Evaluating Ecotourism: the Case of North Sulawesi, Indonesia Sheryl Ross*, Geo!Rey Wall Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ont

Tourism Management 20 (1999) 673}682

Evaluating ecotourism: The case of North Sulawesi, Indonesia Sheryl Ross*, Geo!rey Wall Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ont. Canada N2L 3GI

Abstract

Ecotourism can contribute to both conservation and development and involves, as a minimum, positive synergistic relationships between tourism, biodiversity and local people, facilitated by appropriate management. This paper applies a framework for the development and evaluation of ecotourism to three protected areas in North Sulawesi. Due to its spectacular endemic biodiversity, the potential for providing quality nature experiences in North Sulawesi is high and tourism development is occurring rapidly. Site-level evaluations of ecotourism in three protected areas were performed to illustrate the application and the utility of the framework as a tool for evaluation and to assess the status of tourism in North Sulawesi. It is revealed that current relationships between people, resources and tourism in North Sulawesi have yet to provide the mutual bene"ts necessary for successful ecotourism. The approach and framework used to arrive at these conclusions have wide applicability for assessing the achievements of ecotourism at speci"c sites and for directing appropriate management strategies for ecotourism in protected areas. ( 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Biodiversity; Conservation; Development; Ecotourism; Local involvement; Natural areas; Indonesia

1. Introduction ecotourism has yet to be proposed. In a previous paper (Ross & Wall, 1999) a framework for the development Ecotourism has been widely recognized as a form of and evaluation of ecotourism was presented and justi"ed nature tourism which is expected to contribute to both (Fig. 1, top). It was argued that ecotourism has the conservation and development. Yet, for a variety of rea- potential to contribute to both conservation and devel- sons, ecotourism sites often fall short of these objectives opment and, as a minimum, it involves the creation of and there is a need to design e!ective means to assess positive synergistic relationships between tourism, biodi- ecotourism's accomplishments, shortcomings and poten- versity and local people through the application of tials. Fundamental functions of ecotourism are the pro- appropriate management strategies. The framework protection of natural areas, the provision of high-quality vides both a means of articulating relationships among tourism experiences and the stimulation of local econo- key aspects of tourism as well as a pictorial means of mies, through provision of resources for conservation, indicating the status of ecotourism at particular sites. environmental education and local empowerment. The The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the utility degree to which these variables are functioning, or have of the framework as a tool for the evaluation of ecotour- the potential to function, essentially represents the e!ec- ism through its application to three protected areas in tiveness of an ecotourism site. Existing relationships North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Case studies of a marine between natural resources, tourism and local human national park, a terrestrial national park and a nature populations can be used to assess the status of ecotour- reserve, albeit within one province of a single country, ism and assist in deployment of e!ective management demonstrate the wide applicability of the framework. strategies. In order to set the locational context of the empirical Although the literature on ecotourism is growing rap- work, a brief discussion of the Indonesian and North idly, a standardized means for site-level assessment of Sulawesi biodiversity and tourism contexts is provided. The three case study sites are introduced as parts of these discussions. Research methods and the nature of the * Corresponding author. Fax: #519-746-2031. evidence used in the case studies are discussed brie#y.

Fig. 1. The ecotourism framework applied to the three sites in North Sulawesi (solid line"solid relationship, dotted line"evidence of progress).

