ANTARCTICA: THE READER ...... SECTION 1 3 Conserving Antarctica 4 Guidance for Visitors 5 Antarctica’s Historic Heritage SECTION 4 45 The Antarctic Treaty SECTION 2

9 Places You May Visit SECTION 5 9 Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) 49 The Physical Environment 11 South Georgia 49 The Southern Ocean 13 South Sandwich Islands 51 Antarctica 14 South Orkney Islands 53 Geology 14 Weddell Sea 54 Climate 16 South Shetland Islands 56 The Antarctic Circle 17 Antarctic Peninsula 57 Icebergs, Glaciers and Sea Ice 20 The Historic Ross Sea Sector 60 The Ozone Hole 24 New Zealand’s Subantarctic Islands 62 Global Warming

SECTION 3 SECTION 6 29 Explorers and Scientists 65 The Biological Environment 29 Terra Australis Exploration 66 Life in Antarctica 30 The Age of Sealers (1780-1892) 67 Adapting to the Cold 34 The Heroic Age & Continental Penetration 70 The Kingdom of Krill 38 Mechanical Age and Whaling Period 72 The Wildlife 41 Permanent Stations 72 Antarctic Squids 42 Pax Antarctica: The Treaty Period 73 Antarctic Fishes 74 Antarctic Birds 83 Antarctic Seals 88 Antarctic Whales

SECTION 7 97 Wildlife Checklist

TABLE OF CONTENTS HISTORIC HUT ......

The first humans to spend a winter in Antarctica erected this hut in February 1899. CONSERVING ANTARCTICA

Antarctica is the largest wilderness area on Earth, a place that we believe must be preserved in its present pristine state.

Many governments and non-governmental organizations and all the leading companies arranging expeditions to the region are working together to ensure that Antarctica’s spectacular scenery, unique wildlife and extraordinary wilderness will be protected for future generations to enjoy. These internationally agreed guidelines apply to all visitors to Antarctica, including scientists and support Our expeditions to these fragile and unique habitats staff working for governmental research programs, as are operated in an environmentally responsible well as participants on organized expeditions, and manner. Quark Expeditions and other members of the individual visitors. The essential provisions are reflected International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators in national laws, so violations may be subject to legal (IAATO) operate under a voluntary code of conduct for sanctions including fines or even imprisonment. visitors to Antarctica. The code developed by IAATO members met with widespread approval, and was the The members of the Expedition Team are familiar inspiration for the guidelines under which the Antarctic with these guidelines and will brief you about them, Treaty parties operate. and help you to adhere to them. But you, too, have a part to play. By encouraging your fellow visitors to demonstrate environmentally-conscious behavior, you will assist us to ensure that future generations will be able to experience Antarctica in its pristine beauty.

We appreciate your cooperation. SECTION 1: CONSERVING ANTARCTICA SECTION 1: CONSERVING

3 4 SECTION 1: CONSERVING ANTARCTICA in the Antarctic. national laws andregulationsapplicabletoactivities Protocol. Visitors are,ofcourse,boundby theirown therefore abletocomplywith,the Treaty andthe intended toensurethatallvisitorsareaware of, and This Guidancefor Visitors tothe is Antarctic scientific andaestheticvalues. effects onthe environment,Antarctic oronits to ensure thattheseactivitiesdonothave adverse activities inthe Antarctic Treaty area.Itisintended non-governmental activities,aswell asgovernmental The Environmental Protocol appliestotourismand ecosystems. The protocolscameintoforce in1998. environment, anditsdependentassociated for thecomprehensive protectionofthe Antarctic environmental principles,procedures,andobligations asanatural Antarctic reserve. The Protocol setsout to the Antarctic Treaty, which designatesthe adopted theProtocol onEnvironmental Protection In 1991, the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties and science. The Treaty asazone established Antarctica ofpeace referred tocollectively asthe Antarctic Treaty System. Antarctic Treaty of1959 andassociatedagreements, Activities inthe aregovernedAntarctic by the ANTARCTICTO THE GUIDANCE FOR VISITORS other areasmay besubjecttospecialrestrictions. designated HistoricSitesandMonumentscertain appropriate nationalauthority. Activities inandnear except inaccordancewithapermitissuedby an areasmay intocertain beprohibited values. Entry particular ecological,scientific,historic,orother afforded specialprotection becauseoftheir ofareasinthe A variety haveAntarctic been Respect Protected Areas issued by a nationalauthority. is prohibitedexcept inaccordancewithapermit Taking orharmfulinterference with wildlifeAntarctic Protect Antarctic Wildlife • • • • • • • • • with them. or Monuments orany artifacts associated Sites Do notdamage,remove, ordestroy Historic applicablerestrictions. Observe out inandnearthem. andactivitiesthatcanbecarried regarding entry afforded specialprotectionandany restrictions Know thelocationofareasthathave been Do notbringnon-native plantsoranimalsintothe the minimumtoavoid frighteningwildlife. Do notusegunsorexplosives. Keep noiseto or houseplants. suchAntarctic, aslive poultry, petdogsandcats, or molting. Special careisneededwhenanimalsarebreeding them toaltertheirbehavior. approach orphotographthem,inways thatcause Do notfeed, touch, orhandlebirdsseals, either atseaoronland. means oftransportinways thatdisturb wildlife, Do notuseaircraft, vessels, smallboats,orother lichen-covered screeslopes. orlandingonextensive mossbedsor driving, Do notdamageplants,for example by walking, Respect Scientific Research • Respect any smoking restrictions, particularly Do not interfere with scientific research, facilities, around buildings, and take great care to safeguard or equipment. against the danger of fire. This is a serious hazard • Obtain permission before visiting Antarctic in the dry environment of Antarctica. science and support facilities, reconfirm arrangements 24-72 hours before arrival, and ANTARCTICA’S HISTORIC HERITAGE comply with the rules regarding such visits. The oldest buildings in Antarctica are the two huts of • Do not interfere with, or remove, scientific the Borchgrevink expedition of 1899. The other huts equipment or marker posts, and do not disturb of the Heroic Age date from the period 1901-1914. experimental study sites, field camps, or supplies. They are designated Historic Monuments, and strict rules apply to visiting them. The huts at Cape Adare, Be Safe Hut Point, Cape Evans, and Cape Royds can only be Be prepared for severe and changeable weather visited with a designated guide, normally provided and ensure that your equipment and clothing meet by the Antarctic Heritage Trust or the New Zealand Antarctic standards. Remember that the Antarctic Department of Conservation. Conservation and environment is inhospitable, unpredictable, and restoration work at the sites is undertaken by the potentially dangerous. Antarctic Heritage Trust, a private charitable • Know your capabilities, and the dangers posed organization. To contribute to the cost of maintaining by the Antarctic environment, and act accordingly. these important sites you are welcome to Plan activities with safety in mind at all times. communicate with: • Keep a safe distance from all wildlife, both on land and at sea. The Administrator • Take note of, and act on, the advice and New Zealand Antarctic Heritage Trust instructions from your leaders; do not stray from P.O. Box 14-091 your group. Christchurch Airport, New Zealand • Do not walk onto glaciers or large snow fields Tel: +64-(0)3-358-0200; Fax: +64-3-(0)358-0211 without the proper equipment and experience; there is a real danger of falling into hidden Visitors to the Cape Denison Historic Site (Mawson’s crevasses. Huts) must follow official Visitor Guidelines. None of • Do not expect a rescue service. Self-sufficiency is the huts may be entered without local guidance. For increased and risks reduced by sound planning, further information, contact: quality equipment, and trained personnel. • Do not enter emergency refuges (except in The Australian Antarctic Division emergencies). If you use equipment or food from Channel Highway a refuge, inform the nearest research station or Kingston, Tasmania 7054, Australia national authority once the emergency is over. Tel: +61 (0)02-323-280; Fax: +61-(0)02-323-288 SECTION 1: CONSERVING ANTARCTICA SECTION 1: CONSERVING

5 6 SECTION 1: CONSERVING ANTARCTICA “The continent has become a symbol of ourtime.“The continenthasbecomeasymbolof The test man’s of willingnesstopullbackfrom the The United Kingdom (UK) Antarctic Heritage Trust Heritage Antarctic (UK) Kingdom United The to make contributions,contact: in the PeninsulaAntarctic region.For information or atleasttwo earlyBritishscientificstations preserving Trust theScott topreserve andShackleton huts,and include helpingtheNew Zealand Heritage Antarctic Kingdom Heritage Antarctic Trust. Itsmainobjectives –theUnited trust inBritain hasbeenestablished relevant nationalgovernments. However, acharitable interest. They ofthe arenormallytheresponsibility Nevertheless, they may alsobeofgreathistorical other partsof aremorerecentinorigin. Antarctica Abandoned huts,refuges,andsupplydepotsin If hecannotsucceedinAntarctica hehaslittlechance successelsewhere.” of If -EdwinMickleburgh globally. isthetest theAntarctic destruction hiswillingnesstoavert wilderness of alsoof destruction Kingcoed Farm, USK Farm, Kingcoed Gwent, NP15 1DS, UK 1DS, NP15 Gwent, Tel: +44 (0) 1291 690305 1291 (0) +44 Tel: Please keep itthatway. subjected tolargescalehumanperturbations. wilderness areaonEarth.Ithasnotyet been remainsrelativelyAntarctica pristine,thelargest KEEP ANTARCTICA PRISTINE • • • • • emergency refuges. occupied, abandoned,orunoccupied; Do notdeface orvandalize buildings,whether fossils, andpartsorcontentsofbuildings. as souvenirs, includingrocks, bones,eggs, geological specimensorman-madeartifacts Do notcollectortakeaway biologicalor rocks orbuildings. Do notpaintorengrave namesorgraffiti on disposed ofproperly. Any materialsdiscardedatseamustbe Do notdisturb orpollutelakes orstreams. Open burningisprohibited. Do notdisposeoflitter orgarbageonland. preserve thehistoricremains ofwhalers,sealersandexplorers. preserve United KingdomandNew Zealand Heritage Antarctic Trust to Opposite Page: Quark Expeditionssupportstheefforts ofthe 7 SECTION 1: CONSERVING ANTARCTICA ANTARCTIC PENINSULA ......

A King Penguin rookery, South Georgia MAY VISIT PLACES YOU “If Antarctica were“If musicitwould beMozart. Art, anditwouldbeMichelangelo. other’s presence. British northeFrench were atfirstaware ofeach Saunders Islandinthenorth-west. Neitherthe theirownestablish settlement atPort Egmonton British expedition cametoclaimtheislandsand Louis inEastFalkland. Soonafterwards, in1765, a de Bougainville asmallcolony established atPort archipelago settled. Inthatyear theFrench explorer First Lord ofthe Admiralty. Notuntil1764 was the dubbed themFalklands LandinhonorofEngland’s name in1708, whenthepirate Woodes Rogers The islandsreceived anearlyversion oftheirpresent French, withwhomEnglandwas atwar atthetime. was actually engagedonapiratecruise againstthe the Englishsloop discovered in August 1592 by John Davis, of captain This BritishoutpostintheSouth Atlantic was first (ISLAS MALVINAS) THE FALKLAND ISLANDS arrived aboardanother Englishsloop, landing was notmadeuntil1690, whenJohn Strong course by thewesterly winds.Butthefirstknown place on earth thatisstillasit shouldbe.place onearth Maywenever tame it.” Denton -Andrew Literature, anditwouldbeShakespeare. yet itissomethingeven And greater; theonly Desire , whohadbeenblown off Welfare . Strong whalers, many fromtheUS. In1832, theUSwarship about 20years theFalklands were abasefor sealersand from South America livingtherefor shortperiods.For 70 years, withSpanish,British,andthensomeSpanish The islandschanged handsseveral timesinthefollowing name usedby Argentina LasIslasMalvinas. sailors came. This nameisechoed inthepresent-day after theportofSt.Malo,fromwheremost The French namedtheislandsIlesMalouines, Lexington inhabitants wasinhabitants restored. and thesovereignty desiredby overwhelmingly the poorly trainedandill-equipped conscripts)surrendered later some12,000 Argentine soldiers(many ofthem was soononitsway fromtheUKand eleven weeks forces invaded andoccupied theislands. forceA task happened on April 2,1982, when Argentine armed Colonies. The next majorevent ofhistorical significance Stanley in1845, after Britain’s for ofState the Secretary governor was installed. The new was capital named settlement by theBritishdates from1833, whena vessels. The Falkland Islands(IslasMalvinas)permanent sealing response totheseizureofthreeUnitedStates sacked asmall Argentine settlement in

9 SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT 10 SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT from off shoreoil. largerevenuesalso thefuture ofvery possibility and Asia, somewith Argentine registry. There is waters. Mostof the fishingboatscomefromEurope stockssubstantial ofsquidandfishinthesurrounding source ofincomecomesfromlicensestoexploit the wool pricesontheworld market, theFalklands main economy. Today, however, withtheprevailing low mainly for wool cametodominatetheFalklands the islanderswithalivelihood. Then sheepfarming andpenguinoilindustrieshavewhaling, provided Over theyears,aswell shiprepairing, asthesealing, is more advisory thanexecutive.is moreadvisory butinpracticehis roleindomesticaffairsof state, Colony, andsotheGovernor istheeffective head Legislative Council. The Falklands area British of government, which isconductedby anelected sells colorfulfirst-day covers. Stanley istheseat museum, andawell-stocked philatelic bureauthat locally madewoolen goods,asmallbutexcellent stores sellingitemsoftouristinterest,including (which several recentlycelebrateditscentenary), southernmost Anglican cathedral intheworld distinctly old-world Victorian charm. Itboaststhe Stanley.capital, This pleasant,quiettown hasa ofthepeoplelivetoday inornearthe some2,000 The and populationoftheFalklands isabout3,000, Stanley as gorse, forshelter. have beenintroduced no native trees, andbushes, butsometrees such moorland, shrubs. withlow-growing There are FalklandThe typical isrolling countryside the coast. It provides an important habitat forthe coast.Itprovides habitat many an important sturdy plantthatgrows inclumps, generallynear tussock grass. This (2.5metersor8feet), isatall plantspeciesisthenativeinteresting andimportant flowers themselves aresmall.Oneofthemost offloweringvariety plants,thoughmany ofthe been introducedfor shelter. There isasurprising but sometreesandbushes,such asgorse,have with low-growing shrubs. There arenonative trees, isrollingmoorland, The Falkland typical countryside But itcanbequitewindyatalltimesoftheyear. The rainfall isnotexcessive, andthereislittle snow. and July, theaverage may (45°F). beabout7°C reaching Inmid-winter, (70°F). 20°C aroundJune averaging about10°C thoughsometimes (50°F), is coolbutpleasant,withsummertemperatures size of ofConnecticut. American state The climate 255 by 135 kilometers(160 by 85miles),aboutthe squaremiles),occupying about kilometers (4,700 America. The landareaisroughly12,000 square of Tierra delFuego, thenearestpointinSouth The kmnortheast islandsarelocatedsome400 to somecommercialenterprisesinStanley. individuals. FIC’s holdingsarenow mainlyconfined either by theFalklands government orby private But today virtually allofthelandisowned locally, Hudson’s Bay Company ortheEastIndiaCompany. Falkland Islands Company (FIC),similartotheold most ofthelandwas owned by theLondon-based rest, onlyabout20areofany size. At onetime, West Falkland occupy mostofthelandarea.Of in thearchipelago. The two largeislandsEastand Spanish campo,orfield. There aresome420islands is referred toascamp,aword derived fromthe In Falkland’s parlance,anywhere outsideStanley Camp South Georgia was once more ice-bound then than it is today, and Cook described it and the South Sandwich Islands as “Lands doomed by Nature to perpetual frigidness: never to feel the warmth of the sun’s rays; whose horrible and savage aspects I have not words to describe.”

birds, and shelter for some seals, but has been countryside as they would at home, such as by much reduced by grazing sheep. leaving no litter and closing all gates behind them. In particular, it is important to guard against the risk of Birds and Marine Mammals fire in areas of tussock grass, which are often very The Falklands are of great interest for birdwatchers. dry in the summer. Some landowners request that There are 63 breeding species and 23 annual visitors do not smoke on shore, when out of doors. migrants, plus a long list of others that occasionally arrive. Thanks to the rich surrounding seas, the SOUTH GEORGIA Falklands boast no less than six breeding species A slightly crescent-shaped, mountainous island of penguins: King, Gentoo, Rockhopper, Macaroni, some 1,300 kilometers (800 miles) east-south-east Royal, and Magellanic. And another five species of the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas), South have been recorded as migrants. The Black-browed Georgia was first sighted in 1675. Captain James Albatross breeds here in often very large colonies, Cook, who went ashore to claim sovereignty in and another six species have been seen offshore. 1775, was the first person to land at South Georgia. The land birds cover most groups, and include birds He named the place where he landed Possession of prey, ducks, geese, herons, owls, finches, and Bay. South Georgia was once more ice-bound then thrushes, and a fair number of sea and shore birds. than it is today, and Cook described it and the South Sandwich Islands as “Lands doomed by There are no native land mammals, but plenty of Nature to perpetual frigidness: never to feel the marine mammals, many of them the same as warmth of the sun’s rays; whose horrible and those that frequent Antarctic waters. Among the savage aspects I have not words to describe.” dolphins found in the Falklands look for Peale’s dolphin, a relatively large, coastal species that is Britain formalized her claim to South Georgia and regularly seen in small groups. There are two eared the South Sandwich Islands in 1908. Today, the seals in the Falklands: the Falklands fur seal (a islands together form a single UK Dependent different species from the one in Antarctica), and Territory; the British government’s representative is the southern sea lion. the Commissioner, who is normally the Governor of the Falkland Islands, ex officio. Visitors should avoid disturbing the wildlife, and keep a sensible distance from breeding birds and South Georgia measures about 160 kilometers from seals and sea lions. Since all the land is owned (100 miles) long and 30 kilometers (19 miles) wide, by somebody, visitors should also respect the and covers an area of 3,755 square kilometers SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT MAY YOU SECTION 2: PLACES

11 12 SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT 1910 to1965. industry, undergovernment control,worked from seal, for itsvaluable oil. A modernelephant-sealing the onlyspeciestakenwas thesouthernelephant then, fursealnumberswere soreducedthatlatterly 1786, andcontinueduntil1912. Butlongbefore Ocean. wasThe well sealingindustry underway by Cook’s reportsofabundantfursealsintheSouthern But firstcamethesealers,asadirectresultof the early1900s. were in is wherethewhalingstations established Several ofthefjordsoffer safe anchorages, andthis andthusrelativelycentral mountains morebenign. northern coast,by contrast,isintheleeof inhospitable. There arenosafe harbors. The winds andtendstobecold,stormy, andgenerally The southcoast faces theprevailing westerly which comedown tothesea. (9,626 feet). There areabout160 glaciers,many of The highestpoint isMountPaget, at2,934meters feet). risingabovemountains meters(6,000 1,800 (1,450 squaremiles).Itisice-capped,with12 seem tobeamajor partofhisbrief). however,were (conservation, observed didnot that thetermsofwhalers’ leasesandlicenses was tocontrolthewhalingindustry, by ensuring operators, mechanics, cooks, etc.Hismainduty customs officers, sealinginspectors,radio Hisstaffmagistrate basedatGrytviken. included afterwards,soon in1909, intheform ofaBritish later for otherproductsaswell. The law came processing theanimals,mainlyfor theiroilbut for anumberofshore-basedstations established The whalerscametoSouthGeorgiain1904 and Norwegian Whalers north-western tipofSouthGeorgia. arebasedatBirdIsland,the Survey Antarctic A smallnumberofscientists fromtheBritish with fishingvessels andvisitingpassenger ships. is alsoaMarineOfficer/Harbor Masterwhodeals officer performs somepostmasterduties. There commander actsasmagistrate,whilethemedical garrison. was upgradedtoasmallmilitary The Malvinas]), theBritishpresenceatGrytviken main actionbeingintheFalkland Islands[Islas conflict(the Following theBritish-Argentine evicted by theBritish. for threeweeks in April 1982, before they were Sandwich Islandsin1925, occupiedSouthGeorgia its own claimtoSouthGeorgiaandthe personnel. Meanwhile, Argentina, which hadmade so itwas replacedby British Survey Antarctic administration hadnothingtoadministerbutitself, the14-strong theendofwhaling, With Grytviken fished out. for thesimplereasonthatwhaleshadbeen same periodwas 1,500,000. Whaling endedin1965 forIn the regionasawhole,thetotal the Antarctic 175,000 whaleswere caughtaroundSouthGeorgia. estimated thatbetween 1904 and1965, of atotal seven inoperationontheisland.Itis stations In theheyday ofwhalinginthe 1920s therewere the whalersleft much tobedesired.” remarked, atriflesadly, that “religious life among the whalerswere virtually allfromthatcountry. He periods. The since firstpastorwas aNorwegian, recently restored.Several for priestsserved various opening ofachurch in1913, atGrytviken was Religion arrived notlongafter thelaw, withthe A 200-mile maritime zone was established around SOUTH SANDWICH ISLANDS South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands in The South Sandwich Islands were discovered by 1993, and the fisheries regime takes account of Captain Cook in 1775, on the same voyage that tight limits agreed by the Commission for the he landed on South Georgia. He named them for Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources Lord Sandwich, First Lord of the Admiralty (but (CCAMLR). better remembered as the inventor of a familiar snack). Together with South Georgia, they are a Visitor Sites UK Dependent Territory (see above), and are Visitors to South Georgia normally spend time uninhabited. Although Cook sighted a number of exploring the remains of the former whaling station. the islands, several were surveyed by the Russian There is much to see, including the restored church Captain Bellingshausen and bear Russian names. and the former manager’s house, which now houses an excellent whaling museum. There are Located about 800 km (460 miles) south-east of also many elephant seals in the area, and a highlight South Georgia, the islands form a chain some 350 is the small cemetery where Sir Ernest Shackleton kilometers (220 miles) long, comprising 11 large and is buried. His name will always be associated with several smaller islands with a total area of about South Georgia following his exploits in 1914 and 600 square kilometers (230 square miles). Most are 1916. After World War I, Shackleton set out on ice-capped, and the tallest peak, on Montagu Island, another expedition to Antarctica. His vessel, Quest, reaches 1,370 meters (4,500 feet). The climate is reached South Georgia on January 4, 1922. He died cold, with frequent snow and strong winds. of a heart attack the next day and was buried in the Grytviken cemetery, according to his widow’s wishes. The islands are volcanic in origin and some remain Elsewhere, most ships visit the Bay of Isles, where active. The island of Zavodovski, for instance, there is a massive King Penguin colony on the shore appears in constant eruption and reeks of rotten and hillside of Salisbury Plain. Nearby is Prion Island eggs (the volcano itself is named Mt. Asphyxia), and several small islets where Wandering while the islands of Visokoi, Candlemas, Saunders, Albatrosses and Giant Petrels nest. and Bellingshausen all show definite signs of activity. Bristol, Cook, and Thule islands are heavily Many South Georgia beaches are now densely glaciated and show no signs of warmth or activity. populated by fur seals, to the extent that it is All the islands are steep-sided above the water, and unsafe to land. However, Zodiac cruises along such fall away rapidly into deep water (more than 1,500 beaches can be very rewarding. The Norwegians meters or 5,000 feet). introduced reindeer, for sport and meat, before World War I. They have multiplied considerably, The area of shallow sea around each island is small and can sometimes be seen in the hills around and there are almost no anchorages. In fact, only Stromness Bay and St. Andrew’s Bay. Thule Island has an anchorage and is therefore the only likely site for any kind of habitation. It was on SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT MAY YOU SECTION 2: PLACES

13 14 SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT speak ofitwithawe. Those whohave seenthismassive penguincolony Chinstrap Penguins onitssteepvolcanic slopes. Zavodoski Islandsupportsahugenumberof there’s wildlife atleastoneextraordinary spectacle: 1960s and1990s. Vegetation sparse.But isvery biological andgeologicalwork there,mainlyinthe some the British hasundertaken Survey Antarctic Georgia. Little isknown abouttheseislands,although forces, owing toitsuseintheinvasion ofSouth 1982 was andtheirstation destroyed by British in1976.scientific station They finallywithdrew in this islandthat amilitary/ Argentina established 1903.station Itistheoldest continuouslyoperating at thesiteofaformer Scottish in baseestablished Argentine weather Orcadas,onLaurieIsland station, islands have two scientificstations. the There isan Despite theseunwelcoming weather conditions, per year. There isalsomuch fog. the average amountofsunshineisjust520hours cloudyregion; maritime islands,thisisalsoavery each year. Like the PeninsulaAntarctic andother frequent rainandsnow. Snow falls about280days The climateisratherharsh,withstrongwinds, oftheSouthernOcean. freeze-up surrounded by iceduring theannualwinter of theirpositionnorththe Weddell Sea,are The islandsareheavily glaciated,andbecause described theSouthShetlandIslandsingreatdetail. in 1821 by thesealer, GeorgePowell, whoalso Peninsula, theSouthOrkneys were firstdescribed ofthe Antarctic kilometers (850miles)north-east A groupofratherbarren, uninhabitedislands1,360 ORKNEY ISLANDS SOUTH at thebottom years old. isabout4,500 these isover two meters(6.6feet), andthepeat is famous for itspeatmossbanks. The deepestof grass which areexposed insummer. Signy Island Orkneys aretheextensive areasofmossand scientists, oneofthemainattractions oftheSouth and ahostofotherseabirdsalsobreedhere.For Petrel. There aresomelargepenguinrookeries, the beautiful,butratherelusive purewhiteSnow breedingsiteforCoronation Islandisanimportant The birdlife oftheSouthOrkneys isplentiful,and Rothera Station. its biologyprogramwas recentlytransferred to center for studies of marinelife.Antarctic Much of carried outontheseabirdpopulationsanditwas a terrestrial andfreshwater biology. Research isalso BAS scientistsconductedlong-termstudies of withaccommodationsforstation 24people.Here, 1947, itwas untilrecentlyoperatedasayear-round research a onSigny in station Island.Established in Antarctica. The British operates Survey Antarctic difficulty getting aroundinthe Weddell. iceberg factory. Even icebreakers often have Ronne, andFilchner IceShelves. Itisakind of and alsolargeicebergsgenerated by the Larsen, difficult becauseofthegreatamountseaice Navigation inthe Weddell Sea is normallyquite he succeededinsailingasfar southas74°15’S. Meeting unusuallyfavorable pack iceconditions, sealer andexplorer James Weddell in1822. the Weddell Seawas firstvisitedby theBritish between the PeninsulaAntarctic andCoats land, inthe continent A deepindentation Antarctic WEDDELL SEA These Emperor colonies are not easy to reach because of ice conditions, and are usually visited

Wrote Shackleton: “It was a sickening sensation using ship-based helicopters. Occasional Emperors can be seen on the ice floes of the Weddell Sea, to feel the decks breaking up under one’s feet, the which also supports many seals – including the one great beams bending and then snapping with a named after James Weddell. And there are always noise like gunfire.” plenty of seabirds to look out for.

From the Expedition Leader’s Diary — Locating the Snow Hill Island Rookery: Historically, Shackleton But a visit can be very rewarding, not least for its and Nordenskjöld had reported Emperors in the area of the western Weddell Sea. As expedition ship historical associations. It played a part in the saga operators into the Weddell Sea, we were always on of the Swedish Nordenskjöld expedition. The main the look out for new colonies. In the year 2000 I expedition hut was built on Snow Hill Island, and read the reports of scientists on a flight over Snow still stands. On the shores one can find a large Hill Island who had discovered an Emperor Penguin rookery to the south. They had circled the colony number of fossil reminders of a more temperate and did an aerial survey and published the era; gastropods, large clams, and spiral-shaped coordinates. I longed for the day we would have ammonites, all turned to stone. the icebreaker with helicopters in the right area at the right time of year to see if we could be the first The area is also central to the Shackleton story, for people to visit this colony on the ice. it was here in 1915 that the men had to abandon In the boreal summer of 2004 I was Expedition their ship, Endurance, after it became trapped in the Leader on an icebreaker in the Arctic. I gave the ice. Wrote Shackleton: “It was a sickening sensation coordinates of the Snow Hill Rookery to the to feel the decks breaking up under one’s feet, the Captain, who would be with me in the Antarctic. I explained that no one had visited the rookery on great beams bending and then snapping with a foot so no accurate penguin count had been done. noise like gunfire.” This Captain had been sailing in the Antarctic for years and knew how important the discovery was! Today, one of the main reasons to visit the Weddell In November when I boarded the ship again as Expedition Leader, he was ready for my request, Sea, apart from ice-watching, is in the hope of “Captain, our number one priority is to find that seeing the most famous of Antarctic birds, the Snow Hill Colony.” Emperor Penguin. Previously known mostly from the area around the Ross Sea, these big birds start While we crossed the Drake Passage – we to breed during the winter months on fast ice near informed the guests of our destination. A voyage to the Peninsula does not usually include a visit the continent, and in 1986 several colonies were to an Emperor colony, so this – we hoped – would discovered on the eastern side of the Weddell Sea. be a voyage to go down in the history books. The One is at the Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf at 72°09’S, passengers were thrilled! 15°07’W, while another is not far away at Atka Bay, near the German station Neumayer. SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT MAY YOU SECTION 2: PLACES

15 16 SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT with theMonarchs ofthe Antarctic. operation which gave everyoneachance towalk to theshipforabriefing, thenbegan on the8-hour cracks aroundicebergs. We calledeveryoneback passing by, while Weddell Seals loungedneartide the seaice. A fewcuriousEmperorPenguins were gangway, werewalking outon andthepassengers party returnedtotheship,Captainhadlowered it!Bythetimereconnaissance could make great weather, alonghelicopterflight—butwe We calledback totheshipandsaid–itwas ago— 2 milesoff theirpreviousposition! they wereinthearea. And theretheywere– location makinganeverexpandingcircletoseeif backs orshadows. We flewback andforth over the approach attherightangletosunseetheir against the whiteice.Buttheydonot. You must think theblack-backed penguinswould standout Emperor coloniesarenoteasytofind. You would Hill Islandanddowntotheseaiceonfarside. sent off. We flewoutover thefastice,over Snow the placetogarage theship,ascouthelicopterwas announcement was made! for As Captainlooked prepped andreadytoflyassoonthe coordinates ofthecolony. were The helicopters of thefasticewas approximately 25milesfromthe we approached SnowHill. The locationoftheedge miles. We wereequallydelightedtoseefasticeas 30 were delightedtoseeopenwater forthefirst As weenteredthe Weddell Sea, CaptainandI off coursewhilerounding CapeHorn.Hereturned February 1819 by Smith,whowasWilliam blown Strait. The SouthShetlandswere firstsightedin of the180-kilometer wide(100 miles)Bransfield separated fromthepeninsula by thedeep waters roughly paralleltothe Peninsula.Antarctic They are north-east south-west direction,lyingnorthofand kilometers(280miles)ina extend about500 The 20orsoislandsoftheSouthShetlandgroup SHETLAND ISLANDS SOUTH loss oftheirship, providing abasefor Shackleton’s menafter the forabundance ofelephantsealsandisnotable Island. Elephantwas namedbecauseofits are ElephantIslandanditsneighbor, Clarence Islands, andsomewhat separatedfromtherest, At thenorth-eastendofSouthShetland volcanoes, such asDeceptionandPenguin Islands. origin, andincludesomeactive andrecentlyactive work in1820. The SouthShetlandsareofcontinental outmappingandsurvey was senttheretocarry asNewBritain SouthShetland.Edward Bransfield in Octoberofthesameyear toclaimthemfor souvenir shop, alongwithaschool andahospital. andboasts abank,postoffice,is substantial, and adjacent Bellingshausen (Russia). station The former the large Teniente (Chile)andthe Marshstation onKingGeorgeIslandis Among theeightstations ofSouth number ofstations American nations. of theirclaim. This accountsparticularlyfor the preferred themselves toestablish withinthesector may have beenconsideringclaimsto Antarctica conditions. Inaddition,thosenationswhich hador American mainlandandtheirrelatively mildclimatic were popularbecauseoftheirproximity totheSouth Shetlands, andespeciallylargeKingGeorgeIsland, International withthe mushroomed inthearea,starting thathaveis thelargenumberofscientificstations One ofthefeatures ofthe SouthShetlandstoday Cape Lookout, andpenguinsofseveral species. elephant andfursealsonthebeaches around presence remains. Visitors canseeanumberof for SouthGeorgiatoseekhelp.Nosignoftheir company remainedherewhileShackleton setoff Geophysical Year in1957-58. The South Endurance . Mostoftheship’s Nearby is a Chilean Air Force base and a small Summer stations operated by Argentina and Spain hotel. The Russian station is hardly used now, due are located within the volcanic caldera of Port Foster. to economic difficulties. Also in the vicinity are Chinese, South Korean, Argentine, and Uruguayan ANTARCTIC PENINSULA stations. This is not the wildest or most attractive At the northeast tip of the Peninsula is the part of Antarctica. In Admiralty Bay are the Ferraz enchantingly beautiful Hope Bay, which is approached (Brazil) and Arctowski (Poland) stations, which offer along the Antarctic Sound, where many impressively more rewarding possibilities for visits. The United large tabular bergs can be seen. Hope Bay was the States operates the Pieter J. Lenie summer station site of a British station (Base D), first occupied in the at a site called Copacabana near Arctowski. 1940s and closed in 1964. The adjacent Argentine station Esperanza was established in 1952. It is a Several sites in the South Shetlands have been large station manned by Argentine military personnel declared specially protected areas, and are thus and their families. Here, in 1978, Emilio de Palma effectively off limits for tourist visits. However, there was the first child to be born in Antarctica. Adjacent is still much to see. The Chinstrap Penguin colony at to the station, and perhaps of more interest to Half Moon Island (which also has a small Argentine visitors, is a vast Adélie Penguin colony. In the summer station) and the extensive Gentoo Penguin background is Mt. Flora where many fossil plants colony at Yankee Harbor on Greenwich Island are have been found; this is now a protected area. popular. Hannah Point on Livingston Island has a wealth of wildlife, including many elephant seals, Not far away, and just outside the Antarctic Sound in penguins of several species, and nesting Giant Petrels. the northern Weddell Sea is Paulet Island, a small volcanic island with a central cone rising to 400 meters Both the volcanic islands already mentioned are (1,300 feet). Enormous numbers of Adélie Penguins well worth visiting. Penguin Island offers Adélie breed on its rocky slopes, and there is a big colony of and Chinstrap Penguin rookeries and abundant Antarctic Blue-eyed Shags as well as the nest sites of petrels, as well as a hike up the volcanic cone for Wilson’s Storm-petrels. It is of historical interest, too, a spectacular view. At Deception Island, there is a as an over-wintering site for some members of the very large Chinstrap Penguin colony at Baily Head, Nordenskjöld Expedition. Their hut is still standing on the outside of the island. This is a wonderful (there is another one near the jetty at Hope Bay). place, though sometimes difficult to land at in certain weather conditions. Entering the vast collapsed Traveling south down the Peninsula, humpback caldera through Neptunes Bellows, one sees the whales can often be seen in the southern Gerlache remains of a large whaling station in Whalers Bay, Strait, and indeed south of here there is always a and also the remains of Chilean and British stations good chance of seeing these and other whales, such which were destroyed during eruptions in 1969. At as Minkes and orcas. There are a number of potentially Pendulum Cove, it is sometimes possible to swim rewarding visitor sites in this area. Cuverville Island, in thermally heated waters near the black lava beach. named after a French admiral by Adrian de Gerlache, Many visitors enjoy this unusual experience. SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT MAY YOU SECTION 2: PLACES

17 18 SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT leader ofthe rookery with a small contingent of Blue-eyed withasmallcontingentof rookery Shags the sitesportsalargeandbusy GentooPenguin ceased operations.Surrounded by highmountains, until1964,continued inaciviliancapacity whenit winter.Antarctic After World War II, thestation would bestayingthereduringthedarknessof well-known Paris night club,becauseteammembers named Operation Tabarin, after theBal Tabarin, a shipping movements. This expedition was code- secret wartime initiative tomonitorGerman by theBritishGovernment in1944, as partofa Channel). Port Lockroy was asBase established A (usually approached viathemagnificentNeumayer which istheshelteredanchorage ofPort Lockroy Not far lies distant Wiencke Island,atthefoot of too, enjoys anawesomely beautifullocation. for shelter(itsremainscanstillbeseen). This site, over-winter herein1921, usingaship’s waterboat Point, after two Britishscientistswhochose to in attendance. The siteisknown as Waterboat unusually largenumberofscavenging sheathbills of abustlingcolony ofGentooPenguins, withan Videla, belongingtoChile. This issetinthemidst GabrielGonzalez is thesiteofanotherstation, far away ontheDancoCoastat Waterboat Point bear theideaofspendingwinterthere).Not down in1984 by doctor(whocouldnot thestation Almirante Brown which station, was partlyburnt call itParadise Harbor),thereisthe Argentine Farther south, inaptlynamedParadise Bay (some nesting Wilson’sStorm-petrels. well asbreedingsouth polarandbrown skuas,and It supportsacompactcolony ofGentooPenguins as dominated by alarge,lichen-covered rocky outcrop. Belgica expedition, isasmallisland In 1989, the Argentine supplyvessel more pronetobeingcovered insnow. Torgersen, which isprobablybecauseLitchfield is have declinedcomparedwiththoseatheavily-visited it appearsthatthenumberofpenguinsatLitchfield are alsoseen.Siteofalongtermecologicalstudy, Torgersen Island,wherecrabeaterandleopardseals be visited,butvisitorsarewelcome toexplore Penguins. Litchfield Islandisprotected,andcannot Two islandsnearPalmer areinhabitedby Adélie ecosystem, aswell asotherresearch projects. for studies ofbirds,seals,andthemarine about 10 stayingfor thewinter. Itiswell situated Palmer supportsupto40people insummer, with worked attheSouthShetlandIslandsin1820. after NathanielB. Palmer, aConnecticutsealerwho Palmer was in1965 Station established andnamed is at Arthur Harborontheshoreof Anvers Island. The inthispartofthe onlyUSstation Antarctic by whalers. bones ontheshore,testifyingtoitsuseinpast seen here,andthereareafair numberofwhale shore. Weddell the seals are near often nest that the area,andifitisnotblocked by ice,itis a the placemostoften citedasthemost beautifulin mainland ofthe Peninsula.Antarctic The Lemaire is deep, narrow cleft between Booth Island andthe Sailing south,onereaches theLemaire Channel,a environmental damage. resulted inseriouslong-term most ofitwas lightgradeandfortunately hasnot 1000 cubicmetersoffueloilandgasolineescaped, and passengershadtobeevacuated. Although about ran agroundclosetoPalmer andthecrew Station, Bahia Paraiso Bahia memorable experience to sail between the channel’s established during Admiral Richard E. Byrd’s third sheer cliffs. Seals are often seen on ice floes here, expedition, the US Antarctic Service Expedition of and Minke whales may be encountered. 1939-41 (West Base, or Little America III, was on the Ross Ice Shelf). South of the Lemaire there are several islands with penguin colonies, such as Pleneau, Hovgaard, and The base was reoccupied after World War II by the Petermann. Elephant seals, especially young males, Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition of 1947-48. often haul out onto the flat rocks to enjoy communal Finn Ronne (who had also been a member of the wallows in the summer sunshine. Charcot first earlier expedition) gathered a crew of volunteers overwintered in Antarctica at Booth Island in 1904 and experienced pilots, borrowed a ship and three and next at Circumcision Bay on Petermann Island, planes from the US Army, and raised over $50,000 site of the southernmost colony of Gentoo Penguins. to finance the last of the privately funded, major exploration efforts in Antarctica. One of its Just to the south are the Argentine Islands, a small achievements was to cross the Antarctic Peninsula archipelago of igneous rocks, most with permanent to reach the Weddell Sea. The team included the snow cover. The British have had a presence here first two women to winter in Antarctica: Ronne’s since 1934, when a geological party under John wife Edith, and Jennie Darlington, the wife of Harry Rymill wintered, and Faraday station was established Darlington III, the expedition’s chief pilot. A few on Galindez Island in 1947. This former British hundred meters away is the abandoned British Antarctic Survey station is the oldest operational Base E, which operated from 1945-75. station in the Antarctic Peninsula area. The British transferred the station to the Ukraine in 1995-96 In 1989, the Antarctic Treaty declared East Base and it is now known as Vernadsky. a Historic Monument, and representatives of the US National Parks Service and National Science Just south of the Antarctic Circle, Adelaide Island Foundation, plus two BAS team members, went is the site of the British Rothera Station. Scientific there in 1992 to effect a clean-up and remove studies here concentrate on geophysical and hazardous wastes. Visitors can still see many atmospheric physics with the aid of a satellite fascinating artifacts around the camp, including a receiving system called ARIES Antarctic Reception World War I vintage army tank and tractor, a spare of Imagery of Environmental Sciences. A 915 meter aircraft engine still in its packing crate, canned (3,000 feet) airstrip of crushed rock that can take goods, piles of coal, and bales of hay. Unfortunately, aircraft as big as a Lockheed C130 transport. It is despite its interest, Stonington is quite far south, something of a communications hub for this sector and the approach is often blocked by ice, a difficult of Antarctica. place to reach by ship.

Stonington Island in Marguerite Bay has an interesting history. It was the site of East Base, SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT MAY YOU SECTION 2: PLACES

19 20 SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT we hadbefore seenorcouldhave conceived.” grandeur andmagnificencefar beyond anything feelings ofindescribabledelightuponascene Ross IceShelf. Wrote Ross: “We gazed with across theirpathsouth. This isnow known asthe feet)(200 highstretching for hundredsofmiles completely new: alevel barrier ofice60meters thousands ofwhalesandpenguins,something active,one ofthemspectacularly hundredsand range ofsnow-covered peaks,two hugevolcanoes called theRoss Sea. They found alongthecoasta south ofNew Zealandintotheopenwaters now 1839-43 withtwo ships,HMS James ClarkRoss duringhisremarkablevoyage of The Ross Seawas discovered by(laterSir) Captain extreme beauty. tellsthisstory.Antarctica Itisalsoaregionof exploration. The chapter ontheExplorationof famous expeditions oftheheroicage Antarctic areaforinterest, thestaging someofthemost This historic partof isofextraordinary Antarctica THE HISTORIC ROSS SEASECTOR calve off thefront. (over halfamile)each year. Hugeicebergsregularly the south.Itmoves outward ataboutonekilometer the northtomorethan1000 feet) meters(3,300 in in thickness feet) meters(1,300 fromabout400 in approximately thesize ofFrance. The iceincreases straddling longitude 180°, theRoss IceShelfis bay orinletinthecoastofcontinent,and Virtually beagigantic fillingwhatwould otherwise Ross Ice Shelf Terror . They succeededinpenetratingthepack ice Erebus and HMS Evans). The largememorial cross toScott andhis Scott’s secondexpedition (which was basedatCape still, itwas usedin1911-13 by sledgingpartiesduring expedition (which was basedatCapeRoyds). Later for sledgingoperationsduringShackleton’s 1907-09 Four years lateritwas usedasanadvance base Royal Terror Theatre. here, andonsuch occasionsthehutbecame Expedition memberssometimesperformed plays mainly usedasastoreroomandlaboratory. Station andNewStation Zealand’s Scott Base. It isnow thesiteofmassive USMcMurdo expeditions, andplayed asignificantroleinfourth. Island was pointfor thestarting threemajor flights were notoperated tothecontinent.Ross many years following thisaccident,sightseeing Mount Erebus,killingall257peopleonboard.For out conditions,tragicallycrashedintothesideof November 1979, aNew Zealandairliner, duringwhite 12,450 feet) andtheslightlylower Mount Terror. In dominated by is MountErebus(3,795metersor separated fromthemainlandby McMurdoSound, Ross Island, onthewest sideoftheRoss Sea and lived onboardtheship expedition. Expeditionmembersactually1901-04 transported from Australia for Scott’s Captain southern tipofRoss Hutwas Island,theDiscovery calledHutPointLocated onapromontory nearthe Hut Point have conceived.” seenorcould anythingwehadbefore far beyond grandeur andmagnificence delight uponasceneof Wrote Ross: “We gazed indescribable withfeelings of Discovery , andthehutwas four companions was made in this hut; the cross died, but the remaining seven were eventually now stands at the top of Observation Hill. Finally, picked up in 1917 by Shackleton himself, after he the hut was used a fourth time in 1915 and 1916 by had rescued the Elephant Island party and then sledging parties of the Ross Sea party supporting traveled to New Zealand to board Aurora. Shackleton’s transantarctic expedition of 1914-17. Two anchors from Aurora are still embedded in Cape Royds the beach and the remains of Weddell seals killed One of the most picturesque places in Antarctica, for food and fuel can be seen nearby. Within the Cape Royds on the west side of Ross Island was hut are improvised boots, and other garments and the base for Shackleton’s 1907-09 Nimrod expedition. artifacts. A visit to this hut, with all its poignant From the Cape Royds hut, Shackleton and three memories, is an unforgettable experience. others got to within 97 nautical miles of the South Pole before turning back. The first motor transport Cape Adare in Antarctica an Arrol-Johnson car was put ashore Cape Adare is a volcanic headland at the western here, and in 1908 the book Aurora Australis was entrance to the Ross Sea. The beach below was written, printed, and published at this hut. The hut home for the 1898 -1900 Southern Cross expedition was also visited by members of Scott’s 1910-13 led by a Norwegian, Carsten Borchgrevink, and expedition, and again by members of Shackleton’s sponsored by a British newspaper owner, George Ross Sea support party, between 1914 and 1916. Newnes. The expedition was the first to winter on In front of the hut is the most southerly recorded the Antarctic continent. One member of the group, Adélie Penguin rookery, a specially protected area a Norwegian biologist, Nikolai Hanson, died here on and not to be visited without a permit. 14 October 1899. He is buried on top of the Cape, the first known grave in Antarctica. Cape Evans Also on the west side of Ross Island, between Cape Adare was later visited by the Northern Cape Royds and Hut Point, is Cape Evans site of Party of Scott’s 1910 -13 expedition, but they built the most famous, and largest, of all the historic a separate hut of their own. The two Borchgrevink huts. This is the hut used by Captain Scott and huts still stand, but that of the Northern Party has his team during the 1910-13 expedition which been demolished by the strong, gusty winds. ultimately resulted in the death of Scott, Wilson, Completely surrounding the huts is the largest Bowers, Oates, and Evans on their return from the known Adélie Penguin rookery in Antarctica, with pole. When the surviving members departed in an estimated 280,000 breeding pairs. 1913 they left behind a large quantity of provisions, equipment, and some clothing. This was later to be of vital importance to ten members of Shackleton’s Ross Sea support party (1914-17). They were stranded here when their ship, Aurora, was blown out to sea by a blizzard in May 1915. Three of them SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT MAY YOU SECTION 2: PLACES

21 22 SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT glaciology, meteorology, andupperatmosphere marine andterrestrial biology, biomedicalwork, programs.ResearchAntarctic intheareaincludes logistic supportfor New andRussian Zealand,Italian, supplies andequipment.McMurdoalsoprovides supply offuel,food, buildingmaterials,andother todeliver ayear’sships visitMcMurdoinJanuary the nearby Ross IceShelfthroughFebruary. A few Ski-equipped C-130 aircraft operateonaskiway on Zealand, andMcMurdofromOctobertoDecember. people andurgentcargobetween Christchurch, New strips ontheseaiceofMcMurdoSound,transport Airliftlines. GiantjetsofMilitary Command,usingair above-ground water, sewer, telephone,andpower avoid disturbing thepermafrost,andarelinked to Many ofthebuildingsareconstructed onstilts,to stores, clubs,andacoffee shop. firehouse, power plant,water desalinizationplant, facility,laboratory repairshops,dormitories,offices, a complex of100 structures includesastate-of-the-art a frontiertown andahigh-tech, moderncity, the reduced toabout180. Somethingofacrossbetween peopleinsummer,1,200 withthewinterpopulation adjacent toScott’s Hut.Ithousesupto Discovery near thesouthernextremity ofRoss Islandandis 1841 expedition. McMurdowas in1955 established Lieutenant Archibald McMurdo ofJames ClarkRoss’ located onMcMurdoSound,which was namedafter is thelogisticshubofUS Program.Antarctic Itis The in McMurdo largestscientific station Antarctica, McMurdo Station astronomy andbiomedicalstudies. meteorology, upperatmospherephysics, Amundsen-Scott includesglaciology, geophysics, 30 feet each year attheSouthPole). Research at (itmovessheet isnotstatic about10 metersor of navigational satellites,sincethe ice Antarctic location isrecalculatedeach January, withtheaid shows theprecisepointofSouthPole. Its early November. postsunkintheice A metal in summer, butisisolatedfrommid-February to in winter. byThe frequentflights isserved station Amundsen-Scott insummer, droppingtoabout40 being rebuilt. There aremorethan100 peopleat the geographicalSouthPole in1956, andisnow (1350 kilometers)away. Itwas at established and snow-trains fromMcMurdo,some840miles The Amundsen-Scott issuppliedby Station air Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station fishes, penguins,skuas,and lakes.Antarctic Current the nature of seaice,andbiologicalstudies of research of Gondwana, intothegeological history involving nearly250people.Recent projectsinclude Each year, NZAPsupportsabout30projects, Christchurch andMcMurdo. aircraft areused for thelongflights toandfrom New Zealand Air Force planesaswell asUSAF closely withtheUS Program,Antarctic andRoyal ten duringthewintermonths.NZAPcooperates assist fieldpartiesinsummer;thisnumberdropsto and alaboratory. Itisrun by 35people,whoalso 1957, andcomprisesaccommodation,workshops, ProgrammeAntarctic (NZAP)activity. Itwas builtin isthefocusMcMurdo Station, ofNew Zealand Scott Base onRoss Island,4kilometersfrom Scott Base research focuses on the impact of human activities; temperature of 25°C (77°F). Here live algae, bacteria, biodiversity and ecosystems; climate processes; and protozoa – but being sealed off from the outside and terrestrial evolution. world, apart from incoming solar energy, they live by recycling nutrients between them. Between Scott Base and McMurdo Station is Observation Hill, which can be climbed with some Other remarkable life forms found in the Dry Valleys effort. At the top is a large memorial cross, made of are cryptoendolithic communities of lichens, fungi, jarrah wood, which was erected in 1913 by comrades and algae that actually live inside solid rock. In fact, of Scott and his companions. It is inscribed with these they live in minute cracks in the rock or even words from Tennyson’s Ulysses: “To strive, to seek, between the crystals of more porous sandstones to find – and not to yield.” and granites. But higher animals and plants cannot survive in the arid conditions of the Dry Valleys, The Dry Valleys where evaporation exceeds precipitation. Curiously, A prime example of one of the most extreme some seals and penguins have wandered here, some ecosystems in the world can be found at the 80 kilometers (50 miles) from the sea, and their 1,100-square-mile Dry Valleys of south Victoria Land, mummified remains are preserved for thousands of within helicopter range of McMurdo and Scott Base. years. Scott found the skeleton of a Weddell seal, but Discovered by Scott and two companions on a how it came there is beyond guessing. It is certainly sledging expedition in 1903, these valleys are virtually a valley of the dead. free from ice and snow year-round. They are also almost but not completely lifeless. Here, in Scott’s The hanging glaciers, dramatic mountains and words, are “all the indications of colossal ice action unique nature of the Dry Valleys make this one of and considerable water action, and yet neither of the most intriguing areas to visit. The whole area these agents is now at work.” Erosion is at work, has an unearthly beauty. however, creating strange and beautiful wind- sculpted boulders. Commonwealth Bay The Cape Denison Historic Site is located in There are some lakes in the Dry Valleys, but of Commonwealth Bay in the Australian sector peculiar kinds. Don Juan Pond, for example, is a of Antarctica, at about 142°40’E longitude. It nearly saturated solution of calcium chloride that commemorates the 18 member, Australasian never freezes, even at temperatures as low as -51°C Antarctic Expedition of 1911-14, led by Douglas (-60°F). Japanese scientists discovered in it a mineral Mawson, who was knighted in 1914. The new to science: crystals, called antarcticite, that turn expedition received financial support from the to liquid unless refrigerated. Another water body, Australian and British governments, and also Lake Vanda, has no out flow, and is permanently private organizations and individuals. It is named ice-covered. Beneath the ice is a layer of cold, fresh after one of the latter, Hugh Denison of Sydney. water, but beneath that is highly salty water with a Britons will be amused by the names given to SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT MAY YOU SECTION 2: PLACES

23 24 SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT from 1998. working thereduringmostsummers conservators Australian Commission. Heritage There have been Australian government’s Division,and the Antarctic huts andartifacts, ofthe aretheresponsibility commonly seen. The wholesite,andespeciallythe skuas,and Wilson’sWeddell seals are Storm-petrels, Penguin rookeries arescattered aroundthe Cape,and from theMawson expedition). A numberof Adélie are several pilesofpenguinandsealremainsdating artifacts inthearea,includinganimalremains(there these huts,andshouldnottakeordisturb any with thescientificstudies. Visitors shouldnotenter and workshop, andseveral smallerhutsconnected At Commonwealth Baymainhut asubstantial stands caused by seaspray whippedupby thewinds. to 18 meters(60feet) highonthelandward side Islets, which arecovered withsnow mushroomsup sightsaretheoffshoreAmong notable McKeller snouts nearby, even whenthehutareaiscalm. snow plumesareoften seenblowing off theglacier Blue iceontheplateauindicatesstrongwinds,and by Zodiacorhelicopteraresometimesimpossible. hour) have beenrecorded.For thisreason,landings (35 milesperhour);gustsof130 knots(150 milesper coast. The average summerwindspeedis24knots common, flowing down theiceslopetowards the any lengthoftime.Gravity-driven windsare katabatic windiest placeonearththatpeoplehave lived for ofbeingthe Cape Denisonhasthereputation magnetic field. program was mainlyconcerned withtheEarth’s South MagneticPole, andMawson’s scientific point ofScotlandrespectively). The siteisnearthe O’Groats (thetipofCornwall andthenorthernmost opposite endsofthesite,Land’s EndandJohn of theseislandsandwe shallconsiderthreeofthem: Tourist visitsarepermitted onlyonaselectnumber wildlife andvegetation torecover well. an overall strategy, conservation isallowing thenative and eradicatetheintroducedanimals,combinedwith alien animals.Butlong-running programstocontrol decimated thefursealsandunfortunately introduced species. Many ofthemwere visitedby sealerswho distinct floraandfauna, includingmany endemic somewhat morenorthernlocation.Each ofthemhas from thatfound atMacquarie becauseoftheislands representative. The fauna andfloraareratherdifferent is accompaniedby aDepartmentofConservation andstrictlyprotected.EachReserves, touristgroup Zealand’s islandsareNationalNature subantarctic All ofthefive islandgroupscomprisingNew ISLANDS NEW ZEALAND’S SUBANTARCTIC some very remarkablenaturalsome very attractions tooffer. generally cool,wet, andwindy!Butthey have Another way ofputting itistosay thatthey are Their climateisdescribedascooltemperate. • • • south ofPort Bluff, New Zealand,at52°S kilometers(440miles) Campbell Island,some700 from Bluff at 48°S the Snaresgroup,just209kilometers(130 miles) 465 kilometers(290miles)southofBluff at50°S Enderby, oneofthe Auckland Islands group, Campbell Island Most important of the visitors was the British This island was discovered in 1810, by Frederick expedition led by James Clark Ross, with Erebus Hasselborough, the Australian sealing captain who and Terror. Aboard with him were two botanists, also discovered Macquarie in the same year. It is of Joseph Hooker and David Lyall. They collected 80 volcanic origin, and shows evidence of glacial species of flowering plants, including many that features such as cirques and steep valleys and had not been described before. On Enderby, the fjords. With mostly peaty soil (like all of these vegetation has been substantially modified by islands), it has a mixture of tussock grass, bogs, and human visitors and settlers, from sealers and dense shrub land or dwarf forest. After sheep were European and Maori farmers to shipwrecked removed in the 1980s, the vegetation, especially the castaways. These people and a host of introduced megaherbs, is springing up again. Campbell boasts animals have not helped the local flora. At the several endemic plants: a forget-me-not, a daisy, a landing beach is a small summer research station, gentian, two buttercups, and a grass. which is backed by a tangled rata forest.

The star attraction among the animal life is the Enderby, about 3 kilometers (1.5 miles) long and world’s largest breeding colony of Royal Albatrosses under 2 kilometers (1 mile) across, is a wildlife and four other albatrosses can also be seen here. paradise. It has one of only three major New There are breeding southern elephant seals, though Zealand (Hooker’s) sea lion colonies in the world. their numbers seem to be decreasing, as at several The Yellow-eyed Penguin, a solitary nester that is other locations in their range. No one seems to considered the world’s most endangered penguin, know why. There is also a number of rare New breeds on Enderby in greater numbers than Zealand (Hooker’s) sea lions. anywhere else. Other birdlife includes nesting Royal Albatrosses, Auckland Island Shags, Auckland Island Enderby, Auckland Islands Dotterels, and the flightless Auckland Island Teal. The Auckland Islands group is also volcanic, and the main island supports the richest floral assembly The Snares in the Southern Ocean, with 233 kinds of vascular This small group of islands, which were discovered plants. The islands were discovered whaler Abraham in 1791 by Captain George Vancouver, have a land Bristow, in 1806. The most important year in the area of just 328 hectares (790 acres) yet it is island’s history was 1840, because three celebrated estimated that the population of breeding seabirds Antarctic explorers anchored in Port Ross, opposite numbers over 6 million, or roughly equivalent to the Enderby Island. First came Charles Wilkes, from the total number of seabirds around Great Britain and United States aboard Porpoise. He liked what he Ireland. The majority of these are Sooty Shearwaters, found, and reported that his crew enjoyed which gather well before dark and swoop down to themselves on chowders and fries. Two days later, their burrows in dark, swirling clouds. It is one of the the Frenchman Dumont d’Urville arrived with his great wonders of the natural world. ships Astrolabe and Zelee. His artist, Le Breton, painted some fine landscapes while at Port Ross. SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT MAY YOU SECTION 2: PLACES

25 26 SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT hardly noticethenotalways wonderful weather! wonderland withsomuch toseethatmostpeople New Zealand’s islandsareanatural subantarctic them endemicislandforms. the SnaresFern Bird,andtheSnares Tomtit –allof other raritiestolookfor, such astheSnaresSnipe, to arrive anddepartwhileitsdark.Buttherearestill That mightbeahardonetospot,asthebirdstend only hereandatafew otherplacesoff New Zealand. or theshorefor theMottled Petrel, which breeds with goodbinocularswillalsowant toscantheskies subspecies oftheshy albatross.Keen birdwatchers two otherendemicbirdsBuller’s Albatross anda In addition,therearegoodchances ofseeing such astheaptlynamedPenguin Slope. leaving the seaatoneofitsfavorite landingspots, Penguin, endemictojusttheseislands,enteringor well guaranteedagood view oftheSnaresCrested slowly alongthecoast inaZodiac. You arepretty the bestway toview thelocalbirdsisby cruising burrows thatwalking mightprove hazardous.But the islandsaresohoneycombed withseabird Visitors may notlandattheSnares.For onething, gradually beingeradicatedand controlled. deliberately oraccidentally, thoughtheseare Various birdsandmammalswere introduced,either extinct, alongwithanendemicrailandaparakeet. During thisperiod,onespeciesoffursealbecame commercial exploitation finallyendedin1919. were slaughteredunremittingly over theyears until were killedfor theiroil. The sealsandpenguins for theirskins.Elephantsealsandlaterpenguins thefursealswerediscovery beingover exploited who nameditafter thegovernor. Soonafter its Hasselborough, aNew South Wales sealingcaptain Macquarie was discovered in1810 by Frederick sunshine perday canbeexpected. November -February, whenabout3.5hoursof wet, andwindy;thesunniestmonthsare but therearenotrees.Itsclimateisgenerallycold, tussocksedges andgrassland,includingtall grass, by steepslopesandcliffs. Itsvegetation ismainly undulatingplateaubounded It consistsofalong, studying drift. sea-floorspreadingandcontinental oceanic crust andofgreatinteresttoscientists from isarareexampleAntarctica, ofuplifted from Tasmania and1,294kilometers(845miles) The island,which kilometers(915 is1,400 miles) long andupto5kilometers(3miles)wide. Itmeasures34kilometers(21miles) Reserve. known asMacquarie IslandNature otherwise of protected,being istotally Australian territory between Tasmania and Antarctica. This tiny speck just northofthe Convergence,Antarctic halfway islandsituatedMacquarie Islandisasubantarctic Macquarie Island(Australia) Douglas Mawson visited the island on his way to The list of at least 25 breeding birds includes four Antarctica in 1911, and loved it so much that on his penguins (King, Gentoo, Rockhopper, and Royal); return he started a campaign to have it declared a four albatrosses (Wandering, Black-browed, Gray- wildlife sanctuary. Eventually this happened in 1933. headed, and Light-mantled Sooty); eight or maybe It is administered by the Tasmanian Department of twelve petrels and prions; plus the Blue-eyed Shag, Parks, Wildlife and Heritage, with logistic and other Black Duck, Antarctic Skua, Kelp Gull, and small support provided by the country’s national Antarctic numbers of Antarctic Terns. Macquarie is the world Division. headquarters of the Royal Penguin, of which there are estimated to be some 850,000 breeding pairs. Besides Mawson, who visited the island at least twice, other scientific visitors included several of An Australian research station on the north end the big names of Antarctic exploration. Bellingshausen of the island is home to some 40 scientists and came to Macquarie in 1820, Charles Wilkes visited support staff in summer, and about half that in 1840, Scott came in 1901 (the sealers made him number in winter. Access is by sea (there is no hand over a bottle of liquor before allowing him to airstrip) and all visitors need a permit. A network land), and Shackleton called at the island in 1909 of tracks, walkways, and viewing platforms at the and again in 1917. station and at Sandy Bay leads visitors to the main attractions, which are easily accessible. These Abundant Wildlife include an enormous rookery of King and Royal Today, much of the wildlife has recovered from the Penguins at Sandy Bay, seals, historic sites and sealers depredations. There are probably 100,000 artifacts from the sealing days, and interesting seals and some 3-4 million penguins, making it geological features. one of the richest wildlife sanctuaries in the world. Among mammals, there are breeding populations of southern elephant seals and three species of fur seals – New Zealand, Antarctic and subantarctic; the leopard seal and New Zealand (Hooker’s) sea lion are regular visitors, while Weddell and crabeater seals show up occasionally. Several species of whales are seen offshore, and orcas are commonly sighted near the penguin colonies. SECTION 2: PLACES YOU MAY VISIT MAY YOU SECTION 2: PLACES

27 RESEARCH STATION ......

Scientific research has been carried out in Antarctica for nearly a century. EXPLORERS AND SCIENTISTS

The earliest concepts of Antarctic regions came from the ancient Greek philosophers who determined that the Earth was a sphere and reasoned that there must be a large land mass at its southern extent to balance the known lands in the north.

The earliest concepts of Antarctic regions came from the ancient Greek philosophers who determined that the Earth was a sphere and reasoned that there must be a large land mass at its southern extent to balance capes. A consequence of these voyages was the the known lands in the north. The boreal constellation progressive reduction of the hypothetical Terra Arktos – the Great Bear, was well known to these Australis, and its separation from Australasia. Charts philosophers thus they called the hypothetical of Antarctic regions progressively showed less land southern lands the opposite; Antarktos. It was a as ancient speculations were steadily disproved. The purely theoretical concept and, in practice, entirely voyages of Vasco da Gama round the cape of Good unknown. Nevertheless it persisted on ancient maps Hope in 1498, of Ferdinand Magellan through the for over two millennia. Later Latin editions of maps strait which bears his name in 1520, and evidence of applied the term Terra Australis Incognita (Unknown the Drake Passage from Francis Drake’s voyage of Southern Land) to the Antarctic regions. 1578 demonstrated there were extensive oceans in the far south. Abel Tasman’s voyages of 1642 and Terra Australis Exploration 1644 proved that Australia was a separate continent The first historical period of Antarctic discovery with ocean at its southern limits. Tasman also lasted until about 1780. Its main activity was a discovered the west coast of New Zealand. What variety of explorations and voyages penetrating to was actually discovered of the huge theoretical Terra far southern regions. Some had exploration and Australis was only a few of the remote peri-Antarctic discovery of Terra Australis as a major object while islands as the enormous theoretical southern others were merchant vessels blown off course, continent was progressively eliminated from maps. often by tempests while rounding the southern This early period may be regarded as concluding with the three voyages of James Cook (1768-80) and two of Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Tremarec (1771-74). SECTION 3: EXPLORERS AND SCIENTISTS SECTION 3: EXPLORERS

29 30 SECTION 3: EXPLORERS AND SCIENTISTS these that Captain Cook,incommandofHMS these thatCaptain accurate determinationoflongitude. Itwas with chronometers were sufficiently improved toallow even thebestcharts. Bythelatter partofthe1700s of non-existent islandshadalsocometoclutter in 1618, Prince Edward Islandsfrom1663. A variety early as1505, Ile Amsterdam in1522, IleSaint-Paul dubious thesediscoveries were: GoughIslandas charts by thistime. Although positionswere often islands, themorenortherlyones,hadappearedon its circumnavigation). Several otherperi-Antarctic while, thoughttobean cape(icepreventedAntarctic discovered in1739 by aFrench expedition and,for a Horn. Bouvetøya, theremotestislandonEarth,was which was blown off coursewhileroundingCape by amerchant vessel sailingfromLimatoLondon Southern Oceanwas South Georgia,seenin1675 During thisperiodthefirstlandsightedin Resolution reached afarthest southat71 crossing ofthe Circleon17Antarctic 1773 January , and wrotethatthey were “land doomedtoperpetual Cook was notimpressedby his discoveriesAntarctic initiated thenext phasein history.Antarctic Captain favorable market for theminChinawhich thus them. Histhirdandlastvoyage alsoreportedavery Islands butalsothevast populationsoffursealson ofSouthGeorgiaandtheSandwichdiscovery Practical resultsofCook’s voyage were notonlythe have discovered thecontinent. is alsofar south,atmany otherpositionshemight sailed far southwere wherethecoastof Antarctica unlucky inonerespect,the two places wherehe 17 1775, January onSouthGeorgia.Cookwas the earliestdefinitelandingin regionson Antarctic (north of 1774,Thurston Island)on30January and and HMS Adventure • 17°S at106 made thefirst • 90°W than 90shipswere working the islands.Bytheend more of 1820-21. Inthefollowing season, 1821-22, and oilfromthoseislandsduring thenext season brought morethan40shipsto exploit fur sealskins course by astorm)in1819. News ofhis discovery discovered by Smith(whowasWilliam blown off For theSouthShetlandIslandswere instance, were almostwipedoutwithinafew shortyears. new islandwas discovered, thefursealcolonies Sandwich andSouthShetlandIslands. As each and quickly exploited theanimalsofSouth South Georgiaasabase,othersealersdiscovered Campbell andMacquarieIslandsin1810. Using Islands in1800, the Auckland Islandsin1806, and exploitingand started thefursealsof Antipodes from theirbasesinNew Zealand,sealersdiscovered islands.Searchingperi-Antarctic ever farther south the fursealsofSouthGeorgia,andseveral other second voyage thesealershadseriouslydepleted the far south.By1802 only27years after Cook’s few othersealershadbecomethenew voyagers of afewWithin years, European,anda UnitedStates, THE AGE OFSEALERS (1780-1892) 20 years imprisonment(althoughlaterreducedtosix). his exaggerated claims,Kerguelen was sentencedto discovered; thecolony was and,for notestablished the islandfor France in1773 whenthetruth was description ofit. The Kingsenthimback tocolonize name in1772 butwroteanexcessively favorable Kerguelen, discovered theislandwhich bearshis Farther east theFrench explorer, Yves-Joseph words todescribe.” rays, whosehorrid andsavage aspectIhave not frigidness, never tofeel thewarmth ofthesun’s of the third year after the islands discovery, more he landed on was a continent. But it was not until than 320,000 fur seal skins and 940 tons of oil had the following decade that geographers and scientists been taken in the South Shetland Islands, and for all concluded that the long-sought Southern Continent practical purposes the resource had been destroyed. had indeed been found.

The Antarctic Continent was first sighted on In 1823, the British sealer James Weddell reached January 27, 1820 by Fabien Bellingshausen on a 74°15’S in the Weddell Sea, the farthest south that Russian voyage of exploration. Over the course any man had ever been. There was very little ice of two summers he became the second man to there at that time, unlike today. Weddell found no circumnavigate Antarctica, and did so considerably new sealing grounds, but he did discover a new farther south than did Captain Cook. species of seal which was later named after him.

Edward Bransfield, of Britain’s Royal Navy, was sent The last major search for new sealing grounds to examine the South Shetland Islands in 1819, and was made in 1838 by John Balleny. Although he he sighted land most probably the Danco coast of discovered the islands that bear his name, and the the Antarctic Peninsula on 30 January 1820. Later in Sabrina Coast of Antarctica, he returned from the the year, Nathaniel Palmer, a young sealing captain expedition with only 178 seal skins. The sealing from Stonington, Connecticut, sailed from the South bonanza was over. But by then the collection of oil Shetlands aboard the 47-foot sloop Hero, and on had become very profitable, and the ship’s crews 16 November, 1820 sighted what was probably the rendered elephant seals, several species of whales, coast of the Antarctic Peninsula, from a distance of and even penguins into valuable oil. This new about three miles. industry continued until well into the present century.

At this time there may have been numerous small Sealers and Scientists sealing vessels searching the region of the South During the period from the publication of the Shetlands and the Antarctic Peninsula, but it was reports of the voyages of Cook and Kerguelen common for captains to keep their finds secret to until early in the 1900s the majority of visitors to protect their commercial interests. Discoveries Antarctic regions were sealers, who discovered must have been made during these years that many and visited nearly all the peri-Antarctic islands, were never publicized. and wintered on several. They were also active in many adjoining regions, notably: Tristan da Cunha, On 7 February 1821, the United States sealer John Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas), Tierra del Fuego, Davis became one of the earliest recorded persons Stewart Island, and Tasmania. The peak of the to set foot upon the Antarctic continent when he industry was during the early to mid-1800s and they landed at Hughes Bay on the Antarctic Peninsula. were nearly all from Britain, Cape Colony, France, It is interesting to note that at the time of his New South Wales, New Zealand, Tasmania, or the achievement he said he believed the southern shore United States (New England states). Sealers made SECTION 3: EXPLORERS AND SCIENTISTS SECTION 3: EXPLORERS

31 32 SECTION 3: EXPLORERS AND SCIENTISTS A Britishmerchant vessel shortest-lived Britishcolony). venture was abandonedbarely18 monthslater(the to colonize the Auckland Islandsin1849 butthis were notsosuccessful.SamuelEnderby alsotried discoveries, aswell asseveral othervoyages which and John Balleny (1838-39) whoallmadeimportant Abraham Bristow (1805-06), John Biscoe(1830-33), voyagesexploratory ledby James Colnett (1792-94), enterprises withexploration. They dispatched incombiningcommercial particularly notable The Enderby Brothers,aLondon company, was other relicsmay stillbefound. incaves,huts, habitations graves, try-pots, and islandswhereremainsof on someperi-Antarctic Extended seriesofconsecutive winterswere spent on theSouthShetlandIslands,1821 and1877). regions (especiallythosewhodidsoinvoluntarily (1820) andwere theearliesttowinterin Antarctic the earliestlandingson continent Antarctic to clubeach otherthan thefew sealsremaining. for aweek orso, sealersspentmoretimetrying Beaches onLivingstonIslandareasitewhere, became rarerconflictdeveloped andRobbery vessels worked aroundtheislands. As sealsquickly thus, duringthe1821-22 summer, about90sealing extirpated. fast News spreadvery ofthediscovery within threesummersthesealswere almost sosevere andBritain from theUnitedStates that caused a‘goldrush’ ofover-exploitation by sealers Islands withtheirabundanceoffurseals. This oftheSouthShetland resulted inthediscovery SmithwasWilliam blown far southin1819 which Williams commanded by 1922 whenthelastold sealer,Antarctic butendured, slowlyso profitable indecline,until others ashore. wasThe not elephantseal industry and Dick) whalers(ratherhazardouscircumstances) this; somewere aboardshipslike (Moby theoldstyle known as‘trypots’, placedover fireswere usedfor used toextract oil.Largecauldrons(over litre), 200 for itwasindustry theblubberwhich was takenand became thenext quarry. This was avastly different thatindustry,scarce tosustain Elephantseals came fromfursealsand,after thesebecametoo The greatestprofitsmadeby the sealers Antarctic specific islands). exceeded thisinthecaseoffursealsonseveral somewhere neartheiroriginalsizes (orprobably populations ofbothhave now recovered to elephant sealswere greatlydepleted.Fortunately reduced tonearextinction andsubsequently vastly over-exploited theseals;firstfursealswere deposits were exploited. Unfortunately theirindustry Zealand, andPatagonia, andwhenmajorguano gold rushes occurred inCalifornia, Australia, New reduced bywas wars, whenthecrew left when several fleet occasionswhentheUnitedStates sufferedThe sealingindustry interruptions on provide clues astowherethesealersoperated. the islands,which, withavarietyoflogbooks, graves, afew wrecks, andsparseotheritemson competition. There aresporadicinscriptionsonrocks, tried tokeep such discoveries secrettoavoid any new sealingareas but,unfortunately for history, Consequently they were always onthelookout for elsewhere ratherthan beensoreduced. Sealers often consideredthatsealshadmoved Graber , returned fromIleKerguelen toherhome William A. William That this congress record its opinion that the exploration of the Antarctic Regions is the greatest piece of geographical exploration still to be undertaken. That in view of the additions to knowledge in almost every branch of science which would result from such a scientific exploration the Congress recommends that the scientific societies throughout the world should urge in whatever way seems to them most effective, that this work should be undertaken before the close of the century.

port New Bedford. During elephant seal operations Three national exploring and scientific expeditions any fur seal unfortunate enough to arrive on a were active at about the same time: from France sealing beach where elephants were being taken, (1837-40), United States (1838-42), and Britain was killed which greatly delayed their population (1839 -43), which were associated with determination recovery. Trypots are the most obvious relics of the of the magnetic poles. old sealing industry and may be seen on many beaches on the peri-Antarctic islands. Dumont d’Urville’s expedition circumnavigated the Earth during which two summers were spent in The sealing period was dominant for over a century Antarctic regions. The South Orkney and South during which about 1200 sealing voyages went to the Shetland Islands were mapped and sketched, islands of the Southern Ocean. In this period there including a particularly fine view of Elephant Island. were barely two dozen exploratory voyages, but In the second summer Terre Adélie was discovered several of these made major scientific contributions. and claimed for France. It, and the Adélie Penguin, were named after Adele, Dumont d’Urvilles’ wife. There were inevitable discoveries by sealers and a small number of exploratory expeditions during The United States Exploring Expedition, led by this period. At least five landings on the Antarctic Charles Wilkes, examined much of the globe and continent were made by sealers during this period the Antarctic voyages formed only a small part of but, as none of them found seals there, the its work. First a brief visit to the South Shetland records of these significant historical events are Islands was made followed by an attempt to find fragmentary. James Weddell, a sealer, reached land towards Thurston island but this was too 74 •25°S in what was later known as the Weddell distant and difficult with severe ice. During the Sea and wrote a good account of his voyage second summer much of the outliers of what is which was published several years after the peak now Wilkes Land was seen and some of the island of South Shetland Islands sealing. In contrast very visited. There was a very strange coincidence with few sealers wrote of their experiences as secrecy the French and British expeditions in the Antarctic, about the location of good sealing beaches formed they sighted each other on 30 January 1840 off the a major part of their success. Antarctic coast – but both eschewed contact, for reasons never made entirely clear. SECTION 3: EXPLORERS AND SCIENTISTS SECTION 3: EXPLORERS

33 34 SECTION 3: EXPLORERS AND SCIENTISTS aboard HMS The thirdofthese expeditions, ledby James Ross 1850s, and1860s. exceptional numbersoficebergsaroundthe1830s, and from Australia andNew Zealandreported quite discoverers. Shipssailingonfar southerncourses,to as they hadnoseals,were oflittle interesttotheir and Balleny Islands(1839) were alsodiscovered but, Heard Island(1853). Islandssuch asPeter Iøy(1821) Islands (1819), SouthOrkney Islands(1821), and Island andMacquarie(1810), SouthShetland sealing islandsas Auckland Islands(1807), Campbell discoveries accumulatedincludingsuch important during thisperiodandshowed morelandas Charts ofthe progressivelyAntarctic improved consequences for the Antarctic. programme was tohave many important This initialinternationalco-operative research operated atRoyal Bay onSouthGeorgiafor ayear. was mainlyan Arctic event butaGerman station Islands. The firstInternationalPolar Year (1882-83) Iles Kerguelen, CampbellIsland,and Auckland expeditionsand UnitesStates fromIleSaint-Paul, which by was French, observed British,German, co-operation camewiththe1874 Transit of Venus competition. Incontrastadegreeofinternational These threeexpeditions were somewhat in exploring theinteriorof Antarctica. became majorsitesfor many expeditions, some Ross Island, andMcMurdoSoundwhich subsequently Barrier’. The publishedmapsalsoincludedCape Adare, southern progresseventually haltedby ‘The GreatIce the active volcano MountErebusdiscovered and Ross Sea. The coastof Victoria Landwas surveyed, exceptionally favorable iceconditionsandenteredthe Terror and HMS Erebus encountered of theFirst World War was the vessels followed.. From thisbeginninguntiltheend reconnaissances intheSouthernOceanandother four vessels oftheDundeewhalingfleetmade Congress inLondon: adopted by thesixthInternationalGeographical beginning in1895 withan resolution Antarctic but intenseage. There was alsoastrongtheoretical interest andwere apracticalbeginningofthisbrief These whalingreconnaissancesarousedmuch public the resourcesofSouthernOcean. industry, asecondperiodofover-exploitation of It was alsothebeginningofmodernwhaling to theSouthPole was themajor activity.Antarctic mappingandpenetrationinlandeventuallycoastal made southin1882, thefirst and several whalingreconnaissancevoyages were Whales hadbecomeover-exploited inthe Arctic PENETRATION THE HEROIC AGE ANDCONTINENTAL Antarctic Circle(1898,Antarctic aboard The earliestwinteringswere madesouthofthe known during thisperiod. The SouthPole was in 1902) andthegenerallimitsof became Antarctica islands wasperi-Antarctic discovered (Scott Island (1899,Antarctica atCape Adare). The lastofthe opinion that the exploration of the Antarctic Regions Antarctic the of exploration the that opinion is the greatest piece of geographical exploration still exploration geographical of piece greatest the is to be undertaken. That in view of the additions to additions the of view in That undertaken. be to knowledge in almost every branch of science which science of branch every almost in knowledge would result from such a scientific exploration the exploration scientific a such from result would Congress recommends that the scientific societies scientific the that recommends Congress throughout the world should urge in whatever way whatever in urge should world the throughout seems to them most effective, that this work should work this that effective, most them to seems be undertaken before the close of the century. the of close the before undertaken be That this congress record its record congress this That Jason Belgica Heroic Age Heroic voyage and voyage ) andon when reached twice in the 1911-12 summer (33 days expand. About a century later there are eleven separated these events). The earliest Antarctic existing historic huts , although nature and man sound recordings were made in 1902 (aboard have destroyed others. Coincidentally at least 17 Gauss) and ciné films in 1903 (aboard Scotia). determined, but unsuccessful, attempts to reach Twice in 1902 aircraft (hydrogen balloons) were the North Pole were made during the same years. used for aerial reconnaissance (from Discovery and Gauss). Radio communications were established In 1901 Robert Falcon Scott, an officer in the Royal between Antarctica and Australia by Douglas Navy, led the Discovery expedition to Victoria Land. Mawson at Commonwealth Bay in 1913, through They built a hut at the southern tip of Ross Island in a relay station on Macquarie Island. In March 1903 McMurdo Sound, where Discovery wintered. Scott, the first permanent meteorological station was with two companions, Edward Wilson and Ernest opened (on the South Orkney Islands) and in Shackleton, made a southern trek using dogs to pull November 1904 the first shore whaling station their sledges. They reached 82°S before having to was established (Grytviken, on South Georgia). turn back. Although some governmental assistance was given to several of the expeditions of this stage of In the same year, Otto von Nordenskjöld led a history, especially when they were relief ones, the Swedish expedition to the Weddell Sea, but his majority were private enterprises, either personal ship, Antarctic, was crushed in the ice and sank. or of an organization. Icebergs were exceptionally After a series of adventures and extraordinary frequent during these years with major occurrences hardship, involving small groups of men stranded in 1892-94, 1903-04, and 1906-09 when almost at three different places, the whole party was every ship sailing between Europe and Australasia rescued over two years later in November 1903. reported encounters with vast fields of ice. One The scientific results of this expedition proved to can conjecture that calving of some major ice be very important, despite the major problems shelves must have occurred. which had beset them.

During this brief, but intense period, exploratory Jean-Baptiste Charcot organized a French expeditions sailed from Argentina, Australia, expedition in 1903 which charted large parts of the Belgium, Britain, Chile, France, Germany, Japan, Antarctic Peninsula region. This work was to be of New Zealand, Norway, and Sweden. Some of the great importance to navigators in the years to last of the sealers, from Australia, Canada, Chile, come. Charcot returned in 1908 in the most modern France, Newfoundland, New Zealand, Norway, polar ship to date, Pourquoi Pas?. Besides exploring South Africa, and the United States were still and charting further coasts and islands, he tested a working on a few islands. The next industry began lot of improved equipment such as electric lamps, with companies from Argentina, Britain, Chile, anti-snow blindness goggles, a petrol motor boat, Newfoundland, and Norway, which commenced and different types of clothing. Charcot was a very Antarctic whaling operations that soon would humane man, known as “the polar gentleman,” and SECTION 3: EXPLORERS AND SCIENTISTS SECTION 3: EXPLORERS

35 36 SECTION 3: EXPLORERS AND SCIENTISTS aboard 1907, thistimeincommandofhisown expedition not beenattained. South Pole andtheSouthMagneticPole, hadstill The two greatquestsof toreachAntarctica, the botany, andzoology. considerable research inhydrography, geology, of over-exploiting thewhales.Heconducted was oneofthefirsttopoint outthedangers making anotherattempt toreach theSouthPole. Scott, whohadalreadyannouncedthathewas Robertput himindirectcompetitionwithCaptain and decidedtogotheSouthPole instead. This already reached it.So Amundsen changed hisplans Robert Peary andFrederick Cookclaimedtohave was duetosetoutin1910 news camethatboth man totheNorthPole. Butsomemonthsbefore he Roald Amundsen Magnetic Pole. David, wholedasuccessfultrektotheSouth the Australian Edgeworth second-in-command, the expedition hadbeenachieved by Shackleton’s decided toturn back. Meanwhile, theotheraimof nautical miles)ofthepolebefore Shackleton they reached apointwithin180 kilometers(972 hauling thesledges.Despiteappallingconditions, and Shackleton’s was polarparty reducedtoman- the polarplateau.Butponiesdidnotlastlong haul sledgesacrosstheRoss IceShelfandupto decided touseSiberianponies,insteadofdogs, Nimrod . Hehopedtotakebothprizes. He Ernest Shackleton had longplannedtobethefirst returned in brought himrelatively little outsidehisnative glory of beingthefirstmantoreach theSouthPole the world’s attention, while Amundsen’s achievement Ironically, it was Scott’s tragicjourney thatcaptured the Ross IceShelf. months laterandwere buriedwherethey lay on a supplydepot. Their bodieswere found eight 1912, only20kilometers(11 nauticalmiles)from Bowers diedintheirtentablizzardon29March first, andfinallyScott, Birdie andHenry Wilson, offooda shortage andfuel.Evans andOatesdied men were plaguedby ferociously bad weather, and had gottherefirst.Ontheirreturn journey, thefive a bitter rival disappointmentthattheirNorwegian 1912, 33days after Amundsen haddeparted.Itwas companions reached theSouthPole on17 January expedition arewell known, butheandfour The ofScott’s maindetails heroic,butdoomed, forthcoming trektothepole. conducting scientificresearch andpreparingfor his Ross Island.Hethenspentthenext ninemonths 1911, andconstructed abaseatCapeEvans on RobertCaptain Scott returned to early in Antarctica clockwork, andtook99days. journey totheSouthPole andback went like his relief, therewas nosignofScott. The entire He reached thepoleon14 December1911, andto carefully andmethodicallyplannedtothelastdetail. journeys inthe Arctic. The traverse tothepolewas had proved themselves timeandagain onhis McMurdo Sound.Hedecidedtousedogs,which miles) nearerthepolethanScott’s baseat 117 pointavital starting kilometers(60nautical Ross IceShelf attheBay of Whales, which puthis his baseonthe Amundsen established Antarctic was to take two partiesin two shipsandland them to leadanexpedition across Antarctica. The plan tobethefirstman conceived anothergoalintrying to bethefirstmanreach theSouthPole, buthe Ernest Shackleton had failed inhisown attempt from the in 1913.Antarctic also remainedandrelayed thefirsttransmission at Commonwealth Bay. The MacquarieIslandstation remained onoverwith 17, winterin Antarctica others which He, two men diedintragiccircumstances. Mawson alonereturned fromatraverse during storiesof the greatsurvival Antarctica. Mawson ledatrekwhich was tobecomeoneof allow somegeographicalandscientificwork. they hadarrived) theweather relentedenoughto team attempted, butinNovember (10 monthsafter projectMawson’sproblems withalmostevery gale-forceconstant windscausedconsiderable most violentwindcorridor onEarth. The nearly courage. Unfortunately, CapeDenisonliesinthe expedition turned ofhardshipand intoanothertale Ice ShelfandoneonMacquarieIsland.His His expedition ontheShackleton alsohadastation Scott reached theSouthPole 1912. inJanuary Commonwealth Bay ataboutthesametimethat landed hisown atCapeDenisonin party Magnetic Pole onShackleton’s 1907 expedition, had accompaniedEdgeworth David totheSouth Douglas Mawson, anintrepid Australian who significant scientificvalue. by contrast, was agreatachievement butofno discoveries ofhisexpedition. Amundsen’s journey, overshadowed themany valuable scientific irony isthatthe tragicendofScott’s polarjourney Norway. Another, butperhapsunderstandable Shackleton, aboard Things didnotgowell, almostfromthestart. totheRossdistance Seabase. Glacier tore-supplythemandescortthefinal Shackleton’s group atthebaseofBeardmore group would landinthe Ross Seaandlinkwith across thecontinent,viaSouthPole. The other nauticalmiles) on awalkkilometers(1,800 3,600 would landinthe Weddell Seaandleadsixmen on oppositesidesofthecontinent.Shackleton four monthsand threeunsuccessfulrescue Finally,a whalingstation. on30 August 1916, after little rangewithvery mountain equipmenttoreach island andwere forced toclimb over anunknown Unfortunately, they landedonthe southsideofthe 16 days inthe open boattoreach SouthGeorgia. nauticalmiles)ofroughseas in kilometers (800 Departing on24 April, thesix mencrossed1,500 onSouthGeorgia. whalingstation Norwegian boat withfive companionstoseekhelpfroma winter. Shackleton decidedtosetoff inthelargest offood,plenty untilthesebecamescarceduring many sealsandpenguinswhich provided themwith Although therewere nogoodcampsites,they found north ofthe Peninsula,Antarctic sixdays later. Elephant Island,289kilometers(155 nauticalmiles) were abletolaunch thethreeboatsandreached either towater orland.Byearly April 1916 they unable todragthethreelifeboats andsupplies later. The pack icewas sothick thatthey were camp onnearby icefloes. The shipsankamonth abandoned theshipon27Octoberandsetupa they were hopelesslytrappedinpack ice. They ice conditionsespeciallybad.By19 1915 January Weddell SeainearlyDecember1914 and found Endurance , enteredthe 37 SECTION 3: EXPLORERS AND SCIENTISTS 38 SECTION 3: EXPLORERS AND SCIENTISTS rescued in1917. blown outinablizzard. Onlyseven tobe survived vessel attempts, Shackleton returned aboardtheChilean during theseyears butmade much progress Exploration ofthe wasAntarctic discontinuous over DronningMaudLand,Peter IøyandBouvetøya sovereigntywas theproclamationofNorwegian specialization andoneofthe many consequences was, forindustry much ofthisperiod,aNorwegian and originallydeveloped by Svend Foyn. Thus the practicable were allNorwegian whaling industry whale oilout). The inventions making themodern processed transport shipsbringinginfuelandtaking which werewhale-catchers suppliedby numerous operatedwith232 ships, and6shorestations factories working fromharbors,32pelagicfactory were of9floating ontheSouthernOcean(atotal summer whenanunprecedentednumberofships regions of especiallyduringthe1930-31 Antarctica, were responsiblefor discovering many coastal asa‘safetyserved net’for expeditions. Whalers by thewhalingfleets.Indeedwhalersoften of several nationalitieswere active, often assisted and continuedto1987). Otherscientificexpeditions (whichassociated withtheindustry beganin1904 whaling fleetsandtoscientificinvestigations the SouthernOceanbelongedtoNorwegian World Wars, ofvessels themajority operatingin Thereafter, between theFirstandSecond WHALING PERIOD MECHANICAL AGE AND time. The menwere ashorewhen The difficult Ross also experienced Seaparty avery Elephant Island. theirordeal. All ofthemhadsurvived Yelcho to rescuethemenleft behindat Aurora was previously thought. The flight firsttrans-continental and notanisolatedelongate archipelago as peninsula isconnectedtothe restofthecontinent conclusively demonstratedthatthe Antarctic British Graham Land Expeditionof1934-37 The however.of thewhalingfleets,contributeddata and SouthOrkney Islands,aswell asmany vessels onSouth Georgia forestablished it.Observatories weregreat depression,no stations Antarctic but, owing toeconomicstringencyfollowing the International Polar Year was organized for 1932-33 A second and 1930-31). Expedition (1929-30 Australian andNew Zealand ResearchAntarctic two summersby SirDouglasMawson’s British Australian Antarctic Territory was mapped,during Much ofthecoastwhatwould laterbecome Maps andcharts continuedasteadyimprovement. age’ of exploration.Antarctic beginning ofwhathasbeentermedthe‘mechanical aspect,thisperiodincludedthe expeditionary Because ofthesedevelopments, fromthe whalers begantousethemfor whale-spotting. summer sixexpeditions usedaircraft andeven exploration andmappingthusduringthenext Wilkins. This development greatlyfacilitated inland Island on16 November 1928, by George Hubert than air)inthe wasAntarctic madefromDeception earliest useofpowered flight(by aircraft heavier parties remainedduring1929, 1934, and1940. The allcalled‘Littlestations, America’, wherewinter operations neartheBay of Whales inaseriesof sledge dogsremainedimportant). The former based methods for aerialand surface traverses (although Ellsworth. These successfullyusedmechanical several expeditions ledby Richard ByrdandLincoln generally. with The resumedactivity UnitedStates Discovery expedition aboard research. Duringtheperiod1925 to1927 aGerman vessels conductingsimilar British andNorwegian advanced greatlyduringthisperiodwith industry Southern Ocean,largelybecauseofthewhaling Biological andphysical oceanography ofthe farther south. several stopswere madeandhighrangesobserved to near‘Little America II’inlate1935 duringwhich was madeby LincolnEllsworth, fromDundeeIsland co-operative mappingand charting work. handbook. This formed thebeginningofmodern 1939, which was accompaniedby adetailed consolidated map,usingallsources available, in the Antarctic Australian government published a As a resultofvast improvements inmaps ofthe changed thecircumstances. occurring withthesecond World War greatly last events ofthisperiodbefore territorial conflicts claims, atthebeginningof1939 were someofthe cameintoforce).the treaty German Antarctic by formal definitions(amatter after ofimportance althoughthishasnotbeenfollowedUnited States forand LincolnEllsworth the claimedterritory and Australian claimswere defined. Admiral Byrd claims. British,New Zealand,French, Norwegian, period alsomadeitoneofincreasingterritorial The discoveries duringthisinter-bellum ofterritory approaches would have many resultsincommon). thewhales(althoughdifferentthan conserving rather theindustry but fromtheaspectofpreserving whaling regulationwere advanced duringthistime, oftheSouthernOcean.Earlyideas boundary Convergence andthusdelimitedthenorthern independently detectedthe Antarctic Meteor and aBritishoneaboard Amundsen threeAmundsen monthstocomplete 18years earlier. was 15hours51minutes. hadtaken The sametrip was18hours41minutes,trip which of theflighttime returned viaafueldump. The total time fortheround non-stop toapositionneartheSouthPole, andthen intheFord from LittleAmerica off Trimotor andflew On 29November fourmen, withByrd navigating, took buckled crust ratherthanvolcanic extrusions. deposits, andwere therefore partoftheEarth’s consistedofsandstone withcoal mountains thatthe interior discovery made thestartling missions. InNovember 1929 ageologicalparty groups undertookgeologicalstudies andcharting months resultinginnumerousdiscoveries. Other Several testflightswere madeintheensuing edge oftheice,andwas namedLittle America. Ross IceShelf14 kilometers(9miles)fromthe and morethan50men.Hisbasewas builtonthe Fairchild monoplanewithfolding wings),95dogs, aircraft (aFord Trimotor, aFokker Universal, anda Whales onChristmasDay in1928 withthree to give. Byrdarrived in attheBayAntarctica of with Roald ofadvice Amundsen, whohadplenty same attheSouthPole, anddiscussedtheproject flights inthe Arctic. Hewas determinedtodothe an accomplishedpolarpilot,having madeearly The American Richard EvelynByrd was already 39 SECTION 3: EXPLORERS AND SCIENTISTS 40 SECTION 3: EXPLORERS AND SCIENTISTS with himthistimeanexperimental vehicle calledthe exploration mappingwork. andimportant Hebrought to date,which accomplished furtherextensive Expedition,thelargest expeditionAntarctic Service Byrd returned againin1939 withtheUS Antarctic main basewhorescuedhim. peculiar radiomessagesalertedthemenat judgment andcouldhave proved fatal,buthis radio generatorandfaulty stove affected his hut’s ventilation. Carbon monoxide fumes fromthe nearly diedwhenthechimney froze andblocked the Hestayed thereforobservations. four months,but small hutsunkintheice,makingmeteorological (125 nauticalmiles)away fromLittle America ina Byrd himselfspentthewinteralone,230kilometers newand catalogued life forms, andmuch more. made comprehensive weather studies, found discovered andmappedvast new landareas, icesheet, measured thedepthofcontinental sections of wereAntarctica connected.Scientists proving forAntarctic, thefirsttimethattwo deal tohumankind’s scientificknowledge ofthe from Little America. This expedition addedagreat makingsledgetripsandaerialsurveys Antarctica, vehicles, andaircraft tocontinuehiswork in Byrd returned in1934 withsledges,tracked years earlier. had taken Amundsen threemonthstocomplete18 flight timewas 15 hours51minutes. The sametrip round tripwas 18 hours41minutes,ofwhich the then returned viaafueldump. The timefor total the flew non-stoptoaposition neartheSouthPole, and took off fromLittle America intheFord Trimotor and On 29November four men,withByrdnavigating, getting free. Island inthe Weddell Seafor several months before trapped by iceandhehadtoremainatSnow Hill the flightonthisoccasionaswell. Hisshipbecame pilot preventedweather conditionsandacontrary to flytherouteinoppositedirection.Butbad Returning laterthesameyear, Ellsworth planned ice floes.Hewas forced topostponehisepicflight. nearly destroyed theaircraft, which fell between two off, severe icemovements destroyed thecampand miles).Just kilometers(3,400 before5,500 hetook the Weddell Sea,andback, ofnearly adistance on theice.HeplannedtoflyfromRoss Seato the Bay of 1934Whales inJanuary andsetupcamp belt thatbelongedtohishero, Wyatt Earp,arrived at who habitually carried for goodluck anammunition and numeroussetbacks. Ellsworth, arathershy man expeditionsAntarctic before it,faced badweather Amundsen. This new project,like somany other the North Pole in1926 inanairshipwithRoald American millionaire.Hehadalreadyflown over continent madein1935 by explorationAntarctic was thefirstflightacross Another noteworthy of milestoneinthehistory landing sitetoLittle America. it traveled was 5kilometers(3miles)from the too weak tomove thevehicle insnow. The farthest tires provided toolittle tractionandthemotorswere a smallaircraft perched ontop.Unfortunately, the laboratory, machine shop,andadarkroom,had It was dieselpowered, withlivingquarters,a the wheelswere 3meters (10 feet) indiameter. Snow Cruiser. Itwas 17 meters(55feet) and long, Lincoln Ellsworth , an Ellsworth returned to Antarctica for a third time in Very soon after the war Operation Highjump, a November 1935 and set up camp at Dundee Island United Stares Navy expedition, was active during off the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula. On 23 the 1946-47 summer only but still remains the November, he and his new pilot, Herbert Hollick- largest exploratory venture to the continent. An Kenyon, finally took off on what was to be an eventful aircraft carrier and a submarine were used and some flight in a single-engined Northrop monoplane to 65 000 aerial photographs and 3260 meters of ciné Little America in the Ross Sea. The total flying time film taken, mainly of coastal regions. In total of 13 was 14 hours, but they had to make four stops along ships, 23 aircraft and about 4700 men were involved. the way, and on one occasion were trapped in their During the next summer ‘Operation Windmill’, tent for eight days by a blizzard. They ran out of fuel largely using helicopters, secured ground control just short of their goal and were forced to walk the for the new maps covering almost the entire coast. final 26 kilometers (16 miles) to Little America. Nevertheless, their 3,600-kilometer (2,000-mile) It was not until 1958 that the first overland trans- journey was a great achievement and showed continental expedition was made. The Commonwealth supreme courage. Trans-Antarctic Expedition, led by Vivian Fuchs and Sir Edmund Hillary (the New Zealander of Mount PERMANENT STATIONS Everest fame), was designed along the same lines as Shackleton’s unsuccessful expedition of 1914. The whaling period came rapidly to a halt after Hillary left from Scott Base on Ross Island with four German raiders captured or sank most of the tracked vehicles and four sledges to drive to the Pole, Antarctic whaling fleet in 1941 leaving only two land setting up supply and fuel depots along the way. stations operating, both on South Georgia. Thus the potential for military conflict became apparent even in Meanwhile, Fuchs’s group, which was the one to Antarctic regions. Chile in 1940 and Argentina in 1943 actually make the complete crossing, left the Ronne made territorial claims which conflicted with earlier Ice Shelf in the Weddell Sea with eight vehicles and ones and with each other. Thus a military and political two dog sledges. They had many problems with situation also became dominant in the region. Britain glacial crevasses and bad weather, and had to and Australia sent patrol ships and New Zealand abandon three of the vehicles. But the two parties established coast-watching parties on peri-Antarctic met at the South Pole on 19 January 1958, and islands. In 1944 Britain established stations in the proceeded to Scott Base via Hillary’s route. South Shetland Islands and on the continent (at Port Lockroy and Hope Bay); from this year Antarctica has The first International Polar Year was in 1882-83, been permanently inhabited. Immediately after the when 12 nations established 14 bases in polar war and before 1950 Argentine, Australia, Britain, regions to observe and study the Earth’s climate Chile, France, New Zealand, South Africa, and United and magnetism. It was such a success that it was States established winter stations on the continent or decided to repeat the exercise every 50 years. The islands, and most of these became permanent (or at second International Polar Year was held in 1932-33, least long-term) stations. SECTION 3: EXPLORERS AND SCIENTISTS SECTION 3: EXPLORERS

41 42 SECTION 3: EXPLORERS AND SCIENTISTS throughout theworld. Itincludedacooperative and 58), amajorevent inthedevelopment ofscience period was theInternationalGeophysical Year (1957- force occurred. At theendofthis resort tomilitary offailurepassionate; oneinstance ofdiplomacyand strongly involved andsomenationalpoliticsbecame territories were reinforced. Internationallaw was assertions ofnationalsovereignty over Antarctic This periodwas alsoonewhenpoliticaltension continues today. undertaken becamelong-terminnature and Not surprisingly, much oftheresearch thatwas established Vostok baseattheGeomagneticPole. Operation Deep-Freeze), andtheSoviet Union Base attheGeographicSouthPole (aspartof the established Amundsen-ScottUnited States were setuponvarious islands. Antarctic The onthecontinentandanothertwenty established at amaximum.Forty were scientificstations chosen for would IGYbecausesolaractivity be The periodJune 1957 -December1958 was in Union) agreedtosetupstations Antarctica. South andtheSovietAfrica, theUnitedStates, France, Japan, GreatBritain, New Zealand,Norway, countries (Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, emphasis would beonthe Antarctic. Twelve concentrated onthe Arctic, butthistimethe offered totakepart.Previous polaryears had enthusiastically received, andsome50countries International Geophysical Year. This ideawas 1950 thatthenext collaborationshouldbean Dr. Lloyd Berkner, aUSscientist,suggestedin that many felt were 50-year toolong. intervals but scientifictechniques were advancing sorapidly next 50years). (21 ofthemremainedcontinuouslyopenfor the which remainsthelargestnumberin Antarctic were 53stations openforIn total the1957 winter, for thepurpose. observatories that established existing in regionsandothers stations Antarctic which was undertakenby 12 countriessomewith coordinated concentratedresearch program INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION THE TREATY PERIOD AND PAX ANTARCTICA: Period’ was of onewhenthequotation Antarctica and adegreeofcontentiondeveloped. The ‘Treaty region, associatedthemselves withthe debates many othercountries,withlessinvolvement inthe Organization begantoconsider the and Antarctic in theregion.From 1983 theUnited Nations concern onlyofcountrieswhich hadexperience remained essentiallyspecialized andwas the For mostofthisperiodinvolvement inthe Antarctic major influenceon affairs.Antarctic into force in1961 andhassubsequently beena Africa, Soviet Itcame Union,andUnitedStates). Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand,Norway, South the (Argentina, Antarctic Australia, Belgium, Britain, Antarctic Treaty by thetwelve thenactive states in which, in1959, culminatedinnegotiationofthe with several otherfactors, promoteddiscussions Committee on ResearchAntarctic in1958. This, oftheSpecial(laterScientific) the establishment scientific cooperationin ingeneral,and Antarctica appreciation oftheefficiency ofinternational the International Geophysical Year was ageneral Antarctic Treaty. Oneoftheconsequences beganwiththe This divisionof history Antarctic and whena being thecontinentfor sciencewas essentiallytrue, became available for conversion to worksAntarctic former Soviet Union vessels, includingicebreakers, time wheninterestwas particularlyhigh,many and received aparticularstimuluswhen, atthe previously. Desireandinterestincreasedhowever, although several sporadicvisitshadbeenmade The oftourismhadbeguninl966, modernstyle wonders ofthefar southtolargeraudiences. films, andtelevision programsindicatedthe Public interestwas closebehindasmany books, Shetland Islands). research (particularlyontheSouth andobservations openin1989winter stations withredundancyin so duringthelate1980s; exemplified by the52 were majorsubjectsofconcern. This was especially consequent protectionoftheextreme environment resources, bothmineralandbiological,withthe response tothese. The exploitation of Antarctic Various nationallaws have beenenactedin andhortatory.various othertexts, bothmandatory the Antarctic Treaty, diverse ‘codesofpractice’, and manifested itselfasinstruments associatedwith vast increaseinregulation.Internationallythishas The pattern ofinformal cooperationgave way toa increased almostfour-fold (to45countriesin2006). complex asthemembershipof treaty Antarctic becamemore This periodof history Antarctic were mainlyassociated withthe‘coldwar’. deployments in regionsduringthisperiod Antarctic since 1944). The few strategic covert military continent, asaproportionofpopulation,especially hasbeenby farAntarctica themostmilitarized to prevail over the Treaty region(somewhat ironically Pax Antarctica Pax began, which continues recognize theclaimsofany othernation. therighttodosoinfuture),reserve anddonot any claimsoftheirown in (thoughtheyAntarctica years. The andRussia UnitedStates donotmake and have beenthecauseofsomedisputesover the The British, Argentine, andChileanclaimsoverlap, not reach theSouthPole) extending tothePole (thoughNorway’s claimdoes the Arctic, which delineateswedge-shaped pieces in accordance withthesectorprincipleestablished the UnitedKingdom(1908). The claimsarein New Zealand(1923), (1931 Norway and1939), and 1943), Australia (1933), Chile(1940), France (1924), parts of Antarctica: Argentina (claimextended in seven official countriesstillmaintain claimsupon occupation, andgeographicalcontiguity. Today, overAntarctica the years, basedupondiscovery, Many countries have madeterritorial claimsto become much lessdifficult). Union similarlycausedaccesstothe Arctic to changes (the fromthedissolutionofSoviet 43 SECTION 3: EXPLORERS AND SCIENTISTS FORTY-FIVE COUNTRIES HAVE SIGNED THE ANTARCTIC TREATY SINCE 1959. Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only... purposes Antarctica shallbeusedforpeaceful TREATY THE ANTARCTIC January toDecember1959.January Year ofInternationalGeophysical Cooperation,from cooperation. The IGYwas therefore followed by the convince thenationsinvolved tocontinuetheir stay in afterAntarctica thefinishofIGYhelped fact thatboththeUSSRandUSA intendedto New Zealand’s andMarieByrdLand. territory The Australian andtheUSA in Antarctica, builtstations Year apresencein theUSSRestablished of1957-58 initiative. ButduringtheInternationalGeophysical trust territory, thoughnothingcameofthatearly nations that bemadeaninternational Antarctica In 1948 theUSA proposedtotheseven claimant grown to more than 45 signatory states, by states, 2006. grown tomorethan45signatory IGY. The was treaty ratifiedon23 June 1961, andhas intheareaduring had operatedscientificstations Antarctic Treaty was signedby the12 nationswhich other peacefulactivities.On1December1959 the be opentoallnationsfor thepursuitofscientificand ItwasAntarctica. proposedthatthecontinentshould convened aconference todiscussthefuture of However, in April 1958 President Eisenhower 45 SECTION 4: THE ANTARCTIC TREATY 46 SECTION 4: THE ANTARCTIC TREATY disposal andmarinepollution have beenintroduced. impact assessments,andmany regulations onwaste now beplannedonthebasisofpriorenvironmental measures. other important All humanactivitiesmust prohibited. ButtheProtocol anumberof contains resources, otherthanscientificresearch, shallbe just 13 words: Any relating tomineral activity briefest ofallthe Articles intheProtocol, comprising on allmineralexploitation. This isreflectedinthe finally resultedintheinclusionofa50-year ban followed two years ofintensenegotiationswhich Protection tothe Antarctic Treaty. The Protocol (CCAMLR); andthe1991 Protocol onEnvironmental of MarineLivingResourcesConservation Antarctic Seals (CCAS); the1980 Convention onthe 1972 Convention for of theConservation Antarctic ResearchAntarctic in1958; (SCAR)established the System includestheScientificCommittee on process (Consultative Party). The Antarctic Treaty meetings, andthustake partinthedecision-making research intheregionmay participateinconsultative onlythosethatconductsignificantscientific State), andthusadheretoitsprinciples(Accedingtreaty the Antarctic Treaty. may signthe While any country In fact, therearetwo categoriesofmembership Sandwich Islands. Falklands, Malvinas,SouthGeorgia,andthe Sur (Argentina). The latter isdefinedtoincludethe de Tierra delFuego, eIslasdel Antartida Atlantico Ross Dependency (New Zealand),andtheProvincia for such entitiesastheBritish Antarctic Territory, the these territorial claimsby issuingnationallegislation do, however, theunderlyingexistence maintain of shelved their sovereignty claimsindefinitely. They that theclaimantnationshave, ineffect, frozen or aspectsofthe One ofthemostimportant Treaty is 2. 1. Articles 14 of The articlesmay besummarized as: consists Treaty Antarctic The 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. which may beneededtoward thatend. investigation, andany internationalcooperation There istobeafreedomofscientific assist inscientificandotherpeacefulprojects. equipment andpersonnelmay beusedto or weapons testingare permitted), butmilitary bases,fortifications, maneuvers,only (nomilitary shallbeusedforAntarctica peacefulpurposes of theirrespective governments. exchange programscomeunderthejurisdiction andscientificpersonnelin Designated observers time orplace. atany state vessels, etc.,ofany othersignatory equipment, inspect theactivities,stations, to may designateobservers Any signatory by theinternationallaw ofthesea) south of60°SLatitude (except whereprecluded The provisions applytothearea ofthistreaty wastes areprohibitedin Antarctica. Nuclear explosions andthedisposalofnuclear claims may isinforce. bemadewhilethetreaty rights orterritorial claims,andnonew such nationofpreviouslyby asserted any signatory This isnottobeinterpretedasarenunciation treaty economy ofoperations. permit maximumcooperation,efficiency, and results ofscientificwork, willbeexchanged to programs, aswell asscientificpersonnelandthe Information regarding scientific Antarctic 9. Representatives of all signatories shall meet THE ANTARCTIC TREATY at suitable intervals and places to exchange information, consult upon matters of common interest regarding Antarctica, and make Currently, the 45 signatories of the Antarctic recommendations concerning those matters Treaty are: to their respective governments. Argentina India 10. Appropriate efforts will be made to ensure Australia Italy no one engages in activities contrary to the Austria Japan principles or purposes of this treaty. Belgium Netherlands Brazil New Zealand 11. It is the responsibility of any signatories Bulgaria Norway involved in a dispute regarding this treaty to Canada Papua New Guinea consult among themselves peacefully in an Chile Peru attempt to resolve said dispute, and if this is China Poland not possible the matter is to be referred to the Colombia Romania International Court of Justice for arbitration. Cuba Russia

12. This treaty may be modified or amended at any Czech Republic Slovakia time by unanimous agreement of the signatories. Estonia South Africa North Korea Spain 13. This treaty is subject to ratification by all South Korea Sweden signatories, and is open for accession by any Denmark Switzerland state which is a member of the United Nations, Ecuador Turkey or any other state only by consent of all Finland Ukraine signatories. France United Kingdom Germany United States 14. This treaty is written in English, French, Russian, Greece Uruguay and Spanish, and these equally authentic Guatemala Venezuela versions are to be deposited in the Archives of Hungary the Government of the United States of America (each signatory is to be given a duly certified copy of the treaty). SECTION 4: THE TREATY ANTARCTIC

47 ICEBERG ......

“The land looks like a fairytale.” - Roald Amundsen continent itself, latitude. anditshighaltitude(southern) Ocean, seaice,Southern of theseasonalvariations theicesheetthatcovers the The mainfactorsinfluencingtheclimate Antarctica are of thewaters the of ENVIRONMENT THE PHYSICAL of theMississippi. timesthat times thatoftheGulfStream, and400 continuously onthemove withthiscurrent, four million cubicmetersofwater persecondare It hasbeenestimatedthatonaverage some130 (14,200 miles). stretching kilometers over ofsome24,000 adistance feet)surface meters(9,900 down toabout3,000 around Antarctica. This involves water fromthe of water tomove fromwest constantly toeastall the SouthernOcean. They causemassive amounts featuresCircumpolar Current, areoutstanding of and theassociated West Drift,Wind or Antarctic generally southof40°Slatitude. Westerly winds of Antarctica. The northernlimitofthisoceanis generally turbulent water surrounding thecontinent The SouthernOceanconsistsofabroadband THE SOUTHERN OCEAN THE SOUTHERN sea temperatures may beasgreat10°C (18°F). convergence. Duringwintermonthsthedifference in may dropfrom7°Cto3°C(45°F37°F) atthe During thesouthernsummer, theseatemperature Convergence, azone thatsurrounds thecontinent. or combinationsofthose. This delineatesthe Antarctic line ofturbulence, concentrationsoffeeding seabirds weather iscalmtheremay beasuddenfog bank,a changes inboththeoceanandatmosphere.If latitude. At that pointonecanusuallydetectsubtle sharp dropintemperature between 49and55°S A shipsailingsouthto willencountera Antarctica circulates intheform ofclockwise gyres. the Weddell, Bellingshausen, andRoss Seas,it where itisdeflectedby deepembayments, such as East thisisarelativelyAntarctica, narrow band,but East Drift.Wind Along much ofthecoast,particularly westward-flowing current closetothecontinent: Farther south,however, easterlywindscausea 49 SECTION 5: THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 50 SECTION 5: THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 8,000 meters (26,400feet)deep. sector,Atlantic located theScotiaArc, eastof is (9,900 feet)deep. inthe The deepesttrough around Antarctica ismore than3,000meters Antarctic waters deep. run Much thewater of around Antarctica is more than 3,000 meters around ismorethan3,000 Antarctica watersAntarctic run deep.Much ofthewater and indeedingoverning theclimateofplanet. oceanic circulationinthesouthern hemisphere, productivity. Itplays a majorroleininfluencing foron earthandisnotable itshighbiological thecoldestanddensestwateroceans. Itcontains million squaremiles)or10 percentoftheworld’s an areaofabout20millionsquarekilometers(52 referred toasthe Southern Ocean. This covers The water southoftheconvergence isoften across it. The speciesfound arequitedifferent asonetravels of plankton, ConvergenceAntarctic fish,andbirds. biological phenomenoninfluencingthedistribution of convergence anddistinctive isanimportant year toyear, oreven tocentury. century The zone line, butvaries slightlythroughouttheyear orfrom The locationoftheconvergence isnotaprecise surface temperature. to thenorth.Itisdefinedby adropinthesea cold, densewater dives beneaththewarmer waters water surface andthecoldantarctic water. Here between therelatively warm surface subantarctic The ConvergenceAntarctic isanatural boundary Antarctic Convergence meters (26,400 feet)meters (26,400 deep. sector, locatedeastoftheScotia Arc, is8,000 feet)(9,900 deep. The deepesttroughinthe Atlantic water fromtemperateandtropicalregions. two currents) andbringsnutrients andwarmer southward (replacingthewater losttotheother to thetropics,whilemiddlelayer flows coldwatersnorthward, fromthe carrying Antarctic upper andlower layers alsomove gradually eastward-flowing spiralsaround Antarctica. The layers aredriven by westerly windsinconstant, salinities, anddirectionsofflow. The threedistinct water masseswhich differ intheirtemperatures, because itiscomposedofthreedistinctlayers of The Oceanitselfisespeciallyinteresting Antarctic Layers Three Water caused by summermeltingofseaiceand icebergs. characterized by low temperature andlow salinity the convergence. The SurfaceAntarctic Water is at to about3°C(37°F)nearitsnorthernboundary but for ashorttimeinthesummeritmay warm up the continent.Inwinteritremainsbelow -1°C(30°F), This layer chilled isconstantly by iceandcoldairfrom bands ofsurface waters. surface water ispulledupbetween divergent southerly waters nearthecontinentwheresub- Divergence, which isanarrow zone inthemost and animals.Itoriginatesatthe Antarctic water which mostdirectlyaffects plants Antarctic The toplayer, or SurfaceAntarctic Water, isthe Antarctic Surface Water As the Antarctic Surface Water reaches the Antarctic ANTARCTICA Convergence it comes into contact with the warmer There is no single definition of the Antarctic, though and saltier Subantarctic Surface Water. There is very the phrase The Antarctic generally means the little mixing between these two bodies of water. At continent of Antarctica, together with its surrounding the point of contact the Antarctic water sinks below ice shelves, islands, and seas. In geopolitical terms, the Subantarctic water and continues spiraling the Antarctic encompasses the whole area south of northward with a new name, the Antarctic the 60th parallel, which is the area to which the Intermediate Current. This current cools the coasts Antarctic Treaty applies. of New Zealand, southern Australia, and many oceanic islands. It can still be detected north of the From a scientific point of view, the oceanographic equator in the Atlantic Ocean. and biological boundary formed by the Antarctic Convergence might be the most appropriate outer Warm Deep Water limit. The Antarctic Circle (at latitude 66°33’S) is not The middle water layer, or Warm Deep Current, is a very useful in this respect, since some parts of the southward flowing water mass originating from the continent itself are north of this line. surface waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and possibly Indian Oceans. This current wells up at the Antarctic Antarctica is the fifth largest continent with an area Divergence and is characterized by a high salinity of roughly 14 million square kilometers (5.4 million and relatively high temperature. When this water square miles). Most of this area, however, is made layer reaches the surface it becomes cooler. Some up by a vast permanent ice sheet averaging 2,450 of it takes on a lower salinity and begins to move meters (8,000 feet) in thickness. Only about one back northwards as the Antarctic Surface Water. percent of the total landmass is visible, as mountains and coastal features. The Antarctic Bottom Water The remainder of the Warm Deep Current water is pushed toward the continent where it becomes The Antarctic Ocean itself is especially interesting much colder. It then sinks down along the because it is composed of three distinct layers of continental slope and flows away from Antarctica water masses which differ in their temperatures, along the ocean floor in a northward direction as the salinities, and directions of flow. lower layer, or Antarctic Bottom Water. This water has a low temperature (-0.5°C or 31°F) and high salinity, and spreads very far into the Atlantic and The continent is divided into two parts. The largest, Pacific Oceans carrying south polar water into the semi-circular part is called Greater Antarctica, and northern hemisphere. much of its edge lies conveniently along the Antarctic Circle in the Atlantic, Indian, and western Pacific Ocean sectors. The curved tail, which is made up of an expanded land mass at its base known as Lesser SECTION 5: THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT THE PHYSICAL SECTION 5:

51 52 SECTION 5: THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT exposed rocky shores. on thePacific Oceanside,where oneencounters of icecliffs, buttherearesomeareas,particularly active glaciers.Mostofthecoastactually consists topped by aniceplateauandsculptedby many the otherhand,isalongchain ofalpinemountains, through thiscovering. The Peninsula,Antarctic on project areasjaggedmountains some coastal Greater ismostlycoveredAntarctica by ice,butin Pacific Oceansector. of South America andislocatedintheeastern kilometers (744 miles)towards thesoutherntip Peninsula,Antarctic extends some1,200 andalongnarrowAntarctica partnamedthe on the Weddell Seato Victoria LandontheRoss miles)fromCoats Land kilometers(2,500 4,000 systemmountain in stretchesAntarctica for some The Transantarctic themostextensive Mountains average elevation oflessthanhalfthat. while theiceplateauofLesser hasan Antarctica height of4,095meters(13,780 feet) atDone Argus, covering mostofGreater reachesAntarctica a feet), butmostaresmotheredby ice. The icesheet are manymeters(10,000 over mountains 3,000 coast ofthe Weddell SeainLesser Antarctica. There 16,050 feet) intheEllsworth alongthe Mountains is thepeakof Vinson Massif(4,892metersor highest oftheworld’s continents. The highestpoint Taking theicesheetintoaccount, isthe Antarctica The HighestContinent and sculpted bymanyactive glaciers. The Antarctic Peninsula, ontheotherhand, isalongchainalpinemountains, of toppedbyaniceplateau by approximately 1,000 metersandLesserby approximately 1,000 removed completely, Greater wouldAntarctica rise to somestudies, iftheicecovering were tobe the sheerweight oficelyingabove it. According been depressedby several hundredmetersdueto It appearsthatmuch ofthe bedrockAntarctic has meters(13,100than 4,000 feet) thick. the weight oftheoverriding ice,which canbemore bedrock hasbeendepressedwell below sea level by level. InsomeareasofGreater the Antarctica thickness. The underlyingbedrock isalmostatsea sea level ontopofalayer oficeaboutthatsame Pole itselfislocated2,835meters(9,240feet) above some ofthethickest iceonthecontinent. The South low-lying plainsandbasins,which arecovered by Between thesevast rangesareextensive mountain word ofInuitorigin. cliffs inthe iceonly. These a arecallednunataks, sectors which appearasisolatedpeaksandrock areasofthe coastal Atlantic andIndianOcean sheet. There areotherhugerangesalongthe by iscompletelyoverwhelmed theice Antarctica rangeinGreater Another enormousmountain Ross IceShelf. override therangeandeventually mergeinto the huge icesheet.However, glaciersmanageto kilometers (1,240miles)whereitholdsback the central sectionisexposed for nearly2,000 Sea, ontheoppositesideofcontinent. The Antarctica by 500 meters. At the same time, the Lesser Antarctica water produced by melting ice would raise the level Lesser Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula are of the Earth’s oceans by about 60 meters (200 feet), much younger, dating from only about 200 million flooding huge areas of the world. years ago. Together they consist primarily of two separate mountain ranges made up of GEOLOGY metamorphosed sedimentary rocks which were formed in deep sea and contain beds of volcanic Antarctica’s geology has not been studied in nearly ash and lava intrusions. The alpine mountain range such great detail as other parts of the world, for the forms the Antarctic Peninsula and extends from the very good reason that so little of its surface is free peninsular tip to Lesser Antarctica, but disappears from permanent ice. Only in the last few decades under the ice of Ellsworth Land and Marie Byrd have seismic and radio-echo sounding techniques Land where it becomes much more widespread. enabled scientists to obtain an idea of what lies Many of the mountains in this range extend above beneath the ice. the ice and form the isolated peaks and outcrops which are seen today in Lesser Antarctica. Greater Antarctica Greater Antarctica is basically a giant shield of Many of these mountains are small, detached metamorphic rocks dating from Precambrian and crustal plates that were probably once parts of the early Paleozoic times, as much as 3,800 million larger super-continent called Gondwana. A second years ago. This basement rock contains more recent line of mountains runs along the north-western intrusions, and is overlain by sedimentary rocks in coast of the peninsula which forms Adelaide Island, many areas. Basement rocks are exposed in Queen the Biscoe Islands, the Palmer Archipelago, and the Maud Land and the coastal mountains in the Indian South Shetland Islands. Ocean sector. The younger sedimentary rocks, or Beacon Series, were formed from marine muds, A chain of islands and the connected sea floor estuarine and fresh water deposits, shales, coal ridges link the South Shetland Islands with the measures, and desert sandstones dating from 400 South Orkney Islands, the South Sandwich Islands, to 200 million years ago. South Georgia, and the South American continental shelf. This area is referred to as the Scotia Arc, The Beacon Series is about 2,500 meters (8,250 which has a long history of volcanic activity and feet) thick, and is best seen in the Transantarctic earth movements. Here the Earth’s crust is divided Mountains which were uplifted within the last 35 into a complex series of tectonic plates. million years. One can see within this sandstone numerous layers of dark dolerite which were The mountains of Lesser Antarctica display a injected long after the sandst one was formed. The tremendous amount of deposition, folding, uplifts, fossils of freshwater fish, reptiles, and certain kinds and erosion starting in Precambrian times. During of vegetation confirm that this area was once the late Cretaceous or early Tertiary (70 to 60 million located in a temperate region. years ago) violent upheavals and volcanic activity SECTION 5: THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT THE PHYSICAL SECTION 5:

53 54 SECTION 5: THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT Amongst fossil findsareanextinct marsupialcalled form thesuper-continent known asGondwana. regions may have beenjoinedtogetherinthepastto evidence drift, ofcontinental andreveal how allthese South America, Tasmania andotherareasprovide Fossils found inthe Peninsula,Antarctic southern Island andMountMelbournein Victoria Land) areas ofvolcanic(MountErebusonRoss activity butitdoeshave confined more stable, two very experiences earthquakes. Greater is Antarctica and much ofLesser stillcommonly Antarctica (Zavodovski) arevolcanically active even today, Deception Island)andtheSouthSandwich group Several islandsintheSouthShetlands(e.g. continued untilabout35to40millionyears ago. Scotia Arc. This pronouncedvolcanic activity lifted boththearchipelago andtheislandsof force oftheEarth’s magneticfieldconverge. The The MagneticSouth Pole poles which areofinterest toscientists. geographical poles).Buttherearethreeother line, oraxis,drawn between thenorthandsouth Earth’s arounda axis(theEarthrotates rotational Pole conversation isinfact the The SouthPole thatisreferred toineveryday Four Different Poles Polydops monkey-puzzle tree(anative ofChile). today in Tierra delFuego and Tasmania), andthe trees similartothesouthernbeech (which isfound trees. Fossilized pollengrainshave beenfound from penguin species,treeferns, andcycads like palm , which isthesouthernmostendof (also known fromPatagonia), extinct Geographical South is wherethelinesof longitude 54°58’E,alsointhe Australian sector. the coasts.Itislocatedatlatitude 82°05’S, of thecontinentasmeasuredbyfrom itsdistance The Pole ofRelativeInaccessibility Russian Vostokstation. longitude 111°E, inthe Australian sectionnearthe magnetic field.Itislocatedatlatitude 78°30’S, definition usedtorationalize variations intheEarth’s The GeomagneticSouth Pole station. oftheDumontD’Urville the generalvicinity Adélie Land,intheFrench sectorof in Antarctica, magnetic southpoleiscurrently (1997) locatedoff when interpretingtheircompassreadings. The have totakeintoaccountthismagneticvariation Earth’s magneticfield.Ship’s navigation officers kilometersperyear, duetovariations inthe 10-20 moving,byposition ofthispoleisconstantly some Year of1957-58. Nowadays, meteorological and activities surrounding theInternationalGeophysical term scientificresearch andespeciallythe stations, ofthefirstlong- untiltheestablishment really start studies did not long-term recent, anddetailed, Knowledge of Antarctica’s climateisrelatively CLIMATE geographical poles). or axis, andsouth drawn thenorth between rotational rotates axis(theEarth around a line, Pole, theEarth’s which endof isthesouthernmost conversation isinfacttheGeographical South The SouthPole toineveryday thatisreferred is atheoretical is thecenter related research is an important part of the work creates its own wind systems. Cold dense air sometimes the main work of almost every station essentially slides from the high interior ice fields in the region and data are accumulating rapidly. towards the lower areas along the coasts. At the edges of the ice plateau the winds accelerate, The main factors influencing the climate of thereby lifting and blowing clouds of snow high into Antarctica are the waters of the Southern Ocean, the air. The strongest winds are habitually found on the seasonal variations of sea ice, the ice sheet the long coastal slopes of Greater Antarctica. that covers the continent itself, and its high altitude and high (southern) latitude. There are considerable Some coastal areas endure almost constant strong climatological differences between the sea, the winds, whereas other areas may be quite calm much coast, and the interior. For instance, the Southern of the time and then suddenly experience hurricane Ocean has most clouds, followed by Lesser force winds as air rushes down through glacial Antarctica, while Greater Antarctica, with its high, valleys. These winds are called katabatic, or down arid plateau, has the least cloud cover. The key points slope, winds. to bear in mind are that Antarctica is extremely cold, dry, and windy, with little precipitation. The famous Australian explorer Douglas Mawson established a base at Cape Denison, Commonwealth The Coldest Continent Bay, in 1912 and recorded wind speeds for two First, Antarctica is the coldest continent. Mean years. This is reputed to be the windiest place on temperatures in the interior during the coldest month Earth, because the average wind speed during that (August) range from -40 to -70°C (-40 to -94°F) and in period was 72 kph (45 mph), and gusts of more than the warmest month (February) range from -15 to 240 kph (150 mph) were common. Nevertheless, -45°C (5 to -49°F). The lowest outdoor temperature wind speeds have been observed to drop very ever recorded on Earth is -89.2°C (-129.3°F), which significantly just a few miles away from the coast. was recorded in 1983 at the Russian Vostok station on the ice sheet. At sea level, Antarctic temperatures are Visitors to Antarctica should be aware that katabatic some 10 to 17°C (50 to 63°F) colder than the Arctic. winds can occur quite suddenly, and with little warning, but then die down again just as quickly. Nevertheless, there are considerable variations. At They create dramatically low effective temperatures, the sub-Antarctic islands, for example, temperatures due to the wind-chill factor. may range from about -40°C in midwinter (August) to 14°C in January or February (-40 to 57°F). In the Southern Ocean, strong gale-force winds are quite common, especially in the region between The Windiest Continent 40 - 60S. These cyclonic storms are caused by Antarctica is also the windiest of the continents. extremely cold air coming from Antarctica meeting Apart from global wind currents, Antarctica actually the relatively warm and moist air over more northerly SECTION 5: THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT THE PHYSICAL SECTION 5:

55 56 SECTION 5: THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT Antarctica fromwestAntarctica toeast. of theDrake Passage. The stormstendtocircle seas. This accountsfor thefearsome reputation average summertemperature is nearfreezing. can seemalmosttoowarm towear aparka. The weather atany time,itissurprisinghow often it Although visitorsshouldbepreparedfor cold islandsand Peninsula.subantarctic Antarctic andthesunevenAntarctica shinesamongthe sunny days arerathercommoninGreater PeninsulaAntarctic arequiteprotected.Likewise, summer months. The narrow waterways ofthe quite easy, andsevere stormsareinfrequentinthe course. CrossingsoftheSouthernOceanmay be badweatherto experience very asamatter of to the PeninsulaAntarctic regionneednotexpect Despite whathasbeensaidinthissection,visitors maritimeclimate. sometimes quiteheavily –atypical Here andintheSouthShetlandIslandsitmay rain, centimeters (35inches) ofwater equivalent each year. precipitation. The tipofthepeninsulareceives about90 of the Peninsula,Antarctic receive much more areas,particularlythewestBut somecoastal side that oftheSaharaDesert. water equivalent, which isjustslightlymorethan continent amountsto15 centimeters(6inches) of years. The meanannualaccumulationfor theentire the polaricesheethasaccumulatedover millionsof the vast amount oficeandsnow which make up littlevery each precipitation year intheinterior, and definition, mostofthecontinentisadesert. There is Surprisingly, isthedriestcontinent.By Antarctica The DriestContinent however, notoften easytosee. of theauroraborealisornorthernlights.Itis, phenomenon isthesouthernhemisphereequivalent australis, orsouthernlights. This electromagnetic atmospheric sightistheincrediblybeautifulaurora are alsocommon.Perhaps themostremarkable by therefractionoflightonlayers ofhotandcoldair above thehorizon. Mirages,caused between 15-20° are bestseenwhenthesunormoonis above thehorizon. These occurrences spectacular of three‘suns’ orthree‘moons’ inaparallelline suspended intheair. They resultintheappearance sun orthemoononwater dropletsoricecrystals caused by refractionandreflectionoflightfromthe phenomena which shouldbementioned.Halosare There aresome interestingatmospheric Atmospheric Phenomena near June 21.) that therelevant datetothe Arctic Circleisonor occurs inthenorthernhemisphere, ofcourse,so day. (Anexactly thesame,butopposite,process south ofthe CircletoexperienceAntarctic a24-hour after December21,you would needtosailfarther soifyou reachdescending, thisregionbefore or climbing toward itszenith, andafterwards itis the horizon. Before thatdate,theSunisstill December 21,whenitisatitshighestpointabove 24 hoursaday atthesummersolstice,onornear northernmost pointatwhich thesunisvisiblefor Earth wobbles aboutitsaxis.). The circlemarksthe slightlyfrom yearposition varies to year, very asthe The Circleislocatedatabout66°33’S(its Antarctic summer months,thedays getprogressively longer. daylight. As you travel farther southintheaustral the Circleanditsrelationtothehoursof Antarctic thesignificanceof It isinterestingtounderstand THE ANTARCTIC CIRCLE ICEBERGS, GLACIERS AND SEA ICE Pack Ice Fast ice breaks apart and forms ice floes during Sea water freezes at about -1.8°C (28.8°F), normal summers, and these floes are moved depending upon its salinity; the greater the salt around by currents until they accumulate and cover concentration, the lower the temperature at which large areas as pack ice. Polynias, or open water it freezes. It is interesting to note, however, that ice areas, form offshore when winds and/or currents which forms slowly on the sea surface under calm disperse the pack ice. Near the continent, the pack conditions is generally not salty. Salt molecules in ice drifts in a westerly direction, but further away solution tend to concentrate in the remaining liquid the drift is in an easterly direction. as the ice crystals form.

Pack ice areas are difficult to predict, but The sea surface around Antarctica freezes each concentrations generally occur in the Weddell Sea, winter, forming a layer of ice 1-3 meters (3-10 feet) Ross Sea, and off the Pacific Ocean sector of thick and extending 100-200 kilometers (60-120 Lesser Antarctica. The northern limit for the pack ice miles) offshore. Ice crystals start to appear as the varies, but in winter and early spring it may extend surface water cools and approaches the freezing about 800 kilometers (500 miles) from the coast in temperature. In calm conditions, the crystals join some areas. At this time of year it encloses an area together, thicken, and form a fibrous structure of approximately 19 million square kilometers (11.8 called young ice or frazil. million square miles); however, by March, at the end of the summer, the action of waves, currents, and Very often a slight swell occurs which causes the melting has shrunk it again to a mere 4 million young ice to break apart into small sections which square kilometers (2.5 million square miles). then continue to bump and grind against one another. This action forms roughly circular bits This enormous seasonal process effectively of thin ice with raised edges called pancake Ice. doubles the area of the Antarctic ice blanket during the southern winter from 18 to 34 million As time progresses and air temperatures remain square kilometers (11.2 to 21.1 million square low, more crystals form and the pancakes eventually miles). It has a major effect on world climate by freeze together to create a solid layer several increasing the amount of reflection of incoming centimeters thick. Continued cold temperature radiant energy from the Sun, and reducing its causes this layer to become attached to the shore penetration into the sea. and it is termed fast ice. Fast ice generally lasts throughout the winter. Ocean currents, storms, and The rate of accumulation of sea ice in autumn and tidal movements tend to buckle and crack the fast winter (February - September) is much slower than ice; this process produces open water areas and the rate of decay (October - January). It seems gives access and breathing places for penguins, possible, noted British biologist Richard Laws, that seals, whales, etc. the layers of pigmented algae found in sea ice may, by absorbing solar radiation in summer, accelerate SECTION 5: THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT THE PHYSICAL SECTION 5:

57 58 SECTION 5: THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT seaward face ofaniceshelfistermedthefront. mthick1,000 nearitssouthern boundary. The thickness, whereasthevast Ross IceShelfisupto min 300 - glaciers. Smalliceshelves arefrom50m of snow andoften by theseaward extension ofland are floatingicesheetsnourishedby theaccumulation years may becomepartofaniceshelf. Iceshelves then calledbay ice.Bay ice which persistsfor several ice toremaininplacefor morethanoneyear. Itis In someareasacoldspringseasonmay allow fast world’s climate. of theinfluenceamicroscopiclife form onthe its disappearance.Ifso,itisaremarkableexample Sound (above thenorthernendof Antarctic are pushednorth-westward throughthe Antarctic Others, onthewestern sideofthe Weddell Sea, away inthegeneral directionofSouthGeorgia. and laterby the West DriftWind eventually move Weddell Sea‘bergscarried by theEast Drift,Wind which ejectsiceintothe Weddell Sea.Someofthe is largerthanSpain,ortheFilchner-Ronne IceShelf, massive iceshelves like theRoss IceShelf, which Most ofthesegiganticicebergscomefrom and somewere stillintheRoss Seasixyears later. pieces withinafew months,thesedrifted westwards large Although itbroke intosmallerbutstillvery of 10,800 squarekilometers(4,170 squaremiles). long andupto40km(25miles)wide,withanarea in March Itwas initially286km(178 2000. miles) iceberg ever recordedcalved fromtheRoss IceShelf ten years before meltingorbreakingup. The largest may drift far fromtheirbirthplaceandlastfor upto largeindeed. andcanbevery topped (tabular) They Icebergs calve fromicefrontsandaregenerallyflat- Tabular Icebergs “Iceberg Alley” for thisreason. Peninsula).The SoundhasbeennicknamedAntarctic its centerofgravity. the iceberghasmelted,andthentiltedasitadjusts oblique water-lines atdifferent levels show where and aircontentoftheice).Sometimeshorizontal or itscolor(whichobserving dependsonage,density, Indications ofaniceberg’s canbegleanedby history quarter oftheirvolume above water. andone- Most icebergshave between one-sixth are known as “bergy bits.” meters (16 feet) above thesurface. Lesser bergs square feet) morethanfive inarea,andstand measure morethan100 squaremeters(1,100 definition, however, anicebergissupposedto shelves, orglaciers,andfloatinthesea.By which have broken (calved) off theicesheet, for icebergsaresimply piecesofice,largeorsmall, such hugeproportions.Somearemuch smaller, in Scandinavian andGermaniclanguages)areof Not all icebergs(“berg”meansmountain Antarctic Smaller Icebergs greatly extends theirfeeding ranges. the edgeofpack icefor therestof theyear. It breed onland,duringthesummer, butthey live on strong enough(in April). The otherpenguinsall winter, andform coloniesassoontheiceis year. EmperorPenguins breed onfast iceinthe are alsodependentuponiceduringmuch ofthe and Weddell sealsoften spendtimeashore,they on oraboutthepack ice,andalthoughleopardseals with seaice.CrabeatersealsandRoss sealslive Most animalsof areadaptedtoliving Antarctica Animals andIce Many other seabirds use the ice for roosting, as 20°C to about 10°C (68°F to 50°F) during this well as a base for hunting. On the other hand, the period. The drop was probably caused by changes presence of ice discourages plants and animals in the distribution of land masses and open water from settling in shallow coastal waters and intertidal in the polar regions themselves. zones. Algae, seaweeds, marine worms, sponges, sea stars, brittle stars, sea urchins, etc., flourish The composition of the polar regions has changed lower down on the continental shelf where ice does considerably in the last 200 million years because not scour the sea bed. the continents have shifted their relative positions through plate tectonics. Scientists calculate that Sea ice prevents the ocean waters from warming the polar regions did not become frigid enough the coasts significantly. It is important to note that for permanent ice formation until continental islands within the limits of winter pack ice (such as land masses or land-locked seas disrupted the the South Shetlands and South Orkneys) compare movements of polar ocean currents. While the closely with the continent in seasonal temperatures, poles were located in open water, major ocean soil types, flora, and fauna. Islands located outside currents moved relatively warm waters from low the range of the pack ice (such as South Georgia latitudes into higher latitudes, which would have and Macquarie) have permanent open waters, dispersed seasonal sea ice before it had a chance milder winters, longer growing periods, and much to become permanent. more diversified and advanced flora, and to a great extent, a different fauna. Today, the North Pole is located in the Arctic Ocean which is surrounded by the North American The Antarctic Ice Sheet and Eurasian continents, and ice is present year Throughout most of the Earth’s history, not only round because there is very little mixing with have the differences between polar, temperate, warm water currents and it cannot drift away. The and tropical climactic zones been much less South Pole, however, is situated on the Antarctic distinct than they are today, but also the polar continent, which not only prevents warm waters regions were free from permanent ice. But the from reaching it, but the high elevation of the poles have always received their quota of the sun’s continent is even more conducive to the formation radiant energy at a low angle, and therefore have of permanent ice. The process is self-perpetuating always been cooler than the equatorial region. because the shiny white surfaces of snow fields Why, then, are things so different today? and sea ice reflect solar radiation and prevent normal seasonal warming trends. In fact, except The polar ice sheets developed after a long period for a brief period during the height of summer, the when the Earth was gradually getting cooler. This center of the Antarctic continent radiates more cooling began some 150 million years ago and heat than it receives from the sun. continued until about three million years ago. Scientists have determined that the mean surface temperature of the planet dropped from about SECTION 5: THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT THE PHYSICAL SECTION 5:

59 60 SECTION 5: THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT which indicatesaformer edge oftheicemantle. waters asmuch meters(1,650feet) as500 deep, miles)offshore -185 andin kilometers(60 -300 100 continent issurrounded by aridgeofmorainesome now highabove thesurface oftheice.Much ofthe ice-caused scratches peakswhich onmountain are occurred however, asshown by glacialmorainesand Minor changes inthe icesheethaveAntarctic sheet hasremainedrelatively stable. during thelastmillionyears, butthe ice Antarctic fluctuated considerablyinthenorthernhemisphere Greenland, andIceland. The icecapshave covered ofNorth themountains America, appeared incentralEuropeand Asia, andalso and threemillionyears ago–whenpermanentice hemisphere begansomewhat later–between two interesting tonotethattheiceageinnorthern sheet were felt throughouttheworld, butitis The effects oftheformation ofthe ice Antarctic marked thebeginning ofthecurrent iceage. Antarctic icebergs. These spreadaroundthecontinent,and glaciers reached toproduce thecoastandstarted but by four millionyears agothefirst Antarctic region asrecentlyfive tosixmillionyears ago, temperate climatespersistedinthesouthpolar We know fromgeologicalevidence thatcold Antarctic Glaciers change size asaresult. The northern icesheets and contractconsiderably, allowing itsicemantleto would have caused thecoastof to expandAntarctica generated by glaciationsinthenorthern hemisphere climatic fluctuations, butchanges inworld sealevels have protecteditfromchanges causedby minor The massive bulkoftheicesheetprobablywould Still inanIce Age is blown outtosea. of icebergs,meltingorsublimation,andsnow that it losesaboutthesameamountthroughcalving (480 cubicmiles)ofnew snow andice.However, each yearcubickilometers itreceives some2,000 30 millioncubickilometers(7,200 cubicmiles)and of allthefreshwater on Earth.Itsvolume isabout of theworld’s ice,representingabout70percent The about90percent icesheetcontains Antarctic hand, isstilldeepinitsiceage. consist oftundra ontheother andtaiga. Antarctica, since uncovered vast areasoflandwhich now years ago,andhavebegan retreatingabout20,000 than the United States of than theUnited States America. above nowAntarctica covers anareagreater insize about 1976. At itsmaximum,theannual ozone hole layer above hadincreased greatlysince Antarctica organization reportedthatthe thinningoftheozone September toNovember. The Cambridge-based lower atmosphere)above intheperiod Antarctica of ozone (aform ofoxygen which israreinthe have beenkept therehasbeenadramaticdepletion conditions begunin1957. Each year sincerecords results ofacontinuingstudy of atmospheric Antarctic In 1985 theBritish publishedthe Survey Antarctic lasts five months. (which isconsiderablycolderduringitswinter)it lasts abouttwo months,butabove theSouthPole their coldest. At theNorthPole thephenomenon is mostcompletewhentheairtemperatures areat atmosphere duringthewintermonths. The isolation to isolatetheairtherefromrestofEarth’s shifts inwindpatterns above bothpolesthattend Atmospheric studies have shown thereareregional THE OZONE HOLE Ozone is found in small amounts in the A GLOSSARY OF ICE TERMS stratosphere. It is, however, very important to life because ozone shields the Earth from lethal Anchor ice: Submerged ice that is attached to ultraviolet, or UV, radiation. This radiation can be the sea bed. divided into UV-A radiation and UV-B radiation, Bay ice: Fast ice that remains in place for more based upon their respective wavelengths (with than one year. UV-B composed of shorter wavelengths). UV-B is Bergy-bit: A piece of floating ice, generally less the more harmful with regard to life. In humans than 5 meters above sea level, and not more than it causes sunburn and skin cancer, and has been about 10 meters across. It is generally of glacier linked to cataract formation. It is also harmful to ice, but may be a massive piece of sea ice. plants, ranging from bacteria to food crops. Bergschrund: A crevasse at the head of a valley glacier that separates the ice from the rock Recent studies carried out at the United States behind it. Palmer Station on Anvers Island, in Antarctica, Brash ice: Accumulations of floating ice made up suggest that increased UV-B radiation reduces the of fragments not more than 2 meters across. photosynthetic productivity of phytoplankton. Calve: When a block of ice breaks away from a Smaller species (diatoms) within the phytoplankton glacier, an ice front, or an iceberg. may be killed. Any such change affecting the base Cirque: The hollowed or rounded recess occupied, of the simple Antarctic food chain could have far- or more usually once occupied, by a glacier on a mountain side. reaching effects upon the entire ecosystem. Similar studies have shown increased UV-Bradiation kills at Crack: A fracture in floating sea ice, narrow least some species of copepods (tiny planktonic enough to jump across. crustaceans), but it is not yet known what long-term Crevasse: Fissure formed in a glacier, sometimes effect it may have upon krill. covered by a snow bridge. Fast Ice: Sea ice attached to land.

Although a variety of gases are involved, chlorine is Floe: A piece of floating sea ice other than fast the major cause of the breakdown of ozone. Most ice or glacier ice. of this chlorine reaches the upper atmosphere from Frazil: Fine spicules or plates of ice in suspension the release of man-made chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) in water. chemicals used as coolants in refrigerators and air Glacier: A mass of snow and ice continuously conditioners, as solvents, as plastic foam, and as moving from higher to lower ground or, if afloat, propellants in aerosol sprays. continuously spreading. The principal forms are: ice sheets, ice shelves, ice streams, ice caps, ice piedmonts, and valley glaciers. While studies in the Antarctic provided the first definite warning of what was happening, it has Growler: A piece of ice awash, smaller than a bergy-bit. Growlers can be dangerous, because since been found that the ozone layer suffers they are difficult to detect on ships’ radar. periodic thinning over the Arctic, and to a lesser extent elsewhere. Much international effort has SECTION 5: THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT THE PHYSICAL SECTION 5:

61 gone into reducing the global production and use A GLOSSARY OF ICE TERMS of CFCs and related chemicals.

Hanging valley: Side valley isolated by a large glacier moving along a newly formed valley at GLOBAL WARMING its base. Most of the radiant energy from the sun which Ice blink: Silvery-white glare caused by the reaches the Earth is reflected or radiated back reflection of distant pack ice on the clouds. into space. Certain gases in the lower atmosphere, Ice Shelf: A floating ice sheet of considerable such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane, thickness attached to a coast. Ice shelves are trap some of the heat before it escapes completely. usually of great horizontal extent and have a level The effect of these gases is similar to that of glass or gently undulating surface. They are nourished windows in a greenhouse, and is in fact often by the accumulation of snow and often by the seaward extension of land glaciers. referred to as the Greenhouse Effect. This trapped heat is necessary to keep the Earth’s climate warm Lead: Navigable passage between ice floes. enough for life to exist. But there must be a Moraine: Ridge or deposit of rocky debris carried balance to ensure the Earth neither cools nor along by a glacier; a terminal moraine marks the farthest advance of a glacier, which is then left warms too much. behind when the glacier melts and retreats.

Nunatak: A rocky spur or mountain peak projecting The greenhouse gases have been steadily increasing from and surrounded by a glacier or ice sheet. for the past 200 years, since the beginning of the

Pack ice: Any area of sea ice other than fast ice. Industrial Revolution. Carbon dioxide, the most abundant trace gas in our atmosphere, has increased Polynia: Russian word meaning a patch of open water in sea ice. more than 25 percent in this period. It is produced through the burning of wood and fossil fuels, such as Pressure ridge: Ridge formed on sea ice by coal and petroleum products. It is also released by pressure of one ice floe on another by tidal or current movements. volcanoes, oceans, and decaying plants. There is no doubt that the massive clearing and burning of Sea ice: Any form of ice found at sea which has originated from the freezing of sea water. tropical rainforests occurring today is releasing an increasingly significant amount of carbon dioxide Shelf ice: Fast ice which has remained attached to land for a period of years, or the seaward into the atmosphere. extension of a glacier. Shelf ice may be floating or may be grounded on the bottom. Methane, the second most abundant greenhouse Tabular berg: An iceberg that is flat-topped and gas, is produced as a byproduct of the more or less parallel with the waterline, and with decomposition of organic material. The most no evidence of having rolled over. Formed by common known sources are swamps, rice paddies, calving off an ice shelf. livestock (especially cud-chewing animals), termites, Young ice: First stage in the formation of sea ice, and the use of natural gas. The concentration of when ice crystals start to appear in calm water methane is growing at about one percent per year. and join together. SECTION 5: THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT THE PHYSICAL SECTION 5:

62 The concentration of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in Ships making cruises to and from Antarctica often the atmosphere is small by comparison, but these sail along the Beagle Channel, near the tip of South compounds are thousands of times more potent in America. There has been a very noticeable retreat of absorbing heat. They are man-made chemicals and the glaciers lining the north shore of the Beagle in are also implicated in another potentially serious the past decade. climatic problem, the depletion of the ozone layer. It has been estimated that the present concentration Most scientists consider that human activities now of greenhouse gases may double sometime in the contribute significantly to the Earth’s heat budget. 21st century, and could raise the average We may well have started a global warming trend temperature of the earth by as much as 5°C (9°F). which is irreversible, at least not without drastic changes in our present way of life. The interaction of climatic forces is not completely understood, so it is not yet possible to determine the One study, published in 1990, concluded that to overall effect of the increasing release of greenhouse halt the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide in gases. The average temperature of the Earth has our atmosphere we must end the production of increased by 0.5°C (1°F) during the past 100 years, CFCs by the year 1995, halt the net deforestation and six of the warmest years ever recorded were in worldwide by the year 2000, and reduce the the 1980s. These figures do not tell the whole story, energy-related emissions of carbon dioxide to only however, because there have been warming trends 30 percent of today’s amount by the year 2030. followed by cooling trends in the past. None of this has happened.

Polar scientists are at the forefront of this research. While precise figures are lacking, and there is much It has been suggested that the vast increases in disagreement about the finer details, it is clear that populations of Chinstrap Penguins and fur seals in if the Earth’s average temperature rises just a few the past couple of decades may be due in part to degrees, both the Greenland and Antarctic ice the possibility that there is now less sea ice (or sheets would certainly be affected. If the Antarctic rather, more open water). Both of these species Ice Sheet were to melt completely, rising sea levels may act as indicator species regarding global would flood most coastal cities and displace about warming because they spend the winters primarily half the world’s human population. in the water, not on the ice.

In addition, British Antarctic Survey scientists have noted a significant growth in plants. The number of flowering Antarctic hairgrass plants around the Ukraine station Vernadsky in the peninsula region, has increased by 25 times in the last 30 years, while the Antarctic pearlwort has increased six-fold in abundance at Signy station in the South Orkneys. SECTION 5: THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT THE PHYSICAL SECTION 5:

63 WILDLIFE ......

Animal life abounds in the seas surrounding Antarctica. Antarctica, ontheotherhand, isstilldeepintheiceage. ENVIRONMENT THE BIOLOGICAL primitive plantscancolonize them. erosion. This producesrock debris atafaster ratethan break rocks windscauserapid apart,andtheconstant many freezingandthawing areastheconstant cycles however, thisprocessisinhibitedinseveral ways. In forhabitat complex vascular plants.In Antarctica, or humicsoilwhich provides andnutritive ahospitable accumulation ofhumus. This producesanorganic, inthesoil,andallow oralkalinity the acidity The mineralsthusreleasedalsobuffer theexcess utilizedby the grow the releaseofvarious mineralswhich canthenbe new soilandthroughchemical processescause world higherplantsthenmove intocolonize the basic florainthemineralsoil.Inotherpartsof sand, clay, andsilt,bacteriaalgaegeneratea Normally, asrocks arebroken down intogravel, also helptoprevent theformation ofmature soils. them,andblow themaway.dry These conditions The harshclimatetendstofreeze livingorganisms, These threequalitiesinhibitlife toagreatextent. dry, windy. cold,very andvery isvery Antarctica ing plants. probe was actually testedintheDry Valleys. resemblance tothesoilsofMars. The Viking Mars so much sothatNASA hasstudied them for their ahumic soilsandappeartobesuperficiallybarren The Dry Valleys ofsouth Victoria Landcontain in thesandandgravel. amounts ofonlythesimplestmicroscopicorganisms small areascontain coastal and someofthedry mineralsoilswhichpeaks contain arevirtually sterile, colonization by eitherplantsoranimals.Many inland remain ahumicandpoor, andtherefore for unsuitable become stabilized. This causesmuch ofthesoilto of meltwater make itdifficult for immature soilsto Low temperatures, frost,winds,andsurface streams SoilsPrimitive 65 SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT 66 SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT colonies ofpenguinsandotherbirds. which arelargelyformed fromtheguano may encounterrichly organic “ornithogenic” soils, soils have formed. However, insomeregionsone in theseareas,buteven herenotruly mature organic summer months. Algae, lichens, andmossesgrow which outduringthe helptokeep plantsfromdrying through thesoil,andcreatesub-surface reservoirs to wash harmfulconcentrations ofmineralsdown much richer soils.Herethereisenoughprecipitation areasthatreceivecoastal greatersnowfall, hold The PeninsulaAntarctic region,andsomeofthe the plantspreclude theexistence oftheusual The sparsity, smallbiomass,andslow growth of species grow than3centimeters(1.25 taller inches). All plantsgrowAntarctic slowly, andonlyafew and the pearlwortAntarctic (Colobanthusquitensis). (Deschampsia antarctica) the hair-grass Antarctic warmer maritimeregionofthe Peninsula:Antarctic ferns. Two speciesofflowering plantsoccurinthe speciesoflichens,400 75speciesofmossesandno species ofplantsandanimals:360algae, poor soils,itmakes sensethat hassofewAntarctica Considering theharshclimaticconditionsand Land Plantsand Animals LIFE INANTARCTICA therest theyear.during of the coastal areas thesummer, during andontheseaice mammals are foundintremendousnumbersaround Antarctica, seabirds andmigratory andmarine However, animallifeaboundsintheseassurrounding occur onbirdsandseals. species, ticks, andmitesinternalparasites rotifers, andnematodes.Parasitic tardigrades, invertebrate fauna includestwo midges,springtails, herbivorous mitesandinsects.Besides mites,the carnivores aretiny miteswhich feed onthe rotting plantmaterial.Likewise, theonlyterrestrial and mitesthatfeed mainlyonalgae,fungi,and terrestrial herbivores tobefound aretiny insects assortment ofherbaceousanimals. The only Abundant MarineLife birds, oneither sideofit. planktonic plantsandanimals, fishes,andeven on Earth–sinceonefindsdifferent populations of –thelargest is actually a biogeographic boundary silica) anddinoflagellates. The ConvergenceAntarctic tiny diatoms(unicellularplantswithcellwalls madeof The phytoplankton of consistsmainlyof Antarctica basis ofthe foodAntarctic chain. encourages algalbloomsthatform theunderlying continuous photosynthesis. The latter process daylight duringthesummermonthspromotealmost of phytoplankton; andthird,thelonghoursof they canbeeasilyutilized by theimmensegrowths phosphates, nitrates,mineralsinsuspensionwhere currents keep essentialnutrients, such as storm-tossed seaswiththeirup-wellings andstrong oxygen, much better thanwarm water); second,the holds dissolved gases,such ascarbondioxide and threefold: first,theseawater iscold(coldwater for theabundanceoflife in watersAntarctic are the seaiceduringrestofyear. The reasons areasduringthesummer,around thecoastal andon marine mammalsarefound intremendousnumbers seabirdsand surrounding andmigratory Antarctica, However, animallife aboundsintheseas North of the convergence the sea floor is primarily The ocean south of the Antarctic Convergence calcareous silt formed from the empty shells of comprises about one-twentieth of the world’s sea countless protozoans. South of the convergence the water, but contains a remarkable one-fifth of the sea floor consists almost entirely of the siliceous world’s marine biological production of carbon. remains of diatoms. When the Antarctic Surface Waters and the Subantarctic Surface Waters meet ADAPTING TO THE COLD at the convergence the sudden change in different All the organisms that live in the Antarctic area have water temperature incapacitates or kills many to deal with very harsh conditions. Under normal planktonic organisms. For this reason seabirds often conditions, the temperature limits for animal activity flock along the convergence. range from slightly below 0°C (32°F), when body fluids freeze, to 45-50°C (113 -122°F), when proteins Biological Productivity coagulate and dissolved albuminoids break down. The biological productivity in Antarctic waters is the highest in the world. This productivity can be The optimum temperature for life is often close to measured in two ways. The first is the standing the maximum temperature an animal can tolerate. crop of phytoplankton, which is a measure of the Climatic fluctuations demand constant adaptation, amount of chlorophyll in a given sample of surface and both in water and on land animal diversity water. The second is the yield, or water productivity, decreases where conditions approach the limit, which is figured by assessing the amount of Carbon such as in polar areas, deserts, and high mountains. 14 assimilated by a given sample of plants.

Animals can be divided into two broad types Both the standing crop and the yield are highest those whose internal body temperature, and near the islands and along coastal areas because of therefore metabolism, varies according to the up-wellings and turbulence – and lowest in the mid- ambient temperature; and those whose internal oceanic regions. The inshore waters of the Antarctic body temperature remains relatively constant. Peninsula contain a standing crop that is as much as 10 times greater than neighboring waters, while the Variable Body Temperature yield is as much as five times greater. The invertebrates and fishes of Antarctica are of the first kind, and so are directly affected by the The standing crop and yield of Antarctic phytoplankton ambient temperature. This means that the lower are at their lowest activity between April and July, their body temperature, the lower is their metabolic when the sun is low or below the horizon, sea ice rate. It also means that they run the risk of freezing. spreads, and the planktonic populations descend to sub-surface layers. In October, after the ice starts to Terrestrial Animals break up and drift, algal blooms begin and spread In Antarctica, terrestrial animals must endure south as the ice front recedes. tremendous variations in temperature, whereas the aquatic animals live in a more uniform environment. SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT THE BIOLOGICAL SECTION 6:

67 68 SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT body fluids. amino acids,which lower thefreezingpointof salts andorganiccompounds,such asglucoseand invertebrates dealwiththissituation by accumulating freezing temperature offreshwater. Many marine but itstemperature isclosetoorbelow the The marine stable, environmentAntarctic isvery proportion ofbodywater intheice. freezingby reducingthe tissues tosurvive chemicals, such asglycerol, which allow body protectant tolerant insectsandmitesproducecryo Freeze- agoodchanceanimal stands ofsurviving. If thecellsarenotruptured duringfreezingthe tissues, thereby reducingthefreezingpoint. sugars, andotherconstituents toconcentratein to low temperatures, andthiscausesthesalts, them appeartobecomedehydrated whenexposed blood, andthespacesbetween thecells.Someof its body, includingthecontentsofgut, the time induceiceformation slowly withintherestof ice fromforming inside itscells,andatthesame To freezinganinsectormitemustprevent survive these extremely coldwaters. Onefamily is ableto efficient thatthey areabletoremainactive even in The enzymesystems of fishesareso Antarctic freezing pointions,orurea,intheirbodytissues. 28.8°F). Some fishescanactuallyAntarctic lower their than doesseawater (which freezes at-1.8°C, or expect themtofreeze ataslightlyhighertemperature in which they live. Theoretically, onewould therefore slightlylowerbody salinity thanthatoftheseawater The fishes,likea maintain marinefisheseverywhere, Antarctic Fishes their tissueswillfreeze anddeathresults. withseaice, fishes comeintoprolongedcontact appearance. Itisinterestingtonotethatifthese This gives themawhiteornearlycolorless withfeware abletosurvive ornoredbloodcells. high inthecold watersAntarctic thatmany fishes their tissues. The contentofdissolved oxygen isso by within inhibitingthe normalgrowth oficecrystals synthesize glycoproteins, which actlike anantifreeze protection fromwindandlow temperatures. wings closetothebodyandreceive even more body. Those birdswithflexible wingscanholdtheir cover fluffy down which holdstheaircloseto the around theirbodies.Coverts andcontourfeathers of thisby usingfeathers alayer toretain ofair an effective insulator. The birdstakefulladvantage poorheatconductorandisreadilyavailablevery as mammals accomplishthisinseveral ways. Air isa from thecold. The two groupsofbirdsand these animalsmustsomehow insulatethemselves To highinternalbodytemperatures, stable maintain operate atefficient cost. ratesbutatahighmetabolic transmission, musclecontraction,digestion,etc., means thattheirlife processes,such asnerve of thecold.Livingatoptimumtemperature anoptimalinternaltemperaturemaintain regardless hand, areofthesecondtype. They areableto The birdsandmammalsof ontheother Antarctica, Constant Body Temperature the body. Most birdshaveAntarctic well avery better thanair, quickly soitvery conductsheatfrom waterlogged. Water conductsheatabout25times Birds mustprevent theirfeathers becoming Feathers pink feet of the nesting or roosting penguins that Penguins are the most aquatic of the seabirds, one sees on land, compared with the white feet of and have evolved a modified plumage that has penguins that have just come out of the water. highly effective insulating properties. Insulating Blubber All the mammals found in Antarctica (except humans, of course) are aquatic. The cetaceans developed oil gland near the base of the tail. When (whales and dolphins) protect themselves from heat they preen, the birds rub this oily secretion all over loss with a thick layer of oil-rich, subcutaneous fat, their plumage to make it water resistant. or blubber. Unlike most mammals, the cetaceans have virtually no hair and so cannot use air for In addition, birds lack exposed structures, such as insulation. They are unable to come out of the water ears and tails, which have many blood vessels near occasionally in order to preen, clean, and aerate the surface. Their legs and beaks also carry few or no their fur. Fat serves a dual purpose since it is not blood vessels. This helps to avoid cooling the blood. only an excellent insulator, but also is an energy store to allow the animals to survive when food is Penguins are the most aquatic of the seabirds, and scarce and affects hydrostatic balance. In general, have evolved a modified plumage that has highly animals that maintain a constant body temperature effective insulating properties. Most birds grow need to consume more food, to maintain heat feathers in narrow tracts, and then fluff them out production, when ambient temperatures are low. to cover all the exposed skin. Penguins, however, They need about 50 percent more food in winter have many more feathers, and almost the entire than in summer, but food is more difficult to come body surface is covered with a dense, tightly by in winter. Therefore, the cetaceans along with packed growth of feathers. The scale-like outer most seals and seabirds migrate to lower latitudes parts overlap, and are almost impermeable to wind and a warmer climate during the Antarctic winter. or water. And on the lower shafts grow tufts that (However, some penguins and seals do remain in form an insulating layer of fluffy down. Besides Antarctic waters year round. They simply move from feathers, penguins also have a thick layer of fat or the coastal areas, where they spend the summer, blubber just below the skin. to the edge of the sea ice in winter. Weddell seals can remain at the coast in winter, taking advantage In fact, penguins are so well insulated that they are of tidal cracks in sea ice to maintain breathing holes poorly equipped to deal with warm temperatures. and access for feeding.) The skin of their feet have more blood vessels than other birds, which they use to radiate heat when The fur seals (collectively known as pinnipeds) have necessary. They dilate these blood vessels to lose a thick layer of insulating fat, like the cetaceans, but heat on land and constrict them to conserve heat some also have fur as an added protection against when they are in the sea. This accounts for the rosy the cold. As much as 50 percent of the body weight SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT THE BIOLOGICAL SECTION 6:

69 70 SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT internal bodytemperature many hoursafter death. in onespotfor several ahigh hours,andwillretain little ornovisiblemeltingontheiceeven after lying efficient protectionagainstheatlossthatthey cause of somesealsisskinandfat. Infact, sealshave such zooplankton arethekrill. etc. However, thedominantspecieswithin the urchins arrow andseastars, worms, fish, larval sea crustaceans, jellyfish,larval copepods, larval of thecreatures found inotheroceans, such as is relatively diverse many inspecies,andcontains The zooplankton (animalplankton)of Antarctica OFKRILLTHE KINGDOM in theearly19 which ledtothediscovery ofmany islands Antarctic the known populationswere progressively reduced, widening search for new fursealpopulations,as as acommercialcommodity. Infact, itwas theever dense, luxuriouscoatoffursealswas highlyvalued coat withsuperbinsulation.Unfortunately, the hairs for each guardhair, andthisgives themafur Fur seals,however, have asmany as70underfur mostly ontheirfat toprevent heatloss. coat ofrelatively low insulationvalue, sothey rely fur hairsfor each guardhair, which provides afur underfur. Mostsealshave fromtwo tofive under coarseguardhairsandshort,woollyof hair:long, The pelageofsealsconsiststwo different types Warm Fur Coats progressively reduced, manyAntarctic islandsintheearly19thcentury. of which ledtothediscovery In fact, itwastheever wideningsearch fursealpopulations, fornew astheknownpopulationswere th century. long (2inches) oftheseisthelargest,5centimeter important waters.Antarctic The bestknown andmost worldwide, and11 ofthesearefound onlyin crustaceans. There aresome85species ofkrill smallfish,orwhalefood, butkrillareactuallyvery The originandmeans word krillisofNorwegian the wholehuman race. in theworld’s oceansisthoughttoweigh morethan in swarms areas. incertain The weight total ofkrill per squaremile).However, they tendtoconcentrate around 19 millionpersquare kilometer (11.8 million billion,andtheiraverage is density at 600,000 The populationof krillhasbeenestimated Antarctic Krill OutweighHumans of krillfor theirfood, eitherdirectlyorindirectly. completely dependentuponthevast populations all theanimalsvisitorsencounterin are Antarctica that inhabittheSouthernOcean.Infact, virtually petrels, someseals,andthelargebaleenwhales millions offishes,squids,penguins,albatrosses, food chain, food for sinceitistheprimary phytoplankton, seemtoform amajorlinkinthat Interestingly, krill,which feed directlyuponthe to thetopcarnivores (seabirds,seals,whales,etc.). producers(diatoms) to gothroughfromtheprimary found inotheroceansthattherearefewer levels The foodAntarctic chain ismuch simplerthanthose animal life in Antarctica. extremely abundant,andisthebasisfor thelarger Euphausia superba Euphausia . Itislocally Krill inhabit water only with a temperature below Whale Food 4°C (39°F), and can live for two or three years, The great baleen whales migrate to Antarctic waters or even more, which is unusual among planktonic every summer to spend several months just feeding animals. Recent research has found that when on krill increasing their body mass and accumulating phytoplankton is scarce in the winter, the adult fat, which gets them through the rest of the year krill regress to a smaller, juvenile stage. At the when food is more difficult to obtain. The baleen beginning of summer they regrow their sexual whales increase their body weight by as much as organs and begin the reproduction cycle again. 50 percent during this period of intensive feeding. Females produce up to 6,000 eggs in a season, An adult blue whale can consume up to 4,500 which are deposited in open water. The eggs sink kilograms (5 tons) of krill in a day. It has been to about 750 meters (2,500 feet), then hatch into estimated that the baleen whales consumed 160 larvae with some resemblance to tiny tadpoles. billion kilograms (180 million tons) of krill annually, before whaling so drastically reduced their numbers. The animals must molt 12 times before they Today, it is estimated that whales take 27 billion become adults. Krill often form dense swarms just kilograms (30 million tons) every year. below the surface, which actually makes the water appear pink. The reason for this swarming behavior Many researchers believe populations of seabirds is not fully understood, but seems to depend on and seals have greatly increased with the factors such as light intensity and availability of destruction of the great whales and increased food food, the phytoplankton. These gatherings, usually supply. The crabeater seal (which actually feeds on of animals within a single age class, enable their krill, not crabs) is the most numerous seal in predators to capture them with a minimum of effort. Antarctica, and probably consumes more than 90 billion kilograms (100 million tons) of krill annually. Krill are unusual in several ways. Unlike other Sea birds take approximately 36 billion kilograms planktonic animals they are heavier than water, so (40 million tons), while fishes and squids probably must keep moving the whole time to avoid sinking. consume 135 -180 billion kilograms (150 -200 million They hang in the water at an angle of about 55 tons) of krill each year. degrees, constantly paddling with their 10 legs. This also brings water carrying phytoplankton, to their Therefore, roughly 320 billion kilograms (350 million feeding baskets from where it is transferred to the tons) of krill are consumed by these animals each mouth. Forty percent of their energy is used just on year, which represents about 10 percent of the remaining in position in the water. If they don’t find total estimated krill stock of three trillion kilograms enough food, or if they are simply weak individuals, (3.5 billion tons). The former Soviet Union and Japan they sink towards the bottom where they will initiated commercial krill fisheries as long ago as the eventually suffocate due to lack of oxygen. 1960s. Other European and Asian nations have subsequently started similar operations. Krill catching has not proved very successful, but fisheries are a major industry in the Southern Ocean. SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT THE BIOLOGICAL SECTION 6:

71 72 SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT particular areas. isnotundulyconcentratedin and thattheharvest adverse effects onthesimpleandfragileecosystem can safely by humanswithoutcausing beharvested todeterminehow important muchIt isvitally krill and adrink. is soldascheese, soupmixes, aflavoring, apaste, produce sausagesandfishballs,whileinJapan it animal feed andfor mixingwithothermeatsto In theSoviet Union,krillwere usedprimarilyfor Iodine isalsoconcentratedintheireyes. thesoftcontaminates partsshortlyafter death. it intheirchitinous exoskeletons. The fluorine take influorinefromseawater,Krill incorporating toensurethekrillarenottoxic. also necessary quickly.protein todecomposevery Processing is death becauseahighlyactive enzymecausesthe percent, butmustbeprocessedimmediatelyafter Krillhasaproteincontentofabout55 harvest. double theentireworld’s presentannualmarine kilograms (120 milliontons). This would essentially yield ofkrillfisheriesrangeashigh110 billion Estimates for theannual maximumsustainable Potential Value Penguins, andfishes. whales, seals,thelargersea birds, Emperor component inthedietsoftoothed an important ecosystem. Majorpredatorsonkrill,they inturn are butlittleimportant, studied partofthe Antarctic Squids areabundantintheSouthernOcean,an Antarctic Squids THE WILDLIFE consume some 31billionkilograms(34million tons) estimated thatseabirds,whales, andsealsmay these cephalopods.However,Antarctic ithasbeen on life cycles, growth rates,orreproductive biologyof At present,thereisvirtually noinformation available speciesareknownAntarctic onlyfromtheirbeaks. squids in watersAntarctic thanelsewhere; several squidbeaks.Eventhan 18,000 lessisknown about A singlespermwhalewas found tohave noless which areretrieved from theirpredator’s stomachs. focus uponthenearlyindestructible squidbeaks Also, many occurindeepwater. Moststudies must with excellent eyesight andcaneasilyavoid nets. squids becausethey arefast, strongswimmers It isdifficult tostudy thebiologyandecologyof beak before beingswallowed. sliced upintosmallpiecesby apowerful, horny prey. The victimisthenshifted tothemouthand on each helpthemtoholdthestruggling tentacle (therearetenaltogether).Suckerslongest tentacles The squidsnormallygrabtheirprey withthetwo when catching prey oravoiding predators. orbackward,forward andithelpsthemgreatly jet. This allows themtomove fast either very can squirtwater underpressure,forming awater head isafunneltube throughwhich theanimals maneuver andswimslowly, butunderneaththe vertebrates. theirtwo fleshyWith fins,squidscan comparable tomany ofthelargepredatory systems make them andsensory nervous clams, oysters, etc.However, theirhighlyevolved cephalopods, andarerelatedtosnails,slugs, invertebrates. Together they areknown as are much in waters), lessimportant Antarctic are Squids, andtheirrelatives theoctopuses(which of squid per year. On this basis, the total Antarctic As expected, the species diversity is low (only squid stock is likely to be at least 90 billion about 200 species have been identified so far), kilograms (100 million tons). but the number of individuals in these nutrient-rich waters is vast. The marine environment they inhabit Commercial Squid Fisheries is very uniform with regard to temperature, Large-scale squid and octopus fisheries have although this is constantly low. existed for generations in the Mediterranean, Southeast Asian, and Japanese waters. Japan has Marine fishes must maintain a body salinity lower operated a fleet of commercial squid fishing boats than that of the surrounding sea water. Dissolved in the waters around New Zealand since the late salts lower the freezing point temperature of sea 1960s. Fishing vessels from several European and water from 0°C (32°F) to -1.8°C (28.8°F). For fishes Asian nations are now catching large quantities of to survive in near freezing sea water they must squid in the waters around the Falkland Islands concentrate something other than salts in their blood (Islas Malvinas) and off the coast of Argentina. and tissues that will lower their own freezing point to at least that of sea water. Certain ions, such as Because of the ever-increasing search for new and sodium ions, potassium ions, and chloride ions seem unexploited fisheries and fishing areas, many to work very well Some species even produce scientists are concerned about the likely development glycoproteins which, like an antifreeze, inhibit the of squid fisheries in Antarctic waters. Much more formation of ice crystals within their tissues. research is needed to accurately determine stocks and work out reasonable management plans. This is a No Scales and White Blood major goal of CCAMLR (The Commission for the The ice fishes have practically no scales, and lack Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources) the oxygen-carrying protein hemoglobin, which is common to all other vertebrate animals. They have Antarctic Fishes a pale, nearly colorless appearance. Although their Almost all the fishes in Antarctica are bottom blood is not red, but a translucent yellowish color, dwellers and rarely encountered. For convenience, their ancestors were probably red-blooded because the species may be divided into two distinct groups: they still have non-functional red blood cells. The deep-sea fishes and coastal fishes. The coastal cold waters hold a high concentration of dissolved group contains the better known species, including oxygen, and these fishes absorb it in through their the ice fishes, eel pouts, Antarctic cods, plunder gills as do other fishes, but it is carried in solution fishes, and dragon fishes, which accounts for about in the blood plasma. 60 percent of the species and 90 percent of the individuals. Most of the coastal species are unique Many species appear rather sluggish. Even so, they to the region, but most deep-sea fishes occur are able to maintain considerable activity in these elsewhere as well. low temperatures because of the presence of very efficient metabolic enzymes. Slow growth rates and SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT THE BIOLOGICAL SECTION 6:

73 74 SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT Commercial Fisheries Commercial fishfauna.Antarctic Mostspeciesaresmallinsize. long life spansseemtobecharacteristic ofthe hemisphere, most ofthemlive northofthe 17 speciesofpenguinsareallfound inthesouthern These birdsepitomize the Antarctic. Although the Penguins the mostnumerousbirdinworld. which breedsby themillionsin mayAntarctica, be Many ornithologistsbelieve that Wilson’s Storm-petrel, the Convergence,Antarctic nearlyallofthem seabirds. more occur, only43speciesofbirdsbreedsouth low, for reasonsalreadyexplained. Although many arethebirds. Antarctica The speciesdiversity isvery The mostobvious andcommonlyseenanimalsof Antarctic Birds of fish,krillandsquid. marineresources,monitorspopulations Antarctic result oftheincreasingcommercialexploitation of in1977the ecosystem. CCAMLR,established asa the effects ofsuch fisheriesonotherelementsof monitor fishstocks thatareexploited, andevaluate their populationdynamics,develop systems to evaluate thegrosspotentialofresources,study developed to ontoolargeascaleitisimportant tonsin1970/71.at 400,000 Before fisheriesare centimeters (nearlythreefeet): catches peaked the SouthGeorgiacod,which measuresupto90 The firstfishspeciestobeover-exploited was Scotia Arc. coastandthe encountered aroundthecontinental that arethelargestandmostcommonfishes attention hasbeenfocused onaboutadozen species Several nationscatch thefishesof Most Antarctica. to greatdepths. air sacs,inordertocounteract buoyancy, anddive Penguins, however, have dense,solidbonesandno body weight anddecreasethewingloading. bones, andairsacswithinthebodytohelpreduce Birds thatcanflyhave lightweight oreven hollow because they looked like thefamiliar greatauk. the newly discovered flightlessbirds,simply the southernoceansthey transferred thenameto English, sowhenthefirstBritishsailorsarrived in bird hadlongbeenknown by thenamepenguinin hemisphere (which becameextinct in1844). That behavior totheflightlessgreataukofnorthern Penguins arequitesimilarinappearanceand rather thanpaddlingwiththeirfeet. penguins swimby flappingtheirwingsunderwater the densemediumofwater. Unlike mostbirds, flat. They areadaptedtopropelthebirdsthrough The wingsofpenguinsarereducedinsize, stiff and predators, andmigrate;penguinsflyunderwater. reasons why birdsflyaretosearch for food, evade girdle tothatofmodernflyingspecies. The main birds, asshown by thesimilaritiesintheirpectoral molting orrearingyoung. Their ancestorswere flying they spendmostoftheirlives atsea,except when Penguins arethemostaquaticofseabirds,and currents for theirlivelihood. in thelow latitudes aredependentuponcoldwater adapted for life incoldwater, soeven thosefound habitats. All penguinsareflightlessand Antarctic only theEmperorand Adélie arerestrictedto actually lives attheequator. Ofallthepenguins, Convergence;Antarctic theGalapagosPenguin Their bodies are very streamlined, but even so, Penguins, make no nest at all, and since they when they stop moving their wings they slow down require more time to raise their young, the former very quickly. To avoid coming to a halt each time lay their eggs in winter so that chicks can be they break the surface to breathe, penguins have fledged by the end of summer. developed a method of swimming termed porpoising. This allows them to swim rapidly just Emperor Penguin colonies are on the sea ice, unlike below the surface and when necessary propel those of other penguins, which nest on land. The themselves out of the water in a low arc, take a male Emperor incubates a single egg by balancing quick breath, and continue on their way. This may it on top of his feet and covering it with a special also be useful in escaping from an underwater brood pouch (the same method is used by the King predator, such as a leopard seal. Penguin). He must stand upright and shuffle around with the egg for about two months, while his mate Most penguins can submerge for 5-7 minutes, but is at sea feeding. If the egg hatches before the the largest King species (the Emperor Penguin) can female returns to relieve him, the male can feed submerge for up to 18 minutes. The Emperor the newborn chick with small quantities of crop Penguin dives to 630 meters (2,070 feet). Most other secretions containing fat and protein. species do not normally go deeper than about 100 meters (330 feet). Penguins maximum swimming In some penguin species the young form groups, or speed is probably about 24 km/h (15 mph), but crèches, which may then be guarded by just a few because of their small size they often seem to be adults; this allows most of the adult penguins to traveling faster. spend longer at sea feeding.

Penguins generally prey on organisms near the There is always a lot of activity at penguin colonies, surface, either close to shore or near the edge of and the sights, sounds, and smells are unforgettable. pack ice. In Antarctica, the larger species feed Incubation usually lasts 5 to 6 weeks. The fledging primarily on squid, while the smaller species feed period varies quite widely, with Adélies and mostly on krill, with some fish and squid. During the Chinstraps leaving the colony at about seven weeks, summer months, however, krill is the main food while for Gentoos the time is 14 weeks. The young item for all as is evident from their typically pink- are fed by regurgitation, and take the food from colored excrement. inside the mouths of the adults.

Virtually all penguins are social and nest in colonies. Penguins typically have very strong feet with In Antarctica, most species use open nests lined large, well developed claws with which to climb mainly with pebbles, but also other debris such as slippery rocks or ice. Feathers account for about bones and feathers. The pebbles are collected from 80 percent of the penguins insulative properties, the beach or stolen from other nests. Both sexes while fat provides the other 20 percent. Penguins share in incubating the eggs and feeding the young. have a very high internal body temperature (about The two largest species, the Emperor and King 38°C or 101°F) as well as a high metabolic rate. SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT THE BIOLOGICAL SECTION 6:

75 76 SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT Tube Noses Tube in thecold,harshclimateof Antarctica. indeed,thriving no problemsurviving have They and dippingtheirheadsunderwater. and krill,which they catch by landing onthesurface overboard. They feed mostlyonsquid,smallfish, perhaps hopingfor somethingedibletobedumped of theaircurrents producedasthevessels move, sea, andthey often follow advantage ships,taking Albatrosses areusuallyencounteredintheopen like thiswithoutever having toflaptheirwings. with thewindagain. They seemtogoonfor hours before turning aroundtopick upspeedandglide waves, thenturn intothewindtogainheight, swoop downwards withthewindjustabove the conditions, anditisgreatfuntowatch asthey of effort. They actually seemtoenjoy windy, stormy which allows themtostayairbornewithaminimum lives intheair, andhave perfected aglidingflight distinctive flightpatterns. They spend mostoftheir large size, longnarrow and wings,shorttails, At sea,albatrossesareeasilyidentifiedby their Albatrosses developed senseofsmell. them (orforcibly ejected). They have awell saline solutioncanoften beseendrippingfrom from theirsystems throughthesenostrils,anda on grooved, hooked bills. They expel excess salt to theirexternal tubular nostrils,thataremounted which iseasiertoremembertubenoses. This refers Procellariiformes. Butthey have anothername petrels, aremembersofagroupseabirdscalled storm-petrels, fulmars,anddiving- shearwaters, Albatrosses, alongwithpetrels,prions, the two otheryear. largespeciesbreedonly every fledges. The year, smallalbatrossesbreed every but chick food atthenest with regurgitated untilit ones. Both sexes andfeed incubatetheegg, the small species,andlastsabout 80days inthe large Incubation normallyrangesfrom60to70days in moss, andexcrement; they lay justoneegg. usually consistofmoundsbuiltmud,grasses, for off taking intotheprevailing wind. Their nests summer. They nestonislandsthatprovide goodsites and they begintobreedinlatespringorearly Most albatrossesperform complex nuptialdances, about seven years ofage. years atseabefore returning tolandbreedat Young adult Wandering Albatrosses spendseveral milesinasingleforagingto anamazing9,300 flight! miles perhour)covering anywheremiles from1,800 (50nautical miles) perday atairspeedsof90km/h parent birdsflyasmuch as1000 km(560nautical satellite telemetry, scientistshave discovered that the biggestofall, Wandering Albatross. Using flights. distance The champion inthisrespectis These gracefulbirdsarenotedfor big, theirlong meters(7-7.5 feet). about 2-2.25 word meaningfoolish gullandhave wingspansof albatrosses areoften called‘mollymawks’, aDutch wingspan ofupto3.45meters(11.5 feet). The small has thelongestwingsofany livingbird,withatotal are theRoyal and Wandering Albatrosses: thelatter be categorized as largeorsmall. The largespecies again. For identificationpurposes,albatrossescan surface intothewind in ordertobecomeairborne around after food. They usuallymustrun alongthe feet, andwillalightonthewater torestorswim These birdshave short,stronglegsand webbed Petrels Most species are gregarious, and some of them Most petrels are small to medium-sized seabirds form huge colonies during the breeding season. (with the exception of the albatross-sized giant Most nest in holes, rocky crevices, or on rock petrel), which have long pointed wings and hooked ledges, while a few (including the giant petrel) beaks with both nostrils encased together in a actually construct a nest out of pebbles, feathers, single sheath. Many ornithologists consider the and other available materials. extended tube enables the birds to eject the concentrated brine (produced by the salt gland) All species normally lay a single egg, both sexes away from the face. Thick salt deposits on the facial share in the incubation and feeding of young (usually feathers could be a serious problem for birds that one mate is away feeding while the other tends the inhabit Antarctica, because they seldom get the egg or chick). Incubation ranges from 6 to 8 weeks, chance to clean and preen themselves. depending on the species. The chick is fed by regurgitation, and often the food consists of a very Petrels spend their entire lives at sea, except during aromatic and oily secretion. Some species, notably the breeding season, and have adapted themselves to the fulmar, can defend themselves by spitting this the severest storms the Southern Ocean can produce. oil at intruders. Fledging takes 7 to 8 weeks in most They are often seen flying just over the surface of the species, but 14 to 19 weeks in the largest species. sea, using the wind and air pressure along wave fronts as they glide, bank, and shear the water with their Storm-petrels wing tips. It is thought that they can survive very long These are the smallest of the oceanic seabirds. periods on the wing without true sleep. Storm-petrels are about the size of swallows, and in fact are often called sea swallows. Another common These tube-nosed birds feed chiefly on plankton, name given to them by seafarers of old was Mother crustaceans, squid, and small fish, which they pick Carey’s chickens. This name, applied especially to up from the surface. The predatory giant petrels, Wilson’s Storm-petrel, has an interesting origin. however, take eggs and chicks of other birds, and Fishermen used to fear them, as their appearance will even attack weaker adult birds and molting was thought to herald an approaching storm. penguins. They also eat carrion, and the whalers and sealers called them stinkers, based on observation Portuguese fishermen would cry out Mata Cara! of their feeding habits, and capacity to project (Dear Mother! In reference to the Virgin Mary) malodorous oily vomit. when they saw them. English-speaking whalers changed the words Mata Cara to Mother Carey. Petrels have webbed feet and float very high in the water as they paddle around looking for food. They Storm-petrels have a fluttering flight that is much can, if necessary, dive a short distance below the more erratic and weaker than the true petrels. Most surface. However, they are so buoyant that it is species are dark bodied with a white patch on the difficult for them to stay submerged for more than rump, but some lack the white rump, and others a few seconds. have white bellies and under-wings. SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT THE BIOLOGICAL SECTION 6:

77 78 SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT normally takes8to10 weeks. before theirjuvenile feathers appear. Fledging parents feed thechicks, which grow largeandfat been left unattended for extended periods.Both 5 to6weeks, butmay takelongeriftheegghas periods duringdevelopment. Incubationusuallylasts the eggsandyoung areoften neglectedfor varying themselves. Both sexes but incubatethesingleegg, within cavities orburrows which they may excavate protected placessuch ascrevices, underrocks, and Most speciesbreedincoloniesandnest summer asfar away asNewfoundland orIreland. breedingsitestospendthenorthern Antarctic (though inreverse), migratingnorthfromits in fact, almostrivals the Arctic terninthisrespect flyers.superb long-distance Wilson’s Storm-petrel, kilometers fromthenearestland.Infact, they are birds intheopenocean,often hundredsof stormy conditions.Itissurprisingtoseesuch tiny often encounteredfar outtoseainwindyand Like thealbatrosses andtrue petrels,they are food particlesbetween thewaves. to walk ordance onthewater asthey pick uptiny into thewindwithoutstretched wings,anddoappear the water. The storm-petrelshave ahabitoffacing refers ofPeter towalk on tothebiblicalstory trying The namepetrel itselfisderived fromSt.Peter, and short wings, legs, and tail; andsmallbillswith short wings,legs,andtail; is ablack upperbody, withwhiteunderthebody; and flyingtraits. The basicdiving-petrel appearance four speciesarealmostidenticalinshape,plumage, hemisphere. They aresmallstubby birds,andthe The diving-petrelsareonlyfound inthesouthern Diving-petrels daily by theparents,andfledginglasts7to9weeks. sexes for abouteightweeks. The chicks arefed lay oneeggwhich isincubatedalternatelyby both which Like they allothertube-noses, dig. they only They breedonislands,nestinginlongburrows and spendseveral weeks behaving like penguins. and whenthey moltthey arecompletelyflightless Diving-petrels have nearlylostthepower offlight, like thelivingdiving-petrels. have evolved fromancestralbirdswithhabitsmuch feet. Ornithologistsconsiderpenguinsmustsurely by propellingthemselves withtheirwings,not hooked bills.Like penguins,they swimunderwater they chase andcatch withtheirshort, underwater They feed almostentirelyonsmallfishes,which away frominshorewaters. from theirbreedinggroundsthey arerarelyseen southern equivalents. Although they may rangefar northern hemisphereandindeedseemtobethe similartotheLittlevery Auks, ordovekies, ofthe back intothewater. Inoutward appearancethey are witharapidwhirring flight,beforedistance diving usually erupt fromthewater andflyfor ashort far. well, orvery Diving-petrels donotflyvery They of forward. separate nostriltubes which open upward instead are calledshags,fromanIcelandic word meaning V-shaped groups,much like geese.Somespecies usually traveling instraightlevel paths,andoften in and longwedge-shaped tails. They arestrongfliers, necks, longhooked beaks,longroundedwings, Cormorants aremedium-sized birdswithlong (Shags) Cormorants beard, and refers to their crest of feathers in the Cormorants snatch fish with their strongly hooked breeding season. Most cormorants are black, but in beaks and then surface to position the fish so as the southern hemisphere many species are black to swallow it head first. An important difference and white in color. between cormorants (and their relatives the pelicans, boobies, frigatebirds, tropic birds, and anhingas), and There has been considerable confusion about the other seabirds is that they have no external nostril three very similar birds found in Antarctica and openings. They must breathe through their open adjoining South American waters. Various common mouths, and often seem to be panting when the names are used, such as imperial, king, and blue- gular pouch vibrates during their breathing. eyed; also the words cormorant and shag are used interchangeably. Most biologists agree that the Cormorants are colonial breeders, and in Antarctica Antarctic cormorant is a distinct species and that all often nest near or among penguin colonies. They cormorants in Antarctica are conspecific, i.e. they build large, bulky nests containing mud, kelp, rocks, are all one and the same species. So we shall adopt feathers, and any other convenient material. The just one name, and call it the Blue-eyed Shag. The clutch is normally 2–5 eggs, and both parents share blue eye-ring is conspicuous. the 4-week incubation. The young fledge after about 5–6 weeks. The parents feed by regurgitation, and it They are essentially coastal seabirds, although is fascinating to watch the young birds thrusting their they can and often do make long trips over open heads deep inside the adults’ throats to obtain food. water. This explains how they reach Kerguelen, Like penguins, the immature birds often form crèches. Crozet, Macquarie, South Georgia, and other isolated islands as well as Antarctica itself during Waterfowl the breeding season. There are many species of ducks throughout the world, and many of them breed in the high Arctic Cormorants are expert divers, and can reach during summer months. Only two are found in the considerable depths. They float very low in the Antarctic region, however, and they are very similar water, and when they go under to pursue their in appearance. The South Georgia Pintail is closely prey (usually fish but also squid) they dive with a related to the South American Yellow-billed or Brown characteristic forward leap or jack-knife maneuver. Pintail, and probably represents a fairly recent natural colonization. A resident of South Georgia, They propel themselves underwater with their large this pintail may also be seen very occasionally in the webbed feet, and often partly open their wings to South Shetland Islands. It is very typically ducklike aid in steering and making sharp turns when chasing in appearance, is a strong flier, and takes off from fish. Unlike most seabirds, which have webbing the water nearly vertically. The males have sharp tail between the three forward projecting toes, plumes, and both sexes have a metallic speculum cormorants have webbing which connects all four on their secondary flight feathers. toes. This is a much more efficient swimming foot. SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT THE BIOLOGICAL SECTION 6:

79 80 SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT mainly intheCumberlandBay area,aroundGrytviken. andislessspottedand tail, onthebelly. Itisfound buthasashorterneckto theSouthGeorgiaPintail, (Islas Malvinas).Itisextremely similarinappearance in southernSouth America andtheFalkland Islands Teal), which iscommon Teal (or Yellow-billed Georgia istheSpeckled numbers inSouth may beseeninsmall The otherduck which feathers, etc. and areconstructed fromgrasses,tussock stems, relatively few predators. The nestsarewell hidden, expected sincethey live inanenvironment with eggs,which istobe produce smallclutches of3-6 Unlike most otherducks, they have evolved to and ponds. They areprimarilyfreshwater birds. and form pairsinthemarshy groundbesidestreams months, butatthebeginningofspringthey disperse The normallyform pintails largeflocks duringwinter sea onicefloes. Their nestsmay besetwithin a wings. They canswim,andareoccasionally seenat Sheathbills flyratherlaboriously withshortrounded along theshoreline. they walk deliberatelyamongnestingpenguinsor fleshy wattles, andaremostoften encounteredas have beenscavenging inoffal andmud),withpink, hind toe. They aresnow white(except whenthey three fronttoes,andthey have awell developed websThere between the areonlyrudimentary indeed even looksomewhat like whitepigeons. Sheathbills areplumpandpigeon-sized, and Sheathbills their eggs orbroodingtheir eggs theirchicks. this happens, thevisitorshouldretreat, whereupon theterns will resume sittingon Antarctic Terns anypotential willsoon warn trespasser, bydivingandscolding. If some subantarctic islandsintheIndianOcean. some subantarctic but hasablack bill.ItbreedsonHeardIslandand The Black-faced similar, (orLesser) Sheathbillisvery the Falkland Islands(IslasMalvinas). flies northinwintertosouthernSouth America and the Peninsula.Antarctic Part ofthelatter population Georgia andotherislandsoftheScotia Arc, andon one mostlikely tobeseen.ItbreedsonSouth islands. The Pale-faced (orSnowy), Sheathbillisthe of thembreedinthe andonsubantarctic Antarctic There areonlytwo speciesofsheathbillandboth or even killlive penguinchicks. seal pups,deadchicks, etc.andoften suck eggs penguinfood, dead (regurgitated) sealplacentas, organic origin,includingsealfeces, spilled SheathbillswilleatalmostanythingAntarctic. of They arethemostnoticeablescavengers ofthe bones, etc. ledge, andareconstructed withpebbles,feathers, rock crevice, orinacavity, orperhapsundera flight feathers. white wingpatches at the baseofprimary The skuascanbedistinguishedfromgullsby their breeding seasonspendmost oftheirtimeatsea. skuas aremuch morepelagic,andasidefromthe seabirds relatedtogullsandterns, Large, predatory Skuas Two species occur in Antarctica. These are both members of their species. The Antarctic skuas stocky, brownish birds which are rather hawk-like usually nest near the coasts, either on rocks or on in their habits, and have strong hooked beaks and open ground. They may construct nests, if suitable relatively strong talons on their webbed feet. The materials are available, and both parents take turns Brown Skua is the larger, and has a heavier bill; it incubating usually two eggs for about four weeks. is mottled gray-brown overall. Both parents feed the chicks, and defend their eggs The smaller South Polar Skua has a more slender and offspring with aggressive ferocity. Visitors bill, and is easily identified in its pale form, which should be wary of walking near skua nests, where features a gray body and head that contrasts with a intruders risk being dive-bombed with frightening dark back. The dark form of the South Polar Skua is speed and power. quite similar to the Brown Skua, apart from its less massive appearance, and relatively pale under parts. Skuas range widely outside the breeding season. Hybrids between the two species sometimes occur, Brown Skuas may winter near the shores of South indicating that they are closely related. Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and South America, while the South Polar Skua ventures even farther, The skuas of Antarctica are among the largest in their to the northern Pacific and Atlantic oceans. One group, which makes them potentially dangerous to banded sub-adult Brown Skua is known to have almost all the other birds and small animals. They are migrated from the Antarctic Peninsula to Greenland. inveterate egg-stealers and chick-killers. Until penguin chicks are large enough to fend off skuas, they are at Gulls constant risk of attack. For the first several weeks, Though primarily coastal seabirds, the gulls that the parent penguins spend much time protecting breed in high latitudes, such as the Kelp Gull of their offspring from marauding skuas. Antarctica, often migrate long distances over open water during winter months. Skuas will chase and harass birds that have food in their beaks until they drop it out of desperation, and Gulls have long broad wings and are good fliers, but will also kill adult petrels and prions. They are active cannot fly as well as the albatrosses and petrels. hunters and can kill quite large prey, such as They have webbed feet and are good surface wounded adult penguins, but they will also swimmers. They are predatory birds, but are not scavenge when necessary. Brown Skuas have been as successful or as fierce as the skuas. observed taking milk from nursing elephant seals. Gulls are survivors that will take advantage of Skuas do not nest in colonies, but are often social any situation they can. They will scavenge when breeders. This means several pairs may nest within necessary and will eat an impressive variety of the same vicinity, but their nests are well spaced for foods. They often follow ships in the hope of the birds sometimes may cannibalize other receiving edible refuse, and many species have SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT THE BIOLOGICAL SECTION 6:

81 82 SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT The limpet debris, surrounded by a scattering oflimpetshells. on ledges,andoften buildsanestwithorganic well astheSouthernOcean.Itnestsinrocks and South America, South Africa, andNew Zealandas The widerange,including Kelp Gullhasavery winter anduntilthenareamottled brown. not attain theiradultplumageuntilthird only gullsin Antarctica. Young birds,however, do yellow. They areeasilyrecognized, for they arethe surface ofthewingsisblack. The billandlegsare arewhite,whiletheupper and shortroundedtail gull-like inappearance. typically The head,body, Black-backed orDominicanGull)isquitelargeand The Kelp Gull(sometimescalledtheSouthern buoyantthey arevery andfloathighinthewater. the surface. They rarelydive beneaththesurface since Gulls gettheirfood either fromtheground,or of livingoff mankind’s ever growing refuseproblem. actually increasedtheirnumbersandrangesasaresult both feed thechicks. eggs,and item. Both parentsincubatethe3-4 Nacella consinna Nacella is an important foodis animportant can easilywander tooclosewithout realizingit. camouflaged againstthegray pebbles, andavisitor time after that. The eggsandyoung arewell parents continuetofeed theiroffspring for some weeks, butthe loose pebbles.Fledgingtakes 4-5 The nestusuallyconsistsofasimplescrapeamong parents shareincubatingandfeeding. eggs,andincubationlastsabout3weeks. Both 1-3 widely segregatedbreedingareas.Itmay lay from often nests onitsown, orat bestinlooseand Most ternsnestincolonies,butthe Antarctic Tern winter plumagewhenitvisitsinthe summer.Antarctic opposite seasons,sothe Arctic specieswillbein necessary. They breedatoppositeendsoftheEarth prey andcandive intothewater ashortdistance if above thewater. Terns can hover asthey search for on fish,which they catch by dropping onthemfrom in appearanceandhabits. They feed almostentirely The Arctic and Antarctic Terns similar, arevery both the Antarctic. travels far less,stayingallyear inice-freewaters in back tothe Arctic. The Antarctic Tern, by contrast, Arctic (wherethey breed)tothe andthen Antarctic, miles)duringaroundtripflightfromthe (22,000 kilometers with someindividualsflying35,500 annual migrationrouteofany animalonEarth, The Arctic Tern for isnotable having thelongest over distances openwatervarying each year. migrate species Antarctic two the but birds, coastal have astraighter, morelevel flight.Mostternsare andwindcurrents, ternsgulls often soarinup-draft consider thetwo groupsasonefamily. Butwhereas Terns arecloselyrelatedtogulls,andsomeexperts Terns However, Antarctic Terns will soon warn any lions, or eared seals), and Odobenidae (walruses). In potential trespasser, by diving and scolding. If this Antarctica, there is one eared seal – the Antarctic happens, the visitor should retreat, whereupon the fur seal and five true seals: southern elephant, terns will resume sitting on their eggs or brooding Weddell, leopard, crabeater and Ross. their chicks. All seals are carnivorous, and except for the fact Pipit that their feet are flipper-like to accommodate an The South Georgia Pipit is the only songbird native aquatic life style, they are very similar to the to the Antarctic region. It is a sparrow-sized LBJ Carnivore order, which includes the cats, dogs, (little brown job) with a slender pointed bill and a otters, bears, etc. long tail. The plumage is reddish brown, with buff under-parts and characteristic streaking. It feeds on The pinnipeds are well adapted to life in the sea. the ground and walks or runs (it does not hop like They have an enormous amount of blood in relation most small song birds), and continually flicks its tail to their body size (about twice the amount found in like a wagtail. a comparably sized human). A larger content of blood obviously holds more dissolved oxygen and The bird is most likely descended from the Falkland carbon dioxide, and the animal can therefore survive Islands (Islas Malvinas) or South American Pipits, for longer periods without breathing. This enables but is now considered a distinct species. Their them to spend a great deal of time under water ancestors were probably carried to South Georgia searching for food. by the prevailing westerly winds. During a dive the heartbeat rate slows from perhaps These birds are remarkably difficult to spot among 100 beats per minute to 4 or 5 beats per minute. the tussock grass and other vegetation, but can They normally exhale before diving below the surface easily be seen as they prowl along the beaches and but their lungs are dorsally located so as to give them streams or among kelp, looking for insects, extra stability when they are buoyant at the surface. copepods, and other small creatures. They breed on small rat-free islands off the coast of South Georgia, Many species of seals, including some of those but do visit the main island to feed. The nests are found in Antarctica, migrate long distances during made of woven grasses and are usually hidden different seasons of the year. They gather on and among tussock grass roots. They remain on South around the pack ice and shorelines during summer Georgia throughout the year, and their distinctive months to breed. The females give birth to one call is the best clue to their presence. young only. Because the seals disperse after the short breeding season, mating must take place Antarctic Seals soon after the females give birth. Seals belong to the group of marine mammals called Pinnipeds (fin-footed). This includes the Phocidae (true seals), Otariidae (fur seals and sea SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT THE BIOLOGICAL SECTION 6:

83 84 SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT the raisingoftheiroffspring. months. The maleshave little ornothingtodowith quickly.very Mostspeciesareweaned inabouttwo respectively incows milk),andthesealpupsgrow 10 percentprotein(comparedtoabout4% and2% The about45percentfat mothersmilk contains and next year’s pupisbornalmostexactly oneyear later. isdelayedimplantation for threemonthssothatthe periodisaboutninemonths, Although thegestation efficient protective layer ofinsulationagainstlow under-fur hairs,which gives theanimalahighly Each longguardhairis surrounded by upto70 short hairs andunderfur, which arearranged inbundles. fur consistsoftwo different ofhairs,guard types aptly namedfor theirdense,luxuriouscoats. Their is thecompositionofpelage. The fursealsare Of allthedifferences, however, themostimportant covered withfur, andthereareclaws onalldigits. locomotion inwater, theflippersarecompletely are shortandthehindlimbsprovide themeansfor inch worm orcaterpillar, whenonland)thefore limbs (obliging theanimalstocrawl ratherclumsily, like an hind limbsextend straightback inlinewiththebody By contrast,thetrue sealshave noexternal ears,their on themiddlethreedigitsofeach flipper. of theirflippersarenaked, andthey have claws only provide themotive force thesoles whenswimming, hop onland,thefore limbsarelongandbroad feet canbepositionedbeneaththebodytowalk or differences. Fur sealshave external ears,theirhind closely related,therearesomeimportant While thefursealandtrue sealsarefairly ears External few under-fur hairsassociatedwitheach guardhair. have guardhairsandunder-fur, butthereareonlya is notnearlysothick orluxurious. True sealsalso insulate theirbodiesfromtheintensecold. Their fur thick layer oil-rich ofsubcutaneous fat, orblubber, to The true seals,ontheotherhand,relyprimarilya a highcommercialvalue. temperatures. Italsogives itapeltwhich oncehad short periodstofeed. From to theendofJanuary to breakup,andtheexhausted bullsgo toseafor theharems start the bulls.BymiddleofJanuary The females, orcows, inharems by aremaintained place aboutaweek after the female gives birth. give birthtwo tofour days after arrival. Matingtakes arrive atthebeaches inlateNovember, andusually territories fromothermales. The females beginto between themasthey anddefend maintain their fighting pugnacious andthereisalmostconstant territories onthebeaches. These bullsarevery or October, andquickly setaboutestablishing beaches. The toarrive malesstart inSeptember Fur sealsfavor rocky coastlineswithsheltered crest, andhave acreamiercoloredchest andthroat. to 50kilograms(110 pounds),but lack amaneor grow acrestonthetopofhead.Females grow and shouldersform athick mane,andtheolderbulls yoke over themiddle. The guardhairsontheneck silver ontheback withabrownish bellyandadark 180 pounds),andareolive kilograms(400 gray to such asthesealions.Mature malesweigh upto females, which ofotherearedseals, isalsotypical Male fursealsgrow tomuch largersizes thanthe seal fur Antarctic the beginning of March the animals molt. The cows range which includes most of the subantarctic and pups leave the beaches in April but some of the islands as well as a few coasts of the continent. young males may stay around until the end of June. This is the largest species of seal in the world, surpassing even the walrus in size. The males grow The Antarctic fur seals dive to about 50 meters (150 to 6 meters (20 feet) in length and can weigh as feet) and feed mainly on krill; but they also consume much as 3,600 kilograms (4 tons). Females, though fish, squid, and even penguins. During the winter large, are much smaller than the males, and grow they migrate northwards to warmer waters, and to about 3.6 meters (12 feet) in length and 900 kilo- individuals have ranged as far north as the South grams (1 ton) in weight. Island of New Zealand. The male elephant seal is distinguished by his Within a few short years of the discovery of their immense size, large inflatable proboscis, and dark breeding colonies on South Georgia at the end of gray color. The females are brownish, and lack the the 18th century there were 30 sealing vessels of enlarged nose of the male. United States, British, and Russian origin taking hundreds of thousands of skins a year. The animals were soon almost It was thought that the South Georgia fur seals had become extinct, but wiped out and the sealers had to search farther and farther a field for in 1933 a small colony was discovered to have survived on Bird Island other populations. It was this search off the northwest tip of the island. that led to the discovery of the Antarctic continent. Elephant seal males maintain and defend breeding It was thought that the South Georgia fur seals territories and harems (like the fur seals). They had become extinct, but in 1933 a small colony start coming ashore in August to establish their was discovered to have survived on Bird Island territories in anticipation of the arrival of the females off the northwest tip of the island. From this small a few weeks later. Each bull may guard a harem of beginning, and thanks to protective legislation, up to 50 females, though he is often challenged by the population has increased massively and led to other males. repopulation of other sites in the South Orkney, South Sandwich, and South Shetland Islands. The precocious pups, which may be 1.5 meters There now may be more than 3,000,000 fur seals (4 feet) in length and weigh 36 kilograms (80 pounds), on South Georgia and there is consideration of are born about a week after the females arrive. The whether to control this explosive population growth. mothers suckle their young for only about 3 to 4 weeks, and the pups put on weight very quickly up to Southern Elephant Seal nine kilograms (20 pounds) per day. The pups have a The southern elephant seal has a large circumpolar high mortality rate during the breeding season as SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT THE BIOLOGICAL SECTION 6:

85 86 SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT parts ofitsoriginalrange. the elephantsealisonceagaincommoninmany Happily, populationshave recovered well, very and was untilitfinishedin1965. sustainable the industry regulationswerecourse, conservation enactedand were againbeingkilledonSouthGeorgia.Indue But numbersrecovered andin1910 elephantseals cametoanend. industry sofewcentury elephantsealsremainedthatthe exploitation was repeated,andby themid-19th (100 oil. gallons)ofhighquality The pattern ofover blubber. liters A largemaleyielded nearly400 the elephantsealswhich were killedfor theiroily by the1820s, thesealersturned theirattention to After thefursealshadbeennearlyexterminated feet)(3,300 lastingmorethan30minutes. they catch meters indeepdives toabout1,000 feed mostlyonsquid,supplementedby fish,which mainly move aheadoftheadvancing icepack. They they leave thebreedinggroundsandgotosea,they Elephant sealsdonottruly migrate,becausewhen sightandsmell. extraordinary molt. elephantsealwallowA tightly-packed isan muddy wallows for amonthormorewhilethey adults return tothebeaches to gatherinlarge, parents whogotoseafeed. Then thegregarious After thepupsareweaned they areleft by their they move arounddefending theirterritories. some ofthemarecrushed by thehugebullswhile the mostsoutherlyofallmammals breedingasfar This isthemostsoutherlyofsealsandindeed Seal Weddell of theiroffspring. at thistime,andthefemales arefiercelyprotective with oneanotherifthey cometooclose together birth withinoneortwo days. The males often fight out onthefast iceinearlySeptemberandgive The whenthecows breedingseasonstarts haul weigh 70kilograms(154 pounds). favored food isthe large cod,whichAntarctic can they alsoeatafair amountofsquidandkrill. Their ice. Fishesmake upthebulkoftheirdiet,although to facilitate huntingindeep,darkwaters underthe The face issmall,buttheeyes areextremely large covered withdistinctive lightblotches andstreaks. above andlightgray below, andtheentirebodyis some 3meters(10 feet). Weddell sealsaredarkgray pounds),withalengthof kilograms(900 up to400 The Weddell isarathertubby animalwhich weighs Mating takesplaceinthewater. females thatenter, butthey donotform harems. territories, wherethey willmatewith underwater slightly largerthanthemales. The malesestablish the females, andinfact thefemales often grow Male Weddell sealsareaboutthesamesize as to theSouthPole. Weddell captured sixspecimensduringhisvoyage not discovered until1823 James whenCaptain Falkland Islands [IslasMalvinas]),thespecieswas Kerguelen, Heard, theSouthOrkneys, andeven the Zealand, aswell asSouth Georgia,Macquarie, have beenfound off South Australia andNew individuals sometimeswander (they longdistances sight oflandinbothsummerandwinter. Although south as78S. Itisalmostalways found within The pups are weaned in about 6 weeks, after they weight of 227 kilograms (500 pounds). This have more than quadrupled their weight to more medium-sized seal is long and slim, and is often than 120 kilograms (260 pounds). The cows will called the white seal because of its cream-colored have lost about 136 kilograms (300 pounds) during fur. It has a pointed, rather dog-like snout and is the same period. The pups enter the water very often encountered resting on pack ice or ice floes. soon after birth, though some are crushed to death It is quite common to see adults with prominent by the ice breaking up. It has been estimated that scars on their flanks or bellies caused by encounters the mortality rate of Weddell seal pups is as much with leopard seals, or perhaps orcas. as 50 percent during their first two months. Their teeth are well adapted to an exclusive diet of Weddell seals usually remain near the land year krill. The specialized molars have numerous projecting round. During the winter they remain under the fast cusps arranged in line with the jaws so as to act as ice by maintaining breathing holes which allow them strainers when the jaws are closed. This allows the to reach the air to breathe. The seal embeds its lower animal to take in a mouthful of water and retain the incisor and canine teeth in the ice from below and krill while forcing the water out of the mouth with the then revolves its upper incisor and canine teeth in an tongue. It is an adaptation that works in a similar way arc until it cuts a hole. The teeth of older individuals to the baleen plates of the filter-feeding whales. are usually badly worn, and this condition may be an important cause of death in mature animals. The females give birth on the drifting pack ice, with each family group separated from other crabeater Weddell seals are excellent divers, and have been seals by as much as one kilometer, or half a mile. known to dive to nearly 600 meters (1,900 feet) and The pups are born from the middle of September remain submerged for more than an hour. Perhaps to early November, and are weaned after about a because they meet few predators on or under the month. They then have to take to the water where fast ice, they are not much concerned when they they may be attacked almost immediately by occasionally meet humans on land. predatory leopard seals. Crabeater seals stay mainly near the edge of the pack ice as it extends Crabeater Seal or retreats, but they need stretches of open water. This is the most abundant seal in the world, totaling They are commonly seen lying on the ice floes somewhere between 30 and 70 million. Its population singly or in small groups. They live all around the has increased in recent decades, because of the continent, but in especially large numbers in the reduced number of whales in Antarctic waters, Ross Sea and around the Antarctic Peninsula. which has made available greater reserves of food. For despite its name, the crabeater seal lives almost Leopard Seal entirely upon krill, not crabs. As its name suggests, this seal is a predator. It is the only Antarctic seal that regularly eats warm- The adults of both sexes are about the same size, blooded prey. A portion of its diet consists of growing to 2.7 meters (9 feet) in length with a penguins, but it also eats fish, krill, and even the SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT THE BIOLOGICAL SECTION 6:

87 88 SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT America. Australia andNew Zealand,South Africa, andSouth few individualshave even beenfound off southern islands such asSouthGeorgiaandMacquarie,a Some animalsspendtheirwintersnearsubantarctic weaning takesabouttwo months. are bornbetween November andDecember, and breed andraisetheiryoung onthepack ice.Pups Like theotherseals,apartfromfurseal,they smaller piecesbefore swallowing it. often vigorouslyshakingtheirprey tobreakitinto They chase andcatch penguinswithgreatspeed, where penguinsgathertodive intothesea. places along coastsduringthesummer, and patrollingthe area. They canbefound throughoutthepack ice rare toseemorethanoneindividualinaparticular upon humans. animals,anditis These aresolitary have few beenvery casesofunprovoked attacks other seals,butdespiteitsferocious there reputation The leopardsealhasnoneofthecuteappeal powerful headandneck, somewhat snake-like. are longandsinuoushave largeand avery belly marked withleopard-like spots.Leopard seals appearance isadarkgray back shadingintoalighter females reach about3.6meters(12 feet). The typical grow toalengthof3 meters (10 feet), andthe attain slightlylargersizes thanthemales. The males The sexes arenearlyidentical,althoughthe females water inmuch thesameway thatthecrabeaterdoes. crabeater seal,which enablesittofilterkrillfromsea pointed cuspsonitsmolarteeth,somewhat like the young ofother seals. The leopardsealhaslong known ofitsbreedinghabits. can beheardover longdistances. Very little is its alternatenamesis “singing seal.” Itsvaried calls vocal, andoneof also eatsfishandkrill).Itisvery catching squid,itsmainsourceoffood (thoughit for canine teetharedelicate,sharp,andrecurved flippers comparedwithotherseals. The incisorand The largeandwell-developed Ross sealhasvery beneath theice. find food andavoid inthedarkwaters obstacles The eyes which arelargeandbulging, helpsitto there arelightstripesaroundthethroatandflanks. the belly. The headissmallandthesnoutshort, greenish gray ontheback, fading toalightgray on grow toabout2.8meters(9.5feet), andaredark Both sealsaresimilarinsize andappearance. They penetrate theseals’ remotehabitat. hundred years, untilthebigicebreakers to started Few sightingswere reportedduringthefollowing during theBritish Expeditionof1839-43. Antarctic was firstdescribedby James Captain ClarkRoss the fringesof continent. Antarctic The species rarely seenasitinhabitsthethick pack icealong animalandisquite the pinnipeds.Itisasolitary The Ross sealisprobablytheleastknown ofall Seal Ross a flukedfor tail propulsionhasdeveloped fromthe Their hindlegshave completelydegeneratedand never comeashoreorontoiceatall. Unlike thoseothermarinemammals,the seals,they but have perfected tolive theability entirelyinwater. dolphins, andporpoisesareair-breathing mammals, thegroupthatincludesallwhales, Cetaceans Antarctic Whales former legs. The front limbs have been transformed Toothed whales actively pursue relatively large prey into pectoral fins, the nostrils have moved to the top such as squid, fish, birds, seals, and other whales. of the head, and they have lost their fur. To keep The toothed whales have developed very useful warm, they have a thick layer of oil-rich blubber with sonar or echolocation systems with which they can which to insulate themselves from the cold waters. locate and capture prey in even the dark water The thick layer of blubber also aids buoyancy because found at great depths. The ultrasonic pulses they fat is lighter than water. In addition, it is used as transmit are inaudible to human ears, though for stored food during times of migration and fasting. communication between each other they use trills, Essentially weightless in water, whales have been tweets, whistles, and grunts which are easily heard free to grow to a great size. by humans.

Whales inhale before diving (seals do the opposite), The toothless whales feed in quite a different way but the tremendous pressure exerted by water from those with teeth. Their plates of horny baleen causes the lungs to collapse thereby compressing hang down vertically from the roof of the mouth. The the retained air into cartilaginous supply tubes in inside edge of each plate has the frayed appearance the bronchial system. Whales have large lungs by of dense bristles, and the plates overlap one another comparison with most other mammals. And they so the frayed edges form a very efficient sieve. As are able to exchange up to 85 percent of the air in the whale moves through the water it opens its the lungs at each breath, compared with the 15-20 huge jaws (most species also have expandable percent exchange which occurs during normal throats which increase the efficiency of this method breathing in humans. Most of the larger species of feeding) and takes in a large quantity of water. produce a visible vaporous blow when they exhale at The water is squeezed out between the plates, the surface. This is caused mainly by condensation thereby trapping any small prey animals, such as when the air in the lungs is suddenly depressurized krill, tiny fish, etc., inside the mouth. on exhalation. This process enables the baleen whales to take Teeth versus Baleen advantage of the huge quantities of available krill There are two basic types of whales, those with as well as other small organisms. Different species teeth and those without teeth. The toothed whales of baleen whales have different sizes of filter include the dolphins, orca (which is actually a large plates which allow them to coexist while feeding dolphin), and sperm whale. The whales without teeth on different prey. are known as the whalebone or baleen whales, and feed by filtering plankton through a series of baleen Baleen whales typically feed in relatively shallow plates suspended from the position normally water because the zooplankton which makes up occupied by upper teeth. most of their diet is dependent upon phytoplankton which in turn is dependent upon sunlight. Therefore they are not normally deep divers like some of the SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT THE BIOLOGICAL SECTION 6:

89 90 SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT the feeding groundsinsummer. rate ofgrowth to beweaned by thetimethey reach of thelargerspecies,mustundergoanaccelerated in thesummer. Baby baleenwhales,especiallythose in thewinter, andfeeding inthecold watersAntarctic cycle ofbreeding inthewarm waters atlow latitudes The baleenwhaleshaveAntarctic adistinctannual feet)meters (300 below90 thesurface. toothed whales,andseldomdive tomorethan brown, as well aswhitecallosities above theeyes, The coloringispureblack withsome mottling of kilograms(10696,000 tons). kilograms (60tons)inweight, withamaximumof of 18 meters(60feet), andaverage about55,000 about 15 meters(50feet) inlength,withamaximum days Both malesandfemales ofwhaling. average It was therefore therightspeciestohuntinold body issorich inoilthatitfloats,even after death. This largewhaleisaslow moving animal,andits Whale Right Southern to bethelargestanimalever tohave lived onEarth. great size. The bluewhale,for isbelieved instance, whilefeeding,agility they canafford togrow toa Since baleenwhalesdonotneedgreatspeedor kilograms (10 4.5 pounds)perhour! whose offspring may gainweight attherateof extreme example ofthisisseeninthebluewhale, rich, highlynutritiousmilkallows rapidgrowth. The swallowing toomuch water whenitsuckles. The with seawater. This helpsthebaby whaletoavoid consistency, which prevents itfrommixingreadily milkhasalargefatCetacean contentandathick Rate Growth Massive southern Argentina. of theirstrongholds,the Valdez Peninsula in likely tobeseenaroundSouthGeorgia,andatone making agradualrecovery. The whales aremost of the19th century. Now protected,itis totally species, andhadalmostdisappearedby theend by asaprey thewhalers,duetoitspopularity The southernrightwhalewas greatlyover-exploited long baleenplatesasitmove throughthewater. its mouthopenandfiltersfood itemsthroughitsvery (7 feet) long. The rightwhalesimplyswimsalongwith which carries baleenplatesmorethan2meters Instead, ithasanarrow andhighlyarched upperjaw significantly whenfeeding, like mostbaleenwhales. Therefore theanimalcannotexpand itsthroat bodylength,andtherearenothroatgrooves.total large,about35percentofthe The headisvery surface whentheanimaldives. and adeepnotch, isusuallyraisedabove the this species,which pointedtips isbroadwithvery and distinctive V-shaped doublespout. The of tail widely separatedblowholes which produceahigh whale in waters.Antarctic The rightwhalehastwo so itshouldnotbemistakenfor any otherlarge extremely broadandsmooth. There isnodorsalfin, sometimes awhitemarkingonthebelly. Itsbodyis near thetipofsnout,andonchin, and baleen plates. The advantage ofthismethodis that jaws andsqueeze thewater outthroughtheshort single hugemouthfulofwater andthenclosetheir a when feeding. Unlike theright whales,they engulf grooves, which allows thethroattobeexpanded share thecharacteristic ofhaving many throat The groupofbaleenwhalesknown asrorquals Rorquals In Antarctic waters blue whales feed almost entirely upon krill, and a large whale may consume 8,000 A close look will show that the fin whales coloration kilograms (over 8 tons) of these tiny animals in a is asymmetrical, with the right side of the head and day. At the end of the Antarctic summer, the whales lower right lip being pale, while the left side of the move northward where they live off their blubber and gather in small groups for courtship and mating. head and the lower left lip is a darker color. The females breed about once every three years.

There are separate populations of blue whales in the North Pacific, North Atlantic, and Southern with the throat constricted, they assume a Oceans. The species was seriously over-exploited surprisingly long and streamlined shape which by the whalers, to the point where it has not yet allows them to swim at speeds as high as 30 managed to make much of a recovery. They are kilometers per hour (16 knots). There are five usually seen either on their own or in small groups species of rorqual whales in Antarctic waters. Four of three or four. of them, belonging to the genus Balaenoptera, are closely related and differ mainly in size and Fin Whale coloration. They are difficult to identify. The fin whale is the next largest cetacean, with a length of up to 27 meters (89 feet). The weight

Blue Whale ranges from 35,000 to 45,000 kilograms (40-50 The blue whale is the largest of the rorquals, and is tons) with a maximum of 80,000 kilograms (90 in fact the largest of all the cetaceans, the largest tons). It is relatively easy to identify since it is a animal ever to have appeared on our planet. It can very large species and has a prominent, V-shaped exceed 30 meters (100 feet) in length, and weigh dorsal fin hence its name. The back also has ridges between 80,000 and 130,000 kilograms (90-144 from the dorsal fin to the tail, which gave rise to tons). The maximum recorded weight was 178,000 one of its other names, ‘razorback.’ kilograms (196 tons). The color is hard to evaluate unless one is fairly close, but is a bluish gray, The fin whale is unique among the rorquals in that it is mottled with small white or light gray spots. It has counter shaded, with a black or dark brown back and a a tiny triangular dorsal fin which becomes exposed white or light colored underside. A close look will long after the blow, and often the flukes are show that the fin whales coloration is asymmetrical, exposed as the animal dives. with the right side of the head and lower right lip being pale, while the left side of the head and the lower left The blue whale’s blow is typical of all the species lip is a darker color. Asymmetry is unusual in animals, in this genus, a high powerful thin column, but it is and in this case may be connected with its method of comparatively bigger than the others. catching krill. It rolls side ways to the right and swims in a tight circle, so that its paler right side is underneath and camouflaged. SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT THE BIOLOGICAL SECTION 6:

91 92 SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT its populationstatus. is now protected,butthereislittle information about turn camefor over-exploitation. Like otherspeciesit with theintroductionoffast catcher boats,its fast speedsaved it,initially, fromthewhalersbut may sometimes leapclearofthewater. Itsrelatively The finwhalesblow isahigh,vertical spout, andit sardines, anchovies, Pollack, andsquid. not onlyeatskrill,butalsofeeds onfishessuch as It great whales,withatopspeedofabout18 knots. The finwhaleis probably thefastest swimmerofthe maximum of10 meters(33feet) Itsaverage weight averages about8meters(26feet) inlength witha The smallestrorqualistheMinke, orpiked whale.It Whale Minke Antarctic side andthentotheother. the finwhale,butwillcontinuouslyrollfirsttoone species often rollsontoitssidewhenfeeding, like opportunity arises.Itisinteresting tonotethatthis but willalsoeatsmallschooling fishwhenthe The seiwhaleisageneralistfeeder, favoring krill, when atthesurface. its back highoutofthewater, asthefinwhaledoes, rather like thatofthefinwhale,butitdoesnotarch flanks andbelly. Ithasahighvertical dorsalfin, belly. There isusuallysomelightmottling onthe mostly darksteelygray butwithalighterthroatand 15,000 kg (14-17 tons)inweight. The colorationis about 15 meters(50feet) inlength,and12,000 to continent. This speciesisquitelarge,averaging closest totheice,sothey arerarelyseennearthe Sei whalesgenerallyavoid thecoldestwaters Whale Sei about 400 annually,about 400 despiteinternationalpressure. catch shipstotake thisspecies,usingpelagicfactory beingfoundtotal inthe Antarctic. The Japanese still half amillionofthemaltogether, withnearlyhalfthat are conflictingopinionsonnumbersbuttheremay be As with mostwhalespeciesandpopulations,there have oftheincreasedfood advantage taken resource. decimation ofthelargerbaleenwhales,becausethey Minke whalesseemtohave flourishedfollowing the feeding frenzy. accompanying whatmay almostbedescribedasa vigorous feeder, withalotofleapingandsplashing small schooling fishandsquid.Ittendstobea where krillarenotreadilyavailable itoften eats This speciesisafast swimmer, andinplaces in amongthepack ice. side toside.Itiscommonlyseencloseinshore,and approaching ships,which itmay dive under, from has thepeculiarhabit,for abaleenwhaleanyway, of water, usuallytwo orthreetimesinsuccession,and before itbreakssurface. Itoften leapsclearofthe noticeable spout,becauseitoften beginstoexhale The Minke whaledoesnotusuallyproduceavery located far back onthebody. the back. Itsrelatively large,pointeddorsalfinis bracket marksabove theflipperextending across light gray underneath,withtwo comparatively pale pointed. The colorationisdarkbluishgray above and distinctive inthatitisnarrowis very andvery kilograms(10of 9,000 tons). The rostrum, orsnout, tons),withamaximum -7,250 kilograms(6-8 is 5,800 Humpback Whale baleen whales, their numbers are now greatly The humpback belongs to a different genus from depleted, but they are regularly seen in small the other rorquals. It shares the same general life groups in Antarctic waters, especially around the style as the others, but does not have the same long, Antarctic Peninsula. sleek body shape. Comparatively broader and more massive, it averages about 15 meters (50 feet) in Arnoux’s Beaked Whale length with a maximum of 19 meters (62 feet), and This toothed whale averages about 9 meters (30 feet) weighs about 30,000 - 40,000 kilograms (34- 35 tons) in length and weighs 6,400 kilograms (7 tons). It is with a maximum of 48,000 kilograms (53 tons). blue gray in color and has a bulbous forehead, or melon, and a pronounced beak. The lower jaw The body characteristics and its behavior make this extends beyond the upper, revealing the foremost the easiest great whale to identify. Its coloration is pair of teeth. This species has only two pairs of basically black or dark grey with a white throat area. teeth, and they are all in the lower jaw. The flippers The ventral surface of the tail is also white, as well are broad and rounded, the dorsal fin is small and as most of the flippers (which are nearly one third triangular and set far back, and the flukes are large the total length of the body). The humpback whale’s and pointed with little or no notch between them. broad bushy blow is distinctive, as is its dorsal fin which is small but mounted on a fleshy hump. Its Both males and females usually bear pale scars on head and jaws are covered with fleshy tuberosities, their backs and flanks, presumably caused by the and barnacles are often attached to the body. teeth of others of their kind during mating conflicts. This whale is very uncommon, and little is known Humpbacks often leap completely out of the water of its life history. Squid beaks have been recovered to land on their backs with a tremendous splash. from the stomachs of stranded specimens. It has Besides breaching, the humpback whale waves and been recorded around South Georgia and the slaps its enormous flippers on the surface of the Antarctic Peninsula. water to make a loud sound rather like a gun shot, and almost always exposes its great tail flukes Southern Bottlenose Whale when it dives. This species is amazingly acrobatic This smallish species is about 6-8 meters (20 -26 and energetic and never fails to create excitement feet) long and weighs 3,600 kilograms (3 tons). among visitors lucky enough to encounter one. The body is rather cylindrical in the fore section but tapers off towards an elongated tail. It has an In Antarctic waters the normal feeding method is to enormous melon, which is evidence of its deep lunge forward near the surface, or come up on their diving ability. The tail is very broad with pointed prey from below. Humpback whales are famous for tips. It is usually a deep metallic gray in color, communicating with each other by means of long, shading to bluish on the flanks, but may also be plaintive, and varied songs. These songs have been slightly brownish. The dorsal fin is sickle-shaped intensively studied in recent years. Like other and located far back on the body. SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT THE BIOLOGICAL SECTION 6:

93 94 SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT washed uponbeaches. restricted todeadspecimenswhich have been fish. Itisrarelyseen,andmoststudies have been this speciesfeeds mostlyonsquidandpelagic Stomach analysis ofdeadanimalssuggeststhat of smallteethlocatedatthetiplower jaw. The southernbottlenose whalehasonlyonepair the tail is very strongandsomewhat squareinshape isvery tail the swimming. The flippers areshortandstubby, and blow, andalsotellinwhich directiontheanimal is left. Onecaneasilyidentifythesperm whalefromits directionandtothe because itshootsoutinaforward is left of center. The characteristic blow isvery whale isattheforemost upperpointofthesnout,and Unlike theblow allothercetaceans, holeofthesperm actually beenseen,butrarely). white specimenslike themythical Moby Dick have normal colorationisdarkgray orbrownish (pure look asifthebodyhasshrunk withinitsskin. The surface iscovered withcrenulations,makingit front onebeingthelargest.Much ofthebody a seriesofknobsorlumpsontheirback with the There isnotrue dorsalfin,butmostanimalshave overall size ofthehead. narrow, andseemsratherpuny comparedtothe bodylength. of thetotal The lower jaw islongand enormous squareheadthatmakes uponethird withan In profile,thiswhaleisunmistakable, kilograms(22tons)inweight. in lengthand20,000 much smallerfemales average 11meters (36feet) kilograms(40tons)inweight, andthe 36,000 Males average 15 meters(50feet) inlengthand This isby far thelargestoftoothedwhales. Whale Sperm from shore stations inthenorthernhemisphere. from shorestations and candles. A few spermwhalesarestillhunted forehead; thiswas usedfor cosmetics,ointment, spermaceti, aliquidwax fromthewhales obtained They were valued mainlyfor theiroilandalsofor weight, catch ofthetotal ofallspecieswhales. one time,spermwhalescomprised40percent,by New EnglandportsandlateratSanFrancisco. At caught largelyby vessels UnitedStates basedat In theheyday spermwhaleswere ofwhaling, and arerarelyseenin Antarctica. stay closertotropicalwaters throughouttheyear, breeding males. The females andyoung generally the iceinthesummer,Antarctic inthecaseofnon- equatorial waters inthewinterrighttoedgeof rangingfrom malesmigratelongdistances, Solitary forthey anhourormore. canstayunderwater While mostdives areonlyabout10 minuteslong, have meters(10,000 dived feet). toatleast3,000 squid. They arechampion divers, andareknown to distinctive sucker ofgiant marksfromthetentacles sharks, andavarietyoffish. They often bearthe giant deep-seaspecies,butalsoprey onskates, Sperm whalesfeed primarilyonsquid,including exposes asitgoesunder). its tail (this speciesusuallymakes steepdives and is very strikingwithmostofthebodyaglossy is very bodied withablunthead. are heavy Their coloration for malesand7meters(23feet) for females. They medium size, reaching 9.5meters(31 feet) inlength the mosteasilyrecognized Itisof ofallcetaceans. The orcaisthelargestofdolphins,andprobably Whale) (Killer Orca black, except for a highly contrasted bright white The hourglass dolphin often leaps out of the water belly extending onto the flanks, and a patch just and likes to bow-ride in front of ships, which makes behind the eye. There is also a gray saddle mark identification quite easy. It is a very fast swimmer behind the dorsal fin. and can easily overtake ships moving at 22 km per hour (12 knots) when it wants to. Little is known The most obvious feature is the enormous dorsal about the life history of this species, but it seems to fin, which is the tallest and most pointed of any be fairly common in cold southern waters, feeding cetacean. In adult males it may stand 2 meters mainly on fish and squid. (6 feet) in height, while in females and immature males it is more curved and shark-like. Commerson’s dolphin is a thick bodied little animal that is more porpoise-shaped than dolphin-shaped. Orcas normally travel in pods of 5-20 individuals, It has a broad flat head, small rounded flippers, usually an extended family. These groups are very and a low rounded dorsal fin. It is usually found in cohesive and exhibit a high degree of cooperation in shallow areas near land, including isolated islands. hunting prey and caring for one another. The animals It sometimes jumps clear of the water, but most are top predators and feed on a large variety of prey often just rolls at the surface. It feeds on krill, including squid, sharks, rays, fish, seabirds, seals, squid, and small fish. and even other cetaceans. There are accounts of large whales being attacked by a pod of killer whales acting together rather like a moose being attacked by wolves.

They are seen quite often from ships in the Antarctic, and sometimes change course to get a closer look. They can also be seen spy-hopping, when they rise vertically in the water to look around for prey.

Dolphins There are two small dolphins which are sometimes encountered within the Antarctic Convergence. The hourglass dolphin can be found all the way to the edge of the ice pack, whereas the Commerson’s dolphin may be found at Kerguelen, South Georgia , and at the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas). Both species have highly contrasting and distinctive black and white markings. SECTION 6: THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT THE BIOLOGICAL SECTION 6:

95 EMPEROR PENGUINS ......

Adult Emperor Penguin and chick rest in the sun. - Robert F.- Robert Scott andfloodedfloes. petrel divingontotheupturned It ispretty toseethesnowpetrel andAntarctic CHECKLIST WILDLIFE Penguins Petrels Albatross ANTARCTIC CONVERGENCE) ANTARCTIC OF BIRDS (SOUTH THE palpebrata) Light-mantled Sooty Albatross (Phoebetria Rockhopper Penguin (Eudypteschrysocome) Macaroni Penguin (Eudypteschrysolophus) Gentoo Penguin (Pygoscelis papua) Chinstrap Penguin (Pygoscelis antarctica) Adélie Penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae) Emperor Penguin (Aptenodytesforsteri) King Penguin (Aptenodytespatagonicus) Northern GiantPetrel (Macronecteshalli) Southern GiantPetrel (Macronectesgiganteus) Grey-headed Albatross (Diomedeachrysostoma) Black-browed Albatross (Diomedeamelanophrys) Royal Albatross (Diomedeaepomophora) Wandering Albatross (Diomedeaexulans) Storm-petrels Broad-billed Prion, PrionAntarctic Cape Petrel, orCapePigeon orPintado Sooty Shearwater (Puffinus Shearwater Sooty griseus) Prion (PachyptilaFairy turtur) Slender-billed Prion (Pachyptila belcheri) (Pachyptila vittata) Blue Petrel (Halobaenacaerulea) White-chinned Petrel (Procellaria aequinoctialis) Grey Petrel (Procellaria cinerea) Soft-plumaged Petrol (Pterodromamollis) White-headed Petrel (Pterodromalessonii) Kerguelen Petrel (Pterodromabrevirostris) Snow Petrel (Pagodroma nivea) PetrelAntarctic (Thalassoica antarctica) (Daption capense) Southern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialoides) Grey-backed Storm-petrel(Garrodia nereis) Black-bellied Storm-petrel (Fregetta tropica) Wilson’s Storm-petrel(Oceanites oceanicus) 97 SECTION 7: WILDLIFE CHECKLIST 98 SECTION 7: WILDLIFE CHECKLIST Diving petrels Diving Seals SURROUNDING WATERS MARINE MAMMALSOFANTARCTICA & Vagrants Perching birds Gulls andterns Sheathbills Ducks Cormorants (Phocarctos hookeri) New Zealand(Hookers) sealion Speckled Teal (Anasflavirostris) Common Diving-petrel(Pelecanoides urinatrix) Georgian Diving-petrel(Pelecanoides georgicus) South lavescens)American sealion(Otaria New Zealandfurseal(Arctocephalusforsteri) Kerguelan furseal(Arctocephalustropicalis) furseal(Arctocephalus gazella)Antarctic Black-necked Swan (Cygnus melanocoryphus) Cattle Egret(Bubulcusibis) South GeorgiaPipit(Anthusantarcticus) Arctic Tern (Sternaparadisaea) Antarctic Tern (Sternavittata) Kelp Gull(Larus dominicanus) South Polar Skua(Catharactamaccormicki) Brown antarctica) Skua(Catharacta Black-faced Sheathbill(Chionisminor) Pale-faced Sheathbill(Chionisalbus) Blue-eyed Shag(Phalacrocoraxatriceps) South Georgia Pintail (Anasgeorgica) South GeorgiaPintail Baleen whales WHALES Toothed whales bonarerensis) MinkeAntarctic whale(Balaenoptera commersonii) Commerson’s dolphin(Cephalorhynchus peronii) Southern rightwhaledolphin(Lissodelphis planifrons) Southern bottlenose whale(Hyperoodon South American furseal(Arctocephalusaustralis) Humpback whale(Megapteranovaeangliae) Sei whale(Balaenoptera borealis) Fin whale(Balaenoptera physalus) Blue whale(Balaenoptera musculus) Southern rightwhale(Eubalaenaaustralis) Peales Dolphin(Lagenorhynchus australis) Hourglass dolphin(Lagenorhynchus cruciger) Orca (Orcinusorca) Sperm whale(Physeter macrocephalus) Arnoux sbeaked whale(Berardius arnuxii) Ross Seal (Ommatophoca rossii) Leopard Seal(Hydrurga leptonyx) Crabeater seal(Lobodon carcinophaga) Weddell Seal(Leptonychotes weddellii) Southern ElephantSeal(Miroungaleonina) BIRDS OF PATAGONIA AND TIERRA Penguins DEL FUEGO King Penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus) Gentoo Penguin (Pygoscelis papua) This list of common birds of Patagonia and Tierra del Magellanic Penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) Fuego is adapted from Canelo, Claudio Venegas. Aves de Patagonia y Tierra del Fuego Chileno-Argentina. Cormorants Punta Arenas, Chile: Ediciones de la Universidad de Neotropic Cormorant (Phalacrocorax olivaceous) Magellanes, 1986, 79 pages. Rock Cormorant (Phalacrocorax magellanicus) Red-footed Cormorant (Phalacrocorax gaimardi) Rheas Blue-eyed Shag (Phalacrocorax atriceps) Lesser Rhea (Pterocnemia pennata)

Herons Tinamous White-necked Heron (Ardea cocol) Patagonian Tinamou (Tinamotis ingouti) Great Egret (Casmerodius albus) Snowy Egret (Egretta thula) Grebes Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) White-tufted Grebe (Podiceps Rolland) Black-crowned Night Heron (Nycticorax Silvery Grebe (Podiceps occipitalis) nycticorax) Great Grebe (Podiceps major)

Ibis Albatross Buff-necked Ibis (Theristicus caudatus) Black-browed Albatross (Diomedea melanophrys)

Flamingos Petrels Chilean Flamingo (Phoenicopterus chilensis) Southern Giant Petrel (Macronectes giganteus) Cape Petrel (Daption capense) Waterfowl Pink Footed Shearwater (Puffinus creatopus) Coscoroba Swan (Coscoroba coscoroba) Great Shearwater (Puffinus gravis) Black-necked Swan (Cygnus melancoryphus) Sooty Shearwater (Puffinus griseus) Ashy-headed Goose (Chloephaga poliocephala) Common (or Manx) Shearwater (Puffinus Ruddy-headed Goose (Chloephaga rubidiceps) puffinus) Upland Goose (Chloephaga picta) Kelp Goose (Chloephaga hybrida) Storm-petrels Flightless Steamer Duck (Tachyeres pteneres) Wilson’s Storm-petrel (Oceanites oceanicus) Flying Steamer Duck (Tachyeres patachonicus)

Diving Petrels Magellanic Diving Petrel (Pelecanoides magellani) Subantarctic Diving Petrel (Pelecanoides urinatrix) SECTION 7: WILDLIFE CHECKLIST SECTION 7:

99 100 SECTION 7: WILDLIFE CHECKLIST SUBANTARCTIC ISLANDS MACQUARIE & THE NEWZEALAND SOME COMMON BIRDS OF THE palebrata) Light-mantled Sooty Albatross (Phoebetria Auckland IslandShag(Leucocarbo colensoi) Campbell IslandShag(Leucocarbo campbelli) White-faced Heron(Ardeanovahollandiae) Cape Petrel (Daptioncapense) Black-bellied StormPetrel (Fregetta tropica) Grey-backed StormPetrel (Garrodia nereis) (Puffinus Shearwater Sooty griseus) White-chinned Petrel (Procellaria aequinoctialis) Grey petrel(Procellaria cinerea) Blue Petrel (Halobaenacaerulea) PrionAntarctic (Thalassoica Antarctica) Prion (PachyptilaFairy turtur) Cook’s Petrel (Pterdromacookii) Gould’s Petrel (Pterdromaleucoptera) Mottled Petrel (Pterdromainexpectata) White-headed Petrel (Pterodromalessonii) Southern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialoides) Southern GiantPetrel (Macronectesgiganteus) Northern GiantPetrel (Macronecteshalli) Salvin’s Albatross (Thalassarche salvini) Grey-headed Albatross (Diomedeachrysostoma) Shy Albatross (Thalassarche cauta) Black-browed Albatross (Diomedeamelanophrys) Bullers Albatross (Thalassarche bulleri) Royal Albatross (Diomedaepomophora) Wandering Albatross (Diomedaexulans) Snares CrestedPenguin (Eudyptesrobustus) Gentoo Penguin (Pygoscelis papua) Rockhopper Penguin (Eudypteschrysocome) Royal Penguin (Eudyptesschlegli) Yellow-eyed Penguin (Megadyptesantipodes) King Penguin (Aptenodytespatagonicus) novaezelandiae) Red-crowned Parakeet (Cyanoramphus marrineri) Auckland Island Tomtit (Petroica [marcocephala] novaehollandiae) Spur-winged Plover (Vanellus miles tabornoides) Chestnut-breasted Shelduck (Tadorna Lake Duck (Oxyuravittata) Ruddy Duck (Oxyurajamaicensis) Torrent Duck (Merganettaarmata) Red Shoveler (Anasplatalea) Cinnamon Teal (Anascyanoptera) Silver Teal (Anasversicolor) Yellow-billed (Anasgeorgica) Pintail White-cheeked (Anasbahamensis) Pintail Southern orChiloe (Anassibilatrix) Wigeon Speckled Teal (Anasflavirostris) DuckSpectacled (Anasspecularis) New ZealandPipit(Anthusnoawseelandiae) Dunnock (Prunella modularis) Redpoll (Cardueliscabaret) Silvereye (Zosteropslateralis) Bellbird (Anthornismelanura) White-fronted Tern (Sternastriata) Antarctic Tern (Sternavittata) Brown Skua(Catharacta Antarctica) Red-billed Gull(Larus scopulinus) Kelp Gull(Larus dominicamusvetula) aucklandica) Snipe(Coenocorypha Subantarctic Turnstone (Charadriusbicinctus) Bar-tailed Godwit(Limosalapponica) Banded Dotterel (Charadriusbicinctus) Auckland Island Teal (Anasaucklandica) Macquarie IslandShag(Phalacrocoraxatriceps Birds of prey Tawny-throated Dotterel (Oreopholus ruficollis) Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus) Magellanic Plover (Pluvianellus socialis) Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura) Greater Yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca) Cinereus Harrier (Circus cinereus) Lesser Yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes) Long Winged Harrier (Circus buffoni) Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus) Bicolored Hawk (Accipiter bicolor) Hudsonian Godwit (Limosa haemastica) Black-chested Buzzard Eagle (Geranoaetus Ruddy Turnstone (Arenaria interpres) melanoleucus) Surfbird (Aphriza virgata) Red-backed Hawk (Buteo polysoma) Red Knot (Calidris canutus) Rufous-tailed Hawk (Buteo ventralis) Sanderling (Calidris alba) Crested Caracara (Polyborus plancus) White-rumped Sandpiper (Calidris fuscicollis) Striated Caracara (Phalcoboenus australis) Baird’s Sandpiper (Calidris bairdii) White-throated Caracara (Phalcoboenus Pectoral Sandpiper (Calidris melanotos) albogularis) Common Snipe (Gallinago gallinago) Chimango Caracara (Milvago chimango ) Cordilleran Snipe (Gallinago stricklandii) American Kestrel (Falco sparverius) Wilson’s Phalarope (Steganopus tricolor) Aplomado Falcon (Falco femoralis) Northern Phalarope (Lobipes lobatus) Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) Red Phalarope (Phalaropus fulicaria) Rufous-bellied Seedsnipe (Atagis gayi) Rails and Coots White-bellied Seedsnipe (Attagis malouinus) Plumbeous Rail (Rallus sanguinolentus) Grey-breasted Seedsnipe (Thinocorus Austral Rail (Rallus antarcticus) orbignyianus) Red-gartered Coot (Fulica armillata) Least Seedsnipe (Thinocorus rumicivorus) White-winged Coot (Fulica leucoptera) Red-fronted Coot (Fulica ruftfrons)

Shore birds Magellanic Oystercatcher (Haematopus leucopodus) Black Oystercatcher (Haematopus ater) Southern Lapwing (Vanellus chilensis) Black-bellied Plover (Pluvialis squatarola) Golden Plover (Pluvialis dominica) Two-banded Plover (Charadrius falklandicus) Semipalmated Plover (Charadrius semipalamatus) Rufous-chested Dotterel (Zonibyx modestus) SECTION 7: WILDLIFE CHECKLIST SECTION 7:

101 102 SECTION 7: WILDLIFE CHECKLIST Gulls and Terns Hummingbirds Nightjars Owls Parrots Doves melanoptera) Black-winged GroundDove (Metriopelia Black Skimmer(Rynchops niger) Snowy Crowned Tern (Sternatrudeaui) Arctic Tern (Sternaparadisaea) Common Tern (Sternahirundo) South American Tern (Sternahirundinacea) Brown-hooded Gull(Larus maculipennis) Franklin’s Gull(Larus pipixcan) Kelp Gull(Larus dominicanus) Dolphin Gull(Larus scoresbii) chilensis)Great Skua(Catharacta Parasitic Jaeger (Stercorariusparasiticus) Green-backed Firecrown (Sephanoidesgaleritus) Band-winged Nightjar(Caprimulguslongirostris) Short EaredOwl (Asioflammeus) Rufous Legged Owl (Strixrufipes) Austral Pygmy Owl (Claucidiumnanum) Great HornedOwl (Bubovirginianus) Barn Owl (Tyto alba) Austral Parakeet (Enicognathusferrugineus) Eared Dove (Zenaidaauriculata) Rock Dove (Columbalivia) Ovenbirds andtheirallies Woodpeckers Kingfishers Flycatchers albogularis) White-throated Treerunner(Pygarrhychas aegithaloides) Plain-mantled (Leptasthenura Tit Spinetail dumetaria) Scale-throated Earthcreeper(Upucerthia magellanicus) Magellanic Woodpecker(Campephilus albilora) White-browed Ground Tyrant (Muscisaxicola Andean Tapaculo magellanicus) (Scytalopus Black-throated Huet-huet(Pteroptochos tarnii) Wren melanops) Like Rushbird (Phleocryptes Austral Canastero(Thripophaga anthoides) Cordilleran Canastero(Thripophaga modesta) Lesser Canastero(Thripophaga pyrrholeuca) Thorn-tailed Rayadito (Aphrastura spinicauda) (SylviorthorhynchusDes Murswiretail desmursii) Blackish Cinclodes(Cinclodesantarcticus) Dark-bellied Cinclodespatagonicus) Grey-flanked Cinclodes(Cinclodesoustaleti) Bar-winged Cinclodes(Cinclodesfuscus) Short-billed Miner(Geositta Antarctica) Common Miner(Geositta cunicularia) Chilean Flicker (Colaptespitius) Striped Woodpecker (Picoldes lignarius) torquata) Ringed Kingfisher(Ceryle Fire-eyed Diucon(Pyropepyrope) Chocolate-vented Tyrant (Neoxolmis rufiventris) Black-billed Shrike Tyrant (Agriornis Montana) Great Shrike Tyrant (Agriornis livida) Ochre-naped Ground Tyrant (Muscisaxicola Finches and their allies flavinucha) Patagonian Yellow Finch (Sicalis lebruni) Cinnamon-bellied Ground Tyrant (Muscisaxicola Rufous-collared Sparrow (Zonotrichia capensis) capistrata) Yellow-winged Blackbird (Agelalus thilius) Dark-faced Ground Tyrant (Muscisaxicola Longtailed Meadowlark (Sturnella loyca) macloviana) Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) Spot-billed Ground Tyrant (Muscisaxicola Austral Blackbird (Curaeus curaeus) maculirostris) Patagonian Sierra Finch Phrygilus patagonicus Rufous-backed Negrito (Lessonia rufa) Grey-hooded Sierra Finch Phrygilus gayi White-crested Eluenia (Elaenia albiceps) Mourning Sierra Finch (Phrygilus fruticeti) Tufted Tit Tyrant (Anilretes parulus) Plumbeous Sierra Finch (Phrygilus unicolor) Patagonian Tyrant (Colorhamphus parvirostris) Common Diuca Finch (Diuca diuca) Black-throated Finch (Melanodera melanodera) Phytotomidae Yellow-bridled Finch (Melanodera xanthogramma) Rufous-tailed Plantcutter (Phytotoma rara) Black-chinned Siskin (Carduelis barbatus) House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) Swallows Chilean Swallow (Tachycineta leucopyga) Blue and white Swallow (Pygochelidon cyanoleuca) Cliff Swallow (Hirundo pyrrohonota) Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica)

Wrens House Wren (Troglodytes aedon) Grass Wren (Cistothorus platensis)

Thrushes Austral Thrush (Turdus falcklandii)

Mockingbirds Patagonian Mockingbird (Mimus patagonicus)

Pipits Corredera Pipit (Athus correndera) SECTION 7: WILDLIFE CHECKLIST SECTION 7:

103 BY NIGEL SITWELL & TOM RITCHIE

We wish to acknowledge with appreciation the contributions of:

Robert K. Headland Tony Soper John Splettstoesser Charles Swithinbank

Their passion and expertise is evident on every page of this revision.

Photo Credits: TOM ARBAN: P 44 Quark Expeditions GERALD CUBITT: COVER/BACK COVER, P 2, 8, 48 KEITH GUNNAR: COVER, P 7 47 Water Street, Norwalk, CT 06854 USA PAUL ORENSTEIN: COVER/BACK COVER tel +1 (203) 852 5580 toll-free 800 356 5699 CLAUDIO SUTER: P 7, 28, 64 FRANK TODD: P 96 [email protected] PRINTED NOVEMBER 2008 web www.quarkexpeditions.com BROCHURE CREATED BY EVOKE SOLUTIONS. WWW.EVOKESOLUTIONS.COM ...... Quark Expeditions 47 Water Street, Norwalk, CT 06854 USA tel +1 (203) 852 5580 toll-free 800 356 5699 [email protected] web www.quarkexpeditions.com ......