Volume 17, Number II. Defensive Humanitarianism: Swiss Internment
Strategic Visions: Volume 17, Number II.
Defensive Humanitarianism: Swiss Internment Camps in WWI
Holden Zimmerman University of Kansas 2018 Edwin H. Sherman Prize for Undergraduate Scholarship in Force and Diplomacy
Abstract
During World War I, the Swiss state interned nearly 30,000 foreign soldiers who had previously been held in POW camps in Germany, France, Britain, Belgium, Austria, and Russia. The internment camp system that Switzerland implemented arose from a Swiss diplomatic platform that this thesis describes as defensive humanitarianism. By offering good offices to the belligerent states of WWI, the Swiss state utilized humanitarian law both to secure Swiss neutrality and to alleviate, to a degree, the immense human suffering of the war. This thesis fills a gap in the historiographical literature as one of the few papers in English on the topic, as well as one of the only to holistically consider the internment camp system as a panacea for the crises that the Swiss state faced during WWI. By mixing domestic concerns with international diplomacy and humanitarianism, a domestic policy platform taken to the international diplomatic level succeeded in building enough trust between the signatory states to create an internment system that reconceptualized the treatment of foreign soldiers from the holding of prisoners to the healing of men.
Defensive Humanitarianism: Swiss Germany, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, and Internment Camps in WWI Russia.2
Introduction Three distinct legal factors that shaped and allowed for the creation of the On July 27, 1916, William McGilvray, a internment camp system emerged over sergeant in the London Scottish Regiment, the course of the previous centuries. First, found himself riding in a passenger train a body of international law developed in travelling south through Germany, Europe beginning in the mid-nineteenth surveying the landscape of the Rhine century, particularly in the form of the River valley. It was quiet, the sounds of Geneva Convention of 1864 and The the sloshing mud and whizzing bullets of Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. trench warfare far off to the west. He had Both specifically evaluate and offer started that day in Friedrichsfeld, one of guidance on the rules of war and the the many prisoner of war camps in treatment of soldiers, POWs, internees, Germany that detained Allied soldiers. He and civilians during war. These would arrive that evening in Darmstadt to assemblies dictated, to an extent, the connect with another train brimming treatment of soldiers and civilians, with other British prisoners of war. His captive or not, in times of war. A second journey would bring him to Konstanz, factor that emerged was Switzerland’s Germany, for examination before neutrality, created in 1848 with the internment in Switzerland; Konstanz was foundation of Swiss federal state. Third, for many internees the last stop before humanitarianism began to truly explode entry into Switzerland.1 McGilvray, along onto the European scene with the with 305 of his compatriots, comprised founding of the International Committee the first British POWs imprisoned in of the Red Cross by Henry Dunant in Germany to be evaluated for internment Geneva, Switzerland in 1863. in Switzerland, which offered better International law, and Swiss neutrality, conditions than those in Friedrichsfeld. humanitarianism emerged and expanded Crowds of Swiss citizens at the train around the same time and in the same stations of Zurich, Lausanne, Montreux, intellectual spaces in Europe. In response and finally Chateaux D’Oex would soon to the political, social, and economic greet him. Speeches by Swiss and British crises of World War I, Swiss diplomats military, government, and Red Cross and statesmen utilized the tools at hand officials would welcome him and the to merge international law, Switzerland’s other soldiers throughout their journey, neutrality politics, and the ideology of as well as music, gifts, and warm meals. humanitarianism into a cohesive His experiences and perceptions have diplomatic platform to protect Swiss been echoed by many soldiers who were sovereignty, while at the same time interned during World War I in asserting Switzerland’s commitment to Switzerland, including those from France, the ideology of humanitarianism. This strategy necessitated the Swiss state to
1 The city’s English name is Constance and it is located on the Bodensee, or Lake Constance, in 2 “Letter from Sergeant William McGilvray,” The southern Germany along its border with London Scottish Regimental Gazette, July 1916, Switzerland. 136.
1 cooperate with international NGOs and needed the cooperation and collaboration other humanitarian and charitable bodies, of the other to further their humanitarian such as the International Committee of ventures. This this relationship deepened the Red Cross, the Swiss Red Cross, and through the actions of actors like Gustave the Vatican. Of these relationships, this Ador during WWI. thesis focuses the most on the relationship between the ICRC and Swiss The internment camp system in state. Switzerland during World War I The close relationship between the represented the institutional intersection ICRC and Swiss state existed long before among international law, Swiss neutrality WWI, but during this period many politics, and humanitarianism. This overlaps existed between the two. Most intersection formed a new policy referred important of these was Gustave Ador. to in this thesis as defensive Ador, born to the elite of Geneva in 1845, humanitarianism.6 Due to its successes in acted as president of the ICRC from 1910 WWI, this policy platform would later to 1928. As ICRC president during the come to define Swiss international conflict, he pushed in 1914 for the relations and the Swiss image creation of the International Prisoners of internationally in the decades that War Agency. He also frequently followed. WWI acted as the culminating communicated with and called on Arthur moment during which the combination of Hoffman, Minister of Foreign Affairs in international law, neutrality politics, and the Swiss government, to intervene on the humanitarianism forged modern Swiss behalf of sick and injured POWs in captor diplomacy and international relations. states.3 After Hoffmann’s resignation, Ador replaced him on the Federal The topic of internment camps in Council.4 Many historians see Ador’s Switzerland during World War I and their appointment within the Federal Council impact on humanitarianism, Swiss to Minister of Foreign Affairs was a politics, and European history is symbolic act on the part of the largely understudied. These areas rarely overlap German-speaking government to prove with each other in the literature, as Switzerland’s commitment to neutrality historians generally treat them and international humanitarianism.5 The separately. In the twentieth century, these connections between the ICRC and the individual themes dominate the larger Swiss state will only be explored in this historical narrative of Switzerland during thesis in regards to their impact on WWI. Looking at the situation from the defensive humanitarianism and the perspective of international diplomacy, internment camp system, both the role of Swiss good offices, or the theoretically and practically. Both the offering by a third party state to facilitate ICRC and the Swiss state have historically peaceful mediation between two opposing states, in the formation of 3 Irène Herrmann, “Ador, Gustave,” International international treaties was especially Encyclopedia of the First War, accessed April 12, popular as historians began to look back 2018, https://encyclopedia.1914-1918- online.net/article/ador_gustave. 4 The Federal Council has 7 members and acts as 6 This is a term created for this thesis in order to the executive body of the Swiss government. succinctly explain Swiss diplomacy since WWI. I 5 Herrmann, “Ador, Gustav.” have found no records of this term elsewhere.