Space does not permit the detailed presentation of each forest biome and the second richest expanse of tropical case study. Rather, a comparative approach is adopted rainforest in the world next to Brazil (Whitmore, 1990). with information on all three sites being presented in Because of the nature of the archipelago's complex, geo- a common format. This permits evaluation of each indi- logical origins, many of its islands support unique #ora vidual site, comparison between them and, by extension, and fauna found nowhere else in the world. assessment of the present status of tourism in North Unfortunately, Indonesia also possesses the greatest Sulawesi. The paper concludes with a re#ection on the number of species threatened with extinction and is des- general utility of the framework. Readers interested troying its forests faster than almost any other country in in a full description of the conceptual framework which the world. With a growing human population of over 200 is applied in this paper are urged to consult the paper million, further demands for food, energy, timber and by Ross and Wall (1999) in a previous issue of this other forest products will result in the continued destruc- journal. tion of forests by way of agricultural production, shifting cultivation and associated "res, urban development and mining. 2. Biodiversity and conservation in Indonesia and North As a megadiversity country, strategies to conserve Sulawesi what is left of Indonesia's biological resources are desper- ately needed. With a growing awareness of the necessity Indonesia, consisting of approximately 17,000 islands to protect its diverse habitats, the government has now which span a distance of 5200 km and an area of set aside in protected areas an ambitious 17.2% of 2,000,000 km, possesses some of the world's greatest its land and sea, totaling close of 50 m ha (Suprian & expanses of tropical forest and continuous coral systems. Sukandar, 1996). Ecotourism, largely focused on parks Indonesia contains 10% of the Earth's tropical moist and protected areas, has been highlighted as a priority for S. Ross, G. Wall / Tourism Management 20 (1999) 673}682 675 economic development and conservation of resources by and islands (5 islands) o! Manado's northeastern coast. the government of Indonesia in both its Biodiversity Situated in a region of the world which holds the greatest Action Plan and its national economic development marine biodiversity, all the coastlines in the park are plans (BAPPENAS/NRMP/USAID, 1993; Caldecott, fringed with coral reefs which are home to over 2500 1994). Because of its large tracts of tropical wilderness species of "sh and threatened species such as the dugong and biodiversity, travel through Indonesia, to destina- (Dugong dugon), several species of giant clam, and the tions such as North Sulawesi, is of increasing interest to hawksbill and green turtle. On land, it contains 20% of nature tourists. the province's mangrove forests. Thus management of Over a century ago, naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace this protected area requires careful consideration given set foot on the shores of Celebes (now Sulawesi), and the breadth of its ecological diversity and the population became intrigued with its unusual #oral and faunal in- of 20,000 people living within its boundaries. In light of habitants. Sulawesi possessed not only a mixture of Aus- its recognition and marketing as a `world-classa diving tralian and Asian species but was also home to many destination, Bunaken National Park is considered the endemic species found nowhere else in the archipelago jewel of the province's ecotourism potential (Volkman, (such as the now highly endangered babirusa (Babyrousa Caldwell & Oey, 1995). babiruss). The pre-historic isolation of parts of Sulawesi Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park (previously is evident due to its extraordinarily high degree of known as Dumoga Bone National Park) encompasses mammalian endemism (Michaux, 1993). The northern approximately 10% of North Sulawesi's land mass province, North Sulawesi, holds the greatest level of (close to 300,000 ha). The park contains several types of endemism, due to its long geological history of mountain rainforest including lowland, montane and cloud forest and water barriers, and island bridges from north east and has been recognized as an important reserve and west (Whitton, Mustafa & Henderson, 1987). Al- for primate conservation. Scenic hiking trails through though Sulawesi is not especially high in richness or a variety of ecosystems provide excellent wildlife view- number of species, its high degree of endemism implies ing opportunities, including a great diversity of bird signi"cant concern for conservation of its peculiar en- and butter#y species. The park houses the majority of demic rainforest diversity and its spectacular coral reefs. North Sulawesi's peculiar endemic species, such as Tar- Bunaken National Marine Park, Bogani Nani War- sius Spectrum (the world's smallest primate), the red- tabone National Park and Tangkoko Duasudara Nature knobbed hornbill (Rhyticeros cassidix), and one of its Reserve are three of the most important protected areas most prized wildlife attractions, the endangered ground- and tourism destinations in the province (Fig. 2). nesting megapode, the maleo bird (Macrocephalon Bunaken National Park is a marine park, encompass- maleo), which was "rst named by Wallace during his visit ing 79,056 ha of sea (80% of which is open sea), coastline, in 1859.

