Creation Research Society Quarterly Volume 44 Winter 2008 Number 3 Articles Departments Toppling the Timescale Editorial: Common Knowledge ...... 169 Part I: Evaluating the Terrain ...... 174 Letters to the Editor ...... 243 John K. Reed Book Reviews Water Gaps in the Alaska Range ...... 180 The Days of Peleg by Jon Saboe ...... 172 Michael J. Oard A Student’s Guide to Natural Science The Primordial Seed of Life: Creation, Spontaneous by Stephen M. Barr ...... 179 Generation, and Emergence Theory ...... 195 The Electric Sky by Donald E. Scott ...... 193 Kareem I. Batarseh Darwin’s Conservatives by John G. West ...... 202 The Physics of Christianity by Frank J. Tipler ...... 203 Origins of Apoptosis: Dinosaurs: Where Did They Come from…Where Selfish Genes or Intelligent Design? ...... 204 Did They Go? by Elaine Graham-Kennedy .... 213 Jerry Bergman In the Beginning ...... 213 Clays of the Central Georgia Kaolin Belt: Pioneer Explorers of Intelligent Design A Preliminary Evaluation ...... 214 by Don B. DeYoung ...... 229 John Reed, Carl R. Froede, Jr. Creation’s Sensible Sequence by John B. Mulder ...... 235 Was the Prostate Gland Poorly Designed? ...... 230 The Language of God by Francis Collins ...... 236 Jerry Bergman Before the Dawn: Recovering the Lost History of our Ancestors by Nicholas Wade ...... 237 Atlas of Creation, Vol. 1 by Harun Yahya ...... 247 Cover photos of Palouse Falls from iStockPhoto.com. Conference Report ...... 238 Cover design by Michael Erkel: Minutes of 2007 CRS Board of Directors Meeting ..... 245 Michael Erkel and Associates, 1171 Carter Street, Membership/Subscription Application Crozet, Virginia 22932 and Renewal Form ...... 251 The Creation Research Society Quarterly is published by the Creation Research Society, 6801 N. Highway 89, Editorial Staff Chino Valley, AZ 86323, and it is indexed in the Christian Kevin L. Anderson, Editor Periodical Index and the Zoological Record. Jerry Bergman, Biology Editor George F. Howe, Assistant Biology Editor Send papers on all subjects to the Editor: John K. Reed, Geology Editor Kevin L. Anderson, Van Andel Creation Research Center, Eugene F. Chaffin, Physics Editor 6801 N. Highway 89, Chino Valley, AZ 86323. Ronald G. Samec, Astronomy Editor Send book reviews to the Book Review Editor: Don B. Don B. DeYoung, Book Review Editor DeYoung, 200 Seminary Dr., Winona Lake, IN 46590. Jarl Waggoner, Managing Editor Robert Mullin, Assistant Managing Editor Authors’ opinions expressed in the Quarterly are not neces- sarily those of anyone else associated with the Creation Board of Directors Research Society. Don B. DeYoung, President Eugene F. Chaffin,Vice-President Copyright © 2008 by Creation Research Society. All rights David A. Kaufmann, Secretary to the articles published in the Creation Research Society Theodore Aufdemberge, Financial Secretary Quarterly are reserved to the Creation Research Society. Gary Locklair, Treasurer Permission to reprint material in any form, including the Glen W. Wolfrom, Membership Secretary Internet, must be obtained from the Editor. Mark Armitage Danny Faulkner ISSN 0092-9166 George F. Howe D. Russell Humphreys Michael J. Oard John K. Reed Printed in the United States of America David Rodabaugh Ron G. Samec

Haec Credimus For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested on the seventh.—Exodus 20:11 ResourcesCREATION RESEARCH SOCIETY The Geologic Column: Perspectives within Diluvial Geology

John K. Reed and Michael J. Oard, Editors 2006. Creation Research Society, 157 pages. Regular price: $15.00; Member price: $11.00. Many wonder how the evolutionary/uniformitarian geologic column fits into diluvial geology. At present, there is a remarkable diversity of original thought on this subject. Recent exchanges in the creationist literature show a tendency for various participants to talk past one another. This book has brought these different perspectives together with two goals: 1) to better define the real differences within diluvial geology, and 2) to identify the concrete issues that will provide a basis for continued research and, hope- fully, future resolution. The editors went one step further by providing, at the end of most chapters, a forum with comments and responses. In addition to ththee editors, the other authors are: Terry Mortenson, Peter Klevberg, Carl Froede Jr., David J. Tyler, Harold G. Coffin, and Emil Silvestru. Though it may be difficult to visualize now, diluvial geology represents a major paradigm shift that holds the potential to stimulate a revolution within the earth sciences.

Creation vs. Evolution Debate

2006. Creation Research Society, approx. 45 minutes. Audio CD. Regular price: $10.00; Member price: $8.00. Dr. Kevin Anderson (director of the Society’s Van Andel Creation Research Center) squares off against local Arizona anti-creationist, Nigel Reynolds. The debate features initial arguments by both presenters followed by lively rebuttals, cross-examinations, and audience questions. This debate provides the listener an excellent opportunity to weigh the arguments of each side and seriously consider where the scientific evidence best fits.

Orders can by placed through Creation Research Society, 6801 N. Highway 89, Chino Valley, AZ 86323-9186 Phone: 1-877-CRS-BOOK (1-877-277-2665); Fax: (928) 636-9921 www.creationresearch.org

For U.S. orders, add 20% for S/H (min $5, max $15) A free catalog of books and videos is available. For Canadian orders, add 20% for S/H (min. $5, no max.) Send your e-mail request to CRSBooks@starband. For foreign orders, add 25% for S/H (min. $10, no max.) net or call 1-877-CRS-BOOK. Orders must be pre-paid.

For credit card payments, (Visa, MasterCard, Discover, and American Express), please include the card number, expiration date (month/year), and your phone number. Volume 44, Winter 2008 169

Common Knowledge

t has been said that “common knowl- the nineteenth century, the most popular the excretion of protective mucus edge” is not always so common, and explanations for the cause of common around the stomach lining, increasing Ioften not very knowledgeable. Not diseases were poisonous air (miasma the stomach cells’ exposure to gastric too distant in human history, numerous theory) or spontaneous imbalances in acids. This was considered the breeding ideas and “facts” were generally consid- bodily tissues (aka, humors), such as ground for gastric ulcers. Treatment for ered “common knowledge.” Yet many of the blood (humoral theory). This later these ulcers generally included antacids, these are almost laughable to us today. theory led to the practice of phlebotomy stress reduction counseling, and other For example, it was “common knowl- (“blood letting”), a misguided attempt approaches aimed at keeping blood flow edge” that if man were meant to fly he to remove the “excess” blood so that steady and stomach acids in check. The would have wings. It was “common a proper balance of the humors could association of gastric ulcers with stress knowledge” that dirty rags and rotting be restored. The most famous victim of was hard to deny and appeared to be meat could spontaneously generate this procedure was George Washington. based on strong medical evidence. Even into living creatures, such as maggots The early suggestions by Louis Pasteur the treatment success seemed to support and mice. It was “common knowledge” and others that microscopic organisms the thinking. that disease was caused by “bad” air were involved in causing disease were In the early 1980s a young Australian or too much blood. It was “common frequently met with dismissal and ridi- physician, Barry Marshall, began to knowledge” that ulcers were caused by cule. After all, it contradicted “common question this “common knowledge” and excessive stress. It was “common knowl- knowledge.” suggested that the key player in ulcer de- edge” that humans would not perform We now recognize that microscopic well in the weightless conditions of organisms, such as bacteria and viruses, outer space. are intimately involved in causing many Man’s journey to fly is well docu- diseases. For example, injection of a mented and can be verified by simply specific protein from the bacterium looking into the sky of virtually any Clostridium botulinum into an otherwise industrialized country. The “common healthy individual will quickly result in Common knowledge knowledge” that humans were never a potentially deadly illness called botu- meant to fly was patently wrong. The lism. Vaccines targeting specific micro- same can be said about the “common bial pathogens have all but eliminated is not always knowledge” of spontaneous generation. what were once global terrors, such as While data contradicting the claims small pox and polio. Certainly some hu- so common, of spontaneous generation had been man diseases may involve more than just gradually accumulating for centuries, the actions of microorganisms, but the ardent supporters steadfastly defended direct microbial link to many diseases is and often not their position. Opponents were strongly firmly established. criticized for their ignorance. Ulcers were long assumed to be Slowly, other erroneous ideas that caused by reduced blood flow to the very knowledgeable. were generally accepted as common stomach, a condition associated with knowledge were gradually dismissed and stress and nervous tension. This reduc- relegated to the history of “bad ideas.” By tion in blood flow presumably decreased 170 Creation Research Society Quarterly velopment was not stress or gastric acids followed. But many in NASA felt this In point of fact, the only significant but a bacterium, Helicobacter pylori, to unwarranted assumption prevented an disagreement among scholars in the be exact. His idea was widely considered American from being the first man in Middle Ages (including church lead- preposterous by the medical community. space (Kraft, 2002). ers) seems to have been whether it was It simply made too much sense to blame What about today? After all, we possible for humans to be living on the ulcers on stress and gastric blood flow. are the educated, the enlightened, the “underside” of the earth. Columbus’s Despite extreme criticism and skepti- informed. Surely we finally have all our opponents were not critical of his view cism, Marshall persisted. Eventually he facts straight. of the earth’s shape, but of his view of provided experimental evidence linking Everybody knows that everyone the earth’s size. They contended that ingestion of the bacterium to almost thought the earth was flat until Chris- Columbus envisioned too small of an immediate onset of gastritis and often topher Columbus proved otherwise. earth and concluded that he had little gastric ulcers as well. Part of this ex- This view has even been promoted by chance of actually reaching the very perimental evidence was the somewhat some twentieth-century historians. I very distant East Indies by sailing west. Ironi- dramatic step of self-ingestion of the clearly recall being taught this version of cally, Columbus’s critics were correct, bacterium. His subsequent rapid and history as an elementary school student. and only his accidental discovery of “the severe gastric illness helped support his However, as early as the third century new world” prevented his exploits from position. Today the role of H. pylori is BC, Aristotle provided simple observa- becoming merely a minor footnote in difficult to dispute, and extremely suc- tional evidence for the spherical nature history. cessful treatment for gastric ulcers is of the earth. In 240 BC Eratosthenes es- Everybody knows that Galileo was based on treating H. pylori infections. timated the earth’s circumference (an es- persecuted by the “church” because he When NASA was first contemplating timate that was within 20% of the actual made scientific claims that contradicted the engineering requirements for hu- circumference). In the first century AD, the teachings of the Bible. This tale man space travel, many people thought Pliny the Elder claimed that virtually ev- continues to be repeated, usually for the that humans could not perform well eryone accepted that the earth was round purpose of showing how Christian igno- under zero gravity. The first episode or cone shaped, although there was still rance interferes with the noble efforts of of the TV show Twilight Zone (airing uncertainty about how the oceans could human investigation and learning. Spe- October, 1959) helped popularize this be maintained in a curved shape (the ef- cifically, this version of history is often perception. Even a number of medical fects of gravity were not yet recognized). used against creationists in an attempt to professionals (including then President Ptolemy made additional arguments marginalize us. Supposedly, we creation- Kennedy’s head science advisor) were for the spherical shape of Earth in the ists represent the same ignorant religious convinced that humans would have second century AD and developed the zealotry of the seventeenth-century severe difficulties in space (Kraft, 2002). system of latitude and longitude. His church persecuting the hapless Galileo They proposed the need for nearly a writings strongly influenced studies in regardless of the scientific data. hundred animal tests, including many geography and astronomy throughout However, the actual events sur- that would likely have sacrificed the the next several centuries. rounding Galileo and the “church” animal. This approach would have There is little historical evidence that are quite different from this popular delayed American human space travel ideas of a flat earth were very prominent anecdote. For nearly 30 years Galileo by years. There would have been no at the time of Christopher Columbus. maintained a type of “running battle” moon landing in July of 1969. The contemporary erroneous revision of with his fellow astronomers and math- The assumption of severe human history apparently can be directly traced ematicians at the University of Pisa, vulnerability in space was not based to Washington Irving’s highly fictional- Italy. It also should be recalled that upon any scientific information, but ized account of Columbus, The Life Galileo was a rather outspoken and simply the assumption that the human and Voyages of Christopher Columbus, caustic individual, which did nothing body could not adapt well to such a published in 1828. Other fictional and to help him persuade his opposition. unique and different environment as less-than-scholarly work from the nine- In part, this intense disagreement was the weightlessness of space. (Seems I teenth and even the twentieth century over the structure of the solar system hear the lingering chant of, “If man contributed to the myth. In fact, this and whether the sun orbited the earth were meant to fly . . .”) The space flight distorted view of history seems to have or the earth orbited the sun. Such of Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin on been an intentional attempt to impugn discourse and disagreement is actually April 12, 1961 silenced all criticism, Middle Age Europe and particularly the part of the purpose of the university and American space travel rapidly Middle Age church (Russell, 1991). system envisioned by Plato, a universal Volume 44, Winter 2008 171 gathering of ideas. (It is interesting how States and Europe are being taught corded an average decline of over 0.5°C far the contemporary university system global warming as a matter of common in surface temperature since 1888. has moved away from this philosophy.) “fact.” But the power of a paradigm can Only after decades of trying to silence However, in the face of this com- acquire a life of its own. Political candi- him did Galileo’s critics seek to make mon “fact” are some points that all cre- dates (and even scientists) who express this a theological conflict. ationists need to consider. None of the some skepticism about global warming In requesting (even insisting) that current global warming “models” accept have an increasingly steep mountain to the Catholic Church take their side an earth history that includes a global climb against an ever-louder voice of on this topic, Galileo’s critics invoked flood or an earth of only a few thousand proponents. Suddenly everything is ex- what has since become a very familiar years of age. Either of these situations plained by and blamed on global warm- strategy—make biblical understanding dramatically alters our understanding ing. Global warming has been blamed subject to contemporary “scientific” of the earth’s climate history and thus for both an increase and a decrease of understanding. In other words, they told dramatically changes any predicted hurricanes. It has even been blamed for the Catholic authorities in Italy that climate changes as well. Instead, global increased teenage drinking, terrorism, since we “know” this to be the design of warming evidence is based almost exclu- increased crime, and a slowing of the the universe, this is what the Bible must sively on an evolutionary interpretation earth’s rotation. Am I joking? See http:// teach also. Thus, contrary to the popular of earth’s history. www.numberwatch.co.uk/warmlist.htm. and oft-repeated legend, what Galileo What is more, while global warming Perhaps the only thing not on this list is a faced was not the “church” barging into is considered a worldwide event, many hangnail, although it may be soon. academia and telling scientists how and reporting stations have actually found And, finally, everybody knows that life what to think. Rather, it was “scientists” a decrease in temperature during the on this planet is the wondrous product insisting that biblical understanding twentieth century. For example, New of evolutionary descent from a common be subject to their particular vision of York City has indeed shown an increase ancestry. All intelligent and educated the cosmos. This is the very opposite in surface temperature, but less than 250 people agree. It is “common knowledge.” of the popularized story and actually miles away, cities such as Syracuse, West It is the power of the paradigm. an early example of what we see today: Point, and Albany have actually shown a Genesis must conform to evolutionary decrease in average surface temperature conclusions because we know evolution since 1930 (see data provided by http:// Kraft, C. 2002. Flight: My Life in Mission is correct. Thus, scientists must bow data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/station_data; Control. Plume, New York, NY. to evolution as well, or risk loss of job, accessed October 2, 2007). Such geo- Russell, J. 1991. Inventing the Flat Earth: Co- career, or even worse. Who is the real graphical inconsistencies challenge the lumbus and Modern Historians. Praeger, religious zealot? “global” in global warming and suggest New York, NY. Certainly everybody knows that the there are many factors affecting global earth is gradually warming because climate beyond simply the level of CO2 of human industrialization. Elaborate from human industrialization. In fact, Kevin Anderson, Ph.D. models and calculations have been of- the recording station at Punta Arenas, Editor fered to support this contention. Most the closest city to Antarctica, has re- Creation Research Society Quarterly public school children in the United 172 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Book Review The Days of Peleg by Jon Saboe Outskirts Press, Denver, 2007, 619 pp., $20.00.

Genesis 10 lists the genealogy of Noah’s knowledge is venerated, and anything thinks is quite mad, nevertheless fasci- three sons, Japheth, Ham and Shem. supernatural is shunned as rank su- nates Peleg and challenges the younger Verse 25 gives special emphasis to one perstition to be avoided and censored. man to reconsider what he has been of Shem’s descendants, Peleg, “for in This antihistorical secularism is strongly taught since childhood. The older man his days the earth was divided” (NASB). promulgated by the city-state’s “enlight- turns out to be Shem, Peleg’s ancestor At least two schools of thought exist ened” leaders. Peleg, indoctrinated and a survivor of the Great Calamity. among conservative Bible scholars about in this mind-set, accepts it with few The fourth section deals with Shem this phrase. One view is that the earth reservations. and Peleg’s return to Ur. During the divided along political, social, and lin- The second section recounts a 12- almost 14 years of Peleg’s absence Ur guistic lines. The other believes this is year voyage of discovery. Several large has gone from a secular humanist to a primitive reference to the continents sailing vessels are outfi tted for a global a cosmic humanist (New Age) mind- moving apart via continental drift or circumnavigation odyssey with the set. This worldview shift was fomented plate tectonics. primary purposes of charting the geog- by the political manipulations of the Jon Saboe has collected a great raphy of post-Flood earth and making scheming and occultic Inanna, daugh- amount of data about the early post- contact with human tribes that have ter of Sargon (the biblical Nimrod). Flood years. This novel is his effort spread out from the Middle East. Peleg Inanna and her son Tammuz provide to develop a plausible scenario mak- is the chief cartographer on one of these the origin for the Queen of Heaven cult ing sense of the information. Saboe’s ships, the Urbat. During this voyage the mentioned in Old Testament Scripture, research comes from ancient history, Urbat visits Easter Island, southern Peru as well as the mythical goddesses Ishtar anthropology, archaeology, astronomy, (Lake Titicaca), Antarctica, the Rock of and Astarte. In this last section Peleg is biblical theology, biology, cartography, Gibraltar, and other places with many forcefully separated from Shem, and the demonology, genetics, geography, geol- harrowing adventures. The writer pres- focus turns on Shem’s later life and his ogy, information theory, linguistic stud- ents imaginative solutions to the giant infl uence on Abram through his student ies, mythology, pagan religions, physics, statues on Easter Island and the Nazca Melchizedek. technology, and other fi elds. Lines in southern Peru. This book is a novel, a work of his- The book divides into four sections The third section begins after the torical fi ction. In fi ction, I look for three of historical fi ction. The fi rst section voyage abruptly ends with the violent main criteria: theme, plot, and charac- introduces Peleg and the world he lived sinking of the Urbat by hostile Gutians. ters. The prevailing theme is the search in about two centuries after the Flood Peleg is taken prisoner by these supposed for the ancestors of the coming Zeh-ra (euphemistically called the Great Ca- barbaric cave dwellers and meets an (Messiah). Author Saboe develops this lamity). Peleg was a citizen of Ur of the eccentric but brilliant older man who theme throughout the book, so well that Chaldees. The prevailing philosophy reminds one of the Ben Gunn character it approaches being a theological anach- in Ur is one closely akin to the modern from Robert Louis Stevenson’s classic ronism. Shem has very advanced insights materialist/secular worldview. Empirical Treasure Island. This man, whom Peleg into the future coming and purpose of Volume 44, Winter 2008 173

Zeh-re and gives a prayer for accepting the end Peleg fi nally accepts the reality very graphically described fi ght scenes the Creator (Yahweh) and the Zeh-re as of the Creator and the coming Zeh-re. might give some parents pause. Saboe, Savior (p. 514). I would like to think that However when Peleg is captured while who writes in a lucid manner, does a such theological knowledge was extant trying to escape Ur, and written out of great job of evoking a dark, depressive, in 2200 BC, but it seems to somewhat the book, I didn’t miss him. Shem was pagan atmosphere reminiscent of C.S. overshadow the progressive nature of a much more interesting and fully real- Lewis’s Till We Have Faces. The prime biblical revelation. In any event, I’ll ized person. He was a man with a long readership for this book is people of any defer to more astute theological minds history, full of faith and doubt, with an age or gender who are curious about the on this issue. energetic liveliness lacking in the title early post-Flood world. Saboe success- The plot moves along well with ad- character. fully creates a plausible world, given his venture and frequent, lengthy, though Who is the audience for this book? research, unencumbered by a secular- interesting, didactic discussions. The Historical novels often contain romantic ist/evolutionary worldview. This book novel’s weakest component is the char- relationships that attract a large female is recommended for those desiring an acters. As a reader I never began to care audience. This book lacks a compelling imaginative trek through pre-Abrahamic for Peleg. His main purpose, especially human love story and the only strong Bible history. in the latter part of the book, seems to woman character is the sinister and evil be a humanist foil for Shem’s theologi- Innana. Initially I thought the book was Donald Ensign cal discourses. I appreciate that toward aimed at young people. However some [email protected]

Book Review The Days of Peleg by Jon Saboe Outskirts Press, Denver, 2007, 619 pp., $20.00.

The Days of Peleg by Jon Saboe is a his- stream scientists assume. He exposes this of the Creator could have been lost and torical novel taken from a few pieces of assumption as coming from belief in how false gods arose. The book is fi lled data and Scripture that are woven into evolution. The author does an excellent with adventure, as it explores the conse- an exciting story. It takes place shortly job of portraying what the early world quences of lust for power and adulation, after the judgment of the Tower of Babel was like. The Days of Peleg is a masterful the pride of intellect, and the search for and continues until Peleg’s death. Saboe story that gives credible possibilities as to truth. The Days of Peleg can be ordered has gathered well-known and lesser- why and how the Tower of Babel rebel- through Amazon.com. known archeological fi nds from around lion could have occurred and what form the world that indicate that early peoples the subsequent judgment could have Beverly Oard were vastly more intelligent than main- taken. Saboe describes how knowledge 174 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Toppling the Timescale Part I: Evaluating the Terrain

John K. Reed*

Abstract he geologic timescale has stood as a fortress of uniformitarian natural Thistory for nearly two centuries. It is an intellectual idol that must be overthrown in order to reassert biblical authority in the realm of natural history. Most creationist critiques focus on empirical detail and thus fail to address the weak religious and philosophical foundations of the timescale. These founda- tions, rooted in the worldview of naturalism, are the key to overthrowing the flawed and misleading timescale.