2 on the legacies of WWI. 7 Swiss good system in their discussion of WWI offices greatly informed the idea of diplomacy, but only as a small-scale defensive humanitarianism in this paper, humanitarian project that did not as the Swiss state operated with more significantly impact the war, arguing authority than the ICRC or Vatican in instead that it merely created enough international diplomacy during WWI; this proof of good intentions to allow for the idea will be discussed in section two. larger belligerent states to collaborate on Historians do not dispute that the later bilateral agreements.10 In an international laws, treaties, and atmosphere that focused on the actions agreements surrounding POWs, and diplomatic platforms of belligerent, internees, and civilians in WWI expanded major-player states, the historiography of in scope during the conflict. However, this period failed to look at the other many scholars have greatly understated smaller, but still influential, actors. This the role of the Swiss state and the Swiss paper seeks to amend the shortcomings internment camp system in their of this historiography by acknowledging conclusions.8 These historians minimize the central role of international the importance of small-player states in diplomacy in WWI as facilitated through their explanatory framework, which the good offices of smaller actors, views this evolution as an effort on the specifically highlighting the Swiss case part of major-player states, specifically and its unique contributions to the legacy Great Britain, the United States, Germany, of international law. This and France to lessen the suffering of acknowledgment requires a fundamental soldiers and civilians in a war of reframing of WWI from a focus on the attrition.9 These authors undervalue the traditional major-players to a more actions of small-state players, such as nuanced look at the facilitators of Switzerland, as their role in WWI productive international diplomatic transpired primarily in the unseen discourse. diplomatic realm through their role in offering good offices. The actions of the Those historians, Swiss or otherwise, belligerent and larger states capture more who focus on Swiss internment camps attention, as their actions functioned specifically have traditionally approached centrally to the progression of the it from the position of a history of military conflict. Other authors briefly neutrality and international relations. In mention the Swiss internment camp the historiography of Switzerland during WWI, some historians maintain that the 7 Raymond R. Probst, “Good Offices” in the Light of Swiss government acted as a main actor Swiss International Practice and Experience on the international diplomatic and (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff humanitarian scenes, and the ICRC Publishers, 1989). worked as a secondary collaborator.11 8 John Yarnall, Barbed Wire Disease: British & German Prisoners of War, 1914-19 (Stroud, UK: History Press, 2011). 9 Small-player states, as used in this thesis, refers 10 Richard B. Speed III, Prisoners, Diplomats, and to neutral or less-discussed states in WWI that are the Great War: A Study in the Diplomacy of generally not considered to be among the large Captivity (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990), 33- and powerful Western actors, namely: the United 38. States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, 11 Georges André Chevallaz, The Challenge of Austria-Hungary, and Russia. Neutrality: Diplomacy and the Defense of
3 This ignores the collaboration of the ICRC WWI.13 The focus on the benefits of the with the Swiss government and military internment camp system for the Swiss on the internment camp system, as well economy and the roles of women in the as the ICRC’s larger international role as internment system represents a new area the progenitor of national Red Cross of exploration. However, historians of this societies. The relationship between the subject have failed to recognize the ICRC and Swiss state will be explored in unique blend of the domestic imperative the section of this thesis, in order to of neutrality and the international clarify its collaborative and mutually movement of goods and people for the beneficial qualities during WWI. Others Swiss economy with the ideas and have approached the history of the institutions of international internment camp system as only part of humanitarianism. This thesis builds on the history of humanitarianism and the this economic approach to the internment ICRC, ignoring the role played by camp system by contextualizing its place diplomacy. This strain of the in the debate in tandem with the historiography looks at the Swiss state international diplomacy and only as a practical facilitator, possessing humanitarianism pieces. the bureaucratic framework and institutional resources to physically Since the turn of the twenty-first construct and manage the camps, not on century historians of Switzerland have its role as sovereign power and studied Swiss history through a negotiator.12 This thesis argues that combination of political, diplomatic, domestic Swiss neutrality politics and the economic, or social lenses, however, these international humanitarian ideology of methods have failed to offer a rounded the ICRC intersected in the diplomatic look at the complementary factors that platform of the Swiss state, leading to the influenced the Swiss state during WWI. formation of the internment camp system, According to recent works of history on in which both the Swiss state and the Switzerland, neutrality was the dominant ICRC played different but complementary Swiss interest in Swiss international roles. relations during WWI. However, scholars have also increasingly portrayed the There are exceptions to the influence of neutrality politics on areas historiographical oversight of Swiss such as the Swiss economy and Swiss internment camps and their unique identity inside and outside of characteristics. Some recent scholarship Switzerland.14 Some of the newest gives a general overview of life in the scholarship focuses on the situation of Swiss internment camps, its economic specific internee groups within benefits in the area of Swiss tourism, and the role of women in Switzerland during 13 Susan Barton, “’Dropped from ‘ell into ‘eaven’: Interned POWS in Switzerland 1916-1918.” Accessed February 16, 2018. Switzerland (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, http://www.ruralhistory2015.org/doc/papers/Pa 2001). nel_12_Barton.pdf. 12 David P Forsythe and Barbara Ann J Rieffer- 14 Max Mittler, Der Weg Zum Ersten Weltkrieg - Flanagan, The International Committee of the Red Wie Neutral War Die Schweiz?: Kleinstaat und Cross: A Neutral Humanitarian Actor (Abingdon: Europäischer Imperialismus (Zürich: Neue Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group 2016). Zürcher Zeitung, 2003).
4 Switzerland; though their work exists domestic and international impacts of the outside the purview of this thesis.15 camps on Switzerland and Europe during and after WWI. Most notable among emerging scholars of the Swiss WWI internment These insights are drawn from the camps is Cédric Cotter, whose work large body of primary source literature focuses on the connection between from the ICRC, Swiss government, and neutrality and humanitarianism in Swiss military that draw out the Switzerland, and its meaning for Swiss interconnected nature of international diplomacy and identity.16 Cotter offers law, neutrality politics, and international many important insights into the political humanitarianism. The Swiss army in situation of the Swiss state during WWI, particular took meticulous care in arguing that the issue of neutrality preserving its correspondence with functioned as the central concern for the outside governments, as well as their Swiss Bundesrat in its decision to pursue internal briefs, notices, and telegrams, the internment camp system.17 Many of and these can be found in the Swiss Cotter’s works look at the relationship Federal Archives in Bern. These French between the Swiss state and and German language sources form the humanitarianism; however, this thesis primary basis of this thesis. In addition, broadens the scope of this debate by Major Édouard Favre, Surgeon General observing the evolution of international and head of the internment system within humanitarianism through bi- or the Swiss army, published three reports multilateral treaties. The major difference between 1917 and 1919 on the workings between Cotter’s work and the of the camps and his reflections on conclusions of this thesis arise from the them.18 These reports synthesize many of use of defensive humanitarianism as a the documents found in the Federal unifying concept that explains the Archives, and this study employs them merging of the different issues the Swiss more frequently than the original papers. state faced into a coherent policy platform They offer the factual information of the implemented by the Swiss state during originals, but include his commentary as a WWI. By examining the internment camp main actor in the camps. His insights system as a microcosm of the political, begin with the formation of the humanitarian, and economic internment camps in 1915 and continue developments and crises of WWI, this through to the post-war repatriation of thesis offers new insights into the the internees beginning in 1918. These notes are useful as their intended 15 For information on Russian internees in audience were members of the Swiss Switzerland during WWI, see Thomas Bürgisser, military, who managed the operation of "Unerwünschte Gäste": russische Soldaten in der the internment camps, and therefore Schweiz 1915-1920 (Zurich: Theologischer Verlag, 2010). 16 Cotter, (s’)Aider Pour Survivre: Action Humanitaire et Neutralité Suisse pendant la 18 Edouard Favre, Harvey W. Hewett-Thayer, and Première Guerre Mondiale (Geneva: University of Karl Hauser, Swiss Internment of Prisoners of Geneva, 2016). War: An Experiment in International Humane 17 The Swiss Bundesrat is the Swiss Parliament. Legislation and Administration: A Report from the Switzerland is the only direct democracy in the Swiss Commission in the United States (New York: world. Columbia University Press, 1917).
5 lacked the propagandistic tendencies of the internment camp system from other government sources. temporally and thematically focused perspectives. The narrowing in sequential In addition, British Lieutenant-Colonel sections from the broad, international Henry Philip Picot published his memoirs developments to the individuals impacted of his time as a British diplomatic by the internment camp system allows administrator involved with the camps, this thesis to connect the areas of including the reception of British international law, neutrality politics, and internees in 1916.19 His memoir, The humanitarianism at increasingly focused British interned in Switzerland, relays levels in order to explain how they merge many anecdotes on the reception of to form the policy platform of defensive interned soldiers in Switzerland, however, humanitarianism. it presents the limitation of the British populace acting as its primary audience. It The first section focuses on must be examined with extra scrutiny due international laws and treaties and the to Picot’s tendency towards history of internment camps before WWI embellishment, and the propagandistic in order to contextualize these areas at role of his writings. the European level. In addition, this section analyzes the creation and While Favre, as a ranking official of implementation of the first iteration of the military, had a bias towards the internment camps in Switzerland during importance of Swiss neutrality politics, the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 Picot tended towards international law for three purposes: to trace the and diplomacy as a British diplomat. The foundations of defensive reports by Favre and Picot allow this humanitarianism in Swiss history, to thesis to draw conclusions on how actors explore the international aspect of the within each separate area of influence Swiss internment camp system, and to conceived of the roles of international, draw conclusions on the strengths of domestic, and humanitarian issues. They defensive humanitarianism. This thesis reveal the relationships among these posits that the overlapping evolutions of areas, as well as their overlapping roles international law, neutrality politics and within the context of the internment humanitarianism merged into defensive camp system. The methodology used here humanitarianism in Switzerland during differs from the methodologies of other WWI. This synthesis of different domestic historians of Swiss diplomacy and Swiss and international components created a history by examining these documents as policy platform with distinctly part of the larger idea of defensive collaborative mechanisms. The humanitarianism. international character of defensive humanitarianism, therefore, arose from The format of this thesis is both its basis in international diplomacy and thematic and chronological and utilizes a international humanitarian advocacy and telescoped structure. Each section played a role in the favorable linking of examines defensive humanitarianism and the Swiss state with international humanitarianism. 19 Henry Philip Picot, The British interned in Switzerland (London: Edward Arnold, 1919).