Fig. 2. Protected areas in North Sulawesi. 676 S. Ross, G. Wall / Tourism Management 20 (1999) 673}682

Tangkoko DuaSudara Nature Reserve encompasses Table 1 a small 8867 ha bordering the Sulawesi Sea on the north- Number of international tourists to Indonesia and North Sulawesi east side of the peninsula. Recognized for its rich endemic (taken from Lembaga Studi Pariwisata Indonesia 1996, and from Dinas Pariwisata, 1996) biodiversity, the reserve contains three volcanoes and 7 habitat types including lowland, submontane and el"n Year Foreign tourists Foreign tourists N. Sulawesi's% cloud forest (Kinnaird & O'Brien, 1995a). O! the black to Indonesia to N. Sulawesi share of foreign tourists volcanic sand coast, the waters are fringed with coral reefs. At least until the occurrence of a major "re in 1985 749,351 2248 0.30 1986 825,035 2639 0.32 August 1997, Tangkoko had high densities of Tarsius 1987 1,060,347 3628 0.34 Spectrum, crested black macaques (Macaca nigra), primi- 1988 1,301,049 5136 0.39 tive bear cuscus (Phalanger ursinus) and red-knobbed 1989 1,625,965 5707 0.35 hornbills, which are easily accessible and thus popular 1990 2,177,566 6799 0.31 for wildlife viewing. 1991 2,569,870 10,801 0.42 1992 3,064,161 13,078 0.43 All of the above places are within reasonable distance 1993 3,403,140 18,767 0.55 of the provincial capital, Manado (Fig. 2), and they 1994 4,003,017 23,762 0.59 constitute the three case study locations for this applica- 1995 4,324,229 30,285 0.71 tion of the evaluative framework Nature tourism is being promoted at all three sites.

3. Tourism in Indonesia and North Sulawesi and resorts in anticipation of mass tourism development. Given the enthusiasm with which ecotourism is being International tourism has become an important source promoted, measures to promote sustainablity should re- of foreign exchange and economic growth in Indonesia. ceive high priority for the future well-being of both the In 1995, the nation received over 4.3 million international people and resources of the region. visitors and tourism contributed over $5.3 billion US to the Indonesian economy (Dinas Pariwisata, 1996). Tourism was exceeded only by forest products and tex- tiles as a non-oil generator of export income. National, 4. Information sources provincial, and site-speci"c statistics show that both foreign and domestic tourism were growing steadily prior The information base for the case studies was to the Asian economic crisis of 1998. However, much developed primarily in 1994 and 1995. The second tourism is concentrated in beach resorts, especially in author visited North Sulawesi on several occasions in Bali, and there is a need and opportunity to develop 1994 and again in 1997 collecting background informa- complementary tourism products, particularly in the tion, making contacts and inspecting possible case study poorer periphery of the country (Wall, 1997). Ecotourism locations. More intensive "eld work was conducted be- o!ers potential in this respect. tween June and August 1996 by the second author, fol- The number of foreign tourists to Indonesia and to lowing completion of language training in Bahasa North Sulawesi has more than doubled since 1990 (Table Indonesia. 1). The number of international tourists to North The database consists of secondary information such Sulawesi has been increasing at an average of close to as existing studies and plans, published visitor statistics, 30% annually. In 1995, the province received over, the contextual materials on biodiversity and tourism in 30,000 foreign tourists, with foreign and domestic tourists Indonesia and North Sulawesi. This information was together totaling over 300,000 per year in 1995. complemented by a variety of interviews and discussions Tourism trends to North Sulawesi's protected areas undertaken in Jakarta and North Sulawesi, including parallel the provincial trend. In 1978, 50 foreign tourists 19 interviews conducted with individuals involved in were recorded as visiting Tangkoko (Kinnaird & research, tourism, conservation or protected area man- O'Brien, 1995b). The number increased from 634 foreign agement in the three study locations. Participant ob- tourists in 1990 to approximately 2500 in 1994 (several servation on the part of both authors was a further months of data are missing from the records in 1995). source of information, particularly with respect to tourist Similarly, at Bogani, international tourist numbers went experiences, interpretive facilities and trail maintenance, from 19 visitors in 1987 to close to 3300 in 1995. Bunaken and levels of interaction between tourists and members of National Park, the marine park, is now receiving over the local community. In the case of Tangkoko, a survey 13,000 international tourists annually. Several domestic of 30 local residents was undertaken to ascertain atti- and foreign investors have recognized the rapid growth tudes of local residents towards the growth of tourism of tourism in the province and are constructing hotels and towards stewardship of park resources. S. Ross, G. Wall / Tourism Management 20 (1999) 673}682 677