Introduction believe that our failure to discredit the 1) is “the framework for deciphering the Lyell’s Principles of Geology was pub- timescale arises from an inability to see history of the Earth” (Gradstein, 2004, lished nearly thirty years before Darwin’s beneath its attractive framework to its p. 3). That definition is aimed at profes- Origin of Species, and its Victorian vision foundations that were firmly established sional stratigraphers, so I would expand of a well-regulated uniformitarianism to overthrow biblical history. To correct it to: “a global standard for correlating opened wide the door to the long ages this error, we must see uniformitarian the various rock units of the Earth’s crust Darwin would need for his “struggle history as a cornerstone of the naturalist by means of standardized time periods for survival.” Perhaps it is not surpris- worldview (Reed, 2001). Then we must derived from a combination of relative ing then that evolution has proven less discredit its icon—the timescale. Not and absolute dating methods.” It is a resistant than its geological precursor to simply the time, but the timescale. complex construct with overlapping a robust Christian response. Many who This series will examine the founda- (and not always consistent) layers of reject evolution find a multibillion-year tional methods and assumptions behind assumptions and an ever-growing list of history quite reasonable. Perhaps such the geologic timescale, rather than re- methods. In Part II of this series I will inconsistency reflects the successful de- hash opposition to its 4.55 billion years. revisit its development (cf. Mortenson, bunking of the icons of evolution, while The amount of time has changed before 2006), revealing its seminal axiom. This the crowning achievement of uniformi- and may change again, but the structure first part will explore how the timescale tarianism—the geologic timescale—re- that generates the time stays the same. is an integral part of the worldview of mains intact, with most criticisms Another benefit of this approach will naturalism. focused on the amount of time rather be the correction of the misimpression than the construct that generates it. that the timescale is nothing more than Why is the timescale so compel- an empirical compilation of the rock The Man Behind ling? After all, the modern creationist record. the Curtain movement traces its roots to The Genesis As presented by modern stratigra- Suffice it to say, any Christian should Flood, a book that strongly opposed it. I phers, the geologic timescale (Figure approach the timescale skeptically, recognizing: (1) that the Bible is also “a framework for deciphering the history of the Earth,” and (2) that advocates of * John K. Reed, PhD, 915 Hunting Horn Way, Evans, GA 30809, the timescale are strongly biased against [email protected] the Bible. That is because any “frame- Accepted for publication May 8, 2007 work” for earth history is ultimately an Volume 44, Winter 2008 175

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Figure 1. The most recent version of the geological timescale. Modified from Gradstein et al. (2004). 176 Creation Research Society Quarterly

interpretation based on an underlying “new geology” was the conscious rejec- time to strike, so rejoice that, sinner worldview. Conflicting “frameworks” tion of Noah’s Flood and the reliability as you are, the Q.R. is open to you. represent conflicting worldviews, and of Scripture (Mortenson, 2004). Early P.S. …I conceived the idea five those conflicts must be resolved at an uniformitarians disguised their inten- or six years ago [1824–25], that if axiomatic level. tions in public, but their strategic aims ever the Mosaic geology could be Some people mistakenly believe that were clear in their private correspon- set down without giving offence, it the timescale is inherent to the rocks. dence, typified in a letter written by would be in an historical sketch, Like Aaron’s story of the golden calf, Lyell in 1830. and you must abstract mine, in order they think the timescale just popped out I am sure you may get into Q.R. to have as little to say as possible of the fire of geologic investigation. But [Quarterly Review] what will free yourself. Let them feel it, and point even its definition reveals its role as a the science [of geology] from Moses, the moral (Lyell, 1881, I:268–271, template, distinct from the rocks. That is for if treated seriously, the [church] brackets added, as cited by Morten- why Reed and Froede (2003) suggested party are quite prepared for it. A son, 2006, pp. 17–18 ). using different terms to distinguish the bishop, Buckland ascertained (we These are clearly not the words of a empirical “rock record” from the concep- suppose [Bishop] Sumner), gave neutral purveyor of scientific truth, and tual “geologic column.” Unfortunately, Ure a dressing in the British Critic coming from the founder of the “new few creationists seem inclined to think and Theological Review. They see at geology,” they cast the pall of bias on that way, accepting the timescale on the last the mischief and scandal brought his work as well as that of his successors. empirical terms offered by its proponents on them by Mosaic systems…. Prob- Lyell was an enthusiastic proponent of (cf.. Reed and Oard, 2006). ably there was a beginning—it is a the geological column and its old-earth That is unfortunate because the blur- metaphysical question, worthy of timescale; which lay at the center of the ring of the empirical and conceptual and a theologian—probably there will geological revolution. The timescale is of “science” and “history” is a significant be an end. Species, as you say, have far more than an empirical compilation Enlightenment error—strangely one that begun and ended—but the analogy of European geology—uniformitarians is more easily recognized and debunked is faint and distant. Perhaps it is an of the nineteenth century were not only when the topic is evolution. For some analogy, but all I say is, there are, biased against the Bible, but acted with inexplicable reason, that critique (e.g., as Hutton said, ‘no signs of a begin- malice aforethought. Johnson, 1991; 1993; 1995) has not been ning, no prospect of an end’…. All The timescale can only be one and applied to geology, even though the I ask is, that at any given period of the same with the rocks if they come timescale exhibits the same philosophi- the past, don’t stop inquiry when labeled in the field. In that case, there cal errors. Since advocates of naturalism puzzled by refuge to a ‘beginning,’ would be no need for stratigraphy or posit a “prehistory” open only to forensic which is all one with ‘another state stratigraphers (see Reed et al., 2006a). investigation, they equate science and of nature,’ as it appears to me. But But the rocks require interpretation, history. Thus, secular geologists are con- there is no harm in your attacking and the non-empirical foundations of sistently wrong when they present the me, provided you point out that it is the timescale are again revealed in a timescale as no more than a systemized the proof I deny, not the probability simple syllogism: collection of worldwide observations of of a beginning…. I was afraid to point 1. The timescale presents history. data. Creationists who do the same are the moral, as much as you can do 2. History requires philosophy. both wrong and inconsistent: in the Q.R. about Moses. Perhaps 3. Philosophy requires and implies So, the heart of the debates about I should have been tenderer about a worldview. the age of the earth and about how the Koran. Don’t meddle much with 4. Therefore, the timescale requires to correctly interpret the geological that, if at all. and implies a worldview. record is a massive worldview conflict If we don’t irritate, which I fear As we have seen, that worldview is not (Mortenson, 2006, p. 16, emphasis that we may (though mere history), biblical Christianity. added). we shall carry all with us. If you Is this syllogism valid? The timescale An understanding of the history of don’t triumph over them, but com- is the summation of natural history. the timescale helps us recognize its pliment the liberality and candour Contrary to those who see natural his- philosophical roots. Though the world- of the present age, the bishops and tory as a purely scientific enterprise, view conflict was muted in the early enlightened saints will join us in de- the investigation of unique past events years of geology, it was plain enough spising both the ancient and modern is history (Adler, 1965). Despite the ef- at the time of Lyell. At the heart of the physico-theologians. It is just the forts of Enlightenment philosophers and Volume 44, Winter 2008 177 their intellectual heirs to lump as much no different than evolution and its icons. the end you should worry about. Deep knowledge as possible under the um- It is a view of history that dismisses the time is only a part of the problem; the brella of “science,” the true categories creative and providential works of God in framework that enables deep time also of knowledge are not so easily displaced. history and denies His revelation of those ensures that the Flood is defined by a However, two centuries of this “big lie” acts in the Bible. Thus, if creationists do non-biblical version of history when it have caused considerable confusion. not recognize and attack this foundation, is considered at all. Another danger of Even many creationists do not see this the timescale will remain relatively intact creationists accepting the general struc- error; opting for a watered-down appeal and the inhabitants of its ivory tower will ture is that they (like uniformitarians) to “operations” vs. “origins” science—a remain undisturbed. fail to see a distinction between the em- definition without a distinction. The real Like biologists who think evolution is pirical rock record and the conceptual error is resolved only by recognizing a “pure science,” most modern geologists column—an error that exacerbates the clear demarcation between science and are indignant that the timescale should confusion between science and history. history. Thus, contrary to the claims of be thought as anything less. They believe Even those creationists who reject modern secularists (and the acquies- that they can point to an outcropping the column’s structure usually keep their cence of too many Christians) natural layer, a well log deflection, or a seismic arguments on an empirical plane (e.g., history is not science per se; it is a subset reflector and identify each one as “Juras- Oard, 2006). The most comprehensive of history, distinguished by its goals and sic” or “Silurian” or “Proterozoic.” Their of these are those of Woodmorappe methods from human history. Science ability to perceive a particular stratum (1981; 1983), who demonstrated that the is not the arbiter of natural history; it is masks the questionable set of hidden actual arrangement of the time units in its forensic servant and natural history assumptions that enables the conceptual the field does not approach the ideal of is thus a “mixed question” (Adler, 1965; transformation of that tangible rock into the timescale. Most empirical critiques Reed, 2000; 2002; Reed and Froede, intangible history and the worldview by creationists examine local problems 2003; Reed et al., 2006a; 2006b). inherent in it. As this series proceeds, the in correlation; the most common being Since natural history and the geo- non-empirical aspects of the timescale out-of-order strata. The timescale has logic timescale present history, then will become more and more evident. proven remarkably resistant to these they are inextricably tied to philosophy assaults because the few empirical (whether modern practitioners like it or contraries cited are overwhelmed by a not), since history rests on philosophical Creationist Responses multitude of empirical studies that sup- underpinnings. As Clark (1994) ex- Creationists have shown a wide range posedly affirm the column elsewhere. plained: of response to the timescale, but the Besides, empirical contraries can never History requires philosophy. Not majority opinion (i.e., Snelling et al., dislodge a conceptual construct. only is the need for philosophy seen 1996) seems to be an acceptance of This series will not focus on these in the earlier difficulties and puzzles, its structure—globally correlated rocks empirical particulars but will concen- but it is also seen, where some people units corresponding to historical inter- trate instead on assumptions and meth- do not expect it, in the very defini- vals (e.g., Cambrian, Cretaceous, Car- ods behind the timescale. If nothing tion of history… Implicit in their boniferous)—coupled with a rejection else, this will clarify the foundational formulations are their views of man, of its absolute dates for those intervals. role of naturalism. Diluvial geology of society, of God, and therefore of Even that position is a minority view cannot prosper until it discredits the knowledge… whatever his definition among Christian intellectuals. Most, uniformitarian history that denies the and extended views of history are, notably ID advocates, accept both the biblical record. Since the timescale is a there must always be an underlying framework and the absolute age (while trans-empirical construct, our examina- and controlling philosophy. It can vigorously fighting its philosophical tion must move away from the empirical be ignored, but it cannot be avoided. twin, Darwinism). and go straight to that error. Only then (pp. 21–22.) Others have rejected both ages and can we restore biblical primacy in history These inherent and necessary philo- structure (e.g., Froede, 1995; Reed et al., and a proper understanding of Creation sophical assumptions are neon signs 2006b; Walker, 1994; Woodmorappe, and the Flood. advertising the presence of a worldview 1981; 1983). They recognize that strip- at the foundation of the timescale, and it ping the column of its 4.55 billion year takes little effort to identify that worldview chronology is akin to cutting the rattles Conclusion as atheistic naturalism. In that respect, off of a live rattlesnake—they might The geologic timescale is much more uniformitarianism and its timescale are be making the most noise but are not than the compilation of the boundaries 178 Creation Research Society Quarterly

of various empirical rock units. It is an (editors). 2004. A Geologic Time Scale Reed, J.K., P. Klevberg, and C.R. Froede, Jr. alternate history; one without Creation 2004. Cambridge University Press, 2006a. Towards a Diluvial Stratigraphy. or the Flood. Even if we strip away the Cambridge, UK. In Reed, J.K. and M.J. Oard (editors). absolute time, a framework remains Johnson, P.E. 1991. Darwin on Trial. Regn- The Geologic Column: Perspectives that has been built on a foundation ery Gateway, Washington, D.C. within Diluvial Geology, pp. 31–51. of naturalism. Most creationists have Johnson, P.E. 1993. Creator or blind watch- Creation Research Society Books, Chino framed their critiques empirically. These maker? First Things, January, 1993:8–14. Valley, AZ. not only fall short of the source of the Downers Grove, IL. Reed, J.K., P. Klevberg, and C.R. Froede, error, but have been unable to create Johnson, P.E. 1995. Reason in the Balance. Jr. 2006b. Interpreting the Rock Record a consensus among creationists. That InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, IL. without the uniformitarian geologic col- failure is another indication that the Mortenson, T. 2004. The Great Turning umn. In Reed, J.K. and M.J. Oard (edi- issue lays outside the boundaries of sci- Point. Master Books, Green Forest, AR. tors). The Geologic Column: Perspectives ence. The following parts of this series Mortenson, T. 2006. The historical de- within Diluvial Geology, pp. 123–143. will identify and critique assumptions, velopment of the old-earth geological Creation Research Society Books, Chino which will in turn reveal logical flaws time-scale. In Reed, J.K. and M.J. Oard Valley, AZ. in the stratigraphic methods that support (editors). The Geologic Column: Perspec- Reed, J.K. and M.J. Oard (editors). 2006. The today’s timescale. Until we uproot the tives within Diluvial Geology, pp. 7–30. Geologic Column: Perspectives within foundations, it will remain an imposing Creation Research Society Books, Chino Diluvial Geology. Creation Research obstacle to any diluvial model. Valley, AZ. Society Books, Chino Valley, AZ. Oard, MJ. 2006. The geological column is Snelling, A.A., M. Ernst, E. Scheven, J. Sch- a general Flood order with many excep- even, S.A. Austin, K.P. Wise, P. Garner, References tions. In Reed, J.K. and M.J. Oard (edi- M. Garton, and D. Tyler. 1996. The CRSQ: Creation Research Society Quar- tors). The Geologic Column: Perspectives geological record. Creation Ex Nihilo terly within Diluvial Geology, pp. 99–119. Technical Journal 10(3):333–334. Adler, M.J. 1965. The Conditions of Philoso- Creation Research Society Books, Chino Walker, T. 1994. A Biblical geologic model. phy. Atheneum Books, New York. Valley, AZ. In Walsh, R.E. (editor). Proceedings of Clark, G. 1994. Historiography: Secular Reed, J.K. 2000. Historiography and natural the Third International Conference on and Religious. The Trinity Foundation, history. CRSQ 37(3):160–175. Creationism. Technical symposium ses- Jefferson, MD. Reed, J.K. 2001. Natural History in the sions. pp. 581–592. Creation Science Froede, C.R., Jr. 1995. A proposal for a Christian Worldview. Creation Research Fellowship, Pittsburgh, PA. creationist geological timescale. CRSQ Society Books, Chino Valley, AZ. Woodmorappe, J. 1981. The essential non- 32:90–94. Reed, J.K. 2002. Evidence for, conflict over, existence of the evolutionary-uniformi- Gradstein, F.M. 2004. Introduction. In and confidence in creationist models of tarian geologic column: a quantitative Gradstein, F.M, J.G. Ogg, and A.G. earth history. CRSQ 38(4):213–215. assessment. CRSQ 18:46–71. Smith (editors). A geologic time scale Reed, J.K. and C.R. Froede, Jr. 2003. The Woodmorappe, J. 1983. A Diluviological 2004. Cambridge University Press, uniformitarian stratigraphic column— treatise on the stratigraphic separation Cambridge, UK. shortcut or pitfall for creation geology. of fossils. CRSQ 20:133–185. Gradstein, F.M, J.G. Ogg, and A.G. Smith CRSQ 40:21–29. Volume 44, Winter 2008 179

Book Review A Student’s Guide to Natural Science by Stephen M. Barr Intercollegiate Studies Institute Books, Wilmington, DE, 2006, 86 pages, $8.00.

The natural sciences include physics, The contents of Natural Science in- I have had a strong background astronomy, geology, chemistry, and clude “The Birth of Science,” “Science, studying and teaching science for more biology. Author Barr has “chosen to Religion, and Aristotle,” “Newtonian than half a century, and I enjoyed read- emphasize physics and, to a lesser extent, Physics,” “The Twentieth-Century ing this little book. Today, unfortunately, astronomy” for one reason, because “the Revolutions in Physics,” “The Role of most scientists align themselves with an laws of physics govern the processes Symmetry,” and “The Unreasonable atheistic philosophy, and they blame the studied in all the other branches” (pp. Effectiveness of Mathematics.” The Christian church for its imagined hostil- 1–2). Also, as a physicist on faculty of final chapter ends on p. 74 with an ity to science. Barr helps to emphasize the University of Delaware, he is best engaging quotation from Hermann the true historical conditions: qualifi ed in this fi eld. Weyl, presented in a 1931 lecture at The idea that the church establish- The “ISI Guides to the Major Dis- Yale University: ment has been implacably hostile ciplines are reader-friendly introduc- Many people think that modern sci- to science is a myth created to serve tions to the most important fi elds of ence is far removed from God… But the purposes of antireligious and knowledge in the liberal arts. Written in our knowledge of physical nature anticlerical propaganda. In fact, the by leading scholars for both students we have penetrated so far that we church has always esteemed scien- and the general public.” Each book has can obtain a vision of the fl awless tifi c research—even at the time of a “historical overview,” the discipline’s harmony which is in conformity with the Galileo affair (p. 14). “central ideas,” and evaluations of “the sublime reason. I anticipate that a wide spectrum of works of thinkers whose ideas have At the end of Natural Science are readers, starting at the high school level, shaped our world” (back cover). The pages of notes and suggested reading, will profi t from reading this book. series includes 14 books covering such the most recent reference being 2005. disciplines as philosophy, literature, The list includes references under group Wayne Frair history, economics, religious studies, titles including astronomy, geology, 1131 Fellowship Road and law. chemistry, biology, and philosophy. Basking Ridge, NJ 07920 180 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Water Gaps in the Alaska Range

Michael J. Oard*

Abstract wo of the six water gaps through the Alaska Range will be briefly described. TThese water gaps fit in with a worldwide pattern of well over one thou- sand water gaps. Water gaps are a major mystery to uniformitarian geology. The three main uniformitarian hypotheses for the origin of water gaps will be analyzed and found wanting. There does not appear to be any evidence for either of the two hypotheses suggested for the origin of the Alaska Range water gaps. However, the Flood paradigm successfully explains these water gaps, as well as practically all others, and even wind gaps. Both wind and water gaps could have been rapidly carved during the Channelized Flow Phase of the Flood, when strong water currents were flowing perpendicular to mountains or ridges. An analog for a water and wind gap occurred during the gigantic Lake Missoula flood at the peak of the Ice Age.

Introduction A water gap is: “A deep pass in a presupposes that water gaps are created Water gaps are another of the many mountain ridge, through which a stream by streams that eroded down precisely at uniformitarian mysteries of geomor- flows; esp. a narrow gorge or ravine cut the same rate as tectonic uplift. A defini- phology (Oard, 2008), which is the through resistant rocks by an anteced- tion of a geological feature should be study of the features of the earth’s ent stream” (Bates and Jackson, 1984, purely descriptive without speculation surface. Present processes over mil- p. 559). In other words, a water gap is concerning its origin. Furthermore, a lions of years are invoked to explain a perpendicular cut through a moun- search of the literature demonstrates these water gaps, and several hypoth- tain range, ridge or other structural that uniformitarian scientists claim five eses have been invented. Not only is barrier. This definition of a water gap possible mechanisms for the formation it difficult to prove them; there is also unfortunately includes the mechanism of water gaps, only one of which is an evidence against them. This paper will of an “antecedent stream,” which is: “A antecedent stream or river. describe the Alaska Range water gaps, stream that was established before local Wind gaps are related to water gaps, especially the more assessable Nenana uplift began and incised its channel but are not eroded deeply enough to and Delta water gaps, and relate them at the same rate the land was rising; a sustain present day water flow (Figure to water gaps found worldwide. It will stream that existed prior to the present 1). A wind gap is: “A shallow notch in be shown that the Genesis Flood pro- topography” (Bates and Jackson, 1984, the crest or upper part of a mountain vides a reasonable mechanism for their p. 22). This is the case of a hypothesis ridge, usually at a higher level than a formation. intruding on observations: the definition water gap” (Bates and Jackson, 1984, p. 559). The notch in a ridge has to be an erosional notch, not a notch caused by * Michael J. Oard, 34 W. Clara Court, Bozeman, MT 59718, faulting or some other mechanism. In [email protected] other words, the entire ridge was once Accepted for publication: May 7, 2007 near the same altitude, until a notch Volume 44, Winter 2008 181

Figure 1. Cumberland Wind Gap in the Appalachian Mountains along the Virginia/ Kentucky border near Middlesboro, Kentucky (view northwest from highway 58). This notch has been eroded down nearly 1,000 feet (300 m), as measured on the northeast side (Rich, 1933).

was eroded across its top. A wind gap The Alaska Range Basin to the north is a broad, swampy is considered an ancient or incipient Water Gaps lowland with average elevation between water gap, thought to have formed either The Alaska Range (Figure 2) is an arc- 395 to 820 ft (120 and 250 m) asl (Be- when the sediments were thicker in the shaped, generally east-west mountain mis, 2004). surrounding valleys or before the ridge range 600 miles (965 km) long in Six rivers rise in the lowlands south had uplifted, if the ridge is a fault block. southern Alaska. It merges with the of the range and flow northward across Uniformitarian geologists believe that Wrangell and St. Elias Mountains the range in water gaps to empty into wind gaps were initially cut by a stream on the east and the Aleutian Range the Yukon or Tanana River (Thornbury, or river. Then following either valley on the west (Wahrhaftig, 1958). The 1965). These rivers are located at semi- erosion or mountain uplift, the stream highest mountain in North America, regular intervals of 25 to 100 miles (40 flowing through the ancient water gap Denali (formerly Mount McKinley) to 160 km) apart (Wahrhaftig, 1965), and was diverted and its course through the at 20,135 ft (6,194 m), lies within the from west to east they are the Nenana, ridge abandoned. So, the wind gap was western Alaska Range. Most mountains Delta, Nabesna, Chusana, Beaver, and left at a higher altitude than the adjacent are much lower with the crest of most White Rivers. The northwest foothills valley, which is why no stream or river of the range averaging between 7,000 are a series of parallel east-west ridges, flows through it today. Only wind passes and 9,000 ft (2,135 and 2,745 m) high. caused by folding and thrusting, and through the gap now, which is why it is The lowlands north and south of the separated by long narrow valleys (Bemis, called a wind gap. range are at low altitudes. The Tanana 2004). Just as mysterious, the drainage 182 Creation Research Society Quarterly

is even perpendicular to these ridges and valleys: Strangely enough, the drainage does not follow these valleys but has a dendritic pattern roughly at right angles thereto, the rivers cutting di- rectly across ridges and valleys alike (Wahrhaftig, 1958, p. 52). In fact, the drainage of the rivers and tributaries is remarkably straight and par- allel through these ridges (Wahrhaftig and Black, 1958). The origin of this drainage pattern is a puzzle. The Nenana River is the first water gap to the west (Figure 3 and 4). The main highway (George Parks Highway or Highway 3) from Anchorage to Fairbanks passes through this water gap, which is only 2,363 ft (720 m) asl. The next water gap to the east is the water gap of the Delta River in which the Richard- son Highway (Highway 4) and the Trans- Alaska pipeline pass through (Figures 5 Figure 2. Shaded relief map of Alaska. The Alaska Range (arrow) is the arc-shaped and 6). Both water gaps pass through a mountain range that extends from southwest Cook inlet to near the Alaska-Ca- generally low area in the Alaska Range. nadian border. (From U. S. Geological Survey.) How did such water gaps form?

above: Figure 3. The Nenana water gap through the Alaska Range, view north, which is the same direction the river flows (permission from Google EarthTM mapping service). right: Figure 4. Nenana water gap (view north) from Denali Highway just southwest of Cantwell, Alaska. Volume 44, Winter 2008 183

Water Gaps Worldwide rocks in preference to what appear most impressive aspect of the Zagros One would think that such transverse to be more logical courses on softer drainage is that the streams and rivers ap- drainage through a mountain range rocks around the uplifts (Madole et pear to shun valleys and prefer to transect would be rare, but it is not. Water gaps al., 1987, p. 213). mountains—numerous times. are found worldwide. For instance, there The Grand Canyon is a one-mile- The Zagros drainage pattern is are numerous water gaps, small and deep (1.6 km) water gap. The Colorado distinctive by virtue of its disregard large in the western United States. River flows through several plateaus, the of major geological obstructions, In numerous places, especially in the highest of which is the Kaibab Plateau, both on a general scale and in Southern and Middle Rockies, rivers more than 9,000 ft (2,745 m) high. The detail…Certain streams ignore cut across uplifts cored by resistant origin of this water gap has been an structure completely; some appear enigma for a long time. Both uniformi- to “seek” obstacles to transect; oth- tarians and creationists have struggled ers are deflected by barriers only to to explain its origin (Young and Spamer, breach them at some point near their 2001). The uniformitarian hypotheses termini. Many streams cut in and seem hopelessly muddled. out of anticlines without transecting There are 300 water gaps in the Za- them completely, and a few cross gros Mountains of western Iran alone, the same barrier more than once in creating gorges up to 8,000 ft (2,440 m) reverse direction (Oberlander, 1965, deep (Oberlander, 1965). These moun- pp. 1, 89, quotes his). tains rise up to 15,000 ft (4,575 m) above There are probably well over 1,000 sea level, and are 1,000 miles (1,600 water gaps across the earth. km) long and about 150 miles (240 km) Since these early studies [in the late wide. The Zagros Mountains are “very 19th century] transverse drainage Figure 5. Delta River water gap through young” geologically (Pliocene) and little has [sic] been identified from most the Alaska Range, view north north- modified by erosion, which means that major mountain belt regions around west, which is the direction of river the water gaps are even “younger.” The the world… (Stokes and Mather, flow (permission from Google EarthTM lower walls of some water gaps are near 2003, p. 61). mapping service). vertical, sometimes overhanging. The So, the Alaska Range water gaps are not unusual, but part of a common world- wide pattern.

Water Gaps— A Major Mystery of Uniformitarian Geology The origin of water gaps is mysterious within the uniformitarian paradigm (Oard, 2001; 2007; 2008). Crickmay (1974) noted that rivers seem to cut water gaps as if there were no mountain barrier. Admittedly a fascinating picture, a river runs over low, open plains directly towards seemingly impass- able mountains but, undiverted by their presence, passes through them by way of a narrow defile, or water gap, to a lower region beyond. (p. 154.) How could this have happened? Figure 6. Delta River water gap (view north from Black Rapid Viewpoint). Summerfield (1991) states that such 184 Creation Research Society Quarterly discordant drainage is especially com- ent stream model, 2) the superimposed nert, 1998). However, some investigators mon in fold mountains. stream model, and 3) stream piracy believe that any river erosion would be One of the most perplexing problems (Austin, 1994; Stokes and Mather, 2003; too slow relative to mountain building to of drainage development to unravel Williams et al., 1991; 1992). cut valleys, and do not accept the model. is that provided by transverse drain- Although Twidale (1976) disagreed with age. Such a drainage pattern, which The Antecedent Stream that assessment, he did admit that ante- is also known as discordant drain- Hypothesis cedent rivers or streams are rare. age, occurs when river channels cut The antecedent stream hypothesis re- In many cases, the antecedent across geological structures … Such quires a river to be flowing in a set course stream hypothesis can be ruled out for drainage, which is common in fold prior to uplift of a landscape of low a number of reasons. For instance, the mountain belts, is often regarded relief. Then a barrier, such as a moun- water gaps in Wales are cut through as anomalous, although this is not tain range, is uplifted in the path of the “old” mountains (Small, 1978). The riv- really an appropriate description. (p. stream, but the process is sufficiently ers would have to be even older, which 411, emphasis in original.) “slow” so that the stream or river main- seems impossible. So, the Wales water Why should a river or stream flow tains its course by eroding the landscape gaps are assumed to have originated by through a barrier and not pass around as it rises (Figure 7). The antecedent superimposition, since there is no other it? Like canyons, uniformitarians assume stream hypothesis was probably the first viable hypothesis. a river erosion origin simply because a hypothesis invoked to explain transverse In order to demonstrate antecedence, river is presently flowing through the drainage. John Wesley Powell assumed one must usually prove that the river in gap. They ignore the possibility that that antecedent streams had cut the question predates uplift—a very difficult some other mechanism could have cut Green River and Grand Canyon water task (Twidale, 1976). Then, uplift must the gap first and then the river simply gaps. Most geologists accepted Powell’s be slow enough not to deflect the river’s followed the easiest route afterwards. hypothesis for many years. course (Ranney, 2005). This special Their reasoning is compromised by This theory applies mainly to large conjunction of time and erosion would their commitment to uniformitarianism rivers because only they have enough be unusual, especially over a long period (or actualism), and their ideas, though erosive power to keep up with uplift (Ah- of time. If the river is flowing through an plentiful, are poorly supported by obser- vation, as will be shown below. It is important to realize that not all water gaps are mysterious. Water gaps are only a puzzle when the river or stream could have more easily flowed around the ridge or mountain, but instead ended up cutting through the barrier. For example, the Columbia River Gorge between Oregon and Wash- ington is a major water gap through the Cascade Mountains, but it runs through one of the lowest paths through the Cascade Mountains. Presumably when the mountains were lower and/or the rocks in eastern Washington and Oregon higher, the drainage would have already been established.

Despite Hypotheses, Origin of Water Gaps Unknown Although there are five hypotheses for Figure 7. Block diagram showing the antecedent stream hypothesis. The stream the origin of water gaps, only three are is first established. Then the ridge slowly uplifts while the stream is able to erode considered significant: 1) the anteced- through the barrier. Volume 44, Winter 2008 185 enclosed basin and the mountains rise • It is now considered a minor downward, maintaining its course even too fast, a lake should form upstream of contributor to water gaps upon encountering harder rock beneath the barrier, but lake deposits are rarely • Streams must predate uplift the covermass. So, after millions of years if ever found. The chance of creating • Geologists must prove that the the stream ends up flowing through the one water gap is low; creating multiple mountains were uplifted, in- older structural barriers. At the same aligned gaps seems astronomical. The stead as a result of erosion time, the rest of the cover mass is eroded, antecedent stream hypothesis appears • Uplift must have been slow leaving behind a river flowing through to be a very simplistic explanation with enough not to deflect the ridges or mountains (Figure 8). Appar- little or no evidence. Sometimes, this stream’s original course ently, any evidence of a prior “covermass” idea is put forward simply because any • General absence of expected is enough to convince geomorphologists other alternative is even more improb- upstream lake deposits of this hypothesis (Twidale, 2004). able (Small, 1978). • Hypothesis has been rejected in Although geologists at first believed Geologists have recognized this, and many cases upon further study that the Rocky Mountain water gaps many “antecedent stream” water gaps • Aligned water gaps cannot be were caused by antecedent streams, have been “reinterpreted,” suggesting explained they later embraced the superimposed that there was little or no evidence for stream hypothesis. But Hunt (1967) was antecedence in the first place. For in- The Superimposed Stream skeptical: stance, the water gaps on the Laramie, Hypothesis However, the stream courses across Arkansas, North Platte, and South Platte Problems in the antecedent stream the various ranges in the Rocky Rivers in the east central Rockies, once model led to the superimposed (some- Mountains probably are not super- attributed to antecedent streams, are times referred to as superposed) stream imposed. Too much fill would have now considered products of superim- hypothesis. But, this model seems to been required to bury the several posed streams (Short and Blair, 1986). have just as many problems. A super- mountain ranges, and too much Twidale (2004, p. 193) noted the dif- imposed stream or river is defined as: erosion would have been required ficulty of demonstrating the possibility “A stream that was established on a new to remove that fill. (p. 272.) of the antecedence hypothesis. surface and that maintained its course There is rarely any evidence for such It is fair to state that though many despite different lithologies and struc- a thick covermass or its deposition by a rivers of tectonically active regions tures encountered as it eroded down- prior transgression. are probably of such an origin ward into the underlying rock” (Bates A major problem with superimposi- [antecedence], but like warping in and Jackson, 1984). In this hypothesis, tion is that the river must maintain the relation to river capture, it is dif- a landscape is buried by renewed sedi- same course to cut into resistant forma- ficult to prove. The ages of the river mentation, usually caused by marine tions, while at the same time meander and of the implied tectonism have transgression. Then, a stream or river is enough to erode the covermass, leaving to be established, and this is rarely established on the generally flat cover only the more resistant rocks at higher possible. of sediments or sedimentary rock, called elevations (Crickmay, 1974, p. 155). Thus, the antecedent stream hypoth- the “covermass.” As erosion takes place Even if there was any evidence, the con- esis faces these difficulties: over millions of years, the stream erodes cept defies logic. Consequently, there is

Figure 8. Block diagram of the superimposed stream hypothesis. The stream maintains its same course as most of the cover- mass (top layer) is eroded. (Illustration drawn by Bryan Miller.) 186 Creation Research Society Quarterly

rarely any evidence that water and wind gaps formed from superposed streams: Although a plausible mechanism, superimposition is extremely dif- ficult to verify except in the case of very young orogens [uplifted linear, folded, and deformed mountain belts] where vestiges of the original sedimentary cover remain. In an- cient mountain belts, denudation will have removed all the evidence of any pre-existing sedimentary cover (Summerfield, 1991, p. 411, brackets added). Even when erosional remnants of sediments are found, they do not auto- matically imply continuous coverage above the existing terrain. Since most of the strata have been eroded, it is in fact an argument from a lack of evidence, and therefore weak. Thus, the superimposed stream hy- pothesis faces these difficulties: • Absence of evidence for hy- pothetical transgressions and resulting covermass • Rivers erode downward to cut structure, but covermass is eroded laterally • Absence of evidence • Erosional remnants do not prove original covermass • Geometry demands incredibly Figure 9. Block diagram of two stages of stream capture. (a) The stream on the large covermass in some cases lower right is rapidly eroding headward and captures the right portion of the other • Stream should be deflected and stream in (b). Modified from Summerfield (1991, p. 411). eroded downward from hard sediments into underlying and adjacent soft rock

The Stream Piracy Hypothesis Several lines of evidence are offered becomes overfit past that point. Wind The third major hypothesis is called for this model (Small, 1978). One gaps, or “cols,” are thought to be the stream piracy or stream capture (Figure is the “elbow of capture,” which is a abandoned portion of a stream captured 9). Summerfield (1991, p. 410) explained: sharp change in channel direction on long ago, especially when they contain “River capture occurs when one stream the order of 90° or more. Another is a exotic gravels. erodes more aggressively than an adja- “misfit” stream—one which carries too The model is also supported by sud- cent stream and captures its discharge by much water or too little for its channel. den gradient increases in river profiles, intersecting its channel.” The higher rate Underfit streams, where flow is too small, known as “knickpoints.” A waterfall is of erosion by the capturing stream can be are common. Overfit streams are those an extreme example of a knickpoint. attributed to: (1) a steeper gradient, (2) where flow is too large for the channel. Geologists attribute the sudden change greater discharge, (3) less resistant rocks, Captured streams are underfit below the in slope to stream capture. and (4) higher precipitation. point of capture, and the “pirate” stream At first glance, these phenomena Volume 44, Winter 2008 187

seem to support the model. But an that the phenomenon of river capture extension under largely unspecified “elbow of capture” may be caused by cannot be ‘taken on trust’ ” (p. 229). It controls [stream piracy]. (p. 1, em- geological factors such as faulting or seems impossible for stream piracy to phasis and brackets added.) changes in lithology. Not all sharp account for aligned water gaps observed Twenty years later, Oberlander changes, even those in front of water in some areas. Given the “bandwagon (1985) expressed the same opinion. gaps, are always attributed to capture, effect,” there may be many incorrect Large streams transverse to defor- such as the Yar River on the Isle of applications of the model. mational structures are conspicuous Wight (Small, 1978). Likewise, misfit Thus, the stream piracy model faces geomorphic elements in orogens streams have other explanations. First, these difficulties: [mountains] of all ages. Each such there is little or no evidence for overfit • Other explanations exist for the stream and each breached structure streams, which should be observed at “elbow of capture,” wind gaps, presents a geomorphic problem. any recent capture event. Dury (1964) and knickpoints However, the apparent absence of demonstrated that virtually all streams • Overfit streams are nearly non- empirical evidence for the origin of in an area, whether presumed captured existent such drainage generally limits com- or not, are underfit. He considered this • Most streams are underfit ment upon it…. Transverse streams strong evidence against the capture • It is hard to demonstrate his- in areas of Cenozoic deformation hypothesis. Cols can also form in other torically deeper erosion by the are routinely attributed to stream ways (Small, 1978). The best evidence pirating stream antecedence to structure; where for flow through cols is the presence of • Aligned water gaps cannot be older structures are involved the exotic water-worn gravels. But these grav- explained choice includes antecedence, stream els cannot show whether a stream was • Evidence is often missing superposition from an unidentified captured, diverted, or simply dried up. covermass, or headward stream ex- Finally, knickpoints are also equivocal Little, If Any, Evidence for tension in some unspecified manner unless accompanied by other evidence Uniformitarian Hypotheses [piracy]. Whatever the choice, we because they can be caused by renewed In summary, there rarely is evidence for are rarely provided with conclusive regional uplift or a “young” stream that any of these uniformitarian hypotheses. supporting arguments. (pp. 155–156, is still eroding headward. One of them is simply invoked to pro- brackets and emphasis added.) The model seems simple enough vide some explanation for wind or water Given that all uniformitarian hypotheses given millions of years of denudation, gaps. Any of them is preferable to no are insufficient, we should wonder if the yet reality is more complex. Many sup- hypothesis at all. However, investigators problem lies with the parent paradigm posed examples have ignited disputes rarely present compelling evidence. It of uniformitarianism. among geomorphologists (Small, 1978). is easy to understand how the different If nothing else, the mechanism has been hypotheses come and go for a particular The Hypotheses Applied to applied too liberally (Small, 1978). The area. the Alaska Range Water Gaps origin of the transverse drainage of the Thomas Oberlander probably has Some have suggested that the water Zambezi River in Africa was assumed studied water gaps more rigorously than gaps through the Alaska Range and the to have been caused by river capture anyone else. He has many sobering northern foothills formed by anteced- (Thomas and Shaw, 1992), but it has thoughts on past and present research. ent drainage—the Alaska Range was since been proposed that this instance of For instance, Oberlander (1965) noted uplifted through existing rivers which river capture was caused by a catastroph- the conjectural nature of explanations. maintained their courses (Thornbury, ic flood from a breached paleolake. The question of the origin of geologi- 1965). The late Cenozoic uplift of the In order to demonstrate stream cal discordant drainage has almost Alaska Range, about 5 to 6 million years piracy, it must be shown that the pirat- always been attacked deductively, ago within the uniformitarian timescale ing stream was incised to a significantly leading toward conclusions that (Fitzgerald et al., 1995), could be consid- lower level than its victim. But past ero- remain largely within the realm of ered evidence in favor of antecedence. sional levels are often erased by ongoing conjecture. Accordingly, the anoma- But, geologists believe the drainage was active erosion. lous stream courses are attributed established after the uplift. Without an- Small (1978) stated that there rarely to previous tectonic environment tecedence (stream piracy was not consid- is direct evidence for stream piracy; it is [antecedence], to superposition ered), Wahrhaftig and Black (1958) de- an inference from general features: “It from hypothetical erosion surfaces faulted to superimposed streams. In their must be apparent from this discussion or covermasses, or to headward model, the folds and thrusts for at least 188 Creation Research Society Quarterly the northern foothills first formed ridges, down the Snake River from Ice Age gaps appear to be among the final fea- then the whole area was covered with a Lake Bonneville in the Salt Lake basin tures formed in the geologic sequence flat “covermass,” and finally a drainage in Utah (Oard, 2004a). The Bonneville of events, they must have been cut late superimposed on this covermass carved flood is believed to have discharged in the Retreating Stage of the Flood. downward into the ridges. Finally, the 1,150 mi3 (4,750 km3) of water in eight Uniformitarians recognize this relative valleys were eroded. However, the weeks, dropping Lake Bonneville 354 timing and attribute water and wind streams and rivers are unexpectedly ft (108 m) [O’Connor, 1993]. However, gaps predominantly to the late Cenozoic. parallel, which is surprising since they this flood did not appear to produce any For instance, the 300 water gaps in the would have had to meander extensively water or wind gaps. Zagros Mountains are believed to have to erode the valleys (Wahrhaftig and The Ice Age would have produced been excavated during the late Cenozoic Black, 1958; Wahrhaftig, 1965). lakes dammed by ice sheets in North (Oberlander, 1965). The water gaps of the Alaska Range America, Europe, and Asia. Several of The Recessive Stage of the Flood are just as mysterious as the many other these show evidence of breaching by can be divided into an early Sheet Flow water gaps across the Earth. None of the overtopping a bounding ridge, cutting a Phase and a later Channelized Flow uniformitarian models fit the evidence. canyon and reversing the drainage of a Phase (Walker, 1994). It is unlikely Perhaps the answer is to explore outside river. Glacial Lake Agassiz in south-cen- that any water gaps formed during the the uniformitarian paradigm. tral Canada spilled over ridges at many Sheet Flow Phase, because the widths of locations (Oard, 2004a) that may have water gaps are much narrower than the become water or wind gaps. sheetflow currents, which were probably The Late Flood Origin One of the largest ice age lakes was very wide. But it is possible that notches of Water Gaps glacial Lake Missoula (Oard, 2004a). Af- could have been initiated in a mountain Uniformitarian hypotheses for the ter this lake deepened to 2,000 ft (610 m) barrier or ridge by local variations in the formation of water and wind gaps are at the ice dam in northern Idaho, the ice sheetflow currents or by structural or essentially speculative guesses with little, burst, producing one of the largest floods lithological zones of weakness. These if any, supporting evidence. There are since that of Genesis. Glacial Lake Mis- would have been subsequently enlarged numerous problems with all three major soula contained 540 mi3 (2,210 km3) of during channelized flow. Regardless of hypotheses. A better explanation can be water and emptied in two days, sending a when the initial notch developed, the found by shifting paradigms and examin- wall of water around 400 ft (120 m) deep large majority of water gaps, as well as ing how catastrophic erosion during the across the Pacific Northwest, from Spo- wind gaps, probably formed during the late Flood can explain these features. kane, Washington to Portland, Oregon. Channelized Flow Phase. It did produce one impressive water and As the currents became more later- Did Water Gaps Form wind gap, illustrating a mechanism for ally restricted, mountains and plateaus after the Flood? these features more plausible than any would have been rising above the retreat- Some creationists have suggested that uniformitarian model. ing Floodwater. Currents would have some water and wind gaps were cut by Stream capture is also feasible after been diverted into low areas or notches post-Flood erosion during local cata- the Flood, especially by small streams formed earlier. For a time, current strophic events, such as the dam-breach and in areas where very little erosion velocities would have remained high hypothesis for the origin of Grand would suffice to trigger capture. How- enough to form water and wind gaps, Canyon (Austin, 1994; Brown, 2001). ever, given the relative difference in and even large canyons However, I believe that the evidence erosion rates during and since the Flood, supports a late-Flood origin for these one would not expect significant stream Rapid Cutting of Water features. piracy in the approximately 4,500 years and Wind Gaps Erosion from a catastrophic dam since the Flood. During the post-Flood Water and wind gaps, up to the size of breach could create water and wind gaps. period, stream piracy should be rare, and valleys and canyons would have been This has been suggested as the cause of any water gaps would be small. rapidly cut during the Channelized anomalous drainage on the Zambezi Flow Phase. Because the base level River (Thomas and Shaw, 1992). The A Flood Mechanism for the recession of the Flood was the dam could have been rock or unconsoli- for Cutting Gaps newly created ocean basins, currents dated debris. In either case, it evidently If few water or wind gaps have formed would have often flowed perpendicular gave way, much like the failure at Red since the Flood, then they must have to mountains and hills, cutting through Rock Pass and catastrophic flooding formed during the Flood. Since these them instead of going around, forming Volume 44, Winter 2008 189

Figure 10. Series of schematics on the formation of water and wind gaps (drawn by Peter Klevberg). (A) Water flowing per- pendicular to a transverse ridge forms shallow notches on the ridge. (B) Notches are eroded further as the water level drops below the top of the ridge. (C) Floodwaters continue to drain as notches deepen. (D) Floodwaters are completely drained with a river running through the lowest notch, the water gap. Insufficient erosion in the other notch left a wind gap.

valleys, canyons, and pediments (Oard, Regardless, once formed, the currents Dynamic Flood processes could 2004b; 2007) [Figure 10a]. The high would have sped up through the notch also account for some of the evidence current velocity would have cut gaps relative to the surrounding flow (Figure attributed to stream capture, such as the directly through elevated topography. In 10b). Therefore, erosion would have elbow of capture; rounded, exotic grav- many cases, overlying sediments would accelerated with the current velocity. els in wind gaps; and underfit streams. have been eroded too, like an acceler- Abrasive sediment in the water would For example, an elbow of capture might ated version of the superimposed stream also have contributed to rapid erosion have formed by shifts in a channelized hypothesis. of the gaps (Figure 10). We can see the current as it cut into a valley first in one Because these landscapes were same phenomena today when a dam direction, then another. created by a rapid hydraulic event, it breaches. Once the water finds the point Another advantage of the Flood is important to consider current varia- of failure, it rapidly cuts down, although hypothesis is that it explains multiple, tions, even during the sheetflow runoff parts of the dam may survive intact. aligned gaps—a singular point of failure (Schumm and Ethridge, 1994). These Wind gaps are found at higher el- for the uniformitarian theories. A high- variations might have initiated notches evations than the local drainage. They velocity Flood current would be flowing at higher elevations. Lithological or might be high because they were not cut on a regional to megaregional scale. structural weaknesses could also have to sufficient depth, either from a drop in Thus, its momentum would easily carry been involved, although few water water level or decrease in erosional en- it though multiple barriers, and the large gaps are associated with faults. A fourth ergy. They may also have been uplifted size of the current would create aligned possibility is that the channelized flow too high. At any rate, they transport only water or wind gaps in a series of perpen- cut gaps from notch to completion. wind today (Figure 10c,d). dicular ridges, such as those observed in 190 Creation Research Society Quarterly the Appalachian Mountains of the east- the flood, the Palouse River rising from a 90° left-hand turn and flowed through ern United States and the MacDonnell the mountains of northern Idaho flowed what is now called Palouse Canyon and Ranges in central Australia. westward through this coulee and then into the Snake River. Palouse Canyon A further evidence of rapid, abrupt into the Columbia River. The Snake is therefore a water gap formed during formation of gaps is the youthful appear- River flows parallel to the Washtucna the Lake Missoula flood. Palouse Falls ance of such features. They show little Coulee about 10 miles (16 km) south. (Figure 12) would then represent a signs of later erosion. Crickmay (1933) There is a basalt ridge covered by about “knickpoint.” stated that wind gaps have been modi- 100 ft (30 m) of the Palouse silt between The Lake Missoula flood also fied little by weathering since they first the Snake River and Washtucna Coulee. breached the ridge between Wash- formed. This is entirely consistent with This ridge is about 500 ft (150 m) above tucna Coulee and the Snake River 15 the Flood explanation—the Channel- the Snake River. miles (24 km) west of Palouse Canyon. ized Flow Phase was the last event of the The Lake Missoula flood rushed A narrow notch called Devils Coulee, Flood and occurred only a few thousand southward into the head of Washtucna 500 ft (150 m) deep was eroded through years ago. This “youthfulness” is also an Coulee. It overtopped the ridge between the ridge. However, the Lake Missoula argument against the uniformitarian Washtucna Coulee and the Snake River flood did not erode this coulee deep model; we would have to accept that at two locations, forming a water and enough at its entrance from Washtucna wind gaps have remained untouched by wind gap (Figure 11). To the east, the Coulee. The entrance to Devils Coulee erosion for millions of years. width was initially around 8 miles (13 is approximately 100 ft (30 m) above km), but the flow eventually formed a Washtucna Coulee, and no stream was The Example of the Lake Missoula Flood Geomorphological evidence for the Recessive Stage of the Flood is strong (Oard, in press). Whereas uniformitar- ian geologists have to invent speculative secondary hypotheses to salvage their paradigm in the light of conflicting evidence, the Flood paradigm does not need to invent secondary hypotheses, be- cause the evidence is consistent with the paradigm. Furthermore, the Lake Mis- soula flood offers the Flood paradigm an example of how a well-substantiated catastrophic flood at the peak of the Ice Age (Oard, 2004a) created a water and wind gap. The Lake Missoula flood (also called the Spokane or the Bretz flood) demonstrates that the catastrophic model works much better than any low- Figure 11. Map of ridge between Washtucna Coulee and the Snake River showing energy solution. Palouse and Devils Canyons cut from the Lake Missoula flood. Modified from Despite its width of up to 100 miles Bretz (1928, p. 205). (Drawing by Mark Wolfe.) (160 km), the Lake Missoula Flood pos- sessed a current velocity of up to 65 mph (100 kph). There likely was only one major flood and possibly a few minor narrow, vertically walled canyon 500 ft diverted down Devils Coulee. So Devils floods afterwards (Oard, 2003; 2004a)]. (150 m) deep—down to the level of the Coulee remains a wind gap. Palouse One major pathway was the Cheney- Snake River. The narrow erosion likely Canyon and Devils Coulee, therefore, Palouse scabland tract in the eastern was manifested as a “retreating water- are examples of how large volumes of part of the flood path. The southern fall.” After the flood, the Palouse River, energetic floodwaters can rapidly exca- portion of this tract includes the upper instead of continuing its flow westward vate water and wind gaps in hard rock portion of Washtucna Coulee. Prior to down Washtucna Coulee as before, took (Oard, 2003). Volume 44, Winter 2008 191

by currents flowing perpendicular to mountains and ridges. An example of the cutting of a water and wind gap in a few days is provided by the Lake Mis- soula flood. Worldwide water and wind gaps, like other global geomorphological mysteries, point to a global Flood.

Acknowledgments I thank Hank Giesecke for accompa- nying me during this trip to view the Nenana and Delta River water gaps in the Alaska Range. I also thank North Star Bible Camp of Willow, Alaska, for their generous hospitality in providing housing, meals and wheels for this study. I appreciate John Reed fine-tuning several of the figures. Finally, I thank Bryan Miller of Master Books for draw- ing Figure 8. This research was supported by a research grant from the Creation Re- search Society.

References CRSQ: Creation Research Society Quar- terly Ahnert, F. 1998. Introduction to Geomorphol- ogy. Arnold, London, UK. Austin, S.A. 1994. How was Grand Canyon eroded? In Austin, S.A. (editor). Grand Canyon: Monument to Catastrophe, pp. 83–110. Institute for Creation Research, Santee, CA. Bates, R.L. and J.A. Jackson (editors). 1984. Figure 12. Palouse Falls on the Palouse River between Washtucna Coulee and Dictionary of Geological Terms, 3rd edi- the Snake River. tion, Anchor Press/Doubleday, Garden City, NY. Bemis, S.P. 2004. Neotectonic Framework of the North-Central Alaska Range Foot- hills. M.S. thesis, University of Alaska Summary seemingly insurmountable challenge Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK. Six water gaps cut through the Alaska to uniformitarian geologists. It does not Bretz, J.H., 1928. Alternative hypotheses Range, as well as foothills north of the seem that an appeal to actualism would for Channeled Scabland. I. Journal of range. These features are similar to well help. Of course, many hypotheses have Geology 36:193–223. over 1,000 water gaps across the earth, been invented over the years—all with Brown, W. 2001. In the Beginning: Com- 300 alone in the Zagros Mountains of apparently fatal problems. Water and pelling Evidence for Creation and the Iran. How a river could cut through wind gaps can rapidly be cut during the Flood, 7th edition. Center for Scientific a mountain range or ridge presents a Channelized Flow Phase of the Flood Creation, Phoenix, AZ. 192 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Crickmay, C.H. 1933. The later stages of the 29(3):18–23. really evidence for a catastrophic flood? cycle of erosion: some weaknesses in the Oard, M.J. 2008. Flood by Design: The A discussion. Palaeogeography, Palaeocli- theory of the cycle of erosion. Geological Earth’s Surface—Shaped by Receding matology, Palaeoecology 91:175–178. Magazine 70:337–347. Water. Master Books, Green Forest, AR Thornbury, W.D. 1965. Regional Geomor- Crickmay, C.H. 1974. The Work of the River: (in press). phology of the United States. John Wiley A Critical Study of the Central Aspects Oberlander, T.M. 1965. The Zagros Streams: & Sons, New York, NY. of Geomorphology. American Elsevier A New Interpretation of Transverse Drain- Twidale, C.R. 1976. Analysis of Landforms. Publishing Co., New York, NY. age in an Orogenic Zone. Syracuse Geo- John Wiley & Sons Australasia Pty Ltd, Dury, G.H. 1964. Principles of Underfit graphical Series No. 1, Syracuse, NY. New York, NY. Streams—General Theory of Meander- Oberlander, T.M. 1985. Origin of Drainage Twidale, C.R. 2004. River patterns and ing Valleys. U. S. Geological Survey Profes- Transverse to Structures in Orogens. In their meaning. Earth-Science Reviews sional Paper 452-A, Washington, D.C. Morisawa, M. and J.T. Hack (editors). 67:159–218. Fitzgerald, P.G., R.B. Sorkhabi, T.F. Redfield, Tectonic Geomorphology, pp. 155–182. Wahrhaftig, C. 1958. The Alaska Range. and E. Strump, 1995. Uplift and denuda- Allen and Unwin, Boston, MA. In Williams H. (editor). Landscapes tion of the central Alaska Range: a case O’Connor, J.E. 1993. Hydrology, Hydraulics, of Alaska: Their Geological Evolution. study in the use of apatite fission track and Geomorphology of the Bonneville University of California Press, Los An- thermochronology to determine absolute Flood. Geological Society of America geles, CA. uplift parameters. Journal of Geophysical Special Paper 274, Boulder, CO. Wahrhaftig, C. 1965. Physiographic divisions Research 100(B10):20,175–20,191. Ranney, W. 2005. Carving Grand Canyon: of Alaska. U.S. Geological Survey Profes- Hunt, C.B. 1967. Physiography of the United Evidence, Theories, and Mystery. Grand sional Paper 482, Washington D.C. States. W.H. Freeman and Company, Canyon Association, Grand Canyon, Wahrhaftig, C. and R.F. Black. 1958. Qua- San Francisco, CA. AZ. ternary and engineering geology in the Madole, R.F., W.C. Bradley, D.S. Loewen- Rich, J.L. 1933. Physiography and Structure central part of the Alaska Range. U.S. herz, D.F. Ritter, N.W. Rutter, and at Cumberland Gap. GSA Bulletin Geological Survey Professional Paper 293, C.E. Thorn. 1987. In Graf, W.L. (edi- 44:1,219–1,236. Washington D.C. tors), 1987. Geomorphic Systems of Schumm, S. and F.G. Ethridge. 1994. Walker, T. 1994. A Biblical geological model. North America, Geological Society of Origin, Evolution and Morphology of In Walsh, R.E. (editor). Proceedings of America Centennial Special Volume 2, Fluvial Valleys. In Dalrymple, R.W., R. the Third International Conference on pp. 211–257.Boulder, CO. Boyd, and B.A. Zaitlin (editors). Incised- Creationism, technical symposium ses- Oard, M.J. 2001. Vertical tectonics and the Valley Systems: Origins and Sedimentary sions. Creation Science Fellowship, pp. drainage of Floodwater: a model for the Sequences, pp. 11–27. SEPM Special 581–592. Pittsburgh, PA. middle and late diluvian period—Part II. Publication No. 51, Tulsa, OK. Williams, E.L., J.R. Meyer, and G.W. Wol- CRSQ 38(2):82–83. Short, N.M. and R.W. Blair, Jr. (editors). from, 1991. Erosion of Grand Canyon Oard, M.J. 2003. Evidence for Only One Gi- 1986. Geomorphology from Space: A Part I—Review of antecedent river gantic Lake Missoula Flood. In Ivey, R.L. Global Overview of Regional Landforms. hypothesis and the postulation of large (editor). The Fifth International Confer- NASA, Washington, D.C. quantities of rapidly flowing water as ence on Creationism, technical sympo- Small, R.J. 1978. The Study of Landforms: the primary agent of erosion. CRSQ sium sessions, pp. 219–231. Creation A Textbook of Geomorphology, second 28:92–98. Science Fellowship, Pittsburgh, PA. edition. Cambridge University Press, Williams, E.L., J.R. Meyer, and G.W. Wol- Oard, M.J. 2004a. The Missoula Flood Con- London. from. 1992. Erosion of Grand Canyon troversy and the Genesis Flood. Creation Stokes, M. and A.E. Mather. 2003. Tectonic Part II—Review of river capture, piping Research Society Monograph No. 13, origin and evolution of a transverse drain- and ancestral river hypotheses and the Chino Valley, AZ. age: the Río Almanzora, Betic Cordillera, possible formation of vast lakes. CRSQ Oard, M.J. 2004b. Pediments Formed by Southeast Spain. Geomorphology 50:61. 28:138–145. the Flood: Evidence for the Flood/post- Summerfield, M.A. 1991. Global Geomor- Young, R.A. and E.E. Spamer (editors). 2001. Flood Boundary in the Late Cenozoic. phology. Longman Scientific & Techni- Colorado River Origin and Evolution: TJ 18(2):15–27. cal, New York, NY. Proceedings of a Symposium held at Oard, M.J. 2007. Do Rivers Erode Through Thomas, D.S.G. and P.A. Shaw. 1992. The Grand Canyon National Park in June, Mountains? Water Gaps are Strong Evi- Zambezi River: tectonics, climatic 2000. Grand Canyon Association, Grand dence for the Genesis Flood. Creation change and drainage evolution—is there Canyon, AZ. Volume 44, Winter 2008 193

Book Review The Electric Sky: A Challenge to the Myths of Modern Astronomy by Donald E. Scott Mikamar Publishing, Portland, OR, 248 pages, $25.00.

The Electric Sky is an engaging, well- rents, computation of redshifts, solar lies. Chapter 5 deals specifi cally with written review of the current state of electron fl ux, and “An Open Letter to the “Case of the Missing Matter.” The plasma universe cosmology. The subject the Scientifi c Community” signed by universe is thought to be 98% “dark,” matter is tenable to all, from layperson many plasma research scientists. which Scott surmises as the inability to scientist, and puts forth a compelling, Chapters 1–3 provide a brief over- of astronomers to account for the mass concise paradigm shift for the fi elds of view of plasma in the cosmos, the history needed to hold galaxies and the cosmos astronomy and cosmology. This book is of science, and “Some ‘Ugly Facts’” of together according to an expanding highly recommended for its references cosmology. The blind acceptance of BBC. Scott quotes Jim Peebles of Princ- to seminal works in plasma cosmology, big bang cosmology (BBC) has forced eton University as saying that “it’s an and for its electrical explanations for mathematicians to invent many non- embarrassment that the dominant forms many stellar phenomena and astro- falsifi able, untestable entities. About the of matter in the universe are hypotheti- nomic anomalies. The only possible debut of “black holes” by Professor John cal” (p. 40). The author then quips that improvement to this publication would Wheeler at Princeton University, Scott many forms of dark matter should be re- be to touch up a number of pixilated surmises that Professor Wheeler said, ferred to as Fabricated Ad hoc Inventions images. “You can’t prove that black holes don’t Repeatedly Invoked in Efforts to Defend Professor Scott is a retired electri- exist, so I am free to use the concept Untenable Scientifi c Theories: FAIRIE cal engineering professor and amateur as often as I like” (p. 15). Other non- DUST. He continually reiterates the astronomer. He opens the book with falsifi able entities listed include weakly need to reassess a theory that is so well powerfully condemning words regard- interacting massive particles (WIMPs), accepted but at the same time does not ing modern cosmology work, the fi rst strange matter, massive compact halo explain what we can physically test and chapter of which is available on the web objects (MACHOs), and more. Scott observe. Chapter 6, entitled “Case of (thunderbolts.info). In the fi rst six chap- claims these untouchable entities the Missing Neutrinos,” discusses some ters, Scott confronts the inadequacies cover up the major fl aws associated with observations that may disprove fusion as of current cosmological theories, notes BBC. This inadequate aspect of BBC is the sole source of power for the sun. the unwillingness of scientifi c leaders referred to repeatedly throughout the Chapter 7 moves into cosmology’s to accept alternative explanations, and book, but with new examples pertaining roots, starting at ancient times and mov- provides a history of science, astronomy, to the current subject matter in every ing through the modern day, which the and plasma research. The remainder of occurrence. author claims is still using the tools of the book expounds upon the electrical In chapter 4, the author gives a strik- seventeenth-century Newtonian me- nature of the universe, citing specifi c ing synopsis of how big space truly is. He chanics and fl uid systems. Chapter 8 examples of experimentally verified refers back to the same telling picture introduces the plasma pioneers Kristian phenomena. The closing chapters deal (stars can be represented by “two specks Birkland, Irving Langmuir, Hannes with the future of astronomy and how to of dust separated by ¼ of a mile”) when Alfvén, and Anthony Peratt. Chapter build upon current fi ndings in plasma refuting the use of “start collisions” by 9 (“Shake Hands with a Plasma”) pro- science. Scott also provides a concise astronomers to account for binary pairs, vides the reader with an introduction technical appendix of Birkeland cur- gravitational effects, and other anoma- to plasma science, electrical charge, 194 Creation Research Society Quarterly voltage, capacitance, and plasma fre- Chapters 13 and 14 are some of the low redshift galaxy NGC 7319. Arp’s quency. While it is taught the universe most convincing chapters in the book. images are compelling evidence that is electrically neutral, a main tenant of Scott ties together the many models and the BBC must be reevaluated, and that plasma science is that the universe is lessons in past chapters, discussing their plasma cosmology should be given more filled with charged particles in magnetic effects on our observable solar system, voice as an alternative theory. Finally, domains. While we cannot measure galaxy, and universe. One such interest- Scott concludes with a chapter entitled the voltage of any individual item in ing mechanism is electric discharge ma- “Lowering the Drawbridge.” Here he space, we can measure electric fields, chining (EDM), which plasma scientists expounds upon the problems associated and probes existing on many spacecraft assert is the culprit of the massive Valles with the peer review system and related can and do find strong electric fields. Marineris on Mars. Scott also elaborates funding sources. Also, in chapter 8, Scott discusses some how the electric star model fits and Many of the points Scott makes predictions of plasma cosmology that explains the Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) regarding nonacceptance of alternative came true in later observations with diagram when viewed with its x-axis as theories to the status quo will ring true more advanced instrumentation, such as “current density/absolute temperature” to creationists. As such, we should study clear images of filamentation at nearly and its y-axis as “luminosity/absolute the tenets and claims of the plasma uni- all size scales in the universe. Filamenta- magnitude.” The ESM model seems to verse and test its applicability with CRS tion is evidence of interacting Birkeland provide astronomers with explanations beliefs. Is it or could it be in alignment currents working in the glow discharge of rapid, complex brightness changes with the Word of God? Is it scientifically plasma mode. in stars. One example of this behavior verifiable? Recently, the Setterfields Chapter 10 lays out convincing evi- is V838 Monocerotis, which rapidly presented a formulation of the Creation dence of the electric sun model (ESM). moved almost half way across the HR week in the context of a plasma universe For instance, the electric sun model ac- diagram, from a luminosity similar to (2007). If this is indeed the case, accep- curately predicts why temperatures of the our sun to an extremely bright luminos- tance of plasma cosmology will require photosphere and chromosphere near the ity, within a month. Chapter 15 covers significant paradigm-shattering shifts in surface of the sun are quite low (~4000 application of ESM to pulsars and other the scientific community, conventional K), but then rapidly rise to >2 x 106 K in nonstandard stars, and gives more me- astronomy, and even within creationist the upper atmosphere. The ESM also chanics of Hannes Alfvén’s ESM. thinking. If indeed it provides a work- explains behavior of particles ejected Scott continues to apply the elec- ing scientific explanation for an already from the sun. Near the sun, hydrogen tric cosmology to galaxy formation in mysterious cosmos, it could perhaps and oxygen ions approach speeds of chapter 16. The spiral morphology of motivate, or even electrify, a fresh look 300,000 mph, while near the earth they galaxies, among other geometries, was at the sky by all of us. approach speeds of 2 million mph. The modeled by combinations of Birkeland acceleration of the “solar wind” is due to currents (plasmauniverse.info). Further References acceleration of ions in an electric field. evidence of current-induced galaxy Plasmauniverse.info. http://plasmauniverse. Some astronomers, however, postulate formation is the appearance of stellar info. This website contains many semi- “magnetic reconnection” as a possible strings, which are claimed to be the nal papers and studies, mostly from the driving force behind the accelerated result of galactic z-pinches of Birkeland Institute for Electrical and Electronics ions. In chapter 11, further details of currents. Finally, chapter 17 provides Engineer’s astrophysics proceedings. the electric star model are given, and in an in-depth discussion on “Redshifts Accessed June 2007. chapter 12 Scott argues that “magnetic and the Big Bang.” Scott presents image Setterfield, Barry and Helen. 2007. Was reconnection” does not occur. After a after image of the controversial data of this how God did it? Creation Matters review of how magnetic fields work and Halton Arp, who has collected many im- 12(2):1–3. occur in nature, he concludes the chap- ages that contradict the “redshift equals Thunderbolts.info. http://www.thunderbolts. ter by saying, “Open magnetic field lines distance” convention derived from info/electricsky_preface.htm. Accessed and magnetic reconnection cannot and Hubble’s work. Some images include June 2007. do not occur…that solar astronomers low-redshift galaxies clearly connected feel free to promote these fictions speaks to higher-redshift companion galax- Paul E. Anderson, Ph.D. volumes about the state of astrophysics ies. Others are quasars associated with 25 Wilson Dr. today ” (p. 127). low-redshift galaxies. One plate shows Ogdensburg, NJ 07439 a high-redshift quasar in front of the [email protected] Volume 44, Winter 2008 195

The Primordial Seed of Life: Creation, Spontaneous Generation, and Emergence Theory

Kareem I. Batarseh*

Abstract n this work, I examine the origin of the universe in terms of the complexity Iand the order exhibited in terrestrial life by analyzing the universe’s design based on the “intelligent design” of creation. This paper is based on a reper- toire of scientific resources and looks at whether an intelligent extraterrestrial “Creator” exists or the entire universe emanated merely from “spontaneous generation.” Drawing on different examples extracted from mathematical, scientific, and philosophical resources, I hope to present a decisive argu- ment about the gap that exists between real creation and the mere dogma of spontaneous generation. The emergence theory is discussed, and a tangible example of the failure of the emergence theory is given. The results suggest that two ostensibly very different aspects—not even acting in spaces having the same dimension—actually are equivalent. These two aspects are human perception and physics.

And the LORD God formed man of the Introduction whether an intelligent, extraterrestrial dust of the ground, and breathed into his The laws that govern the universe, its “Creator” exists or whether all we have nostrils the breath of life; and the man astronomical structure and its environ- here in the universe arose merely by became a living being. ment, have influenced our thoughts and “spontaneous generation.” Drawing on Genesis 2:7 NKJV actions in a subtle and unequivocal way. sundry examples derived from math- We are part of a cosmic environment ematical, scientific, and philosophical that is vast in size. The pivoting and sources, I would like to give a decisive For every house is built by someone, but hard questions that come to mind are argument demonstrating the gap that He who built all things is God. those related to the source of things: exists between creation and spontaneous Hebrews 3:4 NKJV Who created the cornucopia of constel- generation. In doing this, I will follow lations, the complexity seen in living a trail ranging from the macroscopic creatures, and the plethora of diverse landscape of the universe, involving species? And most of all, who created us? structures such as galaxies and clusters of These questions, in their expediency and galaxies, down to the microscopic world complexity, cry for an answer. of the tiniest living information-process- * Kareem I. Batarseh, Alpha-Omega The main impetus behind this pres- ing chips on a molecular level—RNA Biologicals, 8610 Larkview Lane, ent eclectic work is to give these ques- and DNA. Then, I will show that there Fairfax Station, VA 22039, tions reasonable answers that are based is a hidden linkage and a delicate en- [email protected] on the repertoire of scientific resources. terprise between the universe itself and Accepted for publication: May 11, 2007 My paradigm will be the question of the minutiae. 196 Creation Research Society Quarterly

The Physical Dictum one cannot escape noticing that there derlie structure formation of galaxies and is a hidden order manifesting itself in their prominent features and inherent Complexity creation. properties. While many models with We all ponder the question of our own Before we proceed to examine the varying complexity have been developed origin. Early Greeks long debated this massive structure of our universe, let us to account for the origin of galaxies from irksome issue, viz., the cause of life on first look at something closer to home: their primeval seeds, there is no ample earth. Creationists view the origin of life our planet Earth. To see design in action, empirical evidence that supports any of as the direct product of intelligent design let us compare our moon and Earth. The the ab initio scenarios upon which these by a Creator who transcends our space- moon is arid and dead, while Earth is a models have been based. Thus our un- time domain. This Creator pierced the life-supporting planet with intricate and derstanding of galaxy formation remains veil of our three-and-a-half-dimensional colossal complexity that can support bio- elusive and rudimentary. In general, universe and then applied information chemistry. But why is this? The reason is however, we know that the balances and biochemical “know-how” onto that Earth has a biosphere composed of of two forces are responsible for such matter. He directly created infinitely essential life-supporting compounds like structures. For example, stars maintain complex “machines” such as the heart, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and their integrity by a balance between two the liver, and the central nervous sys- water. However, the picture goes beyond opposing forces, the inward gravitational tem. Materialists, on the other hand, this to include a hidden force that makes pull and the outward pressure of hydro- assert that life with all this complexity life possible on Earth, namely, gravity. gen gas sustained by nuclear reactions was caused by the interplay of natural If we were to transport our atmosphere in the vicinity of their cores. Galaxies, laws and time acting on nonliving mat- to the moon, all the gases would escape on the other hand, display the inward ter—the fortuitous results of accidental its surface since its gravity is not strong gravitational pull, resulting from pull- circumstances (spontaneous genera- enough to pull these gases inward. There ing the stars inward, and the rotation of tion). Complex organs like the heart is a delicate balance that manifests itself the stars as they orbit around the center are viewed as either the result of careful in the fact that if the gravitational pull of of the galaxies or the cluster of galaxies. design and forethought or the product a planet is too great, then the inter- and One can see, therefore, that there is a of blind and haphazard interactions. intra-atomic molecular and chemical delicate balance between such forces When all the frills are stripped away, the bonds that hold our structure will be and a meticulous design that governs fundamental question in the debate on crushed instantaneously as a result of the them. the primordial seed of life is: Creation enormous gravitational pull. The epito- All things are made of closely packed or spontaneous generation? me of this is the fact that life-supporting arrays of atoms, including galaxies, stars, The vast universe around us is filled planets should fall within a critical size planets, trees, human beings, insects, with a plethora of matter arranged as range. Such immense complexity can- cells, DNA, and atoms. Hence, a single planets, stars, and inanimate lumps of not just be the product of randomness atom should have the same density as the celestial matter such as galaxies and but rather the product of a stupendous collection of these atoms of which they clusters of galaxies. Even though the and meticulous design. are made. If two things have similar den- universe is huge, most of its volume is sities, then their mass (M) to volume (V) actually void. The mass of our universe The Grand-scale ratio must be similar (Barrow, 1995). It is obeys quantum laws, which dictate that Structure of the Universe also known that volume is proportional mass is constant; hence, its great volume In considering the universe, one of the to the cube of an average linear length is a consequence of its expansion. The greatest enigmas facing cosmologists is (r3), regardless of the shape; hence, core of this is the fact that mass and size the evolution and structure formation M = k r3 (1) are important to our existence in very in the universe. No one can deny the peculiar ways, which at first glance are impressive appearance of spirals in the where k is an arbitrary constant. not appreciated until we dig deeper into arms of many galaxies such as ours, the the universe’s order and design. One Milky Way. Galaxies are considered Taking the logarithm (log) of both might expect that our marvelous cosmic the sites of star formation, death, and sides of Equation 1, inventory would be scattered all over in a evolution and are regarded as the fun- log M = log k + 3 log r (2) chaotic and disorderly fashion, depicting damental structural building units of the that nature explores all possibilities in a universe. Since the beginning of modern Equation 2 tells us that if one would trial-and-error mode, but this is wishful cosmology, scientists have been involved measure the relative distribution of mass thinking. By looking deeper into things, in unraveling the mechanisms that un- and size starting from the tiniest single Volume 44, Winter 2008 197 atom to massive galaxies, and plot M The Philosophical Dictum between machines and the structures versus r on a log-log coordinate system, Aristotle argued in the fourth century found in living systems. He argued that one should get a linear relationship with B.C. that the articulate design we en- if we were to find a watch in an empty a slope of 3. Indeed, this is the case, and counter in living systems is evidence field, one would logically conclude that such a relation is depicted in Figure 1. for a divine interlocutor. He asserted in it was designed and not the product By examining Figure 1, it can be his book Metaphysics Part II that causes of random formation. Likewise, since seen that all these solid objects lie along are finite in a series of events and there life on Earth has every appearance of a straight line (dashed line). Applying must be a first cause in which the chain contrivance or machinelike design, the method of least squares on the data of of explanations automatically leads to a there must have been a designer for Figure 1, the slope obtained is 2.91~ 3, regression, since an infinite regression is such life. and the correlation coefficient is found senseless (Feinberg and Shafer-Landau, Scottish philosopher David Hume, to be 0.93. This mathematical represen- 2005). This notion of first cause can be who lived between 1711 and 1776, tation holds true from the ostensibly very regarded as a kind of meta-cause with the attacked this long-held argument. Ac- different, tiniest atom (hydrogen atom) preponderance to create new chains of cording to Hume (1981), the weakness of all the way to the largest solid structures events without requiring a predecessor. the watchmaker analogy argument is the of the universe, galaxies. The lesson to Following Aristotle’s footsteps, Thomas question of whether or not the similari- be learned here is that there is an orderly, Aquinas in the thirteenth century also ties apply, and, if so, to what extent. He hidden connection that governs our corroborated this view, which he referred argued that the complex, machinelike universe and extends from the smallest to as “the teleological argument,” one of structures found in living plants and to the largest structures of the universe. his four arguments for the existence of animals only have the appearance of Thus, the vicissitudes of a century of God. The assertion in modern times for design; they were only superficially like physical revelations warn us not to be the existence of God or a designer was machines but natural in essence. These dogmatic, suggesting implicitly that presented by an Anglican priest and phi- “non-machines,” he argued, were “natu- levels of structure are actually divisible losopher by the name of William Paley ral” and therefore needed no designer portions of the greater picture, where in his watchmaker argument (Paley, or creator. In addition, he concluded everything is infinitely interconnected. 1802). Paley uses the analogy that exists that the fallacy of this argument stems

Figure 1. Logarithmic scale of variations of some of the structures found in our universe in terms of mass (M) and size (r). See Equation 2 in text. Despite the vast differences of mass and size between these structures, this figure demonstrates the linear correlation that exists between mass and size in the universe, implying coherence and order. 198 Creation Research Society Quarterly from the fact that large artifacts such as how, or purposefulness, developed into the nature of codes and programs. Like buildings are built by a group and not machines by chance! No other field in computers, “spontaneous generation” by an individual or a creator. He further science purports that machines can arise cannot devise such hardware and/or argued that if a designer is required, then by chance. software embedded with the necessary also the designer must require a higher Hume’s views of creation are also instructions and information needed designer and the analogy reasoning leads shared by Richard Dawkins (1985), who to perform the different tasks. This fact on ad infinitum. He argued that the te- relied on probability as the criterion for poses a serious threat to the materialistic leological argument for God presented the definition of complex biological scenario of the origin of life. To over- by Paley would hold true if, and only if, entity. The major difference between come this problem and find a solution, organisms were deeply analogous at the Dawkins’s and Paley’s explanations is one has to rely on a divine intervention, molecular level to machines (Hume, that Paley attributes the emergence of a “Creator.” Regarding the origin of 1981). complex structures to a creator while life, Francis Crick, winner of the Nobel The dearth of information about the Dawkins based it on trivialities and ac- Prize in biology, stated in 1981 (Crick, molecular structure of living systems cidental events working within forces 1981): at the times of Hume and Paley made presumed to be inherent in all matter. An honest man, armed with all the this an impenetrable thicket since there The primary focus on the question knowledge available to us now, could was no means to verify Paley’s claim of the origin of life emanates from how only state that, in some sense, the that living systems were, in fact, micro such incredibly complex molecules can origin of life appears at the moment and/or macro machines. Accordingly, accomplish reproduction, repair, and to be almost a miracle (p. 88). for nearly two hundred years, scientific metabolism of living things. Any feasible In 1970, world-renowned British as- materialists have maintained that Paley’s theory on the “spontaneous generation” tronomer Sir Frederick Hoyle decided to argument is erroneous and invalid and origin of life should explain the origin calculate the mathematical odds of spon- that the God hypothesis is mundane of this chemical hardware. Similar to taneous generation from a primordial and moot. computers, living systems require much environmental soup to explain the origin more than just hardware to perform of life (Hoyle, 1981). Applying the laws functions; they also require software or of mathematics, chemistry, and thermo- The Biological Dictum coded information to direct the activities dynamics, he calculated the probability In the last half of the twentieth century, of the cellular hardware. Again, like a of the spontaneous generation of just the profound and astonishing discoveries computer, this software needs to reside proteins of a single amoeba and found regarding the molecular structure and within each living system. Unlike a it to be 1 in 1040,000. Hoyle was a strong function of living systems have brought computer, living systems also possess the believer in the spontaneous generation the materialistic “spontaneous genera- marvelous ability to reproduce and pass dogma, but this number reversed his tion” origin-of-life scheme into serious to the next generation both the hardware opinion. Hoyle (1981) stated (Missler, doubt. In the field of molecular biology, and the software or the genetic coding. 1996): discovery after discovery has revealed No one could fully know the nature The likelihood of the formation of that living systems contain structures of this coding information until 1953, life from inanimate matter is one to that conform in every way to the mod- when James Watson and Francis Crick the 40 thousand naughts (zeros) after ern definition of a machine. In fact, the unraveled the DNA structure (Watson it. It is enough to bury Darwin and parallel between living systems and ma- and Crick, 1953). They revolutionized the whole theory of evolution. There chines has now been shown to extend all our understanding of cellular growth was no primeval soup, neither on this the way to the molecular level. Accord- and metabolism. Now we know that planet nor on any other, and if the ing to Nobel Laureate Jacques Monod, the growth and metabolism of all life beginnings of life were not random machines are purposeful (teleonomic) on Earth is carefully controlled by a they must therefore have been the aggregates of matter that use energy to language convention called the genetic product of purposeful intelligence perform work (Monod, 1971). The core code, carried by the DNA molecule, (p. 60). of experimental science and engineering which governs the actions of the cellular The caveat behind Hoyle’s work is knowledge confirms that all machines hardware. The prominent questions here the fact that he did not include in his are the result of purposeful design by are, where did this code and the rules by calculations the chance formation of an intelligent source. The theory of which it is governed come from? In the the DNA, RNA, or the cell membrane evolution asserts that inanimate matter, last 25 years, the field of information that encapsulates and holds the cell which possesses no concepts, know- theory has shed a great deal of light on together. In essence, he did not include Volume 44, Winter 2008 199 the necessary parts that make this micro- quence of the lower one, resulting in he coined “fusion,” in which emergent machine run. novel qualities. properties result from a fusion of their A physicist from Yale University, Many philosophers have adopted constituent properties that are nomo- Professor Harold Morowitz, came to the the epistemological approach in de- logically necessary for the appearance rescue by envisioning a more realistic scribing complex systems. The first of the emergent property (Humphreys, estimate for spontaneous generation of serious attempt was by George Henry 1997). a bacterium, which included the miss- Lewes, who made a clear distinction Proponents of the nonmaterialist ing information in Hoyle’s calculations between resultants in which the se- or nonreductionist theories of emer- (Hynek and Vallee, 1975). He concluded quence of steps that produces a certain gence are rejected a priori on the basis that the odds of a mere single bacterium phenomenon is traceable, while in that emergence is considered a part of reassembling by chance are one in emergence it is not (Lewes, 1875). spiritual creation that is governed by a 10100,000,000,000. Other prominent scientists, This paradigm might be interpreted as Designer. Stephen Pepper (1926) rejects including Carl Sagan, have statisti- identifying emergence with the episte- the idea of emergence based on the argu- cally calculated the evolution of man mological limitations of the observer. ment that such emergent properties are by chance, and the results have been Others have followed Lewes’s approach epiphenomenal and that the alleged staggering: one chance in 102,000,000,000 (Smuts, 1926; Nagel, 1961; Fodor, emergent change is predictable and not (Sagan et al., 1973). In Mathematics, 1974; Popper and Eccles, 1977; Teller, cumulative. Jaegwon Kim (1999) argues a probability of less than one in 1015 1986; Bedau, 1997; Clark, 1996, 2001; that both upward and same-level causa- is equivalent to total impossibility and Batterman, 2001). tions necessitate downward causation, is regarded as “a virtual impossibility” The early exponent of ontological and therefore it is epiphenomenal. On (Eastman and Missler, 1996). emergentism was John Stuart Mill, the other hand, Ali-Sayed and Zimmer who argued that the mechanical and (2005) have argued against the theory of The Emergence Theory Dictum chemical modes are different in that emergence by employing a relativistic Recently, there has been renewed inter- the total effect of several causes acting interpretation through the inclusion of est among scientists in the discussion in concerted fashion is identical to the both the role of the observer during the of the behavior of complex systems and sum of each of the causes acting alone act of the observation and the metaphysi- the reconcilability of mental causation, in the mechanical, but not in the chemi- cal state of the observer prior to the act or consciousness with physicalism in cal (Mill, 1843). He coined the term of observation. terms of emergence theory (Laughlin “composition of causes” to describe the Accordingly, there is as yet no sound and Pines, 2000; Laughlin et al., 2000; mechanical mode. For him, the law of scientific theory of emergence. It can Bar-Yam, 2004). Emergence theory is vector addition of forces, such as the therefore be considered one of the para- based on the dictum that the whole is parallelogram law, is the “composition doxes of modern science that in spite of greater than the sum of the parts; that is, of causes,” or the mechanical mode. our knowledge about the cosmos and its when complex systems supervene upon Chemical reactions on the other hand laws, there is no clear general definition their lower-level parts, there is a birth are in violation of the “composition of of emergence. There are also numerous of and an inexorable rise to universal causes” since the addition of an acid speculations, edifices, and arguments complexity. In general, the theory of and a base to produce a salt and water associated with its validity, axioms, and emergence depends on two main no- is not the sum of effects of the causes applicability. It is of special interest to tions: (1) the epistemological, which is had they been acting separately. Many note that not all complex systems can concerned with the role of the observer others have adopted the notion of be attributed to emergence. Since emer- during the act of the observation in “composition of causes” (Morgan, 1923; gent properties are not entirely free to terms of limits on human knowledge Broad, 1925; McLaughlin, 1977). Other make things up as they proceed, they are of complex systems, where emergent emergentists have adopted different therefore subjected to constraints, such properties could not be predicted; and definitions for emergent theory, such as as the conservational laws, which dictate (2) the ontological, which is concerned Samuel Alexander, who combined both that matter cannot be destroyed; they with the metaphysical assumptions definitions of emergentism (Alexander, can proceed by creating new patterns of the observer prior to the act of the 1920). Timothy O’Connor on the other of relationship by employing preexisting observation, where the physical world hand adopted a non-supervening, dy- conditions. Within this context, genetic is layered as composite structures, a namical approach to emergence theory coding, for example, is not entirely con- ladder, based on increasing complexity (O’Connor 2000a, 2000b). Paul Hum- fined to this definition since genetic in which each step or strata is a conse- phreys favored a metaphysical relation coding can be considered as the lower- 200 Creation Research Society Quarterly level laws, where other phenomena can found to directly correlate with the im- are available elsewhere (Batarseh, sub- be attributed. In retrospect, laws cannot poverishment of the Moiré effect. The mitted), only a brief discussion will be emerge; what emerge are not laws but outcome of this modeling effort is that given here. what the laws describe. What is of sig- it appears that the brain detects parallel- Optical measurements of spiral nificance is the fact that in emergence, ism at low energy levels. Therefore, for galaxies’ rotation velocity curves as a one is not discussing the possibility of the perception of these patterns, it can function of radial distances from the chance but a thorough regularity in be concluded that filters that respond center have shown that the shape of the nature, which can be considered a part only to low-energy-level signals govern rotational velocity curve does not follow of the design and order that is described information processing in the human Keplerian falloff, where the circular by this work. brain. Hence, the human visual system velocity should drop as the radius is is making direct relations between the increased. Specifically, it was observed A Robust Example of the master pattern and its copy, which are that the rotation velocities of stars and Failure of Emergence strong functions of the total mechani- gas/dust in the center increases with I have recently shown that the per- cal energy, and once this minimum radius while those at the outer skirts of ception of Moiré patterns (when a energy threshold is reached, there is no the arms showed higher and nearly flat random-dots pattern is superimposed new information that can be deduced, rotation velocity profiles, extending out on itself and rotated by a small angle, independent of the stimulus code. For a to the radial limit of the data (Rubin et creating a circular pattern, see Figure detailed discussion, the reader is referred al., 1985). This unusual and counter- 2) is dependent on the total energy of to Batarseh (2005, 2007). intuitive behavior of spiral galaxies is the system being minimum and can In retrospect, the neurobiological extremely common, and most known be described by employing classical emergence phenomenon underlying spiral galaxies behave in this fashion. Newtonian mechanics (Batarseh, 2005, the perception of the Moiré effect is In an attempt to reconcile this per- 2007). Calculations of the total energy actually reducible to lower physical plexing phenomenological discrepancy, of the system have revealed that the laws (Newtonian mechanics), which is a physicists have invoked invisible dark minimum energy levels correspond to clear and obvious violation of the emer- matter (DM) halos in the peripheries the angle at which humans can perceive gence theory, since it explicitly dictates of spiral galaxies so as to force the flat- the Moiré patterns (Batarseh, 2005). that such complicated neurobiological tening of the circular velocity profiles, The minimum energy requirement was process are in fact effectual and can be thereby suggesting that galaxies are reduced to basic physical laws. This is composed of ~ 90% invisible dark matter in clear agreement with the proposition (the standard cosmological principle). suggested by Stephen Pepper (1926): This peculiar assumption has resulted “That is to say, if the laws of behavior in complicated cold dark matter mod- enter into the physical system at any els (Λ-CDM) with many adjustable point they must constitute either primi- parameters (Ostriker and Steinhardt, tive laws in that system or be deducible 1995). Despite the continuous efforts from the primitive laws. There is no to find dark matter, to date none has other way out of it.” been found. Interestingly enough, the phenom- An alternative theory to the DM enon of Moiré patterns actually can hypothesis is the “modified Newtonian be used to infer information about the dynamics” model, or MOND, devel- grand-scale structure of the universe. oped and advocated by Milgrom (1983). In fact, the Moiré demonstration can Milgrom’s approach relies on adding Figure 2. Circular Moiré pattern give a plausible cosmological theory terms to the gravitational potential of generated by a computer algorithm for structure formation in the universe the Newtonian dynamical equation through superimposition of two iden- regarding the rotation velocity curves of to account for the astronomical mass tical copies of 4000 dots distributed spiral galaxies, as well as observational discrepancy and forcefully making it fit homogenously with one copy rotated evidence related to the structures of ion- the observed rotation velocity data (Mil- by θ= 6°. This angle of rotation corre- ized hydrogen and positions of giant mo- grom, 1983). Notwithstanding its empiri- sponds to the total energy of the system lecular clouds and dust lanes observed cal success, MOND remains an ad hoc being minimum where the Moiré ef- in spiral galaxies (Batarseh, submitted). modification of Newtonian dynamics fect is perceived by humans. Since detailed derivations of the theory because it was designed to fit rotational Volume 44, Winter 2008 201

velocity curves without a foundation in or Creator, for the origin of life is ri- Crick, F. 1981. Life Itself, Its Origin and deeper theory (Sanders, 2003). diculous. So we invoke a transcendent Nature. Simon & Schuster, New York, To counteract these deficiencies in Creator who fashioned, ordered, and NY. the previous theories, I have recently de- established the laws that govern life. Dawkins, R. 1985. The Blind Watchmaker. veloped a theory referred to as Virialized To invoke the god called “spontaneous Longmans, London, UK. Astrophysical Moiré Patterns, or VAMP, generation,” however, is to believe in Eastman, M., and C. Missler. 1996. The based solely on Newtonian dynamics. It “virtual impossibilities.” Creator Beyond Time and Space. TWFT, was found that VAMP’s predictions are Costa Mesa, CA. consistent with observational evidence, Feinberg, J., and R. Shafer-Landau. 2005. lending support to its foundations. In References Reason and Responsibility: Readings in particular, VAMP correctly accounts for Alexander, S. 1920. Space, Time, and Deity. Some Basic Problems of Philosophy, 12th the rotation velocity profiles as a func- Macmillan, London, England. Edition. Thomson Learning, Stamford, tion of radial distance, the total mass of Ali-Sayed, M., and R.M. Zimmer. 2005. The CT. spiral galaxies, and many other features question concerning emergence. http:// Fodor, J. 1974. Special sciences. Synthese associated with spiral galaxies without mcs.open.ac.uk/sma78/belgium.pdf. 28:97–115. taking the so-called DM or MOND Barrow, J.D. 1995. The Artful Universe. Ox- Hoyle, F. 1981. The Universe: Past and into account. For a thorough review of ford University Press, London, England Present Reflections. University College, VAMP and its predictions, the reader Bar-Yam, Y. 2004. A mathematical theory Cardiff, UK. is referred to the literature (Batarseh, of strong emergence using multiscale Hume, D. 1981. Dialogues Over Natural submitted). variety. Complexity 9:15–24. Religion. Reclam, Stuttgart, Germany. Collectively, the above unequivo- Batarseh, K.I. 2005. Energy levels of Moiré Humphreys, P. 1997. Emergence, not su- cally ascertain the fact that there is seem- patterns: Relation to human perception. pervenience. Philosophy of Science 64: ingly a collapse of higher-level entities to Biological Cybernetics 93:248–255. S337–S345. lower-level entities that are predictable Batarseh, K.I. 2007. The dynamical, psy- Hynek, A., and J. Vallee. 1975. The Edge of and can be described by elementary chophysical and neurobiological aspects Reality. Henry Regency, Chicago, IL. physical laws, clearly violating the un- encompassing the human perception of Kim, J. 1999. Making sense of emergence. derlying premise of emergence. Thus, Moiré patterns: Visual consciousness Philosophical Studies 95:3–36. it appears that in a universe of colossal subtle link to the primitive laws of the Laughlin, R.B., and D. Pines. 2000. The complexity, everything at first glance universe. In Williams, T.O. (editor), theory of everything. Proceedings of seems to be discrete; but a closer look Biological Cybernetics Research Trends. the National Academy of Sciences reveals that things are essentially infi- Nova Science Publishers, Hauppauge, 97:28–31. nitely interconnected and eventually can NY. Laughlin, R.B., D. Pines, J. Schmalian, B.P. be described by basic primitive laws that Batarseh, K.I. submitted. On the virialized Stojkovic, and P. Wolynes. 2000. The were implemented and standardized by modeling of the rotation curves and mass middle way. Proceedings of the National a Designer or a Creator. of spiral galaxies from the perspective Academy of Sciences 97:32–37. of Moiré patterns: A purely baryonic Lewes, G.H. 1875. Problems of Life and theory. Mind. Trench, Turbner & Co., London, Summary Batterman, R. 2001. The Devil in the Details: England. The monotheistic religions, Judaism, Asymptotic Reasoning in Explanation, McLaughlin, B. 1977. Emergence and su- Christianity, and Islam, have asserted Reduction, and Emergence. Oxford pervenience. Intellectica 2:25–43. for thousands of years the doctrine that University Press, Oxford, UK. Milgrom, M., 1983. A modification of the there is a transcendent Deity, a Creator Bedau, M. 1997. Weak emergence. In Tober- Newtonian dynamics as a possible alter- who produced our space-time domain, line, J.E. (editor), Mind, Causation, and native to the hidden mass hypothesis. pierced this veil, and inserted informa- World.. Blackwell, London, UK. Astrophyical Journal 270:365–370. tion and know-how onto matter to form Broad, C.D. 1925. The Mind and Its Place Mill, J.S. 1843. System of Logic. Longmans, life out of nothing. The result was the in Nature. Routledge & Kegan Paul, Green, Reader, & Dyer, London, Eng- birth of an ordered, energized universe London, England land. filled with information and every appear- Clark, A. 1996. Being There. MIT Press, Missler, C. 1996. The Creator Beyond Time ance of contrivance and design. Cambridge, MA. and Space. The World for Today, Costa The above leads us to conclude that Clark, A. 2001. Mindware. MIT Press, Cam- Mesa, CA. the absence of a supernatural cause, bridge, MA. Monod, J. 1971. Chance and Necessity: An 202 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Essay on the Natural Philosophy of Mod- constant. Nature 377:600–602. restrial Intelligence (CETI). MIT Press, ern Biology. Knopf, New York, NY. Paley, W. 1802. Natural Theology. Parker, Cambridge, MA. Morgan, C.L. 1923. Emergent Evolution. Philadelphia, PA. Sanders, R.H., 2003. Clusters of galaxies with Williams & Norgate, London, Eng- Pepper, S. 1926. Emergence. Journal of modifi ed Newtonian dynamics. Monthly land. Philosophy 23:241–245. Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Nagel, E. 1961. The Structure of Science. Har- Popper, K.R., and J.C. Eccles. 1977. The Self 342:901–908. court, Brace and World, New York, NY. and Its Brain. Springer International, Smuts, J.C. 1926. Holism and Evolution. O’Connor, T. 2000a. Persons and Causes. New York, NY. Macmillan, New York, NY. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Rubin, V.C., D. Burstein, W.K. Ford Jr., and Teller, P. 1986. Relational holism and quan- O’Connor, T. 2000b. Causality, mind and N. Thonnard. 1985. Rotation velocities tum mechanics. British Journal for the free will. Philosophical Perspectives 14: of 16 SA galaxies and a comparison Philosophy of Science 37:71–81. 105–117. of Sa, Sb, and SC rotation properties. Watson, J., and F. Crick. 1953. Molecu- Ostriker, J.P., and P.J. Steinhardt. 1995. Astrophysical Journal 289:81–98. lar structure of nucleic acids. Nature The observational case for a low density Sagan, C., F. Crick, and L.M. Muchin. 171:737–738. universe with a non-zero cosmological 1973. Communication with Extrater-

Book Review Darwin’s Conservatives: The Misguided Quest by John G. West Discovery Institute Press, Seattle, 2006, 157 pages, $15.00.

SomeSome sscholarscholars wwhoho aarere “retains his prestige” to the extent that ing intelligent design into classrooms. otherwise conservative (traditional he is recognized “as a secular saint” (p. Instead, the group favors the more lim- family, morality, etc.) support Darwin- 93). In seven chapters and a conclusion, ited policy of encouraging mainstream ism. These individuals are Darwin’s con- West mounts a convincing refutation scientifi c criticisms of neo-Darwinism to servative champions, and Larry Arnhart of Arnhart’s views, while showing that be presented alongside the best evidenc- at Northern Illinois University is one of Darwinian biology is seriously fl awed es favoring Darwin’s theory” (p. 74). these articulate advocates. His argument and even corrosive. Intelligent design Darwin’s Conservatives ends with is that Darwinism supports traditional clearly is supported by data. West, who an appendix containing information morality, family life, sexuality, economic is strongly opposed to belief in the idea about the Cobb County, Georgia case, liberty, and non-utopian limited govern- of theistic evolution, says, “Such reli- which started in 2002. There are also ment and is compatible with free will, gious believers either reject full-blown an impressive 303 notes with references personal responsibility, and religion. ‘Darwinian’ (i.e., unguided) evolution and comments, along with a seven-page Also, he believes that “Darwinism has or they jettison traditional theism in index. I consider West’s book worthy of not been refuted by intelligent design” order to uphold a consistent Darwin- wide distribution and serious attention. (pp. 10-11). ism” (p. 66). The author of Darwin’s Conserva- It is of considerable interest that the Wayne Frair tives, John West, strongly disagrees with Discovery Institute, of which West is a 1131 Fellowship Road the above contentions. West declares Senior Fellow, “does not advocate forc- Basking Ridge NJ 07920 that “among the elites,” Charles Darwin Volume 44, Winter 2008 203

Book Review The Physics of Christianity by Frank J. Tipler Doubleday, New York, 2007, 320 pages, $27.50.

Author Tipler is a professor of mathemat- converted the Lord’s body into pure clearly, which may lead to Tipler’s next ical physics at Tulane University, New energy. Tipler further suggests that at book. Orleans. This book is a summary of Ti- the Easter resurrection, the Lord’s fl esh Surprising predictions appear in The pler’s scientifi c exploration of the central may have emittted a high, temporary Physics of Christianity. Tipler describes a New Testament claims of the Christian flux of neutrinos. Tipler calls for an new, potential energy source that makes faith. He strives to give credible scientifi c analysis of the crystalline rock around atomic weapons look like “spitballs” (p. explanations for the Lord’s virgin birth, Jesus’ tomb, seeking evidence for the 4). This energy source is the conversion resurrection, and incarnation. Tipler resulting high energy particle tracks. of entire macroscopic objects into raw believes that miracles violate probability This is easier said than done since we energy. Tipler predicts this conversion but not the physical laws established do not know the actual location of the will become possible and “easy” within by God. It appears contradictory to this Lord’s tomb. Tipler must be given credit 50 years. In fact, Tipler sees Christ’s reviewer to explain supernatural events for such original ideas, however strange resurrection as an object lesson, hint- with natural science as we know it today. they may appear. ing at the reality of this 100 percent At the same time, however, Tipler ac- Biblical creation is not treated in this matter-energy conversion. Because this cepts the fundamentals of Christianity. book, nor is the word “creation” listed unlimited energy source could readily He laments that his salary is 40 percent in the index. Tipler fully accepts evolu- result in the destruction of the earth by less than the Tulane average for profes- tionary time (p. 267), the big bang, and evil people, Tipler further predicts that sors because of his public testimony (p. theistic evolution. Unlike Einstein and Christ will intervene and conclude the 268). Perhaps some Quarterly readers many scientists, however, Tipler insists present world system within the lifetimes can relate to this injustice. that God is a person “because He can of some readers. Tipler sees physics as the key to un- talk to us” (p. 75). As an aside, the author Tipler places physics on a high ped- derstanding biblical truth. He interprets also supports the right-to-life movement, estal, writing that “physics is the only the Star of Bethlehem as a supernova, stating that a fetus is a person from the source of answers to any question, in although no such event was recorded instant of conception (p. 261). particular, the only source of answers by contemporary astronomers (p. 140). Many questionable ideas appear to fundamental questions” (p. 281). In The Shroud of Turin is said to support throughout the book. Tipler states that a fact, the author sees Christianity itself as the Virgin Birth of the Lord, based mathematical, cosmological singularity “a branch of physics” (p. 271). Right or on the DNA of bloodstains (p. 154). has multiple parts, or hypostases. This wrong, this book stretches the reader’s Readers will realize that Tipler here fact then is used to explain the Trinity, mind in several directions, some of them is multiplying layers of speculation. In and also the existence of good and evil quite uncomfortable. A book appendix an attempt to explain the Lord’s rising in the world (p. 96). Also assumed in reviews the Apostles’, Athanasian, and from the dead, Tipler suggests a bodily Tipler’s thinking are an infi nite number Nicene Creeds. Helpful notes, refer- dematerialization and reconstruction of universes. There is even a parallel ences, and index also are included. via quantum mechanical transforma- universe where evil does not exist, but tion. The process is further described as unfortunately we are not located there. Don DeYoung electroweak tunneling that temporarily Some related ideas are not explained [email protected] 204 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Origins of Apoptosis: Selfish Genes or Intelligent Design?

Jerry Bergman*

Abstract poptosis is a complex biochemical mechanism whereby a specific cell A destroys itself under certain conditions, without injury to the cells around it. A literature review reveals that neo-Darwinists have been unable to explain how the mechanism for apoptosis could have evolved in a step-by-step pro- cess. The mechanism of apoptosis regulates cell life for the advantage of the organism as a whole and not for the mere advantage to the genes, as Dawkins proposed. Apoptosis supports the concepts of irreducible complexity and intelligent design.

Introduction that could become cancerous, allowing if intelligence is responsible for some Cells can be eliminated by two means: them to be replaced. Apoptosis results event. A common example in forensics is necrosis (the death of a cell caused by in cellular shrinkage, mitochondrial that it must be determined if a dead body injury or disease) and apoptosis (pro- breakdown, release of cytochrome C, died as the result of disease, accident, or grammed cell death). Apoptosis is a development of blebs on the cell surface, intelligent action—specifically in legal critically important mechanism used by and recycling of cell components. terms suicide or homicide. all multicellular organisms to eliminate unneeded or harmful cells including Definitions cancerous and precancerous cells (Shi, Irreducible complexity is “A single system Steps Involved in Apoptosis 2002; Steller, 1995; Huang and Strasser, composed of several interacting parts Three pathways triggering apoptosis are 2000 p. 839; Weinrauch and Zychlinsky, that contribute to the basic function of now known. The first is the extrinsic or 1999). Apoptosis also plays a critical role the system, where the removal of any death receptor pathway triggered by a in normal development, in physiologi- one of the parts causes the system to signal from outside of the cell (a death li- cal balance (homeostasis) and in cell effectively cease functioning” (Behe, gand that binds to a death receptor). The turnover (Elmore, 2007; Ashkenazi and 1996, p. 9). An example of irreducible second is the intrinsic pathway triggered Dixit, 1998). complexity is the fact that the chemical by a signal from within the cell caused by From the embryo stage forward, cell element carbon must have six protons. If factors including radiation, toxins, and division and apoptosis must be finely one proton is removed, carbon no longer hypoxia. The last is the perforin pathway balanced and synchronized to maintain exists, but rather boron results. Intelligent caused by cytotoxic T cells. These three health and life. For example, after a sun- design involves a set of criteria used to pathways trigger the execution pathway burn, apoptosis destroys damaged cells evaluate the physical world to determine or the pathway actually causing the cell’s destruction (Elmore, 2007). A cell undergoing apoptosis always displays a certain set of characteristic * Jerry Bergman, Ph.D., Northwest State College, Archbold, OH 43502, traits, including cell shrinkage and pyk- [email protected] nosis, the contraction of the cell nucleus Accepted for publication October 17, 2006. into a compact mass that effectively ac- Volume 44, Winter 2008 205 cepts stain (Elmore, 2007). The actual to its outer surface to attract phagocytes. Another step in apoptosis involves Apoptosis begins when proteases known The fact that “all known caspases share the cell sending attractants such as phos- as initiator caspases are activated inside a similar conformation at the substrate- phatidyl serine (called “eat me” signals) a cell as a result of proteolytic process- binding grove” indicates irreducible from the inner cell membrane leaflet to ing that causes other proteases to digest complexity because a specific complex the outer cell membrane leaflet in order specific cell components (Hengartner, design is required for the system to to attract phagocytes. Normal cell to cell 1998). Proteases called caspases func- function and no complexity gradations interactions, such as the ability to adhere tion in apoptosis by directing complex in their design are known in the living to other cells, are also rapidly lost in cells specialized molecules to lyse the cell’s world (Shi, 2002, p. 460). All known or- undergoing apoptosis. The cell then chromatin, destroy its nucleoskeleton, ganisms where apoptosis occurs require gradually becomes more spherical, and destroy the enzymes that replicate and this caspase system to function properly its cell membrane undulates, forming repair DNA, and activate CAD. CAD (Rupinder et al., 2007). protrusions or bulges called blebs (see refers to the three enzymes, carbamoyl A second group of proteases involved Figure 1). The cell soon fragments and phosphate synthase, aspartate transcar- in apoptosis includes the protein-cleav- its membrane remnants encapsulate the bamylase, and dihydroorotase, that cut age enzyme called “Interleukin-I con- cell fragments, which are at this stage DNA up into small, roughly equal-sized verting enzyme-like proteases,” abbrevi- known as apoptotic bodies (Veggeberg, portions of 200 base pairs (Rupinder et ated ICE-like proteases. The ICE-like 1995). This reduces the amount of al., 2007). proteases help to destroy the cell by leakage of the apoptotic cell’s toxins or Caspases also activate enzymes that digesting essential proteins and certain noxious contents (Elmore, 2007). digest the cytoskeleton, destroy the structural components in the cell’s ge- The cell fragments display antigens cell’s ability to adhere to other cells, netic material to prevent the cell from that cause them to be ingested by scaven- and eventually break the cell into small repairing itself (Martin et al., 1995). This ger macrophages that reside in all tissues fragments (Barinaga, 1998). They even double assault on the cell ensures both and by other local scavenger cells. The cause a phospholipid to move from the its death and its safe destruction without cell fragments are then broken down apoptotic cell membrane’s inner surface adversely affecting other cells. by lysosomal organelles and the cell’s

Figure 1. Steps in apoptosis. a. The cell’s chromatin, a mixture of chromosomes and proteins, begins to condense. b. Here the cell membrane loses its structural integrity. Protuberances called “blebs” appear on the surface surrounding the cell. c. The cell shrinks and its DNA becomes fragmented. The cell parts are then recycled. Adapted from Medina (1996, p 37). 206 Creation Research Society Quarterly nutrients are recycled without triggering karyotic cells contain all of the genes 2000). It is also believed that apoptosis the inflammatory response typical of ne- needed to self-destruct and will do so is used to fine-tune the immune system crosis. The entire apoptotic process takes unless these genes are damaged, as with by eliminating T-cells that attack the only about an hour, which is one reason cancer cells, or unless the cell receives person’s own cells, a step necessary to why it went undiscovered by biologists signals from other cells to block apop- develop normal autoimmunity. until recently (Raff, 1996). tosis (Raff, 1996). Maintaining a strict balance between cell division and cell death benefits the organism in numer- Necrosis and History of ous ways. Living on the edge of cell sui- Apoptosis Compared Apoptosis Research cide ensures that all damaged cells are Accidental cell destruction, known as The existence of apoptosis has been rapidly destroyed and that their corpses necrosis, is normally undesirable. But theorized since the dawn of cell theory are expediently and effectively engulfed apoptosis, when properly regulated, is but was described only recently. It once by neighboring cells (Adams and Cory, beneficial. The word necrotic comes was assumed that cell death invariably 1998; Wu, 1996). from a Greek word meaning to kill. Cell resulted in negative consequences in Apoptosis is especially important death by necrosis occurs when a cell is the body, but by the 1950s, research in understanding many complex cel- severely injured by physical or chemical had demonstrated that certain cells lular processes, such as how insulin- means, such as by oxygen deprivation. were systematically eliminated as a like growth factor I and other proteins In necrosis, cells usually swell and lyse, normal part of development. Examples can control and eliminate select cells. releasing cytoplasmic material that trig- include the tadpole’s tail, the webbing Knowledge of apoptosis is required to gers an inflammatory response in the between the fingers in human embryos, understand how p53 and other critically intercellular matrix (Elmore, 2007). A and the change in breast tissue after a important tumor suppressor genes func- major contrast between necrosis and mother stops breast feeding (Duke et tion (Mercer et al., 2007). These tumor apoptosis is that, in necrotic death the al., 1996). Apoptosis also organizes the suppressor genes regulate the repair of cell is a passive victim, but in apoptosis brain by eliminating neurons that do damaged DNA, but if the damage is too the cell is an active participant, even not make proper connections to other extensive the genes cause apoptosis to expending its own energy to achieve its nerve cells. Apoptosis even causes the destroy the cell. own demise (Zamzami and Kroemer, loss of large groups of cells, such as 2001). Whether a cell dies by necrosis the dropping-off of flower petals. This or apoptosis depends partly on factors latter role for apoptosis is the source of Problems Associated with including the cell death signal specif- the term now used to label the entire Misregulation of Apoptosis ics, the physiological environment, the process (apoptosis is Greek for falling Aberrant regulation of apoptosis can tissue, and the stage of the cell develop- off). The term apoptosis was first used allow cells with mutations (such as can- ment (Elmore, 2007, p. 496). only in 1972 (Elmore, 2007). cerous cells) to continue to divide and Mitochondria play a critical and A breakthrough paper published in consequently such aberrant regulation central role in mediating the intrinsic 1972 outlined the first evidence for apop- contributes to cancer progression and apoptosis pathway (Hengartner, 1998a). tosis in precancerous cells (Kerr, Wyllie, other diseases. Misregulation of apopto- In necrotic death, the mitochondria and and Currie, 1972). Unfortunately, this sis can cause the destruction of cells that other cell organelles are often the first to paper remained largely unnoticed until are not damaged, as during and after a swell and rupture, followed by the lysis the early 1980s. The work of Robert heart attack. If damaged cells that could of the entire cell. In apoptosis, instead of Horvitz on Caenorhabditis elegans (an be repaired are destroyed, unnecessary the cell swelling, internal mechanisms oft-studied nematode) was also critically heart damage results. such as the action of caspases, cause the important in understanding apoptosis Misregulation of apoptosis can con- cell to shrink. As the apoptosized cell (Veggeberg, 1995). tribute to other disorders, such as tumors shrinks, it pulls away from its neighbor- and certain autoimmune diseases like ing cells. As a result, the apoptotic cell rheumatoid arthritis (Rupinder et al., normally does not trigger an inflamma- The Significance 2007; Barinaga, 1998). Even Alzheimer’s tory response. The nucleus also shrinks of Apoptosis as well as Parkinson’s and Huntington’s dramatically in apoptosis, and the chro- Apoptosis occurs at the expense of an diseases are all believed to involve a matin condenses into distinct blobs that individual cell and its genome, but condition that causes specific neuron then migrate to the nuclear envelope benefits the entire organism. All eu- to commit suicide prematurely (Fesik, (Duke et al., 1996, p. 80). Volume 44, Winter 2008 207

Exceptions to the usual elimination tors all belong to the tumor necrosis some facilitate promotion, while others of cells by apoptosis involve a few cell factor (TNF) gene superfamily, which result in inhibition (Korsmeyer, 1995). types, such as those making up the eye are collectively called death ligands. The protein family called Bcl-2 inhibits lens. In an adult, the eye lens consists Some growth receptors, such as the apoptosis, while another family of related primarily of cell carcasses. The lens Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) receptor, proteins, including Bad, Bak, Bok, Bik, forms by cells slowly dying, and during also contain a death domain to help and Bid proteins, all promote apoptosis this time most of the cytoplasm is gradu- regulate growth and repair (Ashkenazi (see Figure 2). A balance of promotion ally replaced by a crystalline protein and Dixit, 1998). The ligands that bind and inhibition factors is required to en- (Duke et al., 1996). Other examples to these receptors all activate apoptosis sure that apoptosis is triggered only when include skin cells which, as they mature, and, thus far, all appear to be structur- needed and is blocked when not needed replace their contents with keratin pro- ally similar. As is true of many proteins (Zamzami and Kroemer, 2001). tein, acquire a water-resistant coating, used in apoptosis, they do not manifest die, and are eventually sloughed off a graduation from simple to complex as Apoptosis Proteins to be replaced by the cells moving up expected by neo-Darwinism. The many functions of the proteins from below. involved in apoptosis are now being ac- Factors Controlling Apoptosis tively investigated, and more are discov- Cell death can be triggered by external ered each year. Lewin (1997, p. 1128) Apoptosis of T-Lymphocytes or internal chemical cell messages, noted that the functions of one of the The specifics of apoptosis also vary ac- growth, survival factors, or even conflict- most studied apoptosis regulator families, cording to the cell type. More is known ing signals that regulate cell division Bcl-2, are still “mysterious” but most about apoptosis of T-lymphocytes than (Fesik, 2000). Cells that become in- regulate the signals that lead to caspase most other cell types. T-cells arise from fected by viruses often trigger apoptosis. activation (Huang and Strasser, 2000). bone marrow precursors, migrate to the Apoptosis can be triggered by a number The Bcl-2 family of proteins includes thymus as thymocytes, and then develop of other mechanisms, including the both pro- and anti-apoptotic molecules into specialized T-cells that display re- p53 and other tumor-suppressor genes. that play a pivotal role in determining if ceptor molecules that enable mature T- Cells with DNA damaged by mutagens a cell will live or die (Gross et al., 1999). cells to detect specific antigens (McColl trigger production of p53 protein, which Bcl-2 has a C-terminal anchor that is et al., 2007; Gregory, 1995). Thymocytes then activates a set of steps that may also found not only on outer nuclear but that either fail to produce functional include apoptosis, thereby leading to also on mitochondrial and endoplasmic receptors, or produce receptors that re- the destruction of the cell carrying the reticulum membranes—indicating that spond to self-cells, are also destroyed by mutation. These many mechanisms it likely controls a wide variety of cell apoptosis. Specifically, the thymocytes that function to repair (or to destroy) functions (Gross et al., 1999). that are destroyed are those that bind cells with mutations is a major problem Cell death can be blocked by the too strongly to the molecules displayed for neo-Darwinism. If repair worked production of high levels of apoptosis- in the thymus, which means that they perfectly, evolution could not occur. inhibiting Bcl-2 protein (Hartwell and may target healthy tissue later, causing Without repair, life as we know it could Kastan, 1994; Hartwell and Weinert, an autoimmune disease (Golstein et not exist (Elmore, 2007). 1989). In lymphocytes, the bcl-2 gene al., 1991). Defective apoptosis may al- Specific signals known to trigger blocks apoptosis, while the bax gene low some of these auto-reactive cells to apoptosis vary according to the cell promotes it. Normally Bcl-2 and Bax survive, resulting in malfunctioning of type and other factors that result in protein are produced in nearly equal the immune system (Fesik, 2000). The selective elimination of specific cells amounts in the cell, eventually binding best examples are the various autoim- (Huang and Strasser, 2000). Apoptosis together to form heterodimers, negating mune diseases. can even be triggered simply by time. their effects (Veggeberg, 1995). Lack Keratinocytes—a type of skin cell—un- of balance between the two can cause Death Receptors dergo senescence via apoptosis about 21 major problems: too much Bcl-2 protein Apoptosis is triggered either by con- days after they begin to migrate outward may contribute to cancer and too much trolled deprivation of certain cell surviv- toward the skin surface. Bax protein results in premature cell al factors, or by a mechanism involving Cell sensitivity and susceptibility to death (Adams and Cory, 1998). a so-called death receptor such as Fas, apoptosis vary according to several fac- Certain normal cells, which would Apo 1, CD95 and many other protein tors. A set of protein molecules tightly cause devastating effects if they were lost, death receptors. These protein recep- regulate apoptosis in complex ways; such as heart cells, produce relatively 208 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Figure 2. Apoptosis as regulated by the Bcl-2 family of intracellular proteins. (a) The death-promoting Bcl family of proteins, including Bak and Bax, form channels in the outer mitochondrial membrane. (b) The cell releases cytochrome C into the cytosol which then binds to an adaptor protein. (c) The adaptor protein then promotes both the aggregation and the activation of procapase. (d) Once activated, the caspase enzyme triggers a cascade (e) that leads to, (f) Apoptosis. Adapted from Alberts (2004, p. 628).

high levels of Bcl-2 protein. They are lack of proper balance can also work Apoptosis and Cancer thus less likely to be destroyed by apop- against the body’s best interest (Mercer Cancer is the loss of normal control tosis and are more likely to be repaired et al., 2007). over cell division, differentiation, and (Mercer et al., 2007). If they become other cell functions. It is caused by cancerous, these cells may give rise to Apoptosis and Viral Infections damage to the cell’s DNA. For cancer to aggressive tumors. Melanocyte cells pro- Apoptosis likewise functions during viral develop, the apoptosis mechanism must duce the pigment melanin that darkens infections in several ways. In order to be disrupted or delayed long enough to the epidermis, protecting the dermis reproduce, the virus must shut down the allow some cells to accumulate enough from ultraviolet radiation damage. If cell’s ability to manufacture all proteins mutations so that they are able to melanocytes perished too easily, the loss except those necessary to produce more divide uncontrollably and, eventually of protection function that results causes viruses. The host’s own protein synthesis metastasize (Fesik, 2000). The result other cells to be at a much greater risk of is thus blocked, which can trigger apop- is the production of cells that possess sustaining UV damage. But melanocytes tosis, killing both the cell and the virus genetic mutations, and therefore func- manufacture large amounts of Bcl-2, (Fesik, 2000). This normally protects the tion abnormally. These cancer cells have and as a result, they normally undergo cell from a wide variety of viruses. not sustained enough damage to cause apoptosis only in extreme cases. Con- To prevent this, the Epstein-Barr them to die. In cancer cells, the genetic sequently, when melanocytes become virus, which causes mononucleosis, and damage usually leads to an inability to cancerous, the cancer is not destroyed certain other viruses, possess apoptosis- induce apoptosis because the gene that by apoptosis because of this factor, and suppressing genes that code for a pseudo codes either for the p53 protein, or some hence melanoma is often lethal in a Bcl-2 protein that is structurally similar other tumor suppressor gene, is mutated short time. to the Bcl-2 protein. It can even func- or inactivated (Wang et al., 1995). Can- Cells (such as heart muscle cells) tion as normal Bcl-2 protein, inhibiting cer cells may then become immune to that are not prone to UV damage pro- apoptosis (Williams and Smith, 1993). normal apoptosis triggers. duce very small amounts of apoptosis- In some cases, the Epstein-Barr virus can Knowledge of the relationship inhibiting Bcl-2 protein. Therefore, they cause the cell to increase its production between apoptosis and cancer can tend to undergo apoptotic destruction of Bcl-2, which blocks apoptosis long facilitate our exploitation of apoptotic quite readily. This system normally enough to allow the virus to reproduce mechanisms to diagnose precancerous protects these cells against cancer, but effectively. conditions. It may also aid in determin- Volume 44, Winter 2008 209 ing the location of the cancer. The best system, which then attacks the modified from several major problems (Bergman, example is follicular lymphoma, caused virus and interferes with the effect of the 1998). by a translocation of a bcl-2 gene from suicide gene. It is necessary to develop In another article, Wiens et al. chromosome 14 to 18 confers immor- techniques to determine how virus genes (2000) evaluated sequence comparisons tality on immune system B-cells, which can remain hidden, or how the immune of certain organic molecules involved in can then accumulate to dangerous levels system can be prevented from detecting apoptosis, such as the Bcl-2 superfamily. similar to leukemia. and destroying these viruses. Viruses can They found a high similarity between Damage resulting from oxygen free also be used to taxi working genes into certain metazoan organisms and ver- radicals is a major cause of mutation a cell to replace or “fix” damaged genes tebrates. A third author tried to explain that can in turn lead to cancer, aging, that lead to cancer. how neo-Darwinism can account for cataracts, atherosclerosis and other two opposite solutions to the problem diseases. Oxygen free-radicals can also of virus survival. In some cases, viruses trigger apoptosis if the damage is not Implications of Apoptosis inhibit apoptosis, and in others, viruses sufficient to destroy the cell by necrosis. for Intelligent Design can stimulate apoptosis (Krakauer and A diet high in free radical neutralizers, Only a small amount of the knowledge Payne, 1997). In none of these articles such as vitamins A, C, E and selenium, about the biological world known today was a substantial case made for the mac- can reduce free-radical damage. was known in the 1800s when William roevolutionary origin of apoptosis. Paley penned his argument from design The last article located (Kroemer, Use of Apoptosis seen in a pocket watch. What has been 1997) was the first major attempt to to Treat Cancer learned since then has eloquently sup- explain the evolution of apoptosis. Kro- Programmed cell death is affected by ported Paley’s thesis that design is strong emer used endosymbiosis theory in an many of the same genes that control the evidence for a Designer. The level of the attempt to explain how apoptosis could cell division cycle (Maddika et al., 2007). complexity in the cell is now known to have evolved. His discussion effectively A functional approach to the study of exceed the level of complexity existing illustrates the difficulties in the evolution programmed cell death has involved above the cellular level. Apoptosis is of apoptosis. He also attempts to specu- viruses that are inactivated as pathogens only one of many thousands of complex late on the evolutionary relationship of by removing their disease-causing genes. cellular systems that are now being re- necrosis to apoptosis but only serves to Genes that function to fight disease are searched. I did a computer search of over accentuation the many differences be- then spliced into the virus genome. The 15 million records from two databases tween the two systems. With few excep- virus then is able to splice its new anti- and uncovered almost 70,000 articles on tions (such as blastomeres and eye lens virus genes into the DNA genome of the apoptosis. But only four of these 70,000 cells), all cells in multicellular animals cells that it infects. were remotely relevant to the evolution are designed to undergo apoptosis unless An example of how this approach is of apoptosis. None of these contained blocked by signals from other cells (Raff, used to kill cancer cells involves inject- any empirical evidence that would 1996). This fact is used as evidence that ing tumors with modified herpes viruses- contradict Behe’s (1996) or Paley’s it evolved very early in unicellar organs. containing genes that trigger apoptosis. conclusions (Blackstone and Green, A problem with all evolution scenarios is Virus genes that can be inserted into 1999; Wiens et al., 2000; Aravinch et that apoptosis would benefit only multi- the cell’s genome include the “suicide al., 1999). cellular organisms because it would end genes,” causing these cells to be highly One of the three articles that men- the gene line of a unicellular creature. susceptible to drugs, such as ganciclovir, tioned evolution was a highly speculative As far as is known, apoptosis func- which is used to treat herpes (Hartwell discussion of the role of mitochondrial tions in very similar ways in all life forms, and Kastan, 1994). This approach cytochrome C in apoptosis (Blackstone and no evidence exists for the origin of infects the cells with a virus that gives and Green, 1999). The authors specu- apoptosis by evolution. Although the them a pseudo-disease. Then drugs that lated that apoptosis in more complex system varies somewhat in different life are effective in killing “pseudo-diseased” animals may be a vestige of evolutionary forms, a life form either has a complete, cells are utilized to kill the infected cells. conflicts between the supposed endo- complex, functioning apoptosis system Treated subjects are also injected with symbiosis of the mitochondrial organelle or lacks it entirely. Research on the a stimulant that is used to intensify the and its cellular host. But endosymbiosis, apoptotic molecular machinery has effect of the “suicide gene.” A problem the belief that organelles in metazoan shown that all protein domain archi- yet to be overcome is that the modified cells arose by ancestral cells capturing tectures are based on the same “highly herpes virus still triggers the immune microbes, is itself an idea that suffers conserved” domains. This term “highly 210 Creation Research Society Quarterly

conserved” simply means that the DNA the many checks and balances are not existence…we [the phenotypes or code used to produce protein is very in place as a complete set. The enzymes individual organism] are their sur- similar in both so called “primitive” and mechanisms that apoptosis use to vival machines (Dawkins, as quoted and “advanced” life forms (Aravind et destroy the cell, if not tightly controlled, in Milner, 1990, p. 402). al., 2001)—a fact that strongly supports can easily malfunction and damage or This gene selectionism thesis has the conclusion that these basic domains kill normal healthy cells, as sometimes been so widely accepted that it is “fre- were designed. In Darwinian terms, the does happen. Therefore, it is difficult quently referred to simply as ‘modern apoptosis mechanism is “evolutionarily to envision a Darwinian mechanism Darwinism’” (Johnson, 2000, p. 106). conserved” (Shi, 2002, p.459) meaning that enables mutations to develop the Dawkins teaches that all activities of that a similar system is found throughout apoptosis system, yet keeps the system life exist ultimately for the purpose of all life forms as would be expected if they properly controlled and functional so preserving and spreading the ruthlessly were all created. as not to consistently destroy the very selfish genes. Apoptosis also supports the irreduc- populations that apoptosis is supposedly Evolution is a very plastic theory. ibly complex supposition that postulates evolving to benefit. As with the evolution Although Darwinists acknowledge that a certain level of complexity must exist of DNA repair mechanisms (Bergman, neo-Darwinism normally would tend for the system to function at all (Elmore, 2005), the activity of apoptosis would be to favor the survival of each cell so that 2007). Because the process of apoptosis antagonistic to the same evolutionary it could pass on its genes, some have at- is similar in all organisms, significant mechanism that supposedly constructed tempted to explain the apoptotic mecha- similarity would be expected to exist it. nism within the selfish-gene hypothesis between human apoptosis genes and (Dawkins, 1976). Dawkins noted that, those of the so-called “primitive” or if diseased cells die, the organism as “simple” animals. Proteins that have Apoptosis and the a whole has a net advantage of living similar functions would be expected to “Selfish-Gene Hypothesis” longer, and thereby passing its genes have very similar designs in all organ- Apoptosis may be one evidence against to its offspring. One problem with this isms from worms to humans, and this the selfish-gene hypothesis, which pos- explanation of apoptosis’ origin is that is what is found. The apoptosis system tulates that the gene’s ultimate purpose apoptosis is not critical in many cells is one more example of a detailed set is only to perpetuate itself. In this view, until after the organism’s reproductive of irreducibly complex biochemical plant and animal bodies are only survival age is past. Another problem is that mechanisms that have no Darwinistic machines “created by our genes,” and many of the numerous cells destroyed explanation (Behe, 1996). the “predominant quality to be expected by apoptosis do not affect an organism’s All of the estimated 200,000 kinds of in a successful gene is ruthless selfish- survivability. Other methods that would proteins in humans must appropriately ness” (Dawkins, 1976, p. 2). This ruth- be in harmony with the selfish-gene interact with each other so that each less selfishness of genes means that they theory could achieve the same goal, one can carry out its assigned function, “care” only about their own propagation, such as having a more elaborate repair while not interfering with the function and ultimately use the whole body for system and possessing more protection of other proteins or cellular processes. If their one goal. In Wilson’s words: “The against cell damage so that fewer cells a single protein is altered, it could have organism is only DNA’s way of making would need to be destroyed. adverse consequences on the entire more DNA” (1975, p. 3). More than any The body produces many structures cell. If the change renders the needed other contemporary scientist, Dawkins by removal of cells, making the body, protein non-functional, a cell function has popularized the idea that all liv- not the DNA, of greatest biological will be prevented, and that would likely ing things are mere vehicles for genes, importance. If DNA were of the greater result in an altered protein, which would whose sole biological purpose is the biological importance, a means would interfere with the function of other struc- propagation of their own DNA. Its basic have been favored to evolve the required tures (Zubay et al., 1995; Yockey, 1992; thesis is that genes trait embryologically—a means that Branden and Tooze, 1999). This chain swarm in huge colonies…safe inside would be more in harmony with the of events is especially true for systems gigantic lumbering robots, sealed off selfish gene theory, rather than by rely- apparently designed to destroy a cell, from the outside world, manipulat- ing on apoptosis to remove certain cells such as apoptosis. ing it by remote control. They are after they have developed. Apoptosis is The discovery of apoptosis also in you and me; they created us actually a default option that must be argues against neo-Darwinism because body and mind; and their preserva- bypassed in order for the cell to continue this mechanism is lethal to the cell if all tion is the ultimate rationale for our in its mitotic pathway. Unless overridden Volume 44, Winter 2008 211

by the proper signal, the cell will always genetic and biochemical system that is of the apoptosis machinery. Trends in enter apoptosis. This is contrary to what only one of many examples where the Biochemical Sciences 24:47–53. would be expected from a neo-Darwin- genes put the organism first, not the Aravind, L., V.M. Dixit, and E.V. Koonin. ism origin for the system. reverse as Dawkins selfish gene model 2001. Apoptotic molecular machinery: Among the many other problems predicts. Neither the germ cell line nor vastly increased complexity in vertebrates facing Dawkin’s “selfish gene” theory the somatic cell line of the affected cell revealed by genome comparisons. Sci- is the fact that the genes by themselves benefit because apoptosis destroys both ence 291:1279–1283. are useless. They are only the soft- forever; thus, only the organism can Ashkenazi, A., and V.M. Dixit. 1998. Death ware, and without the cell machinery benefit. Often not only inferior cells receptors: signaling and modulation. involving hundreds of enzymes and die, as neo-Darwinism teaches, but Science 281:1305–1308. complex structures such as the ribo- cells that are either detrimental to the Barinaga, M. 1998. Death by dozens of cuts. somes (the “hardware”), life could not organism, or cells that are unneeded Science 280:32–34. function. Genes are only part of the by the organism die because they are Behe, M. 1996. Darwin’s Black Box. The survival unit, and the complex cell in the wrong place at the wrong time Free Press, New York, NY. organization as a unit is required for sur- (Elmore, 2007). Bergman, J. 1998. The unbridgeable chasm vival (Morange, 2002). The old central Furthermore, evolution is unable to between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, dogma was: DNA  RNA  proteins. explain the origin of this system, which pp. 67–79 in The Fourth International The new dogma is: The genome as a analysis has shown both the mechanism Conference on Creationism. Edited by unit  gene products  structure and and the genes involved are very similar R.E. Walsh. Pittsburgh, PA. function  pathways and physiology in all eukaryotes so far researched (El- Bergman, J. 2005. The mutation repair sys- (Morange, 2002), all which fits with an more, 2007). Thus, this supports the tems: A major problem for macroevolu- origin by a creator. claim that apoptosis is irreducibly com- tion. Creation Research Society Quarterly Genes are also inactivated and plex. Apoptosis is an extremely complex 41:265–273. controlled by non-genetic factors—a genetic and biochemical organization Blackstone, N.W., and D.R. Green. 1999. process called epigenetic control. The that is only one of many thousands of The evolution of a mechanism of cell X chromosome dosage compensation examples of an irreducibly complex sys- suicide. Bioassays 21:84–88. in females, where one of the two X tem that regulates cell life for the benefit Branden, C., and J. Tooze. 1999. Introduc- chromosomes in each somatic cell is of the organism as a whole. tion to Protein Structure. Garland, New randomly inactivated by methylation York, NY. early in development, is an example. Dawkins, R. 1976. The Blind Watchmaker. Margulis and Sagan (2002) make a Acknowledgments Norton, New York, NY. strong case against the selfish gene I wish to thank John Woodmorappe, Dexter, T.M., M.C. Raff, and A. H. Wyllie hypothesis by arguing that the entire M.S.; Wayne Frair, Ph.D.; Clifford Lillo, (Ed). 1995. The Role of Apoptosis in biosphere cooperates to the degree that it M.S; Bert Thompson, Ph.D.; Kevin Development, Tissue Homeostasis and functions as a unit, a concept called the Anderson, Ph.D.; George Howe, Ph.D.; Malignancy. Chapman and Hall, New Gaia hypothesis (2002). They conclude and several anonymous references for York, NY. that a gene is never “a self” but “only a their comments on earlier drafts of this Duke, R.C; D.M. Ojcius, and J.D.E. Young. piece of DNA long enough to have a manuscript. 1996. Cell suicide in health and disease. function” and that the “time has come Scientific American 275:80–87. in serious biology to abandon words Elmore, S. 2007. Apoptosis: a review of like ‘selfish genes’ and replace them References programmed cell death. Toxicologic with ‘meaningful terms’” (Margulis and Abeles, R.H., P.A. Frey, and W.P. Jenks. Pathology 35(4):495–516. Sagan, 2002, pp. 16–17). 1992. Biochemistry. Jones and Bartlett, Fesik, S.W. 2000. Insights into programmed Boston, MA. cell death through structural biology. Adams, J.M., and S.Cory. 1998. The Bcl-2 Cell 103:273–282. Summary protein family: arbiter of cell survival. Golstein, P., D.M. Ojcius, and J.D.E. Young. Recent research has found a “vastly” Science 281:1322–1325. 1991. Cell death mechanisms and the greater level of complexity in the ge- Alberts, B. 2004. Essential Cell Biology. immune system. Immunological Reviews nome than previously believed only Garland Sience, New York, N.Y. 121: 29–65. a decade ago (Aravind et al., 2001). Aravind, L., V.M. Dixit, and E.V. Koonin. Gregory, C.D. (Editor). 1995. Apoptosis and Apoptosis is an extremely complex 1999. The domains of death: evolution the Immune Response. Wiley-Liss, New 212 Creation Research Society Quarterly

York, NY. Paranjothy, K. Weglarczyk, A. Zuse, M. tion and inhibition during apoptosis. Gross, A., J.M. McDonnell, and S.J. Kors- Eshraghi, K.D. Manda, E. Wiechec, and Molecular Cell 9:459–470. meyer. 1999. BCL-2 family members M. Los. 2007. Cell survival, cell death Steller, H. 1995. Apoptosis: mechanisms and the mitochondria in apoptosis. and cell cycle pathways are intercon- and genes of cellular suicide. Science Genes and Development 13:1899–1911. nected: implications for cancer therapy. 267: 1445–1449. Hartwell, L., and M. Kastan. 1994. Cell Drug Resistance Updates 10:13–29. Veggeberg, S.K. 1995. Cell suicide research cycle control and cancer. Science Margulis, L., and D. Sagan. 2002. Acquiring may yield life-saving cures. BrainWork 266:1821–1827. Genes; A Theory of the Origin of Species. 5:4–6. Hartwell, L., and T.A. Weinert. 1989. Check- Basic Books, New York, NY. Wang, X.W, H. Yeh, L. Schaeffer, R. Roy, points: controls that ensure the order of Martin, S.J., and D.R. Green. 1995. Protease and V. Moncollin. 1995. P53 modula- cell cycle events. Science 246:629–633. activation during apoptosis: death by a tion of TF11H associated nucleotide Hengartner, M.O. 1998. Death cycle and thousand cuts? Cell 82:349–352. excision repair activity. Nature Genetics Swiss army knives. Nature 391:441– McColl, A., S. Michlewska, I. Dransfield, 10:188–195. 450. and A.G. Rossi. 2007. Effects of gluco- Weinrauch, Y., and A. Zychlinsky. 1999. Hengartner, M.O. 1998a. Injected cyto- corticoids on apoptosis and clearance The induction of apoptosis by bacterial chrome C induces apoptosis. Nature of apoptotic cells. The Scientific World pathogens. Annual Review of Microbiol- 391:449–450. Journal 7:1165–1181. ogy 53:155–187. Hengartner, M.O. 2000. The biochemistry of Medina, J.J. 1996 The Clock of Ages. Cam- Wiens, M., A. Krasko, C.I. Muller, and W.E. apoptosis. Nature 407:770–775. bridge University Press, New York, NY. Miller. 2000. Molecular evolution of Huang, D.D.C., and A. Strasser. 2000. BH3- Mercer, J., M. Mahmoudi, and M. Bennett. apoptotic pathways: cloning key domains only proteins—essential initiators of 2007. DNA damage, p53, apoptosis and from sponges (Bcl-2 homology domains apoptotic cell death. Cell 103:839–842. vascular disease. Mutation Research and death domains) and their phyloge- Johnson, P. 2000. The Wedge of Truth. Inter- 621:75–86. netic relationships. Journal of Molecular Varsity Press, Downers Grove, IL. Milner, R. 1990. The Encyclopedia of Evolu- Evolution 50:520–531. Kerr, J.F.R., A. H. Wyllie, and A.R. Currie. tion. Facts on File, New York, NY. Williams, G.T. and C.A. Smith. 1993. 1972. Apoptosis: a basic biological phe- Morange, M. 2001. The Misunderstood Gene. Molecular regulation of apoptosis: nomenon with wide-ranging implica- Harvard University Press, Cambridge, genetic controls on cell death. Cell tions in tissue kinetics. British Journal of MA. 74:777–779. Cancer 26: 239–257. Affara, M., B. Dunmore, C. Savoie, S. Imoto, Wilson, E.O. 1975. Sociobiology: the New Korsmeyer, S.J. 1995. Regulators of cell Y. Tamada, H. Araki, D.S. Charnock- Synthesis. Harvard University Press, death. Trends in Genetics 11:101–105. Jones, S. Miyano, and C. Print. 2007. Cambridge, MA. Krakauer, D.C., and R.J. Payne. 1997. The Understanding endothelial cell apoptosis: Wu, J. 1996. Apoptosis and angiogen- evolution of virus-induced apoptosis. Pro- what can the transcriptome, glycome and esis: two promising tumor markers in ceedings of the Royal Society of London. proteome reveal? Philosophical Transac- breast cancer. Anticancer Research 16: Series B: Biological 264:1757–1762. tions of the Royal Society of London Biol- 2233–2239. Kroemer, G. 1997. Mitochondrial implica- ogy Science. 362(1484):1469–87 Yockey, H. 1992. Information Theory and tion in apoptosis: towards an endosymbi- Raff, M.C. 1996. Death wish. The Sciences Molecular Biology. Cambridge Univer- ont hypothesis of apoptosis evolution Cell 36(4):36–40. sity Press, New York, NY. Death and Differentiation 4:443–456. Rupinder, S.K., A.K. Gurpreet, and S. Man- Zamzami, N., and G. Kroemer. 2001. Lewin, B. 1997. Genes VI. Oxford Oxford jeet. 2007. Cell suicide and caspases. The mitochondrion in apoptosis: how University Press, New York, NY. Vascular Pharmacology 46:383–393. pandora’s box opens. Nature Reviews Lewis, R. 2000. Genetics. McGraw Hill, New Sharon, J. 1998. Basic immunology. Williams 2:67–71. York, NY. and Williams, Baltimore, MD. Zubay, G. 1995. Principles of Biochemistry. Maddika, S., S.R. Ande, S. Panigrahi, T. Shi, Y. 2002. Mechanisms of caspase activa- Wm C. Brown, Dubuque, IA. Volume 44, Winter 2008 213

Book Review Dinosaurs: Where Did They Come from… Where Did They Go? by Elaine Graham-Kennedy

�������� Pacifi c Press Publishing Association, Nampa, ID, 2006, 80 pages, $12.00. �������� ������������ the teeth, and the worldwide discoveries the tail was the size of a cedar, although This is a well-illustrated children’s book of tracks and eggs. The dinosaur data is I would envision the tail as large. Also, with many interesting details on dinosaur often incomplete, and because of this, behemoth lies underneath the lotus plant, bones, tracks, and eggs. Dr. Elaine Gra- the author is conservative, seemingly hidden among the reeds of the marsh (Job ham-Kennedy recently retired from the overcautious, in her interpretations of the 40:21 NIV). Could a sauropod dinosaur Geoscience Research Institute (GRI) at data on dinosaurs. lie beneath a lotus plant? She likes to Loma Linda University. She has traveled Based on fi eld experience, Graham- make the reader think, emphasizing worldwide in her study of dinosaurs and Kennedy considers that most dinosaur that we must incorporate all the data of has considerable expertise for writing a eggs have been transported by water, Scripture and paleontology. book on dinosaurs. which fi ts in well with the Flood model. This book is available from Creation The author describes the two cat- Some readers versed in common cre- Research Society Books. You can either egories of dinosaurs based on their hip ation theories will fi nd some of the ideas order by phone from the Van Andel bones, the sizes of dinosaurs (many are controversial, such as the possibility that Creation Research Society lab at 1-877- small), the difference in the ends of the behemoth as described in Job 40 is not a 277-2665 or order online under www. bones between young and adult dino- dinosaur. Although not dogmatic about it, creationresearch.org. saurs, dinosaur brains, characteristics of the reasoning is because behemoth’s tail “sways like a cedar.” The text does not say Michael Oard

Book Review In the Beginning 2007, A musical by Sight and Sound Theatres, Strasburg, PA.

Garden of Eden scenes feature animals In the Beginning emphasizes that SightSight aandnd living together in harmony. Dinosaurs all of history covers about 6000 years. Sound Theatres are included, and they move about freely The presentation concludes with a clear present large-scale Christian musical using advanced animatronics. Adam and messianic gospel message. This unique productions. Featured are casts of dozens, Eve appear as supernatural creations, liv- musical initially played for seven months, live animals, professional stagecraft, and ing in close fellowship with their Maker April–October, 2007. With a seating special effects. Theatres are located near until the Fall. The lifetimes of our fi rst capacity of 2000, and multiple, daily, full- Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and will soon parents are dramatized with imagination house presentations, the creation story be duplicated in Branson, Missouri. Pre- and humor. Many children are born to reached around one million visitors. The vious biblical productions include the them over the centuries, in agreement exciting story of Creation is heard loud stories of Noah, Ruth, and Daniel. with Genesis 5:4. In one scene, family and clear in Pennsylvania. For the production In the Beginning, members travel across the 300-foot stage how are biblical origins treated by Sight driving a large wagon, pulled by a full- Don DeYoung and Sound? In a word, outstanding. The size, lifelike, woolly mammoth. [email protected] 214 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Clays of the Central Georgia Kaolin Belt: A Preliminary Evaluation

John Reed, Carl R. Froede, Jr.*

Abstract lays of the Central Georgia kaolin belt comprise a significant percentage Cof commercial grade kaolin produced worldwide. Kaolin lenses occur in terrestrial Coastal Plain sediments in east-central Georgia, in updip sections near the Fall Line. Uniformitarian models of the clay’s origin suggest the fol- lowing sequence occurring over millions of years: (1) kaolinite minerals slowly formed as weathering products of updip igneous and metamorphic rocks of the Piedmont and Appalachian provinces, (2) kaolinite was transported by riv- ers to the ancient coastline, and (3) extensive, slow post-depositional changes resulted in nearly pure kaolin bodies. However, present theories are troubled by a number of inconsistencies and the diluvial paradigm may prove more fruitful for understanding the occurrence of the clay. Though a diluvial model is not presented, bounding parameters and key questions for such a theory are proposed.

Introduction properties, especially its bright white dickite, nacrite, and halloysite. They Kaolin is a white plastic clay composed color, make it an important economic often occur as microscopically stacked of various minerals of the kaolinite resource. Mining constraints are rigid; plates similar to the micas, but kaolin group. Its name comes from its early small changes in the makeup of a clay is a much simpler alumino-silicate. Its use at Kao-Lin in China—it is often lens can change its physical proper- basic formula is Al2Si2O5[OH]4. Because called “China Clay.” When found in ties significantly and make or break a it is the diagenetic end product of micas, sufficient purity, kaolin is useful in many potentially viable deposit. Even among volcanics, and other clays, kaolinite is commercial applications. It forms the the comparatively pure deposits of the common in many sedimentary rocks, coating on the pages of this magazine, Central Georgia kaolin belt, less than but it forms deposits of commercial is an ingredient in tires, paint, and even one percent of the total clay bodies ex- quality kaolin in only a few places; food. Both your toilet and your antique plored are considered commercial grade notably Australia, Brazil, China, Ethio- china are made with kaolin. It is used as (Pickering et al., 2000). pia, England, and in central Georgia. a refractory material, a catalyst, and as Kaolin is composed of minerals of The Central Georgia kaolin belt has filler in cement and fiberglass. Its unique the kaolinite group, including kaolinite, been the world’s center of commercial kaolin mining for many years because it contains large bodies of very pure clay that are easily extracted through open pit * John Reed, Ph.D. (Lead Author), 915 Hunting Horn Way, Evans, GA 30809, mining operations, although in recent e-mail: [email protected] years, increasing production costs and Carl R. Froede, Jr., B.S, P.G., 2895 Emerson Lake Drive, Snellville, GA the reduction in the volume of the eco- 30078-6644 nomic deposits has shifted more kaolin Accepted for publication August 7, 2007. production to Brazil. Volume 44, Winter 2008 215

In Georgia, kaolin is mined from remains unresolved. In other locations, common product of plagioclase feldspar open pits; the commercial lenses range commercial deposits have clearly been or mica alteration, especially under the up to 150 ft (45-m) thick, and extend formed diagenetically from the altera- influence of acidic pore fluids. It is also across many acres (Figure 1). Mines tion of igneous rocks. Kaolin clay has a diagenetic end product of other clays, typically yield between 50,000 and also been observed as a direct alteration such as smectite. 400,000 tons (45.4 to 363 metric tons) of product (Chen et al., 1997; Cravero et However, the origin of the clay bod- clay (Pickering et al., 2000). The origin al., 2001; Pickering et al., 2003), often ies in the Central Georgia kaolin belt of these pure clay deposits in Georgia by hydrothermal activity. Kaolinite is a presents problems, not only because they are large, pure, and abundant, but because they are also part of a con- tinuous sedimentary sequence. Kaolin is abundant in the surrounding sediments as matrix and as framework clasts. Many of these framework clasts may be from the in situ alteration of feldspars after deposition, but in some cases kaolin clay beds have clearly been ripped up by erosion and redeposited (Figure 2). Until recently, emphasis had been placed on a depositional origin for the clay bodies; now the focus has moved to diagenetic processes (Hurst and Picker- ing, 1997). But questions remain. All current theories assume deep time and low-energy paleoenvironments similar to modern coastal settings. It is possible that a new perspective—relatively rapid Figure 1. The Imerys Company Sheppard Mine exhibits all of the stratigraphic formation in a catastrophic setting—may units associated with the central Georgia kaolin mining industry. Note the people solve some longstanding problems and located on the lower left side of the image for scale. Image from October 2000. open new areas of research. This paper

Figure 2. Huber Member kaolin clasts in a sandy-kaolin clay matrix. (A) These clay balls show evidence of transport but are not obviously armored. This suggests rapid transport in a fluidized state. This would require extremely energetic condi- tions, much higher than the posited fluvial setting. Scale in 6 in (15 cm) divisions. (B) The layering of the kaolin suggests normal-graded bed load transport. The successive levels of graded bedding suggest transport and deposition in a series of pulses rather than as a continuous process. Scale in inches and centimeters. 216 Creation Research Society Quarterly will review the geology of the Central Georgia kaolin belt, evaluate uniformi- tarian models, and propose constraints on potential diluvial theories.

Geology of the Kaolin Belt The Central Georgia kaolin belt is lo- cated just to the south of the Fall Line, between Macon and Aiken, South Carolina (Figure 3). The Fall Line stretches from New Jersey to Texas, and is the surface expression of a significant erosional unconformity cut into igneous and metamorphic rocks of the crystalline basement (exposed updip in the Pied- mont Province), and beneath sediments of the Coastal Plain Province. Coastal Plain sediments form a wedge from their pinchout at the Fall Line to thicknesses of many thousands of feet beneath the continental shelf (see Froede, 1997). Figure 3. Map of the Central Georgia Kaolin Belt and surrounding areas. Coun- Updip Coastal Plain sediments are com- ties comprising the kaolin belt are shaded in light gray, as is the Department of posed of unconsolidated gravels, sands, Energy Savannah River Site. Granite outcrops north of the Fall Line are shaded silts, and clays, with rare calcareous beds. in darker gray. In the kaolin belt, many updip facies are interpreted as terrestrial in origin and downdip facies are interpreted as marine, though some of the younger marine strata extend nearly to the Fall Line (see Appendix). Uniformitarians date the oldest Coastal Plain strata in the area as Late Cretaceous, based primarily on fossil pollen spores. Most strata exposed at the surface in the kaolin belt are dated as the Late Eocene Barnwell Group. How- ever, dating and correlation of all the sediments are hindered by the absence of fossils in many critical formations, abrupt lateral lithologic transitions, simi- larities between sediments in different formations, unresolved nomenclature, and rare exposures. Much of the dating is done by reference to pollen zones. The stratigraphically lower Cre- taceous kaolin is called “soft kaolin” and is mineralogically distinct from the overlying Eocene or “hard” clays (Figure 4). The soft kaolin is the primary eco- Figure 4. Differences between “hard” and “soft” commercial kaolin deposits. nomic resource of the area; nearly 70% From Pickering et al. (2000). Volume 44, Winter 2008 217 of Georgia kaolin is of the soft, coarse particulate type. In some instances they are separated by organic-rich clays, some even considered lignitic (Figure 5).

Stratigraphic Summary Upper Coastal Plain stratigraphy is marked by some uncertainty. It has been refined over recent decades, but questions remain. Pickering et al. (2000) identified ten stratigraphic units in the kaolin belt. Of these, commercial clay occurs only in two. The general kaolin belt stratigraphy is shown in Figure 6 and summarized below. Lateral facies variations account for disagreements between stratigraphers as do subjective nomenclature differences between loca- Figure 5. This sidewall at the Thiele Avant Mine shows the Buffalo Creek For- tions. The United States Department mation, an organic rich clay layer, and the Jeffersonville Member of the Huber of Energy Savannah River Site lies just Formation. At many locations, an organic layer overlies or underlies economic within South Carolina (Figure 3), and kaolin deposits. This sidewall is approximately 50 ft (15 m) high. Image from its upper Coastal Plain nomenclature October 2000. is quite different from that of the kaolin belt (Figure 7) between the basement and the Barnwell Group. Some of the differences are undoubtedly in the rocks, but others may also be artifacts of stratig- raphers’ subjectivity. The oldest rocks beneath the kaolin belt are the Piedmont Crystalline Rock Complex, which include gneiss, am- phibolite, schist, phyllite, and intrusive granites and mafic rocks. The metamor- phic rocks are thought to be Precambri- an and the igneous intrusives are dated to the middle Paleozoic. Where they are exposed, these basement rocks are often covered by a layer of saprolite, up to 165 ft (50 m) thick. Saprolite is an alteration product probably resulting from in situ weathering since it often retains rem- nants of the original rock texture and residual quartz veins. In every current uniformitarian theory of the origin of kaolin, this saprolite is identified as the precursor material of the commercial Figure 6. Uniformitarian stratigraphic chart of the Central Georgia Kaolin Belt. clay accumulations. The top of the Shaded units show location of commercial clay deposits. Solid lines marked by saprolite (or crystalline basement where “U” depict regional unconformities important to stratigraphic correlation. The the saprolite is absent) marks the Fall lowest is the Fall Line unconformity. Note that some units are restricted by ge- Line Unconformity. The slope of the ography and may indicate facies relationships rather than true age relationships. basement at the Savannah River aver- Modified from Pickering et al. (2000) and Hetrick and Fridell (1990). 218 Creation Research Society Quarterly

the early 1900s. It ranges from the Late Cretaceous to the Middle Eocene. All commercial-grade kaolin occurs in two strata of the Oconee Group; the Buffalo Creek Formation and the Jeffersonville Member of the Huber Formation. The type locale for the Oconee Group is along the Oconee River in Wilkin- son and Washington Counties. It is composed of “fining-upward sand/clay sequences over a wide range of geologic time from Early Late Cretaceous to Middle Eocene” (Pickering et al., 2000, p. 8). The bases of these fining-upward units often include beds of gravel or ka- olin ball clasts that grade up into sands with large cross beds up to 80 ft (24.4 m) thick. The tops of these sequences are kaolin lenses, often of commercial grade. The commercial lenses range from a few square feet up to hundreds of acres, and can reach 150 ft (45.7 m) in thickness. Terrestrial facies extend from the erosional pinchout at the Fall Line to 20–35 miles (32–56 km) to the south- east. The terrestrial Oconee sediments reach a thickness of more than 2,500 ft Figure 7. Stratigraphic charts of Coastal Plain sediments between the Central (762 m) at that transition (Pickering et Georgia kaolin belt and the United States Department of Energy Savannah River al., 2000). Site near Aiken, South Carolina. The differences beneath the Barnwell Group The Buffalo Creek Formation forms are surprising, since the two areas are located approximately along strike and the basal Oconee Group (Pickering and within 100 miles of each other. Both areas have large amounts of well and core Hurst, 1989). Based on pollen dating, data to support interpretation. Differences can probably be explained by facies it is late Campanian and is the updip changes along strike and interpretive subjectivity of different workers. Shaded equivalent of the marine Ripley Forma- areas represent unconformities. tion. It is composed of fining upward channel fills which include cross bedded quartz gravel, kaolin clast gravel, sand, silt, and clay, including large commer- ages 40 ft/m (7.58 m/km), decreasing despite the absence of fossils. Huddles- cial lenses (Figure 8). The soft kaolin of up through the sedimentary section to tun and Hetrick (1991) included this the Buffalo Creek Formation is usually 15 ft/m (2.84 m/km) on top of the kaolin formation in the Oconee Group, but cream to white, and occasionally pink, bearing Eocene sediments (Hetrick and Pickering et al. (2000) were uncertain, gray, violet, or yellow. The top of the Fridell, 1990). The slope decreases to since it lacks commercial grade kaolin formation marks a major regional un- the west and downdip (Hurst and Picker- and the gravel-sized clay balls common conformity, marked by early Paleocene ing, 1997, their figure 5). in other Oconee Group sediments. They erosion that cuts into commercial clay Immediately overlying the basement/ noted a “subtle unconformity” between bodies, although it is less prominent than saprolite is the Pio Nono Formation, the Pio Nono Formation and the overly- those atop the basement or the Huber composed of coarse red, brown, and yel- ing Oconee Group. Formation. low gravels, arkosic sands, and clays. Its The Oconee Group is a relatively The Huber Formation was named type locale is Macon, and the formation recent name replacing the informal by Buie and Fountain (1967) to distin- is assumed to be basal Late Cretaceous, “Tuscaloosa Formation” dating back to guish generally finer-grained clayey Volume 44, Winter 2008 219

Figure 8. This close-up view of the mine sidewall from Figure 1 shows the clay purity typical of the Buffalo Creek Forma- tion. Note the sharp contact between the Buffalo Creek Formation and the overlying Huber Formation. Man (to right) for scale. Image from October 2000.

sand from the underlying Cretaceous rocks in Northwest Georgia show fluvial valleys and thick soil horizons on sediments, though its sediments also considerable lithologic and bio- the interfluve surfaces. form a series of fining upward, cross- stratigraphic similarity to the Huber The Jeffersonville Member consists bedded sand-clay cycles. It differs from Formation (Pickering et al., 2000, of fining upward cycles of sand to hard the Buffalo Creek Formation by being p. 11). clay lenses, which contain traces of thinner, having finer-grained sands, The Huber Formation consists of shrimp and other brackish water fauna more heavy minerals, and pollen of late the lower Marion Member—generally (Figure 10). Microscopic examination Paleocene to Eocene age. Huber For- richer in organics with abundant lignite shows evidence of significant biotur- mation kaolins are of finer particle size, seams—and the upper Jeffersonville bation. This stratum is dated to the are less recrystallized, less oxidized, Member, which contains the upper Middle Eocene by pollen. The top of the grayer, and contain more lignite than commercial clays. The Marion Mem- member is a prominent unconformity the Buffalo Creek clays. The forma- ber includes at least one fining upward that marks a shift to marine deposition. tion is found between Andersonville sequence, from a basal quartz and ka- There is no commercial-grade kaolin and Hepzibah, illustrating how lateral olin-clast conglomerate atop the eroded above that unconformity. variation influences stratigraphy. Inter- Buffalo Creek, to a dark clay that is often The Barnwell Group or Jackson estingly, similar sediments are found rich in pyrite, organic matter, and lignite Group (depending on the author) is in a fault-bounded basin near Warm seams (Figure 9). The boundary with dated to the Late Eocene and contains Springs and in the Piedmont of north- the overlying Jeffersonville Member is marine sediments. The type locale is west Georgia: a “subtle unconformity and not easily in Barnwell, South Carolina. It is com- Further, palynology studies by Dar- distinguished” (Pickering et al., 2000, posed of the lower Clinchfield Sand rell (1966) of numerous bauxite and p. 11). This is unusual; present day Formation, the Tobacco Road Sand, and kaolin filled limesinks in Cambrian conditions create significant relief within the Twiggs Clay Formation (Hetrick and 220 Creation Research Society Quarterly

above: Figure 9. Lignite rich lenses in the Huber Formation at the Thiele Ennis Mine. The exposure is approximately 40 ft (12 m) high. Image from March 1999. below: Figure 10. Pyritized vertical shrimp(?) trace in the Jeffersonville Member. The density of the clay and lack of shorten- ing of the trace suggests limited compaction. Scale in centimeters.

Fridell (1990) defined the lower unit of fallout debris from the Chesapeake Bay the Barnwell Group as the Dry Branch impact event. The overlying Twiggs Formation, which includes the Twiggs Clay Formation is a relatively continu- Clay, Irwinton Sand, and Griffins land- ous, thick layer of marine fuller’s earth, ing Members). In the kaolin-mining ranging from Cordele to Hepzibah. district, the Barnwell Group is exposed Hetrick and Fridell (1990) interpreted or locally covered by recent alluvium. the depositional environment of the The Clinchfield Sand Formation is Twiggs Clay as intertidal mud flats best seen in its type locale in Houston because it consists of fissile smectite County and extends east to Deepstep. with laminae of silt and sand, contains It has also been called the “Albion pelecypods and abundant plant fossils, Member” and is an opal cemented sand and includes facies of fuller’s earth, and clay called the “flint clay,” which smectite, and cristobalite. It is present contains shark and fish teeth, mollusks, as overburden in most kaolin pits. The and small pectens. Harris (2003) sug- Twiggs Clay is important in recent gested that this member might include theories of kaolin formation because it Volume 44, Winter 2008 221 is thought to form a groundwater bar- Jeffersonville Member and the Barnwell evidence of little in situ recrystallization. rier to downward recharge in areas that Group (Figure 6). It is thought to have formed by floccula- correlate with gray, pyrite-rich kaolin, This focus on unconformities pushes tion in marginal marine settings, and is while in areas where the Twiggs Clay the uniformitarian interpretation to- also called “high defect kaolin” because is breached, the underlying kaolin is wards the principles of sequence stra- of its broad X-ray diffraction bands which heavily oxidized to white, pink, purple, tigraphy. This approach is emphasized result from crystallographic translation or tan (Yuan, 2000). because commercial clay occurrence is defects. Soft clay is noted for its low iron The Tobacco Road Sand is the theoretically tied to fluctuations between content (0.1–0.45%), while hard clay’s uppermost formation of the Barnwell terrestrial and marine environments iron content ranges between 0.7–1.0%. Group. It is a medium-grained sand (Hurst and Pickering, 1989). The low- A similar stratigraphic occurrence of that is often cross-bedded. It contains stands that generated these unconformi- soft and hard kaolin is found in the discontinuous clay laminae, and a basal ties are thought to be significant, as are Capim River kaolins of Brazil (Sousa zone of flattened, rounded small gravel. their intervening highstands in the Late et al., 2006). It is interpreted as a shoreline deposit. Cretaceous and Eocene that match the The Tobacco Road Sand weathers to a dating of kaolin-bearing strata. An ad- reddish brown, and is marked by Ophio- ditional highstand in the Late Eocene Discussion morpha burrows. Its type locale is Fort is thought to correlate to the deposition Gordon, near Augusta (Hetrick and of the Twiggs Clay (Pickering et al., Uniformitarian Theories Fridell, 1990). 2000). There are several possible methods of In far eastern Georgia, the Miocene forming kaolinite clay minerals, almost Altamaha Formation of the Hawthorne all of which are diagenetic. Kaolinite Group is present. It is a pebbly, poorly Kaolin Composition minerals can form by the in situ dia- sorted sand, clay, and gravel, thought Commercial grade kaolin in the kaolin genetic and hydrothermal alteration of to be of fluvial to estuarine origin. Its belt generally contains 90–95% kaolin feldspar-rich igneous and metamorphic lower bed is 2–6 ft (0.61–1.8 m) thick, group minerals and 5–10% impurities. rocks, such as granite and rhyolite, as and composed of gray-green silty sandy In addition to kaolinite, nacrite and documented in Ethiopia (Fentaw and clay. In many cases, it is difficult to dis- dickite, all of the Georgia kaolin group Mengistu, 1998), Argentina (Cravero tinguish the lower Altamaha from the clay minerals occur in both hard and et al., 2001), and China (Chen et al., underlying Tobacco Road Sand. Often soft varieties, although in soft clays they 1997). Kaolinite is also thought to form stratigraphers must rely on elevation and are confined to the fine particle size by intense weathering (Sousa et al., location (Hetrick and Fridell, 1990) to fraction. Impurities in commercial grade 2006). It is the primary component differentiate the two units. The upper kaolins include mica, illite (an alteration of saprolite forming in the Georgia part of the Altamaha is composed of product of mica), smectite, pyrite, mar- Piedmont (Pickering et al., 2003). Of gravel beds with angular to rounded casite, and iron and titanium oxides such particular interest is the Sparta Granite clasts, some more than two inches in as anatase, goethite, and hematite. Or- (Figure 11), an intrusive belt 50 miles diameter. ganic content varies; it is usually higher (80 km) long, just updip of the Georgia in hard clays and in downdip clays. kaolin belt (Pickering et al., 2003). Regional Unconformities Of the hard and soft varieties of The Georgia kaolins are thought to Stratigraphic correlation is difficult in kaolin, each type displays an apparent have formed by a complex combina- the upper Coastal Plain. In addition stratigraphic affinity. Soft kaolin is re- tion of several methods, all-originating to the physical lack of outcrops and stricted to the Buffalo Creek Formation. with the saprolite that covers Piedmont restricted access to proprietary subsur- It is characterized by its coarse particle rocks. Once formed, the saprolite would face data, the sediments lack diagnostic size, soapy texture, and conchoidal have been transported by rivers to the fossils. Correlation rests on subsurface fracture. Soft clay is thought to be the ancient coast and deposited as lenses of regional unconformity surfaces. There result of extensive in situ recrystalliza- less pure kaolin (~80%) in marginal ma- are three such unconformities: (1) the tion. It is also called “low defect kaolin” rine lagoons and deltaic ponds. Those boundary between the crystalline base- because of its well-defined X-ray dif- lenses were later refined by a series of ment and the Pio Nono or Buffalo Creek fraction peaks. Hard kaolin is found in diagenetic processes: weathering, win- formations, (2) the boundary between the Jeffersonville Member of the Huber nowing, bacterial action, and oxic and the Buffalo Creek and Huber forma- Formation. It is characterized by its anoxic groundwater action (Hurst and tions, and (3) the boundary between the finer particle size, earthy texture, and Pickering, 1997). 222 Creation Research Society Quarterly

left: Figure 11. The feldspar-rich Sparta Granite is thought to be a source of Coastal Plain kaolin. (A) A weathered outcrop of southeast of Macon, Geor- gia. (B) A 40 ft (12 m) sidewall in a open pit mine where the Sparta Gran- ite is mined for aggregate. Note the extensive feldspar dikes cross-cutting the granite. There is no free iron in this rock and it would naturally weather to kaolin clays in an acidic environment. (C) A 40 ft (12 m) sidewall of the Sparta Granite cross-cut by a diabase dike. The dike is approximately 5 ft (1.5 m) wide. Uniformitarians date the diabase as Jurassic (~190 Ma) and the Sparta Granite as Pennsylvanian (~300 Ma).

As might be expected, the continuity of environment, climate, and processes are emphasized: These kaolins (and associated baux- ites) are located on what has been a passive continental margin for the last 100 my (Hurst and Pickering, 1997, p. 277). Therefore, the initial conditions of the clay deposits are extrapolated from present day mud content of local river systems: Essentially the same patterns of drainage and relief have existed since Cretaceous time…. Kaolinite-me- tahalloysite has been the dominant component of detritus from the source area since Cretaceous time (Hurst and Pickering, 1997, pp. 279, 280). Given these initial conditions, it follows that a multimillion-year process of clay polishing by various diagenetic processes would result in the present-day commercial kaolin deposits. Yuan (2000) summarized recent theories of the origin of commercial Volume 44, Winter 2008 223 kaolin in east-central Georgia, noting physical properties of the clay particles Most geologists believe that the primary the mysterious nature of these deposits: are unlike those forming from volcanic cause of that purity is diagenetic. Up un- Even though numerous studies have ash. Dombrowski (1993) speculated til recently, that scenario emphasized the been devoted to understanding the that different types of crystalline rocks chemical effects of long ages of subariel genetic relationships of the differ- caused the different types of clay; with tropical weathering, or “laterization.” ent types of kaolin, there is still no hard clay originating from phyllite and But recent emphasis on groundwater universally accepted explanation for soft clay from granite or gneiss. He noted and the role of bacteria in the subsurface their origin (Yuan, 2000, p. 37). a physical correlation between specific have driven new theories of diagenesis by Next, he noted two key phenomena source rocks (e.g., the Sparta Granite) both chemical and bacterial interactions that must be explained: (1) why there and kaolin-rich sedimentary rocks of the between groundwater and clay bodies are hard and soft varieties of clay, and (2) Buffalo Creek Formation. (Hurst and Pickering, 1997). Groundwa- the relative roles of deposition and dia- The original depositional environ- ter circulation and bacterial activity lead genesis in the formation of commercial ments are important because most ge- to the oxidation of iron, destruction of or- grade kaolin. However, there is another ologists believe that hard and soft clays ganics, recrystallization of clay minerals, key aspect that Yuan (2000) failed to were formed in different settings. The weathering of remaining feldspar and mention—the restricted geographic soft clays lenses are thought to be the mica to kaolinite, alteration of titanium extent of commercial clays relative to top of fining up deltaic sequences, far minerals to Anatase, and conversion of the widespread conditions under which enough updip to be in freshwater con- biogenic silica to opal-CT and quartz. they supposedly formed. In other words, ditions. They contain few sedimentary The importance of groundwater is em- why are commercial grade deposits not features, no body or trace fossils, and no phasized by Yuan (2000), who noted found elsewhere in Georgia, North distinctively marine sediments such as that kaolin purity seems related to the Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, lime, gypsum, or manganese nodules, presence or absence of the overlying or Mississippi? Hurst and Pickering although the lack of these features is Twiggs Clay—a permeability barrier (1997) attributed it to the slightly higher sometimes attributed to diagenesis. But restricting groundwater recharge down percentage of suspended load kaolinite the consensus remains for freshwater to the kaolin lenses. The importance of carried in modern Georgia rivers, but deposition: groundwater seems indicated by the oc- provided no geochemical basis for cor- This non-marine environment is currence of pisolitic or bauxitic kaolins relating such a threshold to commercial indicated by the presence of upland on top of some commercial clay lenses, deposits. pollen grains and spores, large logs the upward transition from reducing to All theories revolve around three and stumps, and abundant terrestrial oxidizing conditions in the clays, the key factors: (1) source, (2) depositional plant cuticle and woody fibers (Pick- more oxidized condition of updip clays, environment, and (3) diagenetic history ering et al., 2003, pp. 73–74). and the presence of etched and corroded (Yuan, 2000). Most geologists who have Hard clays are thought to have quartz grains that support leaching: studied the clays agree that the ultimate been deposited in transitional to near- Original sediment color was quite source is the igneous and metamorphic shore marine conditions similar to the dark due to its abundant decom- basement of the Piedmont and Ap- modern coastal setting in Georgia. posing plant material…. Reducing palachian provinces, because: (1) the That interpretation is supported by the conditions led to recrystallization of surrounding sediments originated in the geometry of the clays, the lithology of iron as pyