www.africa-confidential.com 23 November 2001 Vol 42 No 23 AFRICA CONFIDENTIAL TANZANIA 2 SOMALIA Mkapa winds it up By meeting most of the opposition Moving target Civic United Front’s demands for A state in turmoil offers no safe haven for terrorists fleeing the electoral reform in Zanzibar, onslaught in Afghanistan President Mkapa seems to have won an end to the political stand- If Usama bin Laden and his comrades headed for Somalia, they could find it even less comfortable than off on the islands. Now attention Afghanistan. American and French ships patrol the coastline and blockade some ports. There are turns to the race to choose his reports of German troops joining them, a deployment unprecedented in modern times. Bossasso port in successor next year. Puntland is a particular target. The unrecognised but de facto state is already at war. Heavy fighting broke out on 21 November between supporters of the deposed President, Colonel Abdullahi Yussef Ahmed, RWANDA/ 4 and backers of Jama Ali Jama, elected President by the Garowe conference of elders last week. Intelligence sources spoke of an Ethiopian invasion. Washington backs neighbouring Ethiopia, which Brothers at war is itching to defeat Islamists and Oromo rebels, and to settle old scores. Muslim Somalia itself, while Personal rivalries and battling for plagued by its own Islamists, overflows with anti-Islamist militias with no love for Usama. influence and spoils in the Congo So why is Somalia widely perceived as Usama’s next base and an upcoming target for the US-led war have stretched relations Coalition against Terrorism? So fragmented is the state, with its new Transitional National Government between Kigali and to the (AC Vol 42 No 22) forming only one authority among several, and such is the military experience of the limit. A summit meeting under numerous clan militias, that it would seem rash to seek refuge there. Yet the anti-terror warriors are Whitehall’s auspices helped bring the two sides back from the brink interested for three reasons. but the underlying distrust remains. Homing in Firstly, we hear that Al Qaida has indeed been assessing Somalia as a potential home, stirring fears in 6 Washington that Somalia will be ‘the next Afghanistan’ – in terms of civil strife and Islamist rule, rather The killing of Cain than US bombing. The US military intervention in 1993 ended in humiliation, with GI corpses dragged through the streets; this fuels wariness in most policy-makers and a desire for revenge in some soldiers. President Mugabe has thumbed Secondly, the White House’s latest Executive Order freezing terrorist assets, on 7 November, named his nose at foreign critics and room for dialogue is shrinking. After several Somali individuals and firms. Many were branches of Al Barakaat, headed by a Dubai-based declaring one of his murdered war Somali, Ahmed Nur Ali Jimale, whose assets were also ordered frozen. It runs (among other things) veterans, Cain Nkala, a national banks, bureaux de change, telecommunications and trading. The closure of its exchange offices on four hero, Mugabe accused Britain of continents has left many ordinary Somali exiles with no means of sending money home. Some other conniving with the opposition MDC money-transfer offices with Islamist links are busy covering their tracks. to kill him. Foreign efforts to secure free elections are still not working. Another prominent Somali whose assets were frozen this month is Col. Hassan Dahir Aweys, well known for over a decade as active in the politics of the Habr Gidir clan and of Islamism. He is also well connected in Sudan, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates; he is described as especially close WTO 7 to some Islamic charities. The third reason for Coalition interest concerns Ethiopia. Prime Minister Meles Zenawi’s government No new order yet sees the ‘government’ in Mogadishu as largely Islamist and wants to get rid of it; also Africa’s delegates went to the accuses Puntland of Islamist activity. Ethiopia’s special target is Somalia’s main Islamist organisation, World Trade Organsation talks at Al Itahaad al Islamiya (Islamic Union), which has long destabilised both Somalia and Ethiopia, Doha with a lengthy wish list. But especially in the Ogaden. Some Washington sources fear their own government depends too heavily on they won just two demands: that the intellectual property rules Ethiopia for its intelligence in the region. The USA already helps Ethiopia with training, logistics and should not stop poor countries growing political support. President Daniel arap Moi has complained that Kenya, neighbouring both getting cheap medicines and, states, would suffer from increased Ethiopian intervention in Somalia, with yet more refugees and a heavy secondly, that rich countries should impact on Kenyan Somalis. agree to cut subsidies that lock out The main potential foe in Somalia is Itahaad, long seen as close to Sudan’s ruling National Islamic poor countries’ farm exports. Front (a.k.a. National Congress). Its links to 1998’s US embassy bombings in Kenya and Tanzania emerged in this year’s trials, along with links to the killing of GIs in 1993. President George W. Bush’s POINTERS 8 team ordered Itahaad’s assets frozen in September. However, an internal Congressional memorandum suggests that Itahaad may not have the regional reach implied by such a move and emphasises concern South Africa/Sudan, in Washington that it has not targeted US interests. Several officials fear that the USA may be dancing UK/Africa, Algeria & to an Ethiopian tune. This chimes with a seemingly growing sense among some US officials that an important phase in the Africa/Airlines defeat of Al Qaida is ending as the Taliban fade away in Afghanistan, so that the time has nearly come 23 November 2001 Africa Confidential Vol 42 No 23

to move on to other enemies of the USA ( in particular) rather than The CCM refused the CUF’s demand for a re-run of last year’s concentrating on the nebulous Islamist International. This is just what elections but under the terms of the agreement the opposition party the Islamists want to hear. would get ambassadorial posts and jobs in various state institutions. Some officials also worry that the USA is playing into the hands of By-elections would be held in the 16 constituencies declared vacant the NIF in Sudan, a country as large as most of Western Europe. It after their CUF representatives were expelled from parliament for offers both hiding places and a fully fledged, compatible Islamist state boycotting its proceedings. There would be an independent enquiry, system, of which Usama was once an integral part, alongside ’s to be concluded by next April, on the riots. Talks about a coalition present rulers. After 11 September, the NIF cosied up to Washington, government were to start not later than June 2003, under a ten-person promising a flood of intelligence on Islamists. The Central Intelligence Joint Implementation and Monitoring Committee, whose powers are Agency has duly been deluged with files. We hear, though, that Africa not clear: it could be interpreted as reducing the CCM’s absolute veterans Robert Oakley and Charles Snyder returned disappointed power to rule under Zanzibar’s President, Sheikh Abeid Karume or from their recent trip to Khartoum. Sudan’s name has begun to else as a mere advisory body. After the signing, 109 criminal cases reappear in the media, with stories about its alleged chemical weapons related to January’s unrest were dropped, including a murder charge capability and tales of discoveries of Sudanese links in the piles of against Juma Duni Haji, Assistant Secretary General of the CUF. documents left behind by fleeing Islamists in Afghanistan. Amidst the euphoria, it was reported that legislation to set up the For the moment, neither Somalia nor Sudan look like direct US Joint Committee, drafted by the Zanzibar Attorney General, Iddi military targets. The NIF’s future may depend on what more the Pandu Hassan, was not consistent with some terms of the accord. The Coalition discovers of its Islamist activities, past and present. Somalia proposed legislation was alleged (in what may have been a leak) to say is likely to be the target of Ethiopian incursions turning into a US- that the agreement was between the political parties and that the backed (but not led) invasion. Yet it presents very few clear military Zanzibar Government had the right to examine the agreement if it felt targets. After Ethiopian attacks in the mid-1990s, Itahaad stopped the security of the state was at stake. The Attorney General seemed to lining up on the border and dispersed its forces. Ethiopian troops – let have omitted provisions allowing the Committee to question defence alone American ones – stick out like a sore thumb in a country like and security officials, to consider a coalition government and to hold Somalia. Some special operations will be tried, presumably including monthly discussions with Karume. Punishment for those who the murder of selected individuals. Yet giving Ethiopian forces a free ‘distorted’ the agreement was, apparently, also excluded. hand would fuel instability well beyond Somalia’s borders. African Promptly, at its national conference in Zanzibar on 14 November cooperation in the War against Terrorism is already strained by (more than 1,000 delegates were paid for, in the new spirit of amity, perceptions that the help is far too one-sided. by the government) Seif Hamad said the CUF would withdraw from the agreement if these changes were made. Later, the two parties met and agreed to restart their dialogue on the content of the bill. TANZANIA No coalition for Karume Divisions within CCM are growing. Karume would like to be more Mkapa winds it up tolerant than his predecessors but insists that a coalition government As Zanzibar calms down, corruption and is absolutely out of the question. It would certainly reduce his power. recession hit the mainland Although he has the support of younger, more progressive party members, he was not chosen as party leader by the CCM in Zanzibar ‘From now on, I will sleep more soundly’, said President Benjamin but imposed by the Central Committee, which is dominated by Mkapa at the signing, on 10 October, of an agreement between mainland representatives. Zanzibar’s former President, Salmin Zanzibar’s warring political parties. The pact had been negotiated Amour, lost his bid to be re-elected for a third term; he and his fellow over eight months between the Secretaries General of the ruling old-stagers are probably behind the moves to disrupt the agreement. Chama cha Mapinduzi and the Civic United Front (CUF), Philip Mkapa has promised the agreement will be implemented and he’ll Mang’ula and Seif Shariff Hamad. Yet, as with the similar agreement need to put all his considerable weight behind it. signed under Commonwealth auspices in May 1999, fractures are Next year, CCM will have to elect a new national leader. The party already beginning to appear and the CCM fears that it may have given has held on to power for 40 years and as its candidate, Mkapa took 71.7 too much away. per cent of the vote at the last presidential election in November 2000 The political stand-off in the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba began (AC Vol 41 No 23). He cannot stand for a third term, though, and in earnest in 1995, when international observers questioned the results senior party members have begun the inevitable jockeying for the of the elections there, won as usual by the CCM. The 2000 polls gave presidential candidacy and other leadership positions. the same result and were widely considered to have been rigged. The CCM has always been clever at choosing its national leader. Opposition fury culminated in riots in January 2001, with some 30 The ‘Father of the Nation’, Julius Nyerere, used his decisive influence deaths and the flight to Kenya of more than 2,000 refugees. Mkapa to pick, first Ali Hassan Mwinyi, who presided over the rescue of the called these events a ‘stain on the history of the nation’. economy in the 1980s, then Mkapa, who brought in foreign investors After last month’s signing, donors congratulated the two parties and and boosted economic growth. With Mwalimu gone, the competition indicated that aid to Zanzibar would be resumed when the agreement this time is likely to be far more competitive. was implemented. It meets many but not all of the CUF’s demands, One potential president, Iddi Simba, Minister of Trade and Industry including reform of the much criticised Zanzibar Electoral Commission; and a former head of the East African Development Bank, handed in the introduction of a permanent electoral register; a review by February his resignation on 4 November amid a scandal over sugar import 2002 of the constitution and electoral laws to make them match a multi- licences. However, his expertise was badly needed; he had played a party political system; fair coverage by publicly owned media; crucial role in July when trade ministers from the least developed compensation to victims of earlier disturbances. countries met in Zanzibar to prepare positions for the World Trade 2 23 November 2001 Africa Confidential Vol 42 No 23 Gems for the martyrs Tanzanite is a purple-brown crystal that, when superheated, turns into a Much tanzanite from Mererani goes, without passing through customs, pretty blue gem. Tanzanite sales in the United States alone are reckoned to Mombasa, a base for the 1998 US Embassy bombers. The US trial of the to be worth more than US$400 million a year – but it is mined only in bombers heard that stones were moved through Kenya via the Qaida Tanzania, whose exports of uncut crystals were last year, officially, worth companies Tanzanite King or Black Giant, set up by Wadi el Hage, a just $16 mn. Between the miners and the jewellers’ shops are legions of former personal secretary to Usama bin Laden who is serving a life sentence brokers, traders, cutters, polishers, dealers and, obviously, smugglers. for helping to organise the bombings. Tanzanian investigators of Islamism Some of them, according to Tanzanian and US officials, and some have focussed on politics, not business, and say there is no definitive proof independent investigators, are agents of Usama bin Laden’s Al Qaida that tanzanite smuggling is run by Al Qaida, according to regional governor Islamist network. Tanzanite, newly fashionable in the USA, is one of their Daniel Ole Njoolay. Mererani’s tanzanite trade doesn’t seem to be under gemstones of choice. particular pressure. Maasai cattlemen in north-eastern Tanzania are said to have discovered Sheikh Omari and others say the tanzanite dealers work through Mombasa the gems after lightning struck a deposit of dull mineral and turned it a deep, to Dubai, the traditional smuggling port for India, whence it moves on to the penetrating blue. Geologists labelled it a form of the rare mineral ziosite. cutting and polishing industries in cities such as Jaipur, or to Bangkok or Jewellers promoted it and it became a popular, expensive, trinket. Hong Kong. One of the biggest Dubai-based companies dealing with the The raw mineral is mostly dug by hand and sold by the bag, strictly for Mererani miners is Prostar Technology, co-owned by Akber and Hassanain cash, to dealers at Mererani, near Arusha. The Tanzanian Mineral Dealers’ Jaffer. Akber Jaffer is a local benefactor in Mererani; he’s contributed to Association denies that Al Qaida is in the tanzanite trade. Local miners say the building of Taqwa Mosque and has bought a fleet of motorcyles for the otherwise and the US trial that convicted four associates of Usama bin miners. Another major trader is Abdul Hakim Mulla, who runs Al Marouf Laden’s of the 1998 embassy bombings in Tanzania and Kenya heard gems. accounts of tanzanite dealings by Qaida members in the mid-1990s. Indian dealers in Dubai do business efficiently through the Islamic Tanzania’s regional Mines Officer, Alex Magyane, says links between hawala system, based on trust (and resembling the trading networks of Qaida and the tanzanite trade continue. Hassidic diamond dealers). Hawala transactions are not traceable by Traders complain that stories about Qaida have damaged the US market outsiders. The smuggling of diamonds and emeralds is common in East for tanzanite. Yet this was already weakening because of recession fears Africa and a handy way to move assets abroad despite taxes and foreign- and the slowdown in consumer spending. So buying prices in Tanzania are currency constraints. One of the favourite methods used by smugglers has falling but shrewd traders in India and Dubai, United Arab Emirates, are been to make valuable gemstones into party jewelry, leave the home building up stockpiles of tanzanite in the confident expectation the market country wearing it, and replace it in India or elsewhere with faithful glass will revive. Tanzanian miners and traders lack the capital to build stockpiles. replicas that East African customs officers accept as proof that you have Much of the tanzanite trade in Mererani is conducted in the courtyard of brought the assets home again. a mosque now under construction, near the prayer hall run by an imam, The business is expanding and getting more dangerous. South Africa’s Sheikh Omari. He instructs the faithful to follow an old rule – sell to fellow Afgem, which has secured one of the four blocks of tanzanite mining Muslims, even if infidels offer better prices. His Friday sermons preach concessions, wants to use high-technology methods to track the tanzanite opposition to the USA and support for Afghanistan’s former Taliban trade, such as branding gems with laser-etched logos and tightening anti- regime; his followers call each other ‘Jahidini’ (local Kiswahili for members smuggling controls. of the Jihad). Local miners and dealers resist all regulation and have often clashed with The Sheikh declines to discuss Al Qaida but claims suicide attacks are police. Tanzania’s tax-collectors look greedily at the revenue they are legitimate in defence of Islam and urges support for Islam’s defenders. missing. Under pressure from Washington and from market forces – Aman Mustafa, a Kenyan gem-broker who claims to have studied Islamic worries about ‘terrorist tanzanite’ – the Tanzanian authorities may at last law in Sudan, says they use the tanzanite trade to defend Islam. move to regularise the trade.

Organisation talks in Doha this month. Mkapa asked him to stay on Kahama Mining Corporation, which ships ore for processing overseas. until 16 November, to lead Tanzania’s delegation to Qatar and argue The ore body contains 40 per cent gold alongside large amounts of the case that developing countries cannot yet face open competition or copper and silver, so big volumes of copper concentrate are sent out of compete with the subsidies some Western governments give to their the country as a by-product. own industries. Simba insisted on resigning to ‘demonstrate his The Afrika Mashiriki Gold Mine at Nyamizena in Tarime (bordering political maturity’ and to save the government from a vote of no- Lake Victoria, near Kenya) was invaded in August by small-scale confidence in the National Assembly. He seems likely to rise again. miners, complaining that the company had failed to compensate those His resignation followed a familiar pattern. The then Finance who lost their land when the mine was established eight years ago. The Minister, Professor Simon Mbilinyi, resigned in 1996 following a Federation of Miners of Tanzania alleged that the firm had bribed cooking oil scandal. The Tourism Minister, Juma Ngassongwa, members of parliament. Afgem of South Africa, which mines tanzanite resigned in 1997 following questions about hunting licences. Under (see Box) at Mererani on a very rough road out of Arusha, has had to pressure from donor organisations, the former Works and fight off accusations of forgery and fraud; the company and the small Communications Minister, Nalaila Kiula, was arrested with five miners now face a collapse of the crucial United States’ market, which associates on corruption charges related to road construction contracts took about 80 per cent of the gems until 11 September. Many dealers (but their trial, still dragging on, may collapse for lack of evidence). have closed shop. The best that can be said is that all this gives Mkapa credibility as a Both before and since the atrocities in the USA, Islamist groups were fighter against corruption. active: demonstrations, two small bomb attacks against CCM offices in Economic reform, though, is growing unpopular, especially in Dar es Salaam, flag-burning and struggles over the control of mosques. some remote mining regions. During the mining boom (now apparently Rumours leading to panic about anthrax later proved groundless. So far, over) many thought Tanzania was getting poor returns from the mines, it has been small stuff. No one knows what might happen in a world with generous regulations laxly implemented. There has been special recession. President Mkapa’s successor, whoever he is, will have a criticism of the Bulyanhulu Mine (AC Vol 42 No 18), belonging to the tough job on his hands.

3 23 November 2001 Africa Confidential Vol 42 No 23

2000, at Kisangani amid Katanga’s rich diamond fields, Rwandan and RWANDA/UGANDA Ugandan forces fought each other three times. A few dozen of their soldiers died, along with more than 1,000 civilians. Three times the Ugandans lost the battle. The town is still controlled by Rwandan- backed rebels. Brothers at war Uganda was humiliated. Its army had seen itself as the father of the Personal rivalries and war spoils spark a new APR. Its officers had called the Rwandans ‘boys’. Museveni felt crisis between Kigali and Kampala betrayed. He believes the APR owes him for help in taking power after the 1994 genocide. Kagame feels much the same about Museveni’s Rwanda and Uganda risk repeating the disaster which overtook the debt to Rwandans in the 1980s. The presidents sporadically tried to equally revolutionary governments of Eritrea and Ethiopia, whose mend fences, without success. In March 2001, Uganda declared war in 1998-2000 cost over 100,000 lives and wrecked both countries’ Rwanda a ‘hostile nation’, like Sudan and Congo. precarious economies. Their leaders, from the same ethnic background, At Uganda’s presidential election in March, Museveni’s supporters had fought together against Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam’s claimed that Kigali backed his main opponent, Kizza Besigye, a dictatorship and had been hailed by the United States and others as a doctor who, with the rank of lieutenant colonel, had been Museveni’s ‘new breed’ of African leaders. The rulers of Uganda and Rwanda, physician and a guerrilla companion of Kagame’s. Museveni won the with similar connections, are now growling at each other, too. Stern election convincingly (amid accusations of rigging) with almost 70 efforts by the British and other Western governments, backed by per cent of the vote. Two retired Ugandan officers, Col. Samson threats that aid could be stopped, may have cooled things down. Yet Mande and Lt. Col. Anthony Kyakabale, then fled to Kigali with the danger has not gone away. about 50 colleagues to prepare for a fight against their country’s The problem might be spreading south. Last week, Kampala was government. Besigye, banned from travelling, sneaked out of the demanding an explanation from the Tanzanian government, which country in August, perhaps via Rwanda. had expelled 3,000 Ugandans from the Kagera region of the western shores of Lake Victoria. Tanzania’s Deputy Minister for Home World Bank’s former favourite Affairs, John Chiligati, said the Ugandans had violated immigration Museveni had focused on rebuilding Uganda’s collapsed economy rules; military sources in Kampala said among the expelled were two and was keenly supported by foreign donors, led by Britain. The Ugandan dissidents suspected of trying to set up a floating radio government gets over half its budget in grants and soft loans, whose station on Lake Victoria to encourage a rebellion against the Ugandan donors insist that no more than 1.9 per cent of gross domestic product government. One Ugandan official accused Dar es Salaam of trying be spent on defence. The threat of war encouraged Museveni to spend to cover up the identities of the dissidents after pressure from Rwanda. more on the army. On 28 August, he wrote to the UK Overseas These fallings out upset a 20-year relationship. President Yoweri Development Minister, Clare Short: ‘We no longer have any doubt Kaguta Museveni led the guerrillas of the National Resistance Army that Rwanda is preparing an attack against us via indirect or even direct which, in 1986, overthrew the dictatorship in Kampala. Museveni was means... In such a volatile security situation, we cannot allow born near the border with Rwanda; Kinyarwanda, his first language, ourselves to have a weak and under-equipped army.’ The letter was was also the first language of the NRA’s intelligence chief, Col. Paul promptly leaked to Ugandan journalists. Kagame, born of Tutsi parents on the Rwandan side of that border. Both Rwanda and Uganda claimed that the other’s troops were Kagame was taken as a youth into exile in Uganda, where he learned encroaching on their allies in Congo. In Kampala, Uganda’s anti- excellent English and Kiswahili but no French, the language of terrorism squad arrested ten Rwandans, including six army officers. Rwanda’s administration. In due course, with many Tutsi fellow Ugandan newspapers claimed that Colonels Mande and Kyakabale exiles, he left the NRA to become head of the Armée Patriotique had established a rebel base in Rwandan-controlled eastern Congo, Rwandaise. In 1994, from its Ugandan base, the victorious APR where Rwanda was training Ugandan dissidents. Both Ugandan and established its Tutsi-dominated regime in Kigali, where Kagame is Rwandan officials denied claims that their troops were massing on the now the unelected President. border for an invasion. The breaking point was Congo-Kinshasa’s first civil war, a chaotic On 5 November, the two presidents met in London; Prime Minister uprising against the old dictator Mobutu Sese Seko. Across the saw them along with Short, who pushed the peacemaking, porous border, ex-soldiers and militiamen faithful to Rwanda’s with aid as her lever. She persuaded Kagame and Museveni to promise overthrown Hutu regime massed to attack Kagame’s Tutsi government. ‘not to tolerate dissident groups which destabilise relations’ between Museveni, too, was threatened, less gravely, by Congo-based their countries. British officials say the promises are being kept and insurgents. By 1997, Rwanda and Uganda were together backing that verification teams have been exchanged. Rwandan officers have Congolese rebel Laurent-Désiré Kabila, and helped install him as interviewed some of the 20 Rwandan officers held in military barracks Congo’s President (a disastrous one, it turned out). After Rwanda’s in Kampala, allegedly seeking asylum. A Ugandan team arrived in forces had failed to fight their way to Kinshasa, Kabila owed his Kigali last week to interview Ugandan dissidents there. survival to Angola and Zimbabwe. Uganda and Rwanda kept their Yet trouble has persisted. On the day of the London talks, Ugandan troops in western Congo, dominating large parts of it through Congolese officials arrested a Rwandan customs officer who had crossed the front organisations which they did not necessarily control. border for a drink. Rwanda said he had been kidnapped and the man By August 1998, Rwanda’s main protégé in Congo was the was released the next day. On 15 November, the Rwandan Embassy Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD), based in Goma, in Kampala urged human rights organisations to ‘intervene and a frontier town. Within a year, Uganda started backing the Mouvement reverse this inhuman situation’ of Rwandans detained, arrested and pour la Libération du Congo, under Jean-Pierre Bemba. There were tortured by Ugandan security officers. rivalries over territory and influence – and over the war spoils, in Meanwhile, Museveni’s army reshuffles upset Rwanda – and many which senior officers on all sides were deeply interested. In 1999- in Uganda, too. Two weeks before the London talks, the President had 4 23 November 2001 Africa Confidential Vol 42 No 23 promoted his half-brother, the controversial Major Gen. Salim Saleh, educated, officers, unhappy with the President’s apparent reliance on to Lt. Gen. and the Chief of Staff, Brigadier James Kazini, to Maj. a familiar clique. It had been widely assumed that, faced with rumours Gen. Two days before the London meeting, Kazini was made of personal enrichment, Museveni had been misled by Kazini and his Commander of the army. cronies. Now, people fear that Museveni may know but not care. Saleh and Kazini are suspected of mixing politics and business in Ordinary Ugandans know that war would stop their re-emergence Congo and were blamed in the first report on the from decades of bitter poverty. They don’t want to fight their exploitation of natural resources (AC Vol 42 No 9). That report neighbours, especially the Rwandans whom they regarded as brothers proposed a mandatory arms embargo and a freeze on the Congo rebels’ and who have many friends and relations in Museveni’s south-western assets, and that all foreign aid for Rwanda and Uganda should be political heartland. Many blame the two leaders’ egos. suspended until both countries withdrew from Congo. Yet Congo’s troubles fester on. Eastern Congo, along the border, The latest UN report on mineral exploitation in Congo, released on is now more dangerous than when Uganda first sent in its men to 18 November, tempers the first report’s proposals. The investigation improve security. Various militias are carving out their areas, one of panel, chaired by Egypt’s Mahmoud Kassem, recommends a them led by a Kazini-backed Congolese rebel, Mbusa Nyamwisi, moratorium on exports of gold, diamonds, copper, cobalt, timber, whose rivals are rebels backed by Rwanda. Museveni, encouraged by coffee and other commodities from rebel-held areas in Congo. It also the donor governments, had tried to break his government’s links to urges transit countries, such as Kenya, South Africa, Tanzania and Bemba of the MLC, probably Congo’s strongest rebel force. The Zambia, to tighten controls on such transhipments and to prosecute result is that Bemba is talking about a common front with Rwanda’s traffickers. Equally, it recommends that all mining concessions, protégés in the RCD-Goma. It seems that Uganda, not for the first commercial agreements and contracts signed by the Kinshasa time, has been outmanoeuvred. government since May 1997 – particularly with Namibian- and All this weakens Museveni’s standing and self-esteem. His election Zimbabwe-based companies – be reviewed to correct irregularities. last year was not the cleanest ever but he certainly won it – Kagame Kigali blames Kazini for the fighting in Kisangani and many will not (his opponents say could not) face a free vote. At the London Ugandans blame him for losing those fights. Ugandan officials point summit, though, the two presidents appeared as equals. Museveni, out that Rwanda made James Kabarebe Chief of Staff, although who has always argued for African solutions to African problems, is Museveni blames him for the Kisangani clashes. humiliated by ‘Mother’ Britain (in the person of Clare Short) chairing Kazini and Saleh (who recently began studying for pre-university the parley between the old allies. exams) belong to the loyalist ‘uneducated’ clique in the Ugandan Yet both sides say they see British diplomatic involvement – in People’s Defence Force. Their promotion upsets some younger, better Whitehall and on the ground in Uganda and Rwanda – as a guarantee Picking a fight British Development Minister Clare Short’s intercession in Whitehall Ugandan army, acknowledged to a joint inquiry by the two high commands didn’t stop Rwanda and Uganda banging war drums elsewhere. As that faults on his own side had led to the first confrontation with Rwandan Presidents and were signing their London forces, in 1999. His new replacement, Major Gen. James Kazini, is statement, Rwanda’s Embassy in Belgium handed its citizens a document remembered by Rwanda’s troops, by Congo’s and by his own, for having in Kinyarwanda denouncing ‘Ugandan provocations’. It was said to be a lost the battle in June 2000 against the Rwandan army and its allies from the reply to Museveni’s letter to Short in August, accusing Rwanda of ‘supporting Goma faction of the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie at the terrorism’; it concluded that, since Rwanda cannot move itself away from diamond-dealing city of Kisangani; Kazini is said to be more interested in Uganda, it must stand up to its neighbour. ‘Even if our country is landlocked minerals and timber than in fighting. and 80 per cent of our imports come in through Uganda, Rwandans must be Officials of Uganda’s opposition Democratic Party recently told Africa prepared to win when the Ugandans attack’. Confidential that in September, the exiled Ugandan Colonels Samson Some Rwandan officials think it a ‘propitious’ moment for settling Mande and Anthony Kyakabale had stationed their men in Congo on the affairs while the international community focusses on Afghanistan. They border, intending to start a guerrilla campaign. Museveni’s one-time claim that their Rwandan Patriotic Army could be in Kampala within a protégé in Congo, Jean-Pierre Bemba, at the Congolese ‘pre-dialogue’ in month and that the weapons captured after the defeat of the Zimbabwean Gaborone, Botswana, in August, joined the general call for the immediate forces at Pweto late last year are sufficient for a five-year war. They also withdrawal of foreign (including Ugandan) troops from Congo. claim the Ugandan security services arrested and beat up Rwandan and Bemba is annoyed because Museveni’s government has handed back Congolese Tutsi students on the Makerere University campus in October, control of a strip on the Congo side of the frontier to the Rassemblement on the pretext that Kigali had ordered them to commit acts of terrorism. Congolais pour la Démocratie-Mouvement de Libération under Mbusa African historians point out that Eritrea, too, sounded super-confident Nyamwisi, who is said to have business links with Gens. Kazini and Salim when it began the war against Ethiopia which ended in humiliation last year Saleh, Museveni’s half-brother. Museveni’s Francophone anxieties – and a worsening political crisis in Asmara. Uganda has a population of increased in October when Col. Kizza Besigye, the doctor who lost the 20 million people; Rwanda’s is eight million. Uganda’s gross domestic presidential election to his ex-patient, was received in Paris by President product was some US$6.5 billion last year; Rwanda’s was $1.86 bn. Jacques Chirac. However, Rwanda’s government believes history is on its side. Since the The opposition in Rwanda is uneasy, too. Five days after the London end of 1998, it has cut back the activities within the country of the Armée meeting, a joint statement was issued by two Tutsi bodies which rarely agree de Libération du Rwanda (Alir), formed from Hutu ex-soldiers of the – the monarchist Nation-Imbaga y’Inyabutatu Nyarwanda and the republican previous regime’s Forces Armées Rwandaises. Uganda, meanwhile, faces Rassemblement des Rwandais Démocrates (RRD). They deplored what four or five domestic guerrilla movements (some of them tiny). Above all, they called the ‘preparations for war’, saying that the ‘dictatorial regime in Uganda lost all three of its battles against Rwandan forces in Congo. A well Kigali’ was exploiting the Congo conflict and the tension with Uganda to informed French specialist reckons that the Ugandan People’s Defence put off free elections and an inter-Rwandan dialogue involving the regime, Force (UPDF) is no match for its Rwandan counterpart, whose senior the opposition and the exiles. Nation-Imbaga noted, a few days later, that officers know Ugandan territory well, since they fought in the National the Secretary General of the ruling Front Patriotique Rwandais, Charles Resistance Army under the then rebel, Museveni. Murigande, and Gen. Marcel Gatzinzi, had once more blamed Uganda for Lieutenant General Jeje Odongo, until this month Commander of the getting ready to fight Rwanda.

5 23 November 2001 Africa Confidential Vol 42 No 23

for the accord between the two leaders. Kampala has no political, corruption lobby group Transparency International. He believes military or diplomatic reason for belligerence but Museveni and his donors would pour in ‘buckets and buckets’ of foreign currency should circle see Kagame as treacherous. Ethnic kinship makes things worse, the MDC win: ‘The donor community is not prepared to let Zimbabwe since the bitterest quarrels are in the family. The threat of losing collapse but they cannot give money to Mugabe... Once peace has been Europe’s cash may prove the strongest restraint on the two Presidents. restored, the country can forge ahead’. However, the rich nations are preoccupied by the United States and its war, and – short of a dramatic ZIMBABWE opposition campaign, dramatically suppressed – have no appetite for helping yet another African country with its elections. Foreign pressure has come from the Southern African Development Community (SADC), Commonwealth, EU, USA and United Nations. The killing of Cain A Commonwealth delegation (Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, ZANU-PF targets the MDC after the unsolved Australia, Britain, Canada, Jamaica) met Zimbabwe’s Foreign murder of a war veteran Minister, Stan Mudenge, in Abuja, Nigeria, on 6-7 September (AC Vol 42 No 20). Mudenge signed up to a deal committing Zimbabwe The Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front has marked to land reform within the law and compliance with the Commonwealth’s out the pitch for next year’s presidential election. A cartoon in the declarations on good governance. Harare’s respect for the accord was state-owned daily Herald on 19 November showed the opposition to be assessed at a Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, set leader, Morgan Tsvangirai, glad-handing his backers – the for late October and now postponed until March 2002. press, the European Union, Britain and Denmark. The Commonwealth team that did the negotiating at Abuja met in Harare previous day, President had accused the British on 25-26 October and noted little progress. government of involvement in a terrorist plot whose ‘brutal outcome’ The UN Development Programme has been invited to assess progress was the murder of a war veteran, Cain Nkala, whose body was found on the Abuja accord, including the land reform programme and in a shallow grave near Bulawayo on 13 November. London’s agreement to help pay for it. A UNDP assessment team Mugabe declared him a national hero. Police arrested 16 opposition arriving in Harare last week met MDC officials and farmers whose activists and Fletcher Dlamini Ncube, a member of parliament for land had been occupied by war veterans. They will presumably report Tsvangirai’s Movement for Democratic Change, on murder charges. as little progress as the Commonwealth team. The Abuja agreement, The voters of Bulawayo (and of all Zimbabwe’s towns) overwhelmingly wrapped in soft diplomatic language, attributes the crisis mainly to the backed the MDC in the parliamentary elections of June 2000; its battle over land reform, which is how the government wants it seen. In supporters claim that Nkala was murdered by rival ‘war veterans’ in reality, the struggle is for political power and the presidential election. a struggle for control of their organisation. Nkala’s friends and close The Commonwealth hoped to send in election monitors; the government relatives said as much to the privately owned Standard newspaper. has just introduced a bill banning foreign monitors. Three days later, ZANU-PF planned a protest march in Bulawayo, The EU has invoked Article 96 of its agreement with African, which inevitably grew violent. The former Home Affairs Minister Caribbean and Pacific countries, which upholds democratic principles Dumiso Dabengwa, who lost his parliamentary seat in last year’s and the rule of law. It wants the government to end political violence, elections, made a speech, then a couple of hundred party militants allow election monitors, ensure press freedom and judicial burned down the MDC’s regional offices, throwing petrol bombs and independence, and halt illegal occupation of farms. On 30 October, the stoning fire-fighters. The police refused to intervene. Later that day, EU sent a letter asking Harare for consultations within 15 days; hundreds of MDC militants attacked ZANU-PF’s Bulawayo Zimbabwe has 15 days after receipt to respond, then the EU has 60 days headquarters. to decide what to do with that response. So, by the end of January, the The appearance of MDC street-fighters could lead to a government EU would have to make up its mind whether to act country-by-country crackdown and perhaps a state of emergency. The government had or as a block, and what form sanctions, if any, might take. Mudenge regarded the lack of street demonstrations by the MDC and its trades says his government is doing everything the EU asks and accuses union allies as weakness; the opposition, strong in the cities, could Britain of undue influence and of bias towards white farmers. make Zimbabwe ungovernable. But ZANU, by its use of war veterans The International Monetary Fund and World Bank suspended in its land redistribution campaign, is already promoting balance-of-payments support and other aid from September 1999. The ungovernability. Opposition violence, planned or not, could be the budget of Finance Minister Simba Makoni on 1 November was based pretext for shutting down the MDC’s branches, its union affiliates and on unrealistic projections of revenue, with a rocketing deficit and price its civil society allies. Tsvangirai reckons that greater violence would controls. It rejected the lenders’ terms for reopening credits. The destroy the chance of free and fair elections next year. Even Mugabe’s economy is expected to contract by 7.3 per cent this year. External many detractors in the army and police obey orders to suppress arrears stood at US$682.3 million on 26 October. Inflation is at 70 per demonstrations and strikes. cent, unemployment at 50 per cent. Techniques recommended to the MDC include non-violent civil The World Food Programme says that more than 550,000 disobedience, protest demonstrations, a tax-payers’ strike, even a Zimbabweans in the far north, west and south face severe food capitalists’ strike. Over 80 per cent of financial transactions pass shortages. It blames erratic rainfall and flooding, on top of the national through institutions owned or managed by whites, practically all of economic downturn, rising prices and disruptions to commercial whom oppose ZANU. Yet so far, the only white people on the front- farms because of forced ‘resettlement’. Zimbabwe may get some line have been farmers defending their land. There is growing emergency aid, sanctions or not. pressure from private groups such as the National Constitutional Mugabe’s most influential critics are his fellow Africans in SADC, Assembly and the Crisis in Zimbabwe coalition. who say that contagion from Zimbabwe weakens their economies ‘People in Zimbabwe are living the crisis and cannot be hoodwinked,’ further and scares foreign investors. Their meeting in September says John Makumbe, an academic and the local Director of anti- marked the first open breaking of ranks with Mugabe and weakened

6 23 November 2001 Africa Confidential Vol 42 No 23 his efforts to run the election as a race war to win back African land from manufacturing, for example, generic versions of anti-AIDS or from white oppressors. Malawi’s President Bakili Muluzi openly anti-malarial drugs. criticised Mugabe’s land reform policies and election tactics. South India held out longest with its demand that there should not be a Africa, though, does not want to seem a bully, imposing its will on fresh and expanded round of negotiations. African states were spread weaker neighbours, and says it will not impose sanctions. At the latest over three fora: the African caucus, which met in Nigeria in September Commonwealth meeting on Zimbabwe, Labour Minister Membathisi to agree on a continental position at Doha; the Least Developed Mdladlana argued for more patience. President Thabo Mbeki, a Countries bloc, in which 32 African states are represented; and the natural diplomat, has more sympathy for faltering African regimes Africa, Caribbean and Pacific group which has, until now, negotiated than his predecessor, , who was always ready to preferential trade treaties with the EU. blame governments for mismanagement and corruption. Africa initially stood with India and other developing countries Yet if it came to sanctions, SADC members would suffer worse than such as Brazil, Indonesia and Malaysia in the ‘like-minded group’. Zimbabwe. Zambia would face food shortages. Botswana would In theory, the WTO works by consensus: nothing is agreed until lose up to 40 per cent of its imports; President Festus Mogae recently everyone (all 142 members) agree. Much arm twisting and economic accused a South African newspaper of inventing a story about his pressure is exerted by the Quad: poor countries are told that their aid private criticism of the Mugabe regime. SADC’s only weapon is budgets will be in jeopardy if they hold out against a specific proposal. public rebukes, which Mugabe is used to. South African Trade Minister Alec Erwin, who led the discussion on The US Congress is to vote on the Zimbabwe Democracy Bill WTO rules, was criticised alongside Kenya’s Minister Nicholas which, if passed, would trigger some sanctions against the Mugabe Biwott for breaking African solidarity on the ‘no new round’ position. government. Yet if Mugabe bowed to pressure, he would lose the Yet there was at least one win for Africa. Delegates agreed a support of his only solid supporters, the thuggish war veterans. His political statement that the intellectual property rules should not stop tactic is to send emissaries to talk mildly to foreign critics, while poor countries getting cheap medicines - either by manufacturing carrying on as usual at home. Mugabe seems to worry more about his them and not paying patent fees or by importing cheap generics. The own health than about pressure from Zimbabweans or foreigners. At legal weight of the declaration is still being questioned. It was the Vice-President Simon Muzenda’s birthday last month, he said: ‘The USA and Canada’s decision to ignore patent restrictions on local biggest prayer of my life is that God gives me more life to see me production of antidotes to anthrax (which terrorists have been spreading through the land issue. I have the backbone to pull through, the in the USA) which made the Quad’s position on intellectual property courage, and I am fearless but I need God’s blessings’. Such blessings rights untenable. Other minor victories for Africa include two negatives: may bring an election victory but they are ruining the country. efforts by the Quad to get labour and investment issues on the negotiating agenda for next year were also defeated. WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION Elsewhere Africa’s position wasn’t much helped. The delegates agreed to push for ‘substantial improvements’ for poor-country agricultural exports and the phasing out of export subsidies. But there were no clear commitments on the size of subsidy cuts to rich country No new order yet farmers or the timetable. One French official told African negotiators Africa won one and a half of its demands in a that such cuts could not be discussed just before a presidential election week of fractious talks in Qatar in his country. An irate African delegate fired back that the subsidy issue might be about votes in Europe, it was about survival in Africa. Africa’s first meeting with the post-11 September world economic India and Africa’s nascent textile producers were disappointed at order wasn’t encouraging. African delegations joined the 10-15 the lack of commitment by rich countries to abandon their quota November World Trade Organisation negotiations in Doha, Qatar, system restricting textiles. So far, Africa’s multilateral negotiations with a lengthy list of concerns they wanted addressed in what Western – such as the Growth and Opportunity Act with the USA – offer very ministers insisted would be a development round. African states in restricted help: that allows African textile exporters tariff-free access alliance with India and other major developing countries wanted the up to a maximum of one per cent of the US market. The Quad also got inequities of previous negotiating rounds addressed before the WTO’s environmental issues, often used as a protectionist device onto the 142 member countries launched a fresh round of talks taking in new agenda. Africa has much to redress at the new round next year. issues such as labour conditions and environmental regulation. The developing country bloc was faced down by a divided but still Visit our website at: www.africa-confidential.com powerful rich country bloc known in the WTO as the ‘Quad’: the Published fortnightly (25 issues per year) by Africa Confidential, at European Union, Canada, Japan and the United States. The USA 73 Farringdon Road, London EC1M 3JQ, . is adamant about maintaining tough anti-dumping laws (which prohibit Tel: +44 20-7831 3511. Fax: +44 20-7831 6778. Copyright reserved. Edited by Patrick Smith. Deputy: Gillian Lusk. the import of manufactures for less than their cost price), the EU is Administration: Clare Tauben. reluctant to abandon its elaborate subsidies for its farmers, which account for much of the US$300 billion a year that rich countries use Annual subscriptions including postage, cheques payable to Africa Confidential in advance: to protect their agriculture against exports from the South. Institutions: Africa £289 – UK/Europe £310 – USA $780 – ROW £404 The whole Quad wanted to keep intellectual property restrictions Corporates: Africa £354 – UK/Europe £373 – USA $864 – ROW £466 that allow corporations to patent anything from a seedling to vital Students (with proof): Africa/UK/Europe/ROW £83 or USA $129 pharmaceuticals. Poor countries had lost out badly in the Uruguay All prices may be paid in equivalent convertible currency. We accept Round of trade talks: they had opened their import markets but American Express, Diner’s Club, Mastercard and Visa credit cards. Subscription enquiries to: Africa Confidential, PO Box 805, Oxford OX4 industrialised countries were not pressured to cut their agricultural 1FH England. Tel: 44 (0)1865 244083 and Fax: 44 (0)1865 381381 subsidies. The Uruguay agreement had introduced the so-called trade- Printed in England by Duncan Print and Packaging Ltd, Herts, UK. related intellectual property rights (TRIPS) that stopped countries ISSN 0044-6483

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SA’s Soecor wanted to bid for contracts in Sudan’s When Bouteflika visited Bab el Oued three Pointers oil sector, they were stopped by Foreign Minister days after the floods, he was booed by residents, Nkosazana Zuma, who feared compromising indignant at the poor response. Cries included the ’s role in any peace negotiations between slogan ‘Pouvoir assassin!’ (murdering regime). SOUTH AFRICA/SUDAN the Sudanese regime and its opponents. Bouteflika also heard the chants of the banned Front Islamique du Salut (FIS). Ambitious Premier UK/AFRICA Ali Benflis was the target of stones thrown by Guns for hire again youths chanting the name of Usama bin Laden. The authorities remembered the 1989 Tipasa A born-again Executive Outcomes operation is at earthquake, when a feeble official response was the centre of allegations of a military contract Armed and dangerous countered by effective FIS-led work to save victims between ex-South African Defence Force soldiers Arms supplies to countries such as Zimbabwe and and support survivors through charitable and the Sudanese army. A former director of EO Congo-Kinshasa will be more tightly controlled, organisations. Many have not yet been rehoused. told Africa Confidential that the contract was says Britain’s Minister of State for Trade, Nigel This time, after the initial delay, army units moved widely known in ‘military circles’ in South Africa Griffiths. UK-based arms dealers breaking into Bab el Oued to clean up and emergency and involved training Sudanese special forces embargoes will face tougher investigation and housing was mobilised by the 1st Military Region, officers in counter-insurgency operations to guard penalties under a new law due next year. Griffiths whose commander, General Fodhil Cherif, broke the oilfields. He described the firm involved as said in parliament on 8 November that the new law precedent by going public to reassure citizens and ‘the rump’ of EO. ‘Those of us in the company would improve cooperation between Britain, the deny that the manhole covers had been sealed. who made enough money are out of it, those who European Union and the United Nations in curbing Yet a car bomb exploded on 20 November, reviving didn’t are still in the game,’ he added. EO was arms sales to war zones. memories of the bad old days. formally wound up in December 1998. Labour MP Paul Farrelly (Newcastle-under- We hear South African security has established Lyme) asked Griffiths whether the law would affect a link between a local company known as NFD UK-based companies and individuals whose arms- AFRICA/AIRLINES and the Sudan contract. Military sources say this supply operations were offshore: ‘It is a little known was signed this March after six months of fact that the main arms supplier to Zimbabwe and its negotiation with the Khartoum government. It’s adventure in the Congo is a UK resident... Mr. No more handouts modeled on similar work undertaken for Libyan [John] Bredenkamp runs his master company, Belgium’s Sabena went bust. Swissair was to state security in late 1999, which recommended Breco Service, from Berkshire. His African activities have rescued it but followed it into financial the South African company to Khartoum. The are run through several companies based in Harare, collapse. For Africa’s business travellers and Libyan project involved using helicopters with in particular through one called ACS International. public servants, it’s a disaster. Swissair, trying to infra-red cameras on ‘search and destroy’ Mr. Bredenkamp therefore appears to break no UK rescue its famous flag from disgrace, offered operations. Some equipment used in the contract laws, embargoes or restrictions, keeping all of his Sabena passengers stranded in Africa one-way was obtained from Kentron, a subsidiary of South African arms-dealing activities offshore. Although flights home for the giveaway price of US$180 Africa’s Denel defence company. Other elements UK policy is not to license arms sales to Zimbabwe, (plus tax). The main effect was to anger Belgians, in the contract included training in infiltrating Mr. Bredenkamp is clearly able freely to subvert that who felt the Swiss had let down the airline for rebel bases and intelligence gathering. Some 20 policy.’ which they had lashed out millions of dollars in former SA soldiers are involved. Griffiths was adamant the new law would ‘control tax over the past half-century. NFD’s directors include Duncan Rykaart (ex- UK citizens and anyone operating in the UK. He For travel to Francophone West Africa, Sabena colonel in the SA Defence Force’s Five Recce [Farrelly] was concerned about someone who was was the prime rival to Air France and Air Afrique. Brigade), Frederik Christoffel Grove (ex-deputy not a UK citizen who was a trafficker and broker in With less competition and less choice, fares commander of SA’s paratroopers) and Nick van arms to arms-embargoed destinations such as (already considered high by some) may rise again. den Berg, described as a sleeping partner. All Zimbabwe. Such people will be caught. That is There are few candidates for Sabena’s African worked at senior level in EO; NFD has bought important.’ mantle. British Airways swallowed up British EO’s former premises at 13 Gouws Avenue, Caledonian and junked its broad West African Raslouw, north of Johannesburg. ALGERIA ambition. Portugal’s TAP serves some routes to NFD Operations Manager Rykaart denies any Francophone countries. Air Gabon, Cameroon knowledge of the Sudan contract, though SA Airlines and Ethiopian Airlines hope to pick up military sources pinpoint him as taking the lead Sweeping away traffic, especially to Kinshasa. South African role in the negotiations with Khartoum. ‘Someone Airways, also a partner of Swissair, is worried. has been masquerading, misusing our company Floods made large parts of Algiers a sea of mud on Belgium’s Delta Air Transport, a former Sabena name to get work,’ Rykaart told Africa 10 November. They were a nightmare for ordinary subsidiary, now independent, serves several Confidential. ‘This happened a lot with Executive citizens, many of whom dug out neighbours with European destinations out of Brussels. The world- Outcomes in the old days’. Rykaart insists his their bare hands – and for Algeria’s leaders, who wide collapse in air traffic has made long-range company has no foreign security contracts again seemed incapable of responding adequately aircraft and their crews cheaper than ever, so DAT currently, although the NFD website boasts a to crisis. While President Abdelaziz Bouteflika may try an African venture, perhaps on Sabena’s client base in Egypt, Congo-Brazzaville, Uganda, was regularly conferring with United States Kinshasa route. Flights to main African cities are Sierra Leone, Angola and Bulgaria. President George Bush on the war against often fully booked (business people, aid workers, All South African security companies working terrorism, his regime’s enemies were working to even peacemakers, need seats), and the growing overseas have to register and meet the terms of the save victims in the densely populated export trade in luxury fruit and vegetables can fill Regulation of Foreign Military Assistance Act, neighbourhood of Bab el Oued, worst affected northbound cargo holds. Other European airlines which was passed after controversy about EO’s with around 650 deaths. Over-stretched and badly will probably take up Sabena’s traffic to Abidjan, Angolan contracts. Another EO ex-Director maintained colonial infrastructure, whose sewer Dakar, Accra and Lagos. The losers will be small claimed the Act’s provisions were so broad that manholes were sealed in 1997 against actions by capitals like Conakry or Kigali, to which Sabena most operators couldn’t be prosecuted. Athmane Khelifi’s faction of the Groupe offered reliable if unprofitable direct services. Revelations that a South African company is Islamique Armé (GIA), contributed to a total of Sabena saw Africa as a market of long-term training Sudanese soldiers will embarrass some 900 deaths. At the last official count 729 strategic importance. Belgian taxpayers paid the Pretoria’s Department of Foreign Affairs. When people were dead, over 170 missing. bill but that subsidy is gone and won’t fly back.

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