5. The status of ecotourism in North Sulawesi greatest resource use con#icts in North Sulawesi's protected areas involve illegal resource extraction (including The success of conservation and ecotourism in pro- hunting, "shing, #ora/coral collection and gold mining) tected areas depends on the building of harmonious and encroachment (in the form of deforestation, crop relationships between natural areas and local residents, production, annual burns to clear land and livestock between local residents and tourism, and between grazing). Con#icts between people and protected areas tourism and protected resources, facilitated by manage- have been compounded by unsuccessful `policinga e!orts ment (Fig. 1). By examining the dynamics of these rela- by authorities within the protected areas, and by decision tionships and the role of management, the status making (such as park boundary delineation and estab- (successes, weaknesses and potentials) of an ecotourism lishment of use zones) that has occurred without consul- site can be revealed. Each relationship will be discussed tation with locals, causing confusion and anger. These in turn. issues have been actively addressed at Bunaken National Park, where a participatory management plan has been 5.1. Natural areas and local residents developed (BAPPENAS/NRMP/USAID, 1994). The extent of resource use con#icts at all three pro- Characteristics of local communities and of surround- tected areas implies that conservation is not foremost, ing habitat or biodiversity in#uence an area's potential and may not even be plausible, for many local people for and compatibility with ecotourism development. In who do not have sustainable alternatives for meeting a harmonious relationship, people act as stewards of the their everyday needs and who, in consequence, oppose surrounding natural area and, in return, they bene"t and ignore limitations which restrict resource use. Con- from natural resources and biodiversity through sustain- tinued pressure on resources is threatening both people's able harvesting and through use of essential resources livelihoods and the health of sensitive terrestrial and such as water from protected watersheds. Table 2 pro- marine ecosystems. Thus the ideal symbiotic relationship vides examples of some of the criteria that can be used to between people enjoying sustainable resource use and evaluate the status of the relationship between local resi- protected areas receiving support by resident environ- dents and the surrounding natural environment (in this mental advocates, is not being realized. case, the natural environment is the adjacent protected areas). 5.2. Host communities and tourism An analysis of this relationship revealed that people and protected areas in North Sulawesi are not in har- Besides the generation of foreign exchange for the mony. Up to 85% of livelihoods of the populous of country, ecotourism can contribute to host communities communities within and surrounding the protected areas locally through economic and social bene"ts, infrastruc- are based on subsistence and cash-crop farming and tural improvements, and the indirect bene"ts of provid- "shing. Natural systems are being put under constant ing an additional rationale for resource protection (Ross pressure and lack of arable land and encroachment into & Wall, 1999). In return, the experiences of tourists can protected areas are serious problem at all three sites. The be enhanced through the provision of opportunities to

Table 2 Summary of relationship between local residents and protected areas

Indicators of local protected Bunaken Bogani Tangkoko area (PA) relationship

Degree of dependence on PA High Medium}high Medium}high resources Resources used in PA Many "sh, coral, land seabeds, Many land, wood, rattan, Many land, wood, #ora, fauna mangroves, #ora, fauna, minerals Sustainability of livelihoods? Some sustainable Some sustainable Unsustainable Activities of the greatest threat Over"shing seaweed farming Agricultural encroachment, Poaching agricultural to PA ecosystems mining encroachment Sta!/local relations Poor! Unknown Variable Attitudes towards PA Variable! (bad start in '89) Variable! (bad start in '82) Unknown conservation Evidence of local bene"ts from Yes ("sh stocks) Yes (watershed for irrigation) Perhaps (harvesting of plants) protection?

!Based on limited information from BAPPENAS (1992). 678 S. Ross, G. Wall / Tourism Management 20 (1999) 673}682 interact with local people and experience di!erent cul- Social bene"ts, which may be tied partially to eco- tural settings. nomic and infrastructural bene"ts, are less and require In addition to strong promotion of its protected areas further investigation. as tourist destinations, North Sulawesi is beginning to be Thus far, nature tourism has not been encouraging exposed to mass tourism development and analysis of the positive attitudes towards conservation of protected contributions of tourism to local communities may be areas nor is it resulting in positive cultural interactions. premature, given the recent but rapid rate of tourism When local communities are not receiving substantial development occurring in the province. The fast pace of bene"ts from ecotourism and are also recognizing that change and limited planning initiatives have made it most bene"ts are being accrued by outsiders, and are di$cult to provide communities with the means to par- perceiving resource restrictions as a result (i.e. cost) of ticipate in and adapt to the introduction of tourism. As ecotourism, then attitudes towards conservation are like- a result of rapid development, many communities are in ly to be negative (Lindberg & Enriquez, 1994). With the a state of transition as construction of roads and build- exception of a small number of local entrepreneurs within ings continues. Thus far, tourism to protected areas has Bunaken National Park who have developed their own been providing very few opportunities for positive visi- homestays, sale of local goods, and boat trips for snorkel- tor}host interactions, yet improved transportation and ing and diving, this is largely the situation in North the appearance of new homestays and tourist facilities Sulawesi. In order to foster positive links with conserva- will likely result in changes to these inter-personal relation initiatives, local residents must be able to feel a sense tionships. of control and ownership over planning, processes in- Although the potential has been recognized, at the volving resource uses and nature tourism development time of this study, there was only very limited evidence of (Brandon, 1993). positive contributions being made to residents by way of From their recent experiences, personnel in both local economic bene"ts, infrastructural bene"ts and Bogani and Bunaken have learned that greater consulta- social bene"ts (Table 3). Economically, local residents tion and input of locals during initial park planning surrounding both Tangkoko and Bogani have been ex- (including boundary demarcation and development of cluded from receiving any portion of nature tourism regulations) would have improved local attitudes from revenues, even though residents have been expected to the beginning. Although much can be learned from the change their resource use patterns to accommodate pro- extensive e!ort, facilitated by USAID, to establish a par- tected area conservation. Ecotourism business is largely ticipatory approach to park planning at Bunaken, unfor- in the hands of city tour operators and a small number tunately, it is not apparent that local entrepreneurs have of park employees who act as tour guides and own made a clear connection between the success of their homestays. business and the health of the coral reefs. Instances of There have been some signi"cant positive changes careless boating over sensitive reefs, pollution from city associated with tourism development related to trans- e%uent, coastal construction and chronic littering consti- portation and communication infrastructure. Both tute increasingly serious impacts on both the quality of Bogani and Tangkoko are situated in remote locations the tourism product and the future of the coral reefs. which, over the last two decades, have become accessible by safer, more reliable roads. Changes initiated in associ- 5.3. Tourism and protection of natural resources ation with tourism have provided locals with more fre- quent access to urban services, as well as the introduction In addition to the potential contributions tourism may of mail and telephones. make to the well-being of host communities, nature

Table 3 Summary of socio-economic considerations at the protected areas

Tourists}Hosts interaction Bunaken Bogani Tangkoko

Interaction opportunities Fair Low Low but increasing Relationships Positive! Unknown (premature) Positive, but limited by language Host attitudes to tourism impacts Variable! Unknown (premature) None Positive on local environment Negative (nowaste management, Unknown (possibly negative } reef health) vehicles and waste) Increased incomes Yes (entrepreneurs only) Not evident (only to reserve sta!) Very little (sta! guides, snacks) Participation in planning Yes (recent USAID project) No Some (regional tourism promotion)

!Based on limited "eld experience or dated information. S. Ross, G. Wall / Tourism Management 20 (1999) 673}682 679 tourism, if managed e!ectively, should ultimately con- and none of their substantial pro"ts are distributed to the tribute to protection and conservation of biodiversity parks they liberally use. The protected areas receive no and natural resources in a variety of ways. Protected concessions other than the negligible entrance fee and the areas should provide tourists with a high-quality experi- price of a guide (and at Bunaken, no revenue at all). ence in nature and, in return, protected areas should Furthermore, there is virtually nothing to spend money receive environmental and economic support. Largely on at the sites: no guide books, maps, pamphlets, and because of North Sulawesi's unique biodiversity, the local crafts are available, nor is there an opportunity for quality of nature experiences in its protected areas is visitors to make voluntary donations. Tangkoko does excellent. One of the characteristics which makes the receive 20% of earnings of a small conservation NGO- natural experiences so exceptional is the surety with run souvenir shop located immediately outside the park which wildlife viewing occurs at all three sites. Bunaken's entrance. A limited number of other souvenir shops (sell- coral reefs are always breathtaking for snorkellers and ing protected area-related T-shirts, postcards, stickers, divers, and Bogani and Tangkoko's primates (especially etc.) located in Manado, the main city, do not distribute Tarsius Spectrum) and hornbills have known territories so any of their earnings to conservation authorities. that sighting can be virtually guaranteed. Unfortunately, Given the limited funding available for ongoing park although each of the three sites have written management management, it is not surprising that both active conser- plans and have acquired some educational materials vation practices and tourism management are inadequate (through visiting biologists and research teams, local and at all three sites. Infrastructure to support educational and international conservation NGOs and international as- revenue-generating objectives at the protected areas is sistance agencies), environmental education through lacking and this compromises both the nature experience skilled guiding, provision of information and tourist and the contributions ecotourism can make to conserva- management infrastructure, has been neglected. tion (Table 4). Given the inherent knowledge-seeking mo- Economic contributions of tourism to protected areas tivations of typical ecotourists, the quality of their are negligible. There are several reasons why tourism is experience su!ers when opportunities to learn about the not making "nancial contributions to protected areas corals they are viewing, the primates they are photo- } mainly fee policies, tour operator monopolies, and graphing, the birds they are hearing, and the fruit trees untapped opportunities for generating and earmarking they are seeing are not available. Furthermore, people revenues. According to the Department of Forestry legis- who enjoy a high-quality experience in nature might be lation, all pro"ts (entrance fees) from tourism to pro- more willing to pay substantial fees, particularly if the tected areas are required to be remitted to central fees were to be used to maintain the protected area. government and generally do not "lter back to the pro- In the protected areas, education in the form of active tected areas (Kinnaird & O'Brien, 1995a; BAP- interpretation (such as guided tours, group activities, PENAS/NRMP/USAID, 1993). At Bunaken, the marine school/community outreach, theatre) and passive inter- park, tourism makes no economic contributions to the pretation (in the form of reading materials, maps, signs, park because there is no entrance fees and all revenues information centres) can serve three essential purposes: are accrued by regional and foreign tour companies. to direct visitors in behaving in an environmentally sensi- Furthermore, conservation legislation does not allow tive manner while enjoying the natural experience implementation of a two-tiered (domestic versus foreign) (actually a tourism management objective) (Bottrill pricing system. As a result, entrance fees may only reach & Pearce, 1995; Orams, 1995); to enhance appreciation a maximum of Rp. 2000 (less than US$1), and in forest for the natural surroundings by providing opportunities reserves, such as Tangkoko, entrance fees cannot surpass to learn about natural features; to promote a conserva- Rp. 750 ($US 0.35) (BAPPENAS/NRMP/USAID, 1993). tion ethic and environmental stewardship both for visi- The terrestrial parks have dealt with this by maintaining tors and for local communities. Presently, nature tourism the Rp. 750 entrance fee and implementing much larger in North Sulawesi is falling short on all three objectives. guide fees separately (60}80% of which guides keep for Ecotourism has excellent potential to contribute to themselves). Tour guides have become mandatory for all environmental education in North Sulawesi. Because foreign tourists entering both Bogani and Tangkoko, each of the parks has had signi"cant research attention where tourists pay a standard entrance fee and an addi- (e.g. International Wildlife Conservation Society, World tional fee for a guide. Thus, the unimpressive park rev- Wildlife Fund International), there are many materials enue which goes to the Government of North Sulawesi is already developed which could be used for interpreta- a combination of entrance fees and a minor percentage of tion, and much interesting information recorded, yet not guide revenues. readily available to park users. There is evidence of some The greatest percentage of tourism revenue is being environmental education stemming from the protected monopolized by tour companies and dive operators. areas towards local communities from small outreach Tour operators have unlimited use of the protected areas, programs at Bogani National Park and Tangkoko. How- with unlimited frequency of visits and numbers of guests, ever, beyond provision of a guide (who may or may not 680 S. Ross, G. Wall / Tourism Management 20 (1999) 673}682

Table 4 Summary of tourism infrastructure at the protected areas

Presence of infrastructure Bunaken Bogani Tangkoko

Information centre No No No Information available from park No (only from tour operators and Few pamphlets but not distributed No (only pamphlet from provincial pamphlet from provincial regularly tourism o$ce) tourism o$ce) Passive interpretation None observed Very limited None E In the form of (although dive operator o$ces Sign re: Maleo at Tambun nesting (Although some information from have limited information) area WCS and WWF at warden- owned homestays) E Visitor behaviour guidelines? None observed! None None

Active interpretation None Yes Yes E In the form of (private dive operators act as Guide mandatory Guide mandatory guides to good diving spots) E Quality Quality is variable" Quality is generally poor"

Quality of existing park infrastructure Repair needed Some repair needed E Facilities (no park-run facilities) Headquarters good, some facilities Many facilities unavailable, unsafe, in poor repair, some unavailable bridge needs repair E Trails Unmarked, well-used Unmarked, well-used

Permit/sign-in required None Yes (at headquarters some Yes (at park entrance) distance from park) Entrance fee None Rp 750 ($US 0.35) Rp 750 Concessions None None None Economic contributions to park None Very few Negligible protection Contributions to environmental None Very few Very few education

!A 1992 report claims that old, outdated visitor behaviour information was posted at park entrance, it must have since been removed. "Quality of guiding is generally poor because of poor language skills. Although some are very knowledgeable, guides are not trained and some know very little about the protected area and its species.

have appropriate knowledge or communication skills), and local residents, causing counter-productive con#icts. environmental education reaching the tourists is not as There is no commitment or expectation by the conserva- evident. tion authorities for employees to be trained. Presently, Protected area employees at all three sites are expected managers of protected areas in North Sulawesi must to perform traditional roles of patrolling, enforcing re- work to improve conservation e!orts (both "eld conser- strictions by way of "nes, con"scation of goods (such as vation of endangered species and community-based chain saws), as well as habitat monitoring and carrying conservation) with limited training and little funding out species protection programs. However, the e!ec- (Table 5). tiveness of protected area regulations and management plans is often minimal due to inconsistency of enforce- ment in the "eld. The role of park wardens has been 6. Conclusions altered by the introduction of tourism. Guiding of tourists within the terrestrial parks developed in an ad hoc With respect speci"cally to North Sulawesi, relation- fashion, and although a guide is mandatory for visitor ships between tourism, local communities and natural entry, there is con#ict over who (park employee or local areas are not symbiotic. Host communities are enjoying person) should have the privilege of guiding and pocket- very few bene"ts from the tourism development, and the ing 60}80% of the fee. Much resentment has occurred natural ecosystems are not being well-protected. Man- because park wardens, hired for other purposes, have agers operate independently at each protected area and primary say over who guides, and thus generally assign are employing few strategies to maintain the sites and most tours to themselves. The present guiding situation is provide services. Tourism development is occurring with widening the gulf between protected area management little consideration for local people or intervention from S. Ross, G. Wall / Tourism Management 20 (1999) 673}682 681

Table 5 Contributions of tourism to protected areas in North Sulawesi

Contributions of tourism Bunaken Bogani Tangkoko

Quality experience in nature? Adequate Adequate Adequate Quality of environmental education Inadequate Inadequate Inadequate Potential for improvements! High High Fair Quality of inter-cultural experience Fair ? Limited E Potential for improvements? (May already be reached) (Needs further investigation) High

Socio-economic contributions to locals Fair Inadequate Inadequate E Potential for improvements? Fair Fair Fair

Economic contributions to protected area Inadequate Inadequate Inadequate E Potential for improvements?" High Fair Fair

!Based on the presence of readily available materials. "Potential for improved economic contributions is dependent upon policy changes or intervention from other organizations.

Table 6 Reference to the ecotourism framework reveals where Achievement of ecotourism goals e!orts and strengths have thus far been focused at each site (Fig. 1). While Bogani appears to have the strongest Ecotourism goals Bunaken Bogani Tangkoko N. Sulawesi management of resources and people, Bunaken has more Environmental Inadequate successfully promoted integrated resource use for local education communities. Positive relationships among people, re- For locals Informal Some None sources and tourism are less evident at Tangkoko, with- For tourists None Inadequate Inadequate out consistent management of resources or people, and $ Generation without biodiversity protection or bene"ts of tourism For locals Starting No No Inadequate being realized for local communities. For conservation No Very little No Although not providing bene"ts to locals or contribu- Conservation Little Some Little Inadequate ting resources for conservation, high-quality opportuni- Local participation Some Starting No Inadequate ties to enjoy and appreciate unique ecosystems may still be provided if mass tourism does not create irreversi- ble environmental degradation. Evidence from North protected area managers. Presently, most e!orts are con- Sulawesi suggests that NGOs, both international and centrated on promotion of ecotourism which, in this case, domestic, may play a signi"cant role in addressing con- is attempting to sell products with little consideration for servation and development issues. NGOs have the capa- their quality, with minimal bene"ts to local people and city to assist with revenue generation, community-based lack of protection of the health and integrity of ecosys- conservation and development, and are already helping tems. Current policies and policy vacuums towards with park patrols and guiding. Opportunities to support tourism development and tourism revenue-capturing and strengthen the involvement of grass roots NGOs are not supporting the emergence of successful ecotou- should be sought. Revenue-capturing methods (conces- rism. sions, donations, and policies to earmark funds) should North Sulawesi's protected areas vary in their be employed to increase resources for conservation and achievements with respect to protection of natural areas, incomes for local people. In addition, establishment of environmental education, generation of money for con- ecotourism as a complementary resource use, environ- servation, and local participation, all legitimate goals for mental education, local empowerment and capacity ecotourism (Table 6). Perhaps the most consistent short- building, local participation in planning and manage- coming is the generation of money from tourism both for ment, and promotion of local pride in natural and cul- locals and for protected area conservation. This is most tural heritage are all opportunities which will encourage likely due to top}down policies which do not support local residents to become stewards of their resources. practical, local strategies for capturing revenues. Unfor- Given that management plans exist for all three sites, tunately, as all goals are interrelated, economic failures the challenge is to rise above the `paper parka status. a!ect the capacity for other goals to be reached. This challenge is being addressed at both Bogani and 682 S. Ross, G. Wall / Tourism Management 20 (1999) 673}682

Bunaken. Each protected area has di!erent strengths to Research Council of Canada to G. Wall and a Canada- build upon. Each operates independently but there may ASEAN Travel Grant to S. Ross. Research was facilit- be lessons which can be shared. The existing situation is ated by Dr. Louis Waworunto and Mr. Denny Karwur summarized in Fig. 1 where the status of ecotourism at of Universitas Sam Ratulangi, Manado and by the Envir- each site is portrayed visually. Strategies which would onmental Studies Centres Development in Indonesia improve the protection of North Sulawesi's protected project. areas as well as experiences for tourists and bene"ts for locals, include formal training of "eld personnel, including guides and wardens, ongoing patrolling and References monitoring by assigned employees, development and maintenance of ecological databases, empowerment of BAPPENAS/NRMP/USAID. (1993). 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The research reported in this paper was funded in part by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities