead lines which are easily damaged. magnetic field, inducing a current in a systems; financial and legal frameworks are needed to The systems are integrated into the secondary coil. A number of trials have been eliminate market barriers for the technology, pavement surface (bus stops, private parking, carried out for EVs for both static and dynamic alongside EVs in general. loading bays, traffic lights, taxi stands etc). charging, achieving efficiencies of between 70- The vehicles using them have zero: noise, 90%, and a large number of trial project are emissions, and vibrations. The systems are currently underway for buses, trucks and EVs immune to bad weather. If enough Bombardiers PRIMOVE systems are already infrastructures are in place it would enable commercially available for trams and, EVs (cars, limitless range - providing the vehicle vans, buses, trucks). remains along an adapted route. GOVERNANCE Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) Policies: Proactive Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) Policies: This combination Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) Policies: development policy: This theoretical policy of policy tools could infringe upon rules governing fair Reduction in carbon emissions and employs a combination of travel demand competition. Lack of attractive intermodal transit congestion in heavily loaded urban centres management measures (congestions fees, low systems [21]. [21]. emission zones) alongside limiting competition along BRT routes [21].

Mass Transit Systems (MTS): Development of Mass Transit Systems (MTS): In Asian mega cities, Mass Transit Systems (MTS): It is designed to MTS including a highly specified mass-transit introduced mass transit can have high passenger reduce CO2 emissions from transport and railway system, Bus Rapid Transit and Light Rail demand, which can result in high CO2 emissions and also slow down the process of urban sprawl Transit on rails. For this particular approach, failure to keep up with demand [41]. and motorization [41]. the backcasting approach was used whereby a CO2 emission target is set for the future and countermeasures are established to achieve this target [41].

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CUSTOMER Hybrid User Forum: As part of the EU funded Hybrid User Forum: The outcomes of the forum show Hybrid User Forum: The forum highlighted Hybrid Commercial Vehicle project, a hybrid that there is a major task for the providers of hybrid that the expectations were not always met user forum of (potential) users of heavy duty buses [31]. and also provided an insight into interests as vehicles was set up. The main aim was to assess many participants wanted to know more market obstacles and real-world expectations about full electric solutions. The creation of and experience through annual workshops [31]. the forum allowed suppliers to better understand the needs and demands of the customers [31]. References - Text [5] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2014) Climate Change 2014 mitigation of Climate Change: Working Group III Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [online] Available at: https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg3/ipcc_wg3_ar5_full.pdf (Accessed: 29/09/2015)

[15] U.S. Department of Transport (2014) Best Practices and Strategies for Improving Rail Energy Efficiency [online] Available at: http://ntl.bts.gov/lib/51000/51000/51097/DOT- VNTSC-FRA-13-02.pdf (Accessed: 29/09/2015)

[16] Brown, A., Gonder, J., & Repac, B. (2014). “An Analysis of Possible Energy Impacts of Automated Vehicle”. Road Vehicle Automation, Springer International Publishing, pp. 137-153.

[21] Chen, X., Yu, L., & Wang, Y. (2014). “Analyzing the Effect of Bus Rapid Transit Policy Strategies on CO2 Emissions: Case Study of Beijing”. Transportation Research Board 93rd Annual Meeting , No. 14-1852.

[31] Glotz-Richter, M., Fenton, B. and Erkfeldt, S. (2014). “Hybrid Buses in Europe – expectations and experience presented in the Hybrid User Forum”, TRB 2014 Annual Meeting

[41] Ito, K., Nakamura, K., Kato, H. and Hayashi, Y. (2013). “Backcasting necessary mass-transit development to achieve drastic CO2 mitigation in urban passenger transport in Asian developing megacities”, TRB 2014 Annual Meeting

[127] Houses of Parliament (2013) Post Note: Autonomous Road Vehicles, (443), [online] Available at: www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/POST-PN-443.pdf (Accessed: 29/09/2015).

[145] http://www.sae.org/misc/pdfs/automated_driving.pdf

[146] www.theiet.org/sectors/transport/documents/autonomous-vehicles.cfm?...

[147] Weir, K. (2015) ‘The psychology behind self-driving cars: Along for the ride’, Monitor on Psychology, 46(1), pp. 60-65 Available at: http://www.apa.org/monitor/2015/01/cover-ride.aspx (Accessed: 07/10/2015)

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[148] http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/11/f19/fcto_2013_market_report.pdf

[152] http://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/hydrogen_benefits.html

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Images

Autonomous Vehicles (TRL, 2015) Gensets Switcher Locomotives (Union Pacific, 2015) EMU/DMU Genset Locomotive ARB, 2015)

Energy Monitoring Devices (Siemens, 2015) Dual Power Locomotives (ABB, 2010) Battery Electric Locomotives (ClaytonEquipment, 2015)

Fuel Cell Locomotives (Railway Gazette, 2012) Photovoltaic Roads (NCE, 2014) LEDs (TRL, 2015)

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Bus Rapid Transport (Volvo, 2015)

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References – Images

ABB (2010) ABB traction transformers power Bombardier’s dual-powered locomotive. [image] Available at: http://www.abb.com/cawp/seitp202/76b0d792675942a9c12577f40037eb8b.aspx (Accessed 01/10/2015)

ARB (2015) Locotech. [image] Available at: http://www.arb.ca.gov/railyard/demover/locotech.htm (Accessed 01/10/2015)

Clayton Equipment (2015) Flameproof Battery Locomotive. [image] Available at: http://claytonequipment.co.uk/locomotives/flameproof-battery/ (Accessed 01/10/2015)

New Civil Engineer (2014) Energy Solar Roads Take Off. [image] Available at: http://www.nce.co.uk/features/energy-and-waste/energy-solar-roads-take- off/8669755.article(Accessed 01/10/2015)

Railway Gazette (2012) Fuel Cell Locomotive Trial. [image] Available at: http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/business/single-view/view/fuel-cell-locomotive-trial.html (Accessed 01/10/2015)

Siemens (2015) Energy Management. [image] Available at: //www.siemens.com/press/en/pressrelease/?press=/en/pressrelease/2015/energymanagement/pr2015070283emen.htm&content[]=EM (Accessed 01/10/2015)

TRL (2015) Autonomous Vehicles. [image]

TRL (2015) LED Lighting. [image]

Union Pacific (2015) Locomotive Technology. [image] Available at: https://www.up.com/aboutup/environment/technology/index.htm (Accessed 01/10/2015)

Volvo (2015) Volvo Buses. [image] Available at: http://www.volvobuses.com/bus/global/en-gb/products_services/BRT/Pages/BRT.aspx(Accessed 01/10/2015)

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A3. Operating and managing transport systems

A3.1 Traffic management

PROJECT USE-iT FOX REFINET

WP TITLE WP4 Carbon and energy AREA Operating and managing transport systems CONCEPT Traffic Management Select applicable mode for the Air Rail Road Water concept (select mode) The subject fields discussed are a mix of current practice and new development with the key behind many of them in gaining public acceptances and MATURITY increasing transparency.

Concept possibly applicable to Air Rail Road Water (select a mode)

Congestion Pricing, Managed/HOT Lanes, Parking fees: Relevant to public and private transport, urban and motorway/freeway. Examples of priced lanes include projects in the USA: I-95 Express Lanes in Florida, HOT lanes in California: I-680, I-580, SR-237 in Silicon Valley. Smart Parking projects: Burbank, CA Electronic truck tolling: Via Toll in Poland, operated since 2011, requires on-board unit (transponder and opening an account to pay electronically, once crossing underneath the gantry). San Francisco, CA has deployed a system, SFpark, that indicates to 37 drivers where available parking spaces are located via a website or iPhone app, a Specify location, type, placement 511 system, and 38 electronic signs. (e.g. public/private/professional transport, transit, urban/motorway, Modal Shifting, Avoided Journey: Relevant to public and private transport, urban and motorway/freeway, public, public transit, air traffic, water local road, highway, open passenger transport infrastructure/tunnel/bridge/rail station/airport/water port, city Optimising routes: Relevant to public and private transport, urban and motorway/freeway center, suburbs, etc.) List existing, potential projects if known. Speed management: Relevant to all road vehicles traveling on motorways, local roads, bridges, etc. applicable to rail, water and air.

Travel demand management: Relevant to all vehicles traveling on motorways, local roads, bridges; applicable to rail, air, water

Weight-in-motion: Relevant to trucks and commercial vehicles traveling on motorways, local roads, before bridges, applicable to rail as well (to weight trains before entering bridges). Example Green Light preclearance system in Oregon, USA.

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Provide status of development for STATUS OF DEVELOPMENT (reference to TRL) BARRIERS TO DEVELOPMENT OR IMPLEMENTATION OPPORTUNITIES AND BENEFITS FROM the originating concept (concept in DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION title); provide barriers and opportunities for cross modal application of the concept and for modes possibly “applicable to” (in addition to originating concept) DOMAINS TECHNOLOGY Congestion Pricing, Managed/HOT Lanes, Congestion Pricing, Managed/HOT Lanes, Parking Congestion Pricing, Managed/HOT Lanes, Parking fees: Congestion pricing provides fees: High upfront investment costs to convert Parking fees: Several international cities efficient demand management strategy by existing system to HOT or managed lanes, which is have implemented congestion pricing, inducing fees for users of the road later outweighed/compensated (self-financed) by the including Singapore, Stockholm, London, infrastructure, facilities (parking) to use it. Also revenue from tolls. Oslo, and Jakarta. Congestion 31 pricing not usage of electrical vehicles, hybrids and only reduces congestion, but also reduces carpooling is encouraged by congestion pricing annual VMT for cities. Charging road users (they pay no or reduced tolls in those dedicated more during peak periods aims to smooth or lanes). reduce traffic flows.

Priced lanes or sections of motorways can be According to a report by The Information operated based on traditional system: roadway Technology and Innovation Foundation, plaza (ticket system) or with minimal Stockholm reduced congestion and carbon infrastructure intrusion/disruption (open road emissions by 15 34 percent through its tolling-ORT, all electronic tolling – AET) congestion pricing system. Modal Shifting, Avoided Journey: Availability of rail, Modal Shifting, Avoided Journey: bus, ferry, and other quality transit options. Density of Investment in quality transit infrastructure, people to allow more access to services. Levels of density of adjacent land use, and high level services. Time barriers on roads without right of way. of services using innovative financing that Public perceptions. builds in these features. Multiple co-benefits especially where walkability health benefits are a focus Optimising routes: Alternative traffic and Optimising routes: Automatic vehicle transport management strategies (eval. energy location systems optimize routes for fleet, and environmental impacts) including freight, which can also reduce 46 VMT. The City of Napa, California, used Various transport management strategies automatic vehicle location systems and on- include: board 47 diagnostics technology in the city’s (i) developing vehicle fuel consumption and fleet to reduce annual GHG emissions by emission models that can be calibrated using 44,000 pounds.

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publically available data; (ii) studying the impact of driver routing decisions on their fuel Driving assistance and eco-routing are consumption level; (iii) developing eco-routing widely-recognized ITS applications that systems that minimise the fuel consumption provide drivers with real-time travel and and carbon footprint of urban transportation traffic information, navigation, information networks; (iv) developing intelligent eco-cruise about delays from congestion or accidents, control and eco-adaptive cruise control weather conditions, and road work. systems; and (v) vehicle connectivity possibilities with traffic signal controllers to Vehicles equipped with driving assistance reduce vehicle fuel consumption levels in the features provide feedback to the driver on vicinity of traffic signalised intersections. how to operate the vehicle at the most fuel- efficient speeds in various driving conditions. Eco-routing applications designed specifically for freight vehicles include information on available parking spaces during periods of rest, information about delays and weather conditions. Speed management: Speed limits have been Speed management: Digital maps with speed limits Speed management: Benefits of reducing introduced for various reasons, fuel need to be available. Some national governments speeds include local air quality consumption and emissions being one of them, encourage this. It requires substantial efforts to improvements and reduced noise although traffic safety is usually the main update the database whenever limits change. Speed annoyance. On several motorways in driver. Speed limits studies should be based on limit information would also be part of eco-driving Europe, speed limits have been reduced (to fuel consumption at various speeds for assistance systems 100, 90 or 80 km/h) for environmental different types of vehicles performing at reasons (e.g. around several cities in The various types of roads (motorway, local roads, Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Spain). etc.) On the other hand, in several places there Optimizing the aircraft cruise speed is another are discussions about (locally) increasing the way to minimize emissions. The optimum speed speed limit. In Austria there were varies between different types of aircraft. discussions about a speed limit of 160 on Airlines already routinely optimise cruise speed some stretches (but also reduced speed and it is expected that further reduction of fuel limits when air quality reaches critical use by further speed optimization will be small. levels); in The Netherlands there are trials with dynamic speed limits that include a test Digital maps with speed limits application that with a raised speed limit (during periods need to be installed in vehicles, provide with low traffic volumes) and tests with guidance of posted speeds (enforcement need reduced speed limits (of which one for air to be in place to be effective)- SpeedAlert/ISA quality reasons) [Stoelhorst & Schreuder, systems. 2009].

The European Rail Traffic Management System

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(ERTMS) is designed to increase capacity but, by reducing the need to decelerate and accelerate trains, it also reduces CO2 emissions.

Travel demand management: Traffic Travel demand management: Successful traffic Travel demand management: Air traffic management measures that are currently management measures can increase the capacity of management (ATM) systems can be commonly considered for reduction of roads and thus the attractiveness of (certain routes in) improved to reduce fuel consumption and emissions are: the transport network, which can result in extra emissions. Modernization of the air traffic • Optimisation of traffic flows in cities kilometres driven. This kind of side-effects is an management system could lead to the use (route choice and traffic control uncertainty that should always be considered when of more direct tracks, allowing substantial optimization, ramp metering) developing traffic management measures. savings in fuel. Improvement of ATM also • Measures to reduce congestion on Costs can be a barrier, as expensive equipment may has the potential to relieve congestion in main roads (e.g. travel time be needed (traffic lights, variable message signs, high density traffic areas. Several sources information, route advice, incident gantries over the road, etc.) and software costs (for show that for current (i.e., 1998-99), management) programming the control strategies) can be worldwide aircraft fleet operations, • (Dynamic) access restrictions for high substantial. Compared to building new infrastructure, improvements to the ATM system alone emitting vehicles, e.g. environmental however, traffic management is often considered to could reduce fuel burn per trip by 6-12% or green zones be a cheap option (to alleviate bottlenecks). [Penner et al., 2000]. If relieving congestion • Speed management by deploying does not lead to more flights, there is a dynamic speed limits (see par. 6.3 for positive effect on GHG emissions. a discussion of lower speed limits at all times) Weight-in-motion: Scales used to measure the Weight-in-motion: The primary purpose of weight of commercial trucks can be either static WIM systems is often for weight (weighing vehicles at rest) or weigh-in-motion enforcement. When used as a sorter scale, (weighing vehicles as they travel). In addition, WIM systems have been shown to decrease the scales can either be built into the pavement congestion and reduce vehicle operating or portable. Static scales measure the weight of costs at traditional weigh stations. Remote a vehicle at rest. (sometimes called virtual) compliance stations, where WIM scales are located on Several different technologies are currently in the highway where there is no weigh use in built-in WIM systems. Some of the more station, can be used for enforcement common include bending plate, hydraulic load purposes as well. cell, and piezoelectric. WIM provides a good tool (if properly enforced) to determine overweight vehicles which cause substantial damage to pavement, repairing damaged pavement and maintenance is carbon intensive process. Thus it is important to place WIM scales in major truck traffic routes and

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enforce them so pavement destruction can be minimized.

INFRASTRUCTURE Congestion Pricing, Managed/HOT Lanes, Congestion Pricing, Managed/HOT Lanes, Parking Congestion Pricing, Managed/HOT Lanes, Parking fees: Infrastructure changes for priced fees: Sometimes congestion pricing in a form of HOT Parking fees: Demonstrations of better lanes include: roadway infrastructure such as lanes requires infrastructure changes such as transport outcomes from combinations of physical toll collection plazas, open road tolling additional lanes, building separating concrete barriers pricing, traffic restraint, parking and new infrastructure (overhead gantries, vehicle (however nowadays it is being accomplished by infrastructure investment from the revenue. presence equipment (cameras, overhead delineation or plastic pylons or delineator posts which Removing subsidies to fossil fuels important scanners), payment reading equipment separate the HOT or Express Lanes from the general for many co-benefits. (multiprotocol readers, scanners, etc.), purpose lanes) supplemental illumination; back office Managing throughput and less congestion processing infrastructure (for payment and contributes to less idling and emission of account management). For parking facilities- carbon due to frequent stopping and traffic. electronic parking system (up to date information of available spots, etc.) Modal Shifting, Avoided Journey: Modal shifts Modal Shifting, Avoided Journey: The mitigation Modal Shifting, Avoided Journey: Mitigation that reduce traffic congestion can potentials from reductions in transport activity measures targeted at reducing the overall simultaneously reduce GHG emissions and consider, for example, that “walking and cycle track transport demand — such as more compact short-lived climate forcers. These include road networks can provide 20 % (5 – 40 % in sensitivity urban form with improved transport congestion pricing, modal shifts from aviation analyses) induced walking and cycle journeys that infrastructure and journey distance reduction to rail, and shifts from LDVs to public transport, would not have taken place without the new and avoidance may reduce exposure to oil walking, and cycling (Cuenot et al., 2012). networks, and around 15 % (0 – 35 % in sensitivity price volatility and shocks (Sovacool and analyses) of current journeys less than 5 km made by Brown, 2010; Leung, 2011; Cherp et al., However, some actions that seek to reduce car or public transport can be replaced by walking or 2012). congestion can induce additional travel cycling” (Sælensminde, 2004). Urban journeys by car demand, for example, expansions of airport longer than 5 km can be replaced by combined use of Reducing in traffic congestion due to modal infrastructure or construction of roads to non-motorized and intermodal public transport shifting. increase capacity (Goodwin, 2004; ECMT, 2007; services (Tirachini and Hensher, 2012). Small and van Dender, 2007). Access to safe walking and biking is important Energy security (reduced oil dependence and and could be an issue especially in developing exposure to oil price volatility) countries (road safety of infrastructure for pedestrians and cyclists). Productivity (reduced urban congestion and travel times, affordable and accessible transport) Potential to develop beyond current niches, though will require significant investment in Less land-use competition from transport new vessels and port facilities infrastructure Overcoming the barriers to each technology New / shorter shipping routes. and practice could enable each to contribute to a more sustainable transport system and

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Planning and design policies can work against realize the opportunities from technological walkability of a city by too easily allowing cars into and social changes when moving towards a walking city areas. decarbonized economy of the future.

Lack of density and integration with transit.

Culture of walkability.

Modal shift from air to rail: High-speed rail infrastructure is expensive.

Modal shifting from roadway to waterborne: Lack of vision for water transport options and landlocked population centres. Long transit times. Tightening controls on dirty bunker fuel and SOx and NOx emissions raising cost and reducing modal competitiveness. Optimising routes: System optimization by Optimising routes: Insufficient in long term to Optimising routes: Driving assistance and improved road systems, freight logistics and significantly reduce carbon emissions without eco-routing systems can empower drivers efficiency at airports and ports. changing mode, reducing mobility, or reducing fuel with information about optimal route carbon intensity. selection, navigation, and operational conditions. This allows drivers to operate a vehicle so that it achieves greater fuel efficiency or to choose a route that is most fuel-efficient. However, driving assistance and eco-routing require a wide deployment of a consolidated vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) platform to maximize environmental benefits. Increasingly, cars in the U.S. are equipped with a global positioning system (GPS) or telematics systems that offer driving assistance services. Speed management: Taking into account the Speed management: Lowering the speed limit leads Speed management: In The Netherlands, the share of motorway traffic in the kilometres to travel time increases that have effects for individual effects on CO2 emission of the “Drive slow go driven (which can vary substantially from travellers and businesses (which contradicts many fast” concept, which involves (re)designing country to country; motorway shares are current economic/accessibility objectives). This roads and their environment in such a way rising), the effects are less pronounced on the explains why lowering the speed limit encounters that cars cannot overtake anymore and national level, resulting in reductions of 2-3% at resistance. forces cars to drive at a lower but more even most of all traffic. Effects of reducing the speed speed, were calculated to be up to 26% limit to 100 km/h are reported in the order of Lower speeds may mean more ships are needed. In [Beek, 2007].

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7-15% for motorway traffic, depending on the the current situation, the optimal speed is determined initial speed limit (120, 130 or no speed limit)- by an economical assessment, where the oil price If speed limits were to be lowered, or at least based on 2009 data. plays quite a significant role, indicating that the capped, throughout Europe, there are several market functions properly. Increasing the fuel cost, for added benefits: Speed limits for heavy goods vehicles should be example by internalizing the cost of the CO2 • if travel speeds decrease, and time analysed separately. [Vlieger, 2005] reports emissions, may then be a preferable option, compared budget theory holds true, people substantial reductions in CO2 emissions if truck to speed limits. would travel less kilometres speed limits are lowered to 80 km/h (based on • the design of vehicle engines could tests with a small number of trucks). Safety benefits as well as air quality, safety and energy also be adapted (leading to reduced security benefits, and reduced noise, which should GHG emissions), because the Speed limits for shipping may have a strong make the cost-benefit ratio for many measures power output of cars can be impact on GHG emissions, as fuel consumption positive. reduced as there are would be no increases with (almost) the third power of the roads on which high speeds are vessel’s speed. Reducing the speed by 10% may allowed then reduce fuel consumption by 27%. Establishing a speed limit for aircraft may have impact on the longer term, as aircraft will then be designed for these lower speeds, and fuel consumption will be reduced. However, the existing fleet has been designed to achieve optimal fuel efficiency at certain cruising speed. Reducing the speed of these aircraft would not lead to improved fuel efficiency. Speed limits may then lead to impacts on the competitive position of airlines with old and newer aircraft. However, as speed limits in aviation have not been assessed yet in any detail, it might be an option for further study. Travel demand management: River Travel demand management: In order to reduce GHG Travel demand management: Adaptive Information Systems have been implemented emissions, traffic management measures can be signal controls and ramp metering have to manage traffic on waterways, its main aims designed to favour low emission modes. For instance, demonstrated their capacity to reduce delay. being to enhance safety, reliability and traffic control systems (e.g. traffic lights at Adaptive traffic signals refers to dynamic efficiency (see, e.g. the EU directive on River intersections) can give priority to public transport or signals designed to detect the presence of Information. systems [Directive 2005/44/EC of slow traffic (walking, cycling). Low emission vehicles waiting vehicles, which can improve the the European Parliament, 2005]). It seems that can be made exempt from charges or restrictions. In timing of signals, enhance traffic flow, and it is not yet common to include environmental other cases, traffic management measures can be reduce congestion and delay. Many traffic objectives. made more environmentally friendly by rethinking signals currently utilize outdated or static other objectives such as minimization of travel times. signal timing systems in the U.S.; poor signal timing accounts for approximately five to percent of congestion on major roadways.

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Ramp metering is another transportation management system component that can provide environmental benefits. Ramp meters are signals on freeway ramps that control the flow of vehicles entering the freeway. They can improve traffic flows on freeways and reduce clusters of vehicles attempting to merge onto the freeway. Weight-in-motion: Typical weigh stations Weight-in-motion: Overweight trucks damage the Weight-in-motion: Benefits provided by WIM collect information about axle weight, axle road infrastructure, contribute to greenhouse gas include less destruction to pavement and configuration and spacing, and gross vehicle emissions, and represent a potential treat to traffic surface infrastructure caused by overloaded weight. In addition to these, WIM systems can safety. An efficient way of reducing the number of vehicles, it is also important in case of bridges also be instrumented to collect information on overweight trucks is to implement weigh-in-motion so WIM scales are placed in the vicinity of vehicle speed, headway, volume, equivalent (WIM) systems that are designed to record axle and bridge approaches. This is also applicable for single axle loads (ESALs), lateral position of the gross vehicle weights as they pass over a sensor. heavy commercial trains and bridge vehicle in the lane, pavement and air Although they are effective in detecting overweight approaches. temperature, and identifying characteristics trucks, WIM systems are costly and only their efficient such as DOT or container numbers. Because allocation can justify the investment. Oregon Department of Environmental Quality this information can be collected by a WIM tests show that trucks are far less polluting system continuously, the possible uses of this and far more fuel efficient when they don't data are broad. stop at weigh stations. There's a 36-67 per cent reduction in pollutants and a 57 per cent increase in fuel economy when trucks avoid decelerating and accelerating to enter and exit a station.

Because Green Light annually allows 1.5 million trucks to avoid weigh station stops, Oregon skies are subjected to 0.5 tons less particulate matter, 1 ton less hydrocarbons, 2.4 tons less carbon monoxide, 8 tons less nitrogen oxides, and 1,300 metric tons less carbon dioxide. All this, plus over $600,000 in fuel savings. GOVERNANCE Congestion Pricing, Managed/HOT Lanes, Parking Congestion Pricing, Managed/HOT Lanes, fees: Political barriers due to perceived public Parking fees: Public hearing and outreach opposition to increased pricing costs. Lack of meetings should be conducted to educate administrative integration between transport, land- the public of congestion pricing benefits and use and environment departments in city changes in infrastructure. municipalities

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Modal Shifting, Avoided Journey: Public acceptance Modal Shifting, Avoided Journey: Both inside of any transport policy option is needed and may be a and outside urban areas, GHG reduction can barrier. As implementation approaches, public be attempted with spatial planning policies acceptance fluctuates, so political support may be that aim to reduce transport volume, or to required at critical times. cause a shift towards “greener‟ modes of transport. Depending on the type of energy Institutional barriers to low-carbon transport include which is consumed by transport modes, a international standards required for new EV shift in modes in an urban region, which can infrastructure to enable recharging; low pricing of be more public transport intensive for parking; lack of educational programmes for modal commuting trips, could contribute to shift; and polycentric planning policies that require reduction of GHG. There is no consensus the necessary institutional structures. however on the effectiveness of spatial policies to stimulate such a shift. Optimising routes: Insufficient regulatory support and Optimising routes: Creative regulations and key performance indicators (KPIs) covering logistics KPIs that enable change to occur rapidly and efficiency. without excessive costs.

Speed management: Regulation may be needed or at Speed management: Speed limit least sufficient and transparent communication with enforcement has been shown to be effective the people affected by these policies. Without [Ministère de l‟écologie et du regulation, increasing the use of speed limiters or ISA développement, 2004]; however, requires systems, enforcement on a large scale would be substantial efforts if the aim is to have an needed. High fuel prices or higher shadow costs for effect everywhere and at any time. Speed GHG emissions (likely in view of the longer term limiter systems will only be implemented if damage cost risk) may provide a strong incentive to there is legislation forcing vehicle owners to increase the willingness for these type of measures install and use them. SpeedAlert/ISA systems can have substantial effects, but this depends strongly on the type of system installed. Travel demand management: The majority of Travel demand management: Typically, policies that Travel demand management: Traffic road authorities managing busy urban and/or aim to improve infrastructure will cause an increase in management measures are generally taken interurban road networks have traffic GHG emissions, as transport demand increases. In the at the regional or local level. As many regions management plans in place, and environmental longer term, these improvements may result in face the same problems, EU-funded research objectives are often already part of these plans. changes to spatial planning that rely on the increased and development could help to make Solid environmental restrictions should be accessibility, resulting in further transport demand transparent the potential of traffic included in those plans. increases: people will accept longer commuting management to reduce GHG emissions distances (as travel times are reduced), they may (rather than improve throughput), and the Traffic management policy can be deployed to choose to go shopping at a shopping centres further impacts this would have on the transport minimize fuel consumption and GHG emissions. away, causing shops in their neighbourhood to close system (mainly in terms of accessibility; Its main aims should then be to reduce the down, etc. traffic safety would most likely benefit from number of kilometres driven (e.g. through traffic management measures aimed at better route planning and reduction of reducing emissions).

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congestion on fuel-efficient routes), to favour environmentally friendly transport modes and In Europe, the SESAR programme (the to enable vehicles to operate at favourable European Air Traffic Management (EATM) speeds and to keep a constant speed. modernisation programme) combines technological, economic and regulatory aspects and will use the Single European Sky (SES) legislation to synchronise the plans and actions of the different stakeholders and bring together resources for the development and implementation of the required improvements throughout Europe, in both airborne and ground systems.

Improvements should aim to put more weight to GHG reduction in environmental assessments. The following potential policy instruments for doing this were identified: • Ensure that all (very) long term impacts on GHG emissions are included in EIAs, SEAs and CBAs. • Apply higher shadow price for the long term emissions CO2 in CBA‟s, in order to better reflect the risks for possible long term dramatic changes. • Introduce specific conditions or requirements to the overall impact on GHG emissions.

CUSTOMER Congestion Pricing, Managed/HOT Lanes, Parking Congestion Pricing, Managed/HOT Lanes, fees: Public perception can be negative; equity, Parking fees: Higher utilization of highway accessibility of public goods can be an issue. infrastructure, decreasing travel time, providing alternative options for Cultural barriers: ability to accept carpooling and less travellers/motorists who are willing to pay dependency on cars can be an issue in some cultures. tolls; congestion pricing contributes to higher value of time for commuters using the HOT lanes.

Less carbon is produced due to congestion pricing, less vehicles on the roads contribute to general health of the public.

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Modal Shifting, Avoided Journey: Psychological Modal Shifting, Avoided Journey: Health barriers can impede behavioural choices that might benefits by switching modes and avoiding otherwise facilitate mitigation as well as adaptation journeys: less time spent driving, more time and environmental sustainability. walking and cycling for short term journeys and switching from flying and driving to rail. Cultural barriers: underlie every aspect of transport, Employment opportunities in the public for example, automobile dependence being built into transport sector vs. car manufacturing jobs. a culture and legal barriers that can exist to prevent the building of dense, mixed-use community centres Decrease of urban air pollution that reduce car dependence. Overall, there are political barriers that combine most of the above. An increase in walking and cycling activities could therefore lead to health benefits but A better knowledge of consumer travel behaviour is conversely may also lead to an increase in needed, particularly for aviation. traffic accidents and a larger lung intake of air pollutants (Kahn Ribeiro et al., 2012; Takeshita, 2012). Overall, the benefits of walking and cycling significantly outweigh the risks due to pollution inhalation (Rojas-Rueda et al., 2011; Rabl and de Nazelle, 2012). Optimising routes: Avoiding congestion by better traveller information leads to higher travel time utilization and less time spent in traffic. Speed management: User acceptance is a very Speed management: Lowering the speed important barrier. Overall lower speed limits could limit is a simple and not very expensive contribute to a significant reduction of GHG emissions measure, but it needs to be accompanied by (with added benefits regarding air quality, noise and other measures (extensive enforcement, for energy security), but generally face public resistance. instance) to achieve the full benefit possible. Also, if travel times are increased due to The economic consequences of longer travel times lower speed limits, the measure may result in and the user acceptance and compliance with speed a negative benefit-cost ratio. limits.

Travel demand management: Public acceptance of Travel demand management: Customer traffic and travel demand management techniques is benefits include: less time spent in vehicles, important. There may be resistance in accepting adds up to healthy behaviours, promotes alternate routes (e-routing, in-vehicle maps and walking, cycling and usage of public routing systems), switching to eco-friendly modes of transport. transport from single passenger (occupant) vehicles. Cultural issues need to be addressed - automobile

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dependency in some countries is very high and this also creates a certain cultural behaviours resistance to walking, etc. Weight-in-motion: Can create heavy commercial Weight-in-motion: It's apparent that a trucks divers’ resistance due to the need of stopping preclearance system like Green Light benefits (for static WIM). However modern WIM systems are truckers as, obviously, it's a waste of time also compatible with electronic inspection and money for them to stop at weigh (transponder based system) and can be done at stations. The State of Oregon and its motorway speed. regulators clearly benefit, too, because as more trucks are screened and kept on the mainline, weigh station operators have more time for trucks likely to have a size, weight or safety problem. Preclearance even yields obvious global benefits by reducing greenhouse gases.

References • State of Knowledge and Practice: Opportunities for Intelligent Transportation Systems in the Energy Arena, Jon Makler, Robert Bertini, TRB 2014. (Ref43) • Climate Change 2014 Mitigation of Climate Change, Working Group III Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, 2014. (Ref5) • Traffic models enhancements for properly assess environmental impacts of ITS/ICT systems: generalities and eco-driving example, Eugenio Morello, Silvana Toffoloa, Giorgio Mag, TRA 2014. • EU Transport GHG: Routes to 2050? Infrastructure and spatial policy, speed and traffic management (Paper 8), Bettina Kampman (CE Delft), Huib van Essen (CE Delft), Tariq van Rooijen (TNO), Isabel Wilmink (TNO), Lory Tavasszy (TNO), Dec. 2009. • Very High-Precision Weigh-in-Motion Concept Based on Optical Fiber Technology, Caponero, Michele Arturo Demozzi, Andrea (Andrea), TRB 2013. (Ref151) • Weigh-In-Motion Station Monitoring and Calibration Using Inductive Loop Signature Technology, Jeng, Shin-Ting (Cindy), Chu, Lianyu, Cetin, Mecit, TRB 2015. (Ref152) • Optimal Allocation of Truck Inspection Stations Based on k-Shortest Paths, Besinovic, Nikola, Markovic, Nikola, Schonfeld, Paul, TRB 2013. (Ref153)

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Photos for Congestion Pricing, Managed/HOT Lanes, Parking fees:

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Photos for weight-in-motion

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A3.2 Sustainable procurement

PROJECT USE-iT FOX REFINET

WP TITLE WP4 Energy and Carbon AREA Operating and managing transport systems CONCEPT Sustainable Procurement Select applicable mode for the Air Rail Road Water concept (select mode) Technology, infrastructure and governance measures covered are new developments. MATURITY

Concept possibly applicable to Air Rail Road Water (select a mode)

Specify location, type, placement Relevant to public and private road transport, can be also applicable to air transport, rail and water. Consideration should be given to more energy (e.g. public/private/professional efficient planes, trains and vessels during the procurement process by public and private agencies and entities responsible for purchasing of such transport, transit, urban/motorway, equipment. local road, highway, open infrastructure/tunnel/bridge/rail station/airport/water port, city center, suburbs, etc.) List existing, potential projects if known. Provide status of development for STATUS OF DEVELOPMENT (reference to TRL) BARRIERS TO DEVELOPMENT OR IMPLEMENTATION OPPORTUNITIES AND BENEFITS FROM the originating concept (concept in DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION title); provide barriers and opportunities for cross modal application of the concept and for modes possibly “applicable to” (in addition to originating concept) DOMAINS TECHNOLOGY Vehicle fleet and fuel efficiency should be Higher upfront cost can be outweighed by Sustainable bridge procurement approach considered by public agencies (transit agencies) environmental benefits that will pay of later: it would combines LCC Added-Value analysis with to support their vehicle/fleet and fuel be more worthwhile to pay a higher upfront cost for a other novel techniques that make proposals’ procurement decisions. Special tools called cleaner and more fuel-efficient vehicle with lower fuel aesthetic merit and environmental impact emission calculators have been developed to energy consumption and emissions. commensurable, thereby enabling agencies support decision making process for sustainable to establish monetary benchmarks procurement. concerning those aspects in an early planning phase and embed them in the tender

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There are two types of calculators: documents as core specifications. The lowest registry/inventory based calculations and life- net equivalent LCC bid could then be used as cycle analysis calculators. the contract award criterion.

Registry/inventory based calculators are most suitable for standardised voluntary reporting, carbon trading and regulatory compliance.

Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) calculators are most suitable to pursue government funding and to demonstrate the benefits of public transit over private automobile travel. [73]

In the USA, the federal data collection and reporting requirements through national transit database (NTD) support qualification of the use of alternative vehicle fuels combinations by collecting fuel consumption, electricity use and vehicle miles travelled – this is all needed in decision making process supporting green procurement.

A new parameter, LCC Added-Value, has been recently developed to facilitate procurement of the most LCC-efficient alternative through fair design-build (D-B) tendering. However, integration of environmental, aesthetic and user-cost considerations in bridge procurement decisions is also required.

INFRASTRUCTURE Green vehicles and be more expensive to purchase Benefits such as tax deductions/treaty due to but exploitation costs are much lower. It may be hard purchasing green vehicles, planes, rail, to convince the public of such benefits without solid vessels and other equipment should be cost benefits and energy efficiency calculators. considered to encourage green procurement.

There are likely to be potentially higher initial costs Green criteria in tender evaluation can associated with green public procurement, as this is include: one of the catalysts in encouraging GPP (e.g. to • Noise levels referring to ISO 3095 stimulate economies of scale), but this is dependent (LAmax = 90dBA) on the vehicle/technology in question. With regards to • Avoidance of specific toxic purchase costs of vehicles, it is thought that the materials (e.g. arsenic, chrome)

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inclusion of the consideration of lifetime costs for fuel, • Lowest fuel consumption possible CO2, NOX, non-methane hydrocarbons and particulate • Emission standards based on the matter would considerably push up the costs of Directive 97/68/EG Stage IIIa. conventional vehicles. In April 2009, UK Government published Addressing the environmental impact of Government Procurement (NAO, 200912). The report focuses on four procurement categories that have significant environmental impacts, including energy, information and communications technology, office supplies and vehicle fleets. It has been found that collaborative procurement of energy and vehicle fleets has delivered the highest financial savings and reductions in carbon emissions. GOVERNANCE Uniform criteria for evaluating and financing Using fiscal measures and green public sustainable procurement need to be developed on EU procurement has been recommended by the states. Rules need to be developed to encourage Commission in order to aid the achievement green procurement and usage of energy efficient of GHG reduction targets. In the review of vehicles and equipment-tax treaty incentives, etc. the strategy to reduce CO2 emissions from passenger cars and light commercial vehicles (EC, 2007), it was noted that the progress achieved went some way towards the 140g CO2/km target by 2008/09 for passenger cars. However, it was anticipated that the EU objective of 120g CO2/km would not be met by 2012 in the absence of additional measures. This is still the case. It was therefore recommended that a legislative approach at the EU and Member State level should be taken to ensure that emissions reduction were kept on track, through measures such as fiscal incentives and green public procurement.

In determining a way forward, the Commission identified a number of measures that should be employed in order to achieve the 2012 target. These included: • Supply orientated measures

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(technological requirements by vehicle manufacturers) • Demand/behaviour orientated measures (additional efforts by other means of road transport, by MSs and by the consumers).

It is the Member States action that could include use of public procurement in order to encourage the reduction of emissions from vehicles. CUSTOMER Public education is needed to increase energy End user benefits the most from sustainable efficiency awareness in traveling public. procurement due to more energy efficient vehicles to be used by public transport, less emissions produced by transit vehicles contributes to better health in urban areas.

Sources:

• EU Transport HGH: Routes to 2050? Information to raise awareness and instruments to stimulate innovation and development: Paper 9, Charlotte Brannigan (AEA), Tom Hazeldine (AEA), Dominic Schofield (AEA), Johannes von Einem (AEA), Sarah Halsey (AEA), Nov 2009. (Ref117) • [73] Weigel, B.A., Southworth, F. and Meyer, M.D. (2009). Calculators for estimating greenhouse gas emissions from public transit agency vehicle fleet operations.

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A3.3 Behaviour change

PROJECT USE-iT FOX REFINET

WP TITLE WP4 Energy and Carbon AREA Operating and managing transport systems CONCEPT Behaviour change Select applicable mode for the Air Rail Road Water concept (select mode) Many of the technologies, infrastructure and governance mentioned are current practice e.g. limiting number of vehicles has been implemented in MATURITY Shanghai. These require further research/increased public acceptance before widespread implementation can occur.

Concept possibly applicable to Air Rail Road Water (select a mode)

Specify location, type, placement All applicable to road; eco-driver training can also apply to rail, air and water. (e.g. public/private/professional transport, transit, urban/motorway, local road, highway, open infrastructure/tunnel/bridge/rail station/airport/water port, city center, suburbs, etc.) List existing, potential projects if known. Provide status of development for STATUS OF DEVELOPMENT (reference to TRL) BARRIERS TO DEVELOPMENT OR IMPLEMENTATION OPPORTUNITIES AND BENEFITS FROM the originating concept (concept in DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION title); provide barriers and opportunities for cross modal application of the concept and for modes possibly “applicable to” (in addition to originating concept) DOMAINS TECHNOLOGY In-vehicle speed-limiter: Speed limitation In-vehicle speed-limiter: Requiring the fitting of speed In-vehicle speed-limiter: Co-benefits, for devices can be applied to vehicles, which limiting devices for all road transport is likely to be safety, air quality, reduced noise and energy ensure that vehicles are not able to travel controversial. Speed limitations on other modes of security. above a particular chosen speed. Currently, transport are also likely to be met with resistance such devices are used on road-based freight from operators, passengers and freight customers due transport, but not on other modes. From the to its potential to increase costs, as fewer goods and perspective of GHG reduction, a case could be passengers are able to be transported in a given made to limit the speed of all road vehicles by period (assuming that the capacity of infrastructure

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technical means and the relevant limiters could does not increase). [117] be required by and specified by European legislation. [117] Navigation systems with eco-routing: In- Navigation systems with eco-routing: Existing driver vehicle navigation systems with eco-routs assistance devices for eco-routing commonly use based on the lowest total fuel consumption road-link based information to suggest eco-friendly already exist. [9] routes. These models determine the total emissions from a certain route based on either historical traffic data or fleet-wide average emissions factors. Such models fail to take account of real world driving conditions, for example if all drivers were to use such technology in a particular area and take the suggested eco-route, then this route would very quickly become congested, resulting in increased emissions. At present such an eventuality is not a problem as the penetration of eco- routing navigation systems among the population of drivers in most countries is low. If, however, eco-routing was to become widespread, current driver assistance technology would not operate satisfactorily in congested traffic networks. To avoid this limitation, it is necessary to connect such models with real time traffic information sources. [9] Internet: Social shifts due to the increased use of internet may reduce some transport use. [7] Telematics for improving driving behaviour: Telematics for improving driving behaviour: The main Telematics for improving driving behaviour: Telematics can be used to monitor, for barrier is probably user acceptance. [14] More research is needed on the effect of, for example, speeding and together with driver example, different incentives. [14] intervention (i.e. information, feedback, training and/or an incentive to modify driver behaviour) speeding can be decreased. [14] In-vehicle HMI for improving driving In-vehicle HMI for improving driving behaviour: Additional information like fuel use behaviour: With careful interface design it and economy information including the more may be possible not only to help an individual complex nature of the low-carbon vehicle reduce their energy consumption, but also to (particularly for hybrid vehicles which have alleviate the problem of range anxiety, a more than one fuel type). [60] major barrier to the uptake of low-carbon vehicles (particularly battery-only vehicles). [60] Inter-vehicle communication for improving Inter-vehicle communication for improving driving driving behaviour: With vehicular information behaviour: One possible barrier is the dependence of through a smartphone based IVC (SPIVC) the market penetration rate (5% is needed to achieve

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system drivers are informed about the advisory substantial decrease in fuel consumption). [82] speed limit. The drivers use the information to smooth their trajectories more effectively than non-informed drivers. [81, 82] INFRASTRUCTURE Speed cameras: Speed cameras measuring Speed cameras: The main barriers are the economic Speed cameras: Co-benefits, for safety, air passing vehicles momentarily or mean speed on consequences of longer travel times and user quality, reduced noise and energy security. a certain road are already in use in many acceptance. If speed limitation is to play a more [117] countries. [117] significant role in GHG reduction from transport, in the longer-term, the wider culture would need to change to accept this option. [117] Non-motorised transport infrastructure: Non-motorised transport infrastructure: Barriers Non-motorised transport infrastructure: An Alternative mode of transport through walking include increasing public acceptance and promoting example in Bangkok has seen the and cycling. Infrastructure such as pedestrian the schemes effectively. construction of sky walkways and installation sidewalks, cycle tracks, sky walks, designation of elevators, which has increased mobility of pedestrian zones, provision of free/rental and use of public transportation. [66] cycles in cities. [66] GOVERNANCE Internalisation of external costs: Fuel taxes are Internalisation of external costs: The main barriers for Internalisation of external costs: Fuel tax can currently used in most European countries. the introduction of economic instruments have to do be combined well with other instruments – Depending on the mode, fuel taxes could be with the lack of public support and the fear for for example as complements to vehicle accompanied by other economic instruments, adverse economic effects. Increasing the cost of regulation in improving fuel efficiency of the e.g. vehicle taxes to provide specific incentives freight transport has an impact on the costs of fleet since they can help to avoid the for buying fuel efficient vehicles and to correct production and therefore also on the competitive rebound effects from improved efficiency. for consumer myopia (see other fiscal position of the EU economy. The size of the impact is [117] measures). [14, 45, 99, 117] largely dependent on the share of transport costs in the overall production costs. For around 70% of products, this share is less than 3%, although for some it may represent up to 8% of the total costs. Consequently, increasing transport costs has an impact on production costs, but in most cases this impact is only modest.

For fuel tax to have its intended impact subsidies and adverse incentives, such as company car taxation and the fiscal treatment of commuting and business travel, have to be eliminated. [117] Other fiscal measures: Different charges, tax Other fiscal measures: The main barriers for the increases and fare subsidies (road user charges, introduction of economic instruments have to do with workplace car parking charges, urban, non- the lack of public support and the fear for adverse commuting car parking charges, VED circulation economic effects such as business disadvantage of tax, car purchase tax and feebate systems some countries national car industry. [99] based on fuel consumption, car-premiums for

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fuel efficient vehicles, tax reduction for fuel efficient vehicles, public transport fares subsidy) can affect people’s transport choices. [72, 99] Imposing/optimizing speed limits: Where Imposing/optimizing speed limits: The main barriers Imposing/optimizing speed limits: Co- speed limits do not exist, or where these are are the economic consequences of longer travel times benefits, for safety, air quality, reduced noise higher than the optimal for vehicles, then the and user acceptance. If speed limitation is to play a and energy security. [117] imposition or lowering, of speed limits also more significant role in GHG reduction from transport, have the potential to developed GHG savings. in the longer-term, the wider culture would need to Lower speeds at seas could also reduce GHG [72, 117] change to accept this option. [117] emission. [72] Speed limit enforcement by the police: Speed Speed limit enforcement by the police: The main Speed limit enforcement by the police: Co- limit enforcement by the police is already in barriers are the economic consequences of longer benefits, for safety, air quality, reduced noise place in many countries. [72, 117] travel times and user acceptance. If speed limitation is and energy security. [117] to play a more significant role in GHG reduction from transport, in the longer-term, the wider culture would need to change to accept this option. [117] Limiting the number of vehicles: In Shanghai, Limiting the number of vehicles: In most European policies have been enacted which limit the sale countries this approach are likely to be highly of new vehicles by auctioning license plates, or controversial. awarding them by lottery. [49] High density cities: More densely developed High density cities: The main barrier is most likely user cities and neighborhoods for example acceptance. [62] pedestrian-oriented design, road space relocation, high occupancy vehicles only, compact development, regional co-operation). [62, 72] Decreased number of days at work: By Decreased number of days at work: The main barrier allowing work from home and/or compress the is most likely the end user acceptance. [63] working week (fewer days and longer hours) the need for commuting would decrease. [63] CUSTOMER Eco-driver training: Fuel efficient driving Eco-driver training: One barrier could be that drivers Eco-driver training: For some vehicles, behaviour based on moderate and smooth in general, showed little motivation for eco-driving, particularly road transport, concerns acceleration (Eco-driving) directly delivered by and another is to what extent eco-driving is regarding the extent to which eco-driving is training drivers and pilots are already in place in maintained after training is completed. [9, 117] maintained after training are likely to be many countries. [9, 72, 117] addressed in the medium-term by Eco-driving has the potential to reduce CO2 emission developments in intelligent transport Included in this approach is eco-driver training and fuel consumption in certain circumstances, but in systems and technical developments of for professional drivers of clean vehicles (in this congested city center traffic many conflicting views vehicles, which have the potential to case trams and e-buses) focusing of correct exist in the literature, resulting in some doubt over automate much of the necessary driving handling of vehicles with new/renewed the effectiveness of the policy in such circumstances. style. [117] technologies (e.g. CNG, electricity, hybrid etc). [9]

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[11]

References [7] Australian Government, Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development (2014). Trends: Infrastructure and Transport to 2030. Canberra, Australia. [9] Alam, M. S., & McNabola, A. (2014). A critical review and assessment of Eco-Driving policy and technology: benefits and limitations. Transport Policy, 35, 42-49. [11] Backhaus, W. (2014). Eco-driving for clean vehicles: Optimizing energy use for trams and e-buses. Transport Research Arena. Paris, France. [14] Leverson Boodlal., P.E. (P.I.), & Kun-Hung Chiang., P.E. (2014). Study of the Impact of a Telematics System on Safe and Fuel-efficient Driving in Trucks. Washington, DC: US Department of Transportation. [25] Du, L., Peeta, S., Wei, P., & Sun, D. (2014). A quantitative and systematic methodology to investigate energy consumption in multimodal transportation systems. Proceedings from the Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board (TRB), USA. [45] Kay, A. I., Noland, R. B., & Rodier, C. J. (2014). Transportation Futures: Policy scenarios for achieving greenhouse gas reduction targets. San José, CA: Mineta National Transit Research Consortium. [49] Kishimoto, P. N., Zhang, D., Xiliang Zhang, X., & Karplus, V. J. (2015). Modeling regional transportation demand in China and the impacts of a national carbon constraint. MIT Joint Program on the Science and Policy of Global Change Report No. 274. Cambridge, MA: USA. [60] Mcllroy, R. C., Stanton, N. A., & Harvey, C. (2013). Getting drivers to do the right thing: A review of the potential for safely reducing energy consumption through design. IET Intelligent Transport Systems, 4, 388-397. [62] Nichols, B. G., Kockelman, K. M., & Murray, W. J. (2014). Life-cycle energy implications of different residential settings: Recognizing buildings, travel, and public infrastructure. Energy Policy, 68, 232-242 [63] Paladugula, A. L., & Rathi, S. (2013). Strategies to reduce energy use for commuting by employees. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 104, 952 – 961 [66] Regmi, M.B. (2014). Moving towards sustainable transport systems in Asia. Paper submitted on for presentation at 93rd Annual Transportation Research Board Meeting, January 2014 and publication in the Transportation Research Record: Journal of Transportation Research Board [67] Rodier, C. J., Lee, R., Haydu, B., & Linesch, N. J. (2014). Active travel co-benefits of travel demand management policies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Report No. CA-MTI-14-1109. San José, CA, Mineta Transportation Institute. [72] Vallack, H. W., Haq, G., Whitelegg J., & Cambridge, H. (2014). Policy pathways towards achieving a zero carbon transport sector in the UK in 2050. World Transport Policy and Practice, 20, 28-42. [77] Waygood, E. O. D., Sun, Y., & Susilo, Y. O. (2014). Designing low carbon cities with a family lifecycle in mind: Where should our focus be? TRB 93rd Annual Meeting Compendium of Papers, Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board. [81] Hao, Y., Lawrence, A., Zhe, S., Qijian, G., & Wen-Long, J. (2014). A field test of a dynamic green driving strategy based on inter-vehicle communications. TRB 93rd Annual Meeting Compendium of Papers, Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board. [82] Yang, H., & Jin, W.-L. (2014). A control theoretic formulation of green driving strategies based on inter-vehicle communications. Transportation Research Part C, 41,48– 60. [99] Habibi, S., Hugosson, M. B., Sundbergh, P., & Algers, S. (2015). Evaluation of Bonus-Malus systems for reducing car fleet CO2 emissions in Sweden. CTS Working Paper 2015:6, Stockholm, Sweden: Centre for Transport Studies. [101] Forward, S., Nyberg, J., Forsberg, I., Nordström, M., Wallmark, C., Wiberg, E., & Wolf, S. (2014). Förnybara drivmedel: Möjligheter och hinder sett utifrån privatbilisters och aktörers perspektiv [Vehicles powered by alternative fuel: Opportunities and barriers from the perspective of the public, media and stakeholder´s perspectives], VTI report No. 845, Linköping, Sweden: Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI). [117] Skinner I, van Essen H, Smokers R and Hill N (2010) Towards the decarbonisation of EU’s transport sector by 2050 Final report produced under the contract ENV.C.3/SER/2008/0053 between European Commission Directorate-General Environment and AEA Technology plc.

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Images

From ref. 45.

From ref. 71.

From ref. 72.

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