6 Section two then looks at the context smaller players may well again rise to of Swiss neutrality politics in treaty meet the current crises as Switzerland did negotiations during WWI before the full during WWI. Historiographically, this implementation of the internment camp thesis pioneers a new methodology for system in 1916, narrowing the focus understanding not only the Swiss thematically to defensive internment camp system during WWI, but humanitarianism in practice and also the larger debates around chronologically to 1914-1916. It closely humanitarianism, diplomacy, and WWI in examines defensive humanitarianism as a Switzerland and Europe currently absent policy and diplomatic platform of the in the historical literature through the Swiss government by analyzing the idea of defensive humanitarianism. motivations of the involved states and organization during treaty negotiations. Humanitarian Developments before the The focus of this section also extends to Great War the specific language of the treaty in order to evaluate the how each of the three A body of international law, pillars of defensive humanitarianism international humanitarian ideas, and an influenced the deliberations. By early form of internment camps, already understanding how the internment camp existed in Switzerland long before system created by these treaties William McGilvray’s internment in represents the Swiss policy platform of Chateaux d’Oex in 1916. The history of defensive humanitarianism, this thesis interned prisoners of war in Switzerland illustrates how this platform succeeded traces its roots to the creation of the domestically and internationally during International Committee of the Red Cross this period. in 1863, the Geneva Convention of 1864, and The Hague Conventions of 1899 and Finally, the conclusion of this thesis 1907. This section investigates these focuses on the international response to international treaties for their role in the Swiss internment camps and their legitimating the Swiss internment camps effects on later Swiss diplomacy, as well during World War I. It then examines the as their impact on the evolution of internment of the French Army of the humanitarianism. The conclusion seeks to East under general Charles-Denis offer explanations for the role of Bourbaki, better known as the Bourbaki neutrality and humanitarianism in Army, in Switzerland during the Franco- Switzerland, as well as to offer insights Prussian War of 1870-1871. This into the unique Swiss position in global preliminary form of internment camps in politics and diplomacy. With the current Switzerland helped to prove the centennial commemoration of WWI, the feasibility of internment camp systems in parallels between international law, Switzerland and set Switzerland up for neutrality, and humanitarian issues in implementing defensive humanitarianism. WWI versus the present make the subject Finally, the section closes with the of defensive humanitarianism relevant investigation of the pressure that WWI today. In a globalized world that is put on Switzerland and the specific crises increasingly seeing the largest states it exacerbated. This section argues that isolating themselves from international defensive humanitarianism can first be trade, politics, and humanitarianism, the seen in the Bourbaki internment and that
7 the legitimacy of defensive war. The recognition of the humanitarian humanitarianism arises from its concerns expressed in the book by many international character. elites in Geneva led Henri Dunant and a group with four other French Swiss The evolution of Geneva, aristocratic philanthropists from Geneva Switzerland as an international hub for to create ICRC. The ICRC acted as the humanitarian organizations finds its touchstone for the later creation of origins in the nineteenth century. In 1864, individual, nation-based Red Cross Geneva came to be the home of both the organizations. The motivations of this International Committee of the Red Cross group came from their Calvinist and the Convention for the Amelioration convictions, the strong tradition of of the Conditions of the Wounded in philanthropy in Geneva, and the Armies in the Field, or, as it would be later unassailable tenets of humanitarianism.21 known, the Geneva Convention. Henri This group represents the first iteration Dunant, a native of Geneva and active of Swiss citizens actively engaging with philanthropist, travelled to Italy in 1859 humanitarianism as a public platform. and witnessed the Battle of Solferino The Swiss Red Cross would eventually between June 24 and 28, a pivotal enter as the first national chapter. moment in the Second Italian War of Independence. In his account of the battle, The following year the ICRC continued he claimed, grow in importance in Switzerland and abroad through the Geneva Convention. “The personnel of military field The successful completion of the Geneva hospitals is always inadequate, Convention firmly solidified international and would still be inadequate if the acceptance of the neutral, volunteer, and number of aids were two or three humanitarian roles of the neutral times as many, and this will always humanitarian actors in military conflicts. be the case. The only possible way The ICRC presented itself as an impartial, is to turn to the public … The non-governmental proponent of all things imploring appeal must therefore humanitarian through its mission be made to all men of all countries statement, and the organization today still and of all classes, to the mighty credits itself as the initiators of the 1864 ones of this world, and to the convention.22 The Geneva Convention poorest workman.”20 elevated the international acceptance of
Dunant’s experiences with philanthropic 21 Caroline Moorehead, Dunant’s Dream (London: organizations in Geneva, coupled with his Harper Collins, 1999), 15. observations in Solferino, led him to 22 The ICRC’s mission statement is as follows: “the publish his account, A Memory of International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) is an impartial, neutral and independent Solferino, in 1862. His account not only organization whose exclusively humanitarian detailed the battle, but also called for a mission is to protect the lives and dignity of volunteer society that could mobilize in victims of armed conflict and other situations of times of crisis to care for the casualties of violence and to provide them with assistance.” See “The ICRC’s Mandate and Mission,” The International Committee of the Red Cross, 20 Henri Dunant, A Memory of Solferino (Geneva: accessed March 15, 2018, American Red Cross, 1959), 57. https://www.icrc.org/en/mandate-and-mission.
8 the ICRC through its recommendations on the recognition of the Red Cross symbol the treatment of civilian and military as a means of identifying persons and victims of war. In an era of state power equipment covered by the agreement.24 and exclusionary nationalism, the rise of The Geneva Convention offered distinctly an internationally recognized NGO with humanitarian guidelines for the conduct an international humanitarian mission of war not just for generals in the was significant. While the ICRC could not boardrooms, but for officers and soldiers compete on the global diplomatic stage, it in the field. It succeeded in normalizing could engage in international the presence of neutral actors in conflicts, humanitarian campaigns that the specifically medical personnel and governments of nation states at this time humanitarian observers. The internment could not. The Geneva Conference camp system could not have existed allowed for this opportunity in the 57 without these neutral actors on the states that signed, ratified, or made ground, as their absence would have reservations, accessions, or declarations precluded the evaluation of POWs for on the final document before WWI.23 internment in Switzerland. This topic will be further discussed in the next section. This conference also secured the These article points represent only the neutrality of ambulances and hospitals, as major suggestions; smaller wording well as medical personnel and chaplains. within the articles themselves would lead It set guidelines for the safe return of to opportunities for humanitarian medical staffers along with all of their internment as a viable system. possessions and equipment to their respective units. It provided for their Articles 5 and 6 of the convention immunity from capture and destruction, played the most determining roles in the for the treatment of wounded and sick future of the internment of prisoners of soldiers and their personnel, and for their war in Switzerland. In Article 5 the clause, impartial reception and treatment by “inhabitants of the country who bring foreign states. It also stipulated for the help to the wounded shall be respected protection of civilians providing aid, and and shall remain free … the presence of any wounded combatant receiving shelter 23 Signatory states participate in treaty and care in a house shall ensure its deliberations and added their signatures at the protection,” allowed for the further time of completion. There is a set period of time protection of Swiss neutrality by means of that states can sign to join the treaties, after which 25 other states may only accede or succeed to join housing sick or injured prisoners of war. them. Finally, states sometimes choose to produce The dispersal of interned soldiers reservations or declarations when acceding to throughout all regions of Switzerland treaties, meaning these states make unilateral during World War I assisted in the statements that seek to modify or exclude the legal effects of specific areas of the treaty. For more information, see “Convention for the 24 “Convention for the Amelioration of the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field. Armies in the Field. Geneva, 22 August 1964,” Geneva, 22 August 1864.” The International International Committee of the Red Cross, Committee of the Red Cross. Accessed March 25, accessed March 25, 2017, https://ihl- 2017, https://ihl- databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/States.xsp?x databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/ART/120- p_viewStates=XPages_NORMStatesParties&xp_tre 40005?OpenDocument. atySelected=120. 25 Ibid.
9 conceptualizations of Switzerland as a a direct impact on the success of sanctuary. The Red Cross volunteers, as defensive humanitarianism in well as local individuals that assisted in Switzerland. the internment camp system, whether in hospitals or as employers, could not be The application of humanitarian targeted for reprisals by belligerent states. principles of the Geneva Convention to Article 5 effectively allowed for the protect Swiss neutrality intermingled protection of Swiss territories, if the with Swiss neutrality politics and Swiss government and military interred international diplomacy to form the wider soldiers throughout the country on policy platform of the Swiss government humanitarian grounds. in their diplomatic endeavors leading up to and during World War I: defensive The convention also explicitly humanitarianism. The Geneva Convention discussed opportunities for wounded or codified the humanitarian goals of the injured soldiers during wartime utilizing ICRC and granted legal protection to their language that would later link international activities. As the ICRC humanitarian internment with the Swiss gained international prestige, their government’s neutrality and sovereignty collaboration with the Swiss state after concerns in 1914. Article 6, which states 1864 also increased.28 The internment that, “those who, after their recovery, are camp system benefited from this history recognized as being unfit for further of collaboration, for when it came time to service, shall be repatriated. The others theoretically and practically construct the may likewise be sent back, on condition internment camp system of defensive that they shall not again, for the duration humanitarianism, the partnership was of hostilities, take up arms,“26 set up the natural. A second wave of international possibility of transferring prisoners of humanitarian legal work followed these war from belligerent states, which events that further bolster these newly adopted the treaty, to Switzerland. There, codified humanitarian norms and POWs could receive medical care outside relationships. The history of defensive of the warzone. The soldiers’ transfer to humanitarianism’s practical application, Switzerland solidified Swiss neutrality. as well as the working relationship This allowed all belligerents to believe between the ICRC and Swiss state, first that their wounded and sick soldiers occurred in 1870 with the experimental would be truly kept away from the internment of the Bourbaki Army. battlefield, a belief that kept all sides honest and greatly reduced the chance for The internment of the Bourbaki reprisals. The importance of trust in Army during the Franco-Prussian War international diplomacy is paramount to acted as a practical trial for the Swiss successful diplomacy, as largely internment camp system during WWI. customary law practices had the The French and Prussian governments consequence of reprisal acts for perceived signed an armistice agreement to end the non-compliance.27 The honesty that the conflict on January 27, 1871, however, the internment camp system engendered had agreement did not extend to the Army of the East. To avoid further losses, the 26 Ibid. 27 Speed, 38. 28 Moorehead, 20.
10 French Army of the East sought refuge in protect itself. The French soldiers’ Switzerland, initiating deliberations internment in Switzerland acted as the between the French and Swiss Armies. On model for the Swiss later when World February 1, the Swiss General Hans War I broke out in 1914, and also Herzog and French General Justin appeared as the first iteration of Clinchant signed an internment defensive humanitarianism in Swiss agreement which promised medical foreign policy leading up to World War I. attention, lodging, and protection within However, the Geneva Convention and the Switzerland for all 87,847 troops of the internment of the French Army of the French Army of the East, as long as the East represent only the first two parts of French troops handed over their weapons the foundation of defensive to the Swiss military.29 The Prussians did humanitarianism. not attend these talks. The Swiss Army managed the internment of the French The Hague Conventions of 1899 and soldiers in coordination with the Swiss 1907 further added to the international Red Cross, dispersing the soldiers legal basis of Swiss internment camps. throughout the country. One of the first multilateral sets of international laws on war, the Although the internment of the conventions attempted to set standards French Army of the East lasted only six for states’ conduct during times of war weeks, this occurrence opened the door and disarmament. This included for future iterations of Swiss internment proscribing military practices under the camps. The Prussian army did not follow new category of war crimes, and defining the French troops into Switzerland, nor the terms of treatment for prisoners of did they demand that they be ejected war, internees, and civilians.31 The from Switzerland. Rather than invading language of The Hague Conventions, in Switzerland to pursue the troops, the terms of its effects on Swiss internment, Prussian army respected the changed significantly between the two humanitarian undertones of the conventions. While the 1899 convention internment of the Bourbaki soldiers as elaborated on the terms of internment well as the international agreements during wartime, the 1907 convention behind it.30 This point must not be changed its approach to this topic by overlooked, as respect for international deferring to the Geneva Convention. The treaties formed the basis for defensive 1899 document referenced the Geneva humanitarianism. Without international Convention three times, each time citing trust in diplomatic endeavors, the Swiss the articles located therein as the state could not use neutrality politics to governing language on the issue.32 The
29 “Die Internierung der französischen Bourbaki- 31 Department of the Army, Treaties Governing Armee in der Schweiz,” Schweizerisches Rotes Land Warfare (Washington: Department of the Kreuz, accessed April 15, 2016. Army, 1956). https://geschichte.redcross.ch/ereignisse/ereigni 32 “Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and s/die-internierung-der-franzoesischen-bourbaki- Customs of War on Lands and its Annex: armee-in-der-schweiz.html. Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of 30 Hervé de Weck, “Bourbakiarmee,” Historisches War on Land. The Hague, 29 July 1899,” Lexicon der Schweiz, accessed March 25, 20017, International Committee of the Red Cross, http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/d/D26892.php. accessed April 21, 2017, https://ihl-
11 1907 document referenced the Geneva Defensive humanitarianism cannot Convention only twice, but with broader function without a certain level of honesty allowances to the authority of the Geneva and trust in international treaties that Convention on the subject matter of neutral third parties participating in internment and prisoners of war. The negotiations and implementation section on prisoners of war states that, engender. While the Geneva Convention “prisoners of war may be interned in a and The Hague Conventions codified the town, fortress, camp, or other place, and international consensus on war and the bound not to go beyond certain fixed treatment of soldiers and civilians, the limits … the obligations of belligerents internment of the French Army of the with regard to the sick and wounded are East provided a practical test for governed by the Geneva Convention.”33 internment camps in Switzerland. As This conferment of authority, specifically WWI unfolded, these moments of on the subject of the sick and wounded, international diplomatic history onto the Geneva Convention added to the resurfaced in the minds of military and legal basis for the internment of soldiers government personnel in Switzerland. in Switzerland. The Geneva Convention secured the protection of interned Switzerland faced distinct political, soldiers through Swiss neutrality politics economic, and social challenges both and humanitarian aid, which The Hague internationally and domestically during Conventions reiterated and elaborated WWI. The Swiss government wanted to upon these protections. These protections, protect Swiss sovereignty from foreign however, represented only normative invaders through its neutrality and feared codes for behavior. a possible invasion of its borders. This fear rose to the level of an existential These conventions, ratified or acceded threat with Germany’s violation of to by the states involved, lacked concrete Belgium’s neutrality on August 4, with the enforcement mechanisms and relied on Swiss government reiterating its the collective international community’s neutrality to the international community honesty and trust in diplomacy.34 the same day.35 Newspapers in Switzerland distributed this news and the databases.icrc.org/ihl/INTRO/150?OpenDocumen announcement of the Swiss government t. to mobilize Swiss troops on August 6.36 At 33 “Laws of War: Laws and Customs of War on Land (Hague IV); October 18, 1907,” Yale Law School the Avalon Project. Accessed April 21, 2017, Samuel B. Crandall, Treaties: Their Making and http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/hague0 Enforcement, (Clark, New Jersey: The Lawbook 4.asp. Exchange, 2005), and Srini Sitaraman, State 34 This continues to be an issue in international Participation in International Treaty Regimes, diplomacy that plagues states of the present. With (New York: Routledge, 2009). no supranational enforcement mechanisms, 35 Federal Council, “Procès-verbal de la séance du compliance remains a tedious issue. Reservations 4 août 1914,” Diplomatic Documents of and declarations also minimize the enforceability Switzerland 1848-1975, accessed April 3, 2018. of treaties by effecting removing whatever teeth http://dodis.ch/43291. they do possess. For more information on this 36 “Der Krieg der Großmächte,” Berner topic, see Abram Chayes and Antonia Handler Intelligenzblatt, (Bern, Switzerland), Aug. 6, 1914, Chayes, The New Sovereignty: Compliance with http://intelligenzblatt.unibe.ch/Default/Skins/Be International Regulatory Agreements, rnA/Client.asp?Skin=BernA&AW=15220821654 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), 08&AppName=2.
12 the same time, Switzerland attempted to matters.40 This creation came in part as a continue economic relations with states response to the new injuries and illnesses on both sides of the war, as its economy that emerged on the continent, including quickly stagnated with the decline in trench foot and neurasthenia, also known tourism.37 In addition, the conscription of as “barbed wire disease,” or PTSD today. young men into the Swiss army also 41 The ICRC, however, found itself unable depleted labor forces throughout the to influence states at the level of country. The labor shortage represents international diplomacy required to only the beginning of the domestic issues create new codes around the treatment of that Switzerland faced. POWs through lobbying alone. As the war progressed, the ICRC, Swiss Red Cross, At home, the Swiss state faced staunch and Swiss government later worked internal cultural-linguistic nationalism together to organize and facilitate treaty that divided its populace. The Franco- deliberations between the belligerent Swiss in the French speaking cantons states to allow for a new solution. This largely supported France and the Allies, solution came in the form of the transfer while the Swiss-Germans in the German of prisoners of war from POW camps in speaking cantons favored Germany and warring states to Switzerland for the Central Powers.38 In an age of intense treatment and internment for the cultural nationalism, the Swiss duration of the war. The Swiss government sought to unite its populace government could co-opt the good behind the idea of Swiss civic nationalism international reputation of the ICRC and instead of cultural-linguistic loyalties.39 Swiss Red Cross by supporting their The government searched for a policy humanitarian efforts through material platform that could solve these issues as assistance and good offices in order to WWI showed signs of turning into a further legitimate their neutrality.42 In protracted conflict. defensive humanitarianism and the internment camp system, the Swiss In response to the crises mentioned government found its panacea. above, the Swiss state, as well as the Swiss Red Cross and International Committee of the Red Cross, initially searched for solutions individually. The 40 ICRC created the International Prisoners The main function of the International Prisoners of War agency was on reconnecting POWs with of War Agency two months in to the war, their families through information collecting. See: which would later serve as the ICRC’s Daniel Palmieri, “The International Committee of main office for internment camp the Red Cross in the First World War,” The International Committee of the Red Cross, accessed March 26, 2017, https://www.icrc.org/en/document/internationa l-committee-red-cross-first-world-war-0. 37 Susan Barton, “Dropped from ‘ell into ‘eaven: 41 John Yarnall, Barbed Wire Disease: British & Interned POWS in Switzerland German Prisoners of War, 1914-1919 (Stroud, 1916-1918,” accessed February 16, 2018, Gloucestershire: The History Press, 2011), 163. http://www.ruralhistory2015.org/doc/papers/Pa 42 Cédric Cotter and Irène Hermann, “Hilfe zum nel_12_Barton.pdf. Selbstschutz: Die Schweiz und ihre humanitären 38 Cotter, “Un pays divisé?,” 291-296. Werke,” in 14/18: Die Schweiz und der Grosse 39 Ibid. Krieg (Zürich: Hier und Jetzt, 2014), 241.
13 The body of international law eastern region with a German-speaking assembled before the creation of the majority supported Germany.43 This internment camps was not created with schism, created by linguistic and cultural such camps in mind, and individual loyalties in an era of intense cultural treaties between belligerent states would nationalism, threatened Swiss neutrality have to be created to deal with the from within by destabilizing popular minutia of internment. As early as four support for Swiss neutrality and giving months into WWI, the Geneva Convention the appearance of popular support for norms on internment in neutral states either the Central Powers or the Allied began to appear as a viable blueprint for Forces. The Swiss government and creating a solution to the physical military, therefore, searched for a devastation soldiers met on the battlefield. solution that could solve both the external The language of the Geneva and The and internal issues simultaneously. Small Hague Conventions provided Switzerland states often have to pursue different with a basis to act as the neutral state to strategies in times of conflict than larger safeguard these POWs. For a policy of states, as they lack the territory and defensive humanitarianism to function, manpower to compete with larger, more international consensus needed to exist. populous states on the global stage. By This explicitly international characteristic maintaining absolute international of defensive humanitarianism both neutrality with a policy platform of allowed for and legitimated its existence. defensive humanitarianism, the Swiss As will be explored in section 2, state hoped to defuse competing cultural Switzerland instituted these bases for nationalisms at home and preserve their defensive humanitarianism through their territorial sovereignty through neutral offering of good offices in the treaty international diplomacy and politics formations that led to the birth of the abroad. WWI Swiss internment camps. The initial rumblings of a future The Swiss Diplomatic Mission internment plan started in 1914 at the Despite the long history of neutrality ground level in two places: Geneva and in Switzerland, the military and Rome. The Vatican began making government nonetheless feared that suggestions for prisoner exchanges for belligerent states would violate their those soldiers incapable of further borders and sovereignty when World War combat starting in late 1914 on I broke out in August of 1914. Germany humanitarian grounds.44 The had breached the eastern Belgian border International Committee of the Red Cross on August 4, 1914, just seven days after first proposed the plan for the internment the beginning of the war, despite more of mildly injured prisoners of war in than 80 years of Belgian neutrality. In Switzerland in 1914. With the permission addition to the external threat to Swiss of the Swiss government, the ICRC began neutrality, an internal rift also existed treaty talks with France and Germany. between the western and eastern regions of the country. Since the creation of the 43 German Reich in 1871, the western region, Carlo Moos, “Domestic Politics and Neutrality (Switzerland),” International Encyclopedia of the Romandie, inhabited primarily by French First World War, published January 24, 2017. speakers supported France, while the 44 Yarnall, 155.
14 prisoners of war, they, even with the In addition to the urgings of the ICRC, support of the Holy See, could not exert the Holy See, through their representative enough pressure upon either government Charles Santucci, also campaigned for the to come to an agreement. Diplomacy at broadening of ailments and ranks this stage of the war was tense; without meriting internment. They saw the being able to offer good offices, the prospect of internment too important an Vatican and ICRC failed to instill the same opportunity for POWs to restrict to only sense of trust that the Swiss state had tuberculosis patients.45 On March 6, 1915, during the internment of the French Army after securing a loose agreement of the of the East. terms of internment, the president of the ICRC, Gustav Ador, wrote to the president On May 1, 1915, the Swiss of Switzerland, Giuseppe Motta, asking for government reinitiated and finalized the the Swiss government to take over treaty negotiations between France and negotiations: Germany. The Swiss delegation’s offering Our Committee is continuing with of good offices played no small part in the realization of the project, bringing the two powers to the table.47 In which I have spoken to you of addition, assurances that Swiss military interning in Switzerland the order would prevent soldiers from wounded officers whom they escaping, as well as the belligerent states would not wish to return to their agreeing to return caught escapees, led to country of origin. I take the liberty the signing of an agreement on January 26, of asking you again to support this 1916.48 The Swiss government and proposal with your high influence. military readily seized the opportunity There are so many families of presented by the ICRC and Holy See to officers in Germany, France, and press the agreement talks between England, who wait with anguish France and Germany to a conclusion, in for the realization of this project, order to both transform internal that if it were not to succeed, it pressures into interest for the soon-to- would be a cruel disappointment. arrive soldiers and to secure external Do you not think that it would be a respect for Swiss neutrality. The Swiss very good thing for the Federal defensive humanitarianism platform Council to officially submit this combined the internal and external proposal to the governments threats to the Swiss state into one holistic concerned? I know that you agree solution. The signing of the treaty on with this idea and I am quite sure January 26, however, did not immediately that no government would oppose initiate the transfer of prisoners of war a refusal to a firm proposal made into Switzerland. 46 by the Federal Council. 47 Probst, 20. While the ICRC initiated the talks between 48 François Olier, “Suisse (1914-1918): France and Germany on the subject of L’Internement des Prisonniers de Guerre Allies, Malades et Blesses,” accessed March 5, 2017, http://hopitauxmilitairesguerre1418.overblog.co 45 Picot, 36. m/2014/01/la-suisse-et-l-internement-des- 46 Édouard Favre, L’Internment en Suisse (Geneva: prisonniers-de-guerre-allies-malades-et-blesses- Georg, 1917), 188. 1914-1918.html.
15 equal number of soldiers from each state For the following three weeks, could be interned, as they worried about negotiation on the terms and criteria of the possibility of French soldiers internment continued. The issues most benefiting more from the system than the intensely discussed included the German soldiers. However, after many definition of internment, methods for requests from the Holy See, who sought to surveillance of prisoner of war camps in have the largest number of POWs belligerent states, selection criteria, and ameliorated of their conditions and the conditions on repatriating soldiers ailments, to the German Kaiser Wilhelm II, after the conflict ceased. Many of the Germany eventually acquiesced and issues of contention focused on which agreed to a case-by-case inspection, as diseases and injuries warranted long as neutral teams of medical internment in Switzerland, and which did personnel conducted the examinations.50 not. To settle this issue, the Surgeon- This system entailed “ten Sanitary General of Switzerland created the Commissions for each country, composed Bureau of Internment within the medical of two Swiss doctors reinforced by a third, branch of the Swiss military, which an officer of the captor States, who should conducted a temporary internment have the place of President, with power to period with 100 French and 100 German examine and designate prisoners for prisoners of war suffering from dispatch to Lyons or Constance, as the tuberculosis in the towns of Davos, case might be, for a final inspection by a Montana, and Leysin.49 This temporary Board of Control.”51 The structure of the internment functioned as a barometer for Sanitary Commission represents the the trust of the belligerent signatories. As culmination of both humanitarian and the test showed early success, France and diplomatic concerns surrounding the Germany warmed to the idea of accepting selection process. the Swiss internment camp system on a The platform of defensive full scale. humanitarian arose as a domestic policy platform, however, its implementation at After France, Germany, and the international level only succeeded due Switzerland reached an agreement on the to these trust-assuring mechanisms. The terms, definition, and requirements of Swiss doctors, as neutral actors, formed internment, they also debated the the majority of the group and assured fair evaluation of soldiers for internment. This examinations of POWs, regardless of represented a critical point in the nationality. The third member, from the discussions, as it would ultimately decide captor state, ensured for their home the number of prisoners of war able to be states that the Swiss would not go outside interned in Switzerland. At the beginning the reach of the treaty. This double- of deliberations, Germany called for an checking system solidified trust among equal quota system in which only an the treaty’s signatories.
The Sanitary Commission then sent 49 Édouard Favre, Swiss Internment of Prisoners their selections of POWs for further of War: An Experiment in International Humane Legislation and Administration: a Report by the Swiss Commission in the United States, (New 50 Picot, 37. York: Columbia University Press, 1917), 10. 51 Favre, Swiss Internment of Prisoners of War, 9.
16 evaluation in Konstanz if held in Germany international treaty benefited not only the or Austria, and Lyon if held in France, Swiss state, but the belligerent states and Britain, or Belgium before their final trip the internees as well. Defensive into Switzerland. These major cities, humanitarianism during this period closest to the Swiss border for each represented a unique form of diplomatic country and equipped with the railway policy, as it benefited all states involved. infrastructure necessary for the transportation of the internees, This new definition of internment represented logical choices for the main allowed for the opportunity of extended examination centers. Through the legal healing in Switzerland for prisoners of protections created by the Geneva war who had been excluded by the Conventions and The Hague Conventions, previous understanding of internment. the inspection teams could travel through Belligerent states and neutral states alike war zones with reduced fear of assault, did not want injured soldiers returning to capture, or deterrence. The small group the front lines, where their chance of sizes also allowed greater efficiency and survival plummeted. Deliberation on mobility. The ICRC, Swiss Red Cross, and what ailments would now qualify under military medical units of France and the new definition, however, took another Germany, with their Red Cross armbands three weeks after the original, tentative in place, quickly situated the sanitary agreement. The debate focused on short- commissions. On February 14, France, term or easily treatable ailments that Germany, and Switzerland came to a final could not be manageably treated in agreement on the terms of internment. prisoner of war camps. New soldiers began entering The final terms of Swiss internment Switzerland on February 21, 1916, with camps during WWI differed from an estimated maximum of 30,000 previous iterations. The previous interned by January 1917.53 The arrival of understanding of internment, as these initial internees created a spark of suggested in the Geneva Convention, had celebration for the Swiss populace. Those entailed the safe movement of prisoners healthy enough to walk went first with of war, incapable of fighting in the future, canes and flowers, the latter given to through a neutral state back to their them by members of the crowd. Soldiers homeland, as well as internment within too sick to walk continued behind in cars. neutral states. The agreement between The Swiss populace came out in droves in France and Germany defined internment celebration of their national project. as the removal of prisoners of war from Promoted as not only the saving plan for these states to Switzerland for medical the Swiss economic and political situation, care in Swiss facilities, and as well as their many in the government promoted the surveillance for the duration of the plan as the duty of the Swiss. This conflict. The treaty also included clauses rhetoric set out to dispel the linguistic promising the return of interned soldiers tensions of the country and promote to Switzerland if they escaped to their Swiss nationalism and identity. 54 The home country.52 The codification of Swiss Swiss government did not miss the defensive humanitarianism into this 53 Favre, Swiss Internment of Prisoners of War, 46. 52 Picot, 37. 54 Cotter und Hermann, 242.
17 chance to promote the evolution of Not all major conditions from which international law and Switzerland’s role POWs suffered, however, made the cut. through the internment camp system. Mental health afflictions, alcoholism, and sexually transmitted diseases that could By July 1916, the French, German, and still be further transmitted at the time of Swiss governments expanded the treaty inspection were also excluded.57 The to signify 18 diseases in total that merited agreement excluded soldiers with mental internment in Switzerland. These health issues, as they referred these cases included: chronic diseases of the blood, to special institutions and not general respiratory, circulatory, central and hospitals in Switzerland, as well as peripheral nervous systems, digestive soldiers with sexually transmitted organs, urinary and sexual organs, organs diseases or infections, for fear of infecting of the senses, the skin, rheumatism, as citizens of the Swiss populace or family well as blindness and deafness. The members of the soldiers.58 This list of majority of the internees fell under the ailments illustrated the level of strictness criteria of suffering from: tuberculosis, the countries involved desired for the any tumors, severe debility, severe agreement, as the belligerent syphilis, loss of limb, long-term paralysis, governments, not the Swiss government, maladies that would preclude military paid for the costs of interning their service for one year, and cases deemed soldiers in Switzerland. This agreement severe enough on a case-by-case basis.55 expanded the number of soldiers Tuberculosis represented an especially removed from prisoner of war camps in critical point to the concerned parties, as belligerent states, as well as increased the it had been previously disqualified during chances of survival for wounded talks in 1914 before internment became prisoners of war. on option, due to the chance for soldiers to recover and reenter the war.56 At the While the Swiss internment camp time, these diseases needed heavy system did increase the chances of medical attention in hospitals to increase survival for internees, the locations of the chance of survival. The change from camps in Switzerland did not always POW camp to internment camp addressed benefit them. Montana was one of the first the medical needs of these particularly towns open to internees and housed vulnerable soldiers, as it changed their primarily French and Belgian citizens, as environment from one based on detaining its populace predominately spoke French, them to one focused on healing them. The and many of the tourists to the area had ideology of humanitarianism was been predominately French. However, foundational in this shift in the this consideration on the familiarity of the conceptualization of the internment camp locals with French nationals failed to take system. 57 “Vorbereitung für die kriegsrechtliche Internierung, u.a. Konventionsentwurf, 1914- 55 Swiss Government, “Vorbereitung für die 1915.” kriegsrechtliche Internierung, u.a. 58 Parliament, “Correspondence with the United Konventionsentwurf, 1914-1915,” Dossier, States Ambassador Respecting the Transfer to E27#1000/721#13951* (Bern, Switzerland: Switzerland of British and German Wounded and Schweizerisches Bundesarchiv). Sick Combatant Prisoners of War,” (London: 56 Yarnall, 156. Harrison & Sons, 1916).
18 into account the mountainous terrain of nationalities in Western Europe the area, which was hard for wounded continued to suffer in the same POW internees to traverse.59 This failure in the camps that the Sanitary Commissions practical planning of the internment camp visited. As news of the successes of Swiss system arose from how it came about: the internment camps spread, the pressure hierarchical aspects of the camp, as well by the citizens of these non-party states as the general rules, came out of the for their governments to enter into higher level treaty negotiations, while similar treaties grew. practical issues like mobility on mountainous terrain or division of While the deliberations between internees from different states devolved France and Germany lasted over a year to to local officials.60 While the issue of reach agreement on the treaty terms, which ailments merited internment had similar arrangements between Germany come to a conclusion, there still existed and Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, and the topic of how to select prisoners of war Belgium followed almost immediately for internment. thereafter. The relative speed with which Great Britain and Germany reached an In 1916 alone, the itinerant agreement on internment of British and commission undertook twenty trips into German prisoners of war in Switzerland Germany, reviewed 82,439 French occurred due to the fact that the United soldiers and designated 20,677 for States, still a neutral power in 1916, internment, while eighteen visits into handled the majority of the France allowed for the examination of communication for Great Britain. As the 46,339 German POWs, with 6,411 United States would not enter the conflict selected.61 By having members of the until one year later in 1917, they selection committees from different maintained their diplomatic channels states, this system allowed the belligerent with Germany. Great Britain requested states to trust that the other group would that the United States' ambassador in not receive preferential treatment. As London communicate with his defensive humanitarianism requires counterpart in Berlin to appeal on Great collective trust to ensure its goals, clauses Britain’s behalf for an agreement on similar to the Sanitary Commission internment in Switzerland, similar to the needed to exist. However, with only one created between Germany and France. German and French soldiers under The communications lasted from March consideration, many other POWs of other 25 to May 13, 1916, with nine messages in total exchanged between Sir Edward Grey, Secretary of Foreign Affairs of 59 Yarnall, 158. Britain, and W.H. Page, United States 60 The internment camps were divided by type of ambassador to Great Britain. That six of care needed and ability, not necessarily only by linguistic familiarity. This is part of the reason the nine messages came from Sir Grey different nationalities of internees existed in the illustrates the urgency felt by the British same regions, or even towns. Favre, Swiss government to secure an agreement for Internment of Prisoners of War: An Experiment in the internment of British soldiers held as International Humane Legislation and Administration: a Report by the Swiss Commission in the United States. 61 Speed, 35-36.
19 prisoners of war in Germany.62 On April 9, foreign policy initiatives of the Swiss the urgency of Sir Grey’s telegrams government, ICRC, and Holy See in the reached their climax, with him writing, “it first few years of World War I. is not possible to make an official request to the Swiss Government to inaugurate Changes to the original treaties that the necessary arrangements pending the created the internment camps eventually receipt of the reply of the German came in 1917, when an Anglo-German Government, and much unnecessary conference was held in The Hague to hardship is being caused by the failure of further discuss POWs, extend internment the German Government to send a and exchange agreements, and fix issues reply.”63 The response on May 1 to this with the previous treaty. Many of these message contained the German changes directly affected the Swiss acceptance of the internment agreement internment camps, as the diplomats in with the same terms as the French attendance added new categories to the agreement. Almost immediately, on May list of internment conditions. First, those 14, Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Philip Picot who had been in captivity for at least 18 arrived from London in Switzerland as months and were suffering from “barbed commanding officer of the British wire disease” could now be interned in prisoners of war interned in Switzerland. Switzerland, as well as any officer, He then began formalizing their commissioned or not, in captivity for 18 accommodations across the country. The months.65 This treaty also created the first 304 British soldiers arrived on May opportunity for the internment of 16,000 28, 1916.64 POWs in the Netherlands, though this treaty only extended to German and The urgency of the British British soldiers.66 The challenge of government originated in part from interning thousands of sick and wounded international reports of the arrival of the POWs, however, was a logistical challenge German and French soldiers in that the Swiss state and military could not Switzerland and the level of care that they meet, due to resource restrictions caused received. As the international agreements by the war. The assistance of the Swiss fell into place, the Swiss military planned Red Cross, ICRC, and other charitable out the locations, regulations, and NGOs made the internment system accommodations of the incoming possible by supporting the system with prisoners of war. These initial stages in non-governmental resources. the formation of Swiss internment camps and Swiss defensive humanitarian policy Switzerland also relied on the rested on both the history of internment assistance of non-governmental during the Bourbaki event and on the international agencies to increase the legitimacy of the humanitarian portion of humanitarianism. The internment camp 62 Parliament, Correspondence with the United system needed the investment and trust States Ambassador Respecting the Transfer to Switzerland of British and German Wounded and of other belligerent and neutral states, Sick Combatant Prisoners of War, 15. such as the United States and the Holy See. 63 Schweizerisches Rotes Kreuz, “Die Internierung der französischen Bourbaki-Armee in der Schweiz.” 65 Speed, 36-37. 64 Mittler, 17. 66 Yarnall, 159.
20 With ICRC and Holy See support of the internment camp system arose from internment in Switzerland on the grounds the benefits it provided to all parties of humanitarian aid, violating Swiss involved. A plethora of reports exist in neutrality changed from an issue of English from both British government national sovereignty to an issue of officials and the British internees in international image and respect for the Switzerland that attest to this point. One lofty ideals of humanitarianism. This report, from Heron Charles Goodhart, a denotes an especially significant point member of the British legation in when one considers the case of Belgium’s Switzerland, states that, “fruit, cigarettes, neutrality in World War I.67 Switzerland’s chocolate and postcards, besides flowers ability to offer good offices and house in profusion, were the principal gifts POWs in internment camps came from its brought by private individuals, many of commitment to neutrality and whom were Swiss. The British Colony humanitarianism. This allowed for were [sic] in full force.”68 While the level enough trust between the belligerents to of enthusiasm of the Swiss populace create a treaty that both sides could recorded by many British officials support and fulfill. Had Swiss neutrality illustrated more the international use of been violated, or the ICRC and Vatican internment in Switzerland as a form of backing not existed, the Swiss defensive morale building for their local humanitarianism platform could not have populations, the vast majority of accounts succeeded. Defensive humanitarianism captured the truly positive feelings of the functioned on an explicitly domestic level Swiss welcoming of interned soldiers. The despite being a form of national foreign initial reports on the arrival of interned policy. It required international soldiers in Switzerland came from the acceptance for its legitimacy for its governments involved and the vast implementation at the ground level. This majority contained very positive international acceptance began forming sentiments. Many accounts, especially with the first newspaper stories in from British officials, contain descriptions countries throughout Europe after of the levels of enthusiasm of the Swiss internment began. populace at the arrival of newly interned soldiers. Reports conflict as to whether Defensive humanitarianism benefited soldiers arrived on third-class cars that the Swiss, the internees, and the had been transformed into medical cars, belligerent nations through its or if officers rode in first class and international reputation. Governments enlisted men in second, but this is truly with or without interned soldiers took an minor in the grand scheme of the interest in the project due to its novel aim internment camp system.69 Almost all of alleviating the suffering of POWs reports contain accounts of the types of through the reconceptualization of gifts received by soldiers at stations and internment camps. The main successes of restaurants as they travelled through
67 As far as neutral states acting as hosts for internment treaties, the Netherlands held British 68 Ibid., 7. and German soldiers after a treaty between those 69 Grant Mountstuart, Evelyn Duff and Heron states was formed in 1917. For more information, Charles Goodhart, The Reception of Wounded see John Yarnall’s Barbed Wire Disease: British & Prisoner Soldiers of Great Britain in Switzerland German Prisoners of War, 1914-19. (London: Jas. Truscott & Son, 1916), 6.
21 Switzerland to their assigned internment government, and by providing labor location, where they also received where shortages existed from the attention and gifts from individual Swiss removal of young Swiss men for military citizens. These citizens had many reasons service. Finally, it allowed for the to celebrate their country’s humanitarian solidification of the Swiss image, project. internationally and domestically, as inextricably linked to humanitarianism.70 In addition to the protection of Swiss This process, originally started with the neutrality and international prominence internment of the Bourbaki Army for the humanitarian goals of internment, discussed in section one, continued the financial benefits to the tourism through the internment camp system sector of the Swiss economy through the during this war. The image of charitable housing of interned soldiers in hotels and Switzerland, state and populace alike, hostels likely explain the overwhelmingly increasingly began to appear in postcards positive Swiss reception of interned and political cartoons during this time soldiers. The Swiss government, with the period.71 input of NGOs and other states, created defensive humanitarianism and the internment camp system primarily to The evolution of defensive protect Swiss sovereignty by deterring humanitarianism during the years of outside attacks, but also to allow for 1914-1916 included the realization of the humanitarian ideals to shine and create last century of international law in better health outcomes for prisoners of mitigating human suffering during armed war. Both sides of the coin, defense and conflict. The formation of the Swiss humanitarianism, defined the internment internment camps took more than just camp system. the urgings of the ICRC or pope; the unique position of Switzerland as a In addition to benefiting the POWs, his neutral state capable of enacting the internment camp system united the Swiss Geneva Convention and The Hague populace behind the Swiss humanitarian Conventions created the conditions effort. The excitement of the Swiss suitable to craft the internment camp populace at their national humanitarian project drove crowds of thousands to 70 train stations to meet arriving internees. Some postcards of Switzerland during this time even show Switzerland as an island with a The Swiss citizens had good reason to lighthouse in the middle, the ray of light rejoice; the internment camp system symbolizing the Swiss’ shining of represented the best possible option for humanitarianism on the dark warfare of the the Swiss government and populace continent, see Georg Kreis, Schweizer Postkarten politically, economically, and socially. The aus dem Ersten Weltkrieg (Zürich: Hier und Jetzt, 2013). For an extensive study of Swiss agreements preserved Swiss neutrality, nationalism during this period, see: Cédric Cotter, since all areas of Switzerland housed “L’Humanitaire comme Exutoire?,” (s’)Aider pour recovering soldiers from each belligerent Survivre: Action Humanitaire et Neutralité Suisse state party to the agreement. It supported pendant la Première Guerre Mondiale (Geneva: the declining Swiss wartime economy by University of Geneva, 2016), 253-342. 71 For example of Swiss postcards from this period, bringing in payments for the housing and see: Georg Kreis, Schweizer Postkarten aus dem care of internees from their home Ersten Weltkrieg (Zürich: Hier und Jetzt, 2013).
22 system. Solidifying the practicality of continuities it shared with earlier Swiss defensive humanitarianism to the Swiss policy, the development of international populace and the international law, and the treatment of POWs illustrate community at large, the treaty the salience of these “long nineteenth negotiations of 1915-1916 marked a huge century” developments. On the other turning point in the prestige of Swiss hand, the utilization of international good offices. With the initial internees humanitarian ideology by the Swiss state beginning their journeys into Switzerland, to protect its sovereignty also signifies the next phase of defensive this small state’s own ideological humanitarianism began, in which the entrenchment vis-à-vis its belligerent Swiss government would have to make neighbors. The outbreak of the war good on the humanitarian half of its exacerbated old problems and created policy platform. new crises to which Swiss state had to respond. They chose to transform the Conclusion developments of the past 125 years into a new solution that took into account the The Swiss internment system evolved destruction of the status quo. This in response to the new challenges allowed the Swiss state to navigate this presented by WWI .The emergence of new era, while at the same time internment camps could not have continuing its dedication to humanitarian transpired without the existing causes. international legal framework of the Geneva and The Hague Conventions, as The move to incorporate international well as international humanitarian humanitarianism into its policy platform organizations such as the ICRC and the was not only a self-interested move on Swiss Red Cross. One of the main ideas the part of the Swiss government. historians have about WWI is that it Defensive humanitarianism expanded the represents a definitive rupture between understanding of internment. By what Eric Hobsbawn called the generally reevaluating the costs of total war and peaceful “long nineteenth century” of revolutionizing the care of its casualties, 1789-1914 and the chaotic, ideological the incorporation of humanitarian ideas struggles of the “short twentieth century” into the internment camp's theoretical of 1914-1991.72 However, the emergence goals and practical structure shifted the of defensive humanitarianism embodied focus of the institution from detention to developments from both eras. The long-term health. The Swiss government chose to move forward with internment not exclusively out of humanitarian ideals, 72 Hobsbawn elaborated on these two terms in but also out of financial and political several books. He wrote three books on the “long considerations. The reconfiguration of twentieth century,” including: The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789-1848 (New York: The norms around POW treatment remains an World Publishing Company, 1962), The Age of important example of how modern nation Capital: 1848-1875 (New York: Vintage Books, states may incorporate humanitarian 1975), and The Age of Empire: 1875-1914 (New ideology into their domestic and foreign York: The World Publishing Company, 1987). His policies. While these policies are book The Age of Extremes: 1914-1991 (New York: Vintage Books, 1994) covers the “short twentieth inherently self-interested, self- century. preservation and humanitarianism can be
23 pursued and advanced simultaneously. and peaceful sociocultural relations with While the defensive half of defensive the ideas and institutions of international humanitarianism employs the use of humanitarianism in the policy platform of humanitarian ideology and the the Swiss government during WWI. It is internment camp system as a Realpolitik the hope of this study that the benefits of method to ensure Swiss sovereignty and incorporating humanitarian ideas into the territorial integrity, the humanitarian policy platforms of nation states receive portion saved soldiers' lives through the more attention. goal of improving their health not only during their internment, but after internment as well.
The concept of defensive humanitarianism is useful for understanding the policy platform implemented by the Swiss state to assuage the crises of WWI. The Swiss applied their unique policy platform through international agreements and humanitarian law, which presents a unique approach that small states may use to maintain their sovereignty. This episode in history shaped not only domestic Swiss politics and society, but also influenced the histories of WWI, international diplomacy, and humanitarianism as well. Switzerland, often overlooked in the historiographies of these three larger areas due to the state’s small player status during the twentieth century. The unique strategy of the Swiss state still offers innovative, but often overlooked, methods for the treatment of foreign soldiers by captor governments today. Understanding Swiss domestic and foreign policy through the mechanism of defensive humanitarianism enables historians to understand the Swiss reaction to the myriad of issues that the state faced during WWI. This analysis adds another layer to the understanding of international diplomacy through its reevaluation of Swiss methods for internment. Historians have not recognized the unique blend of domestic needs for neutrality, a stable economy,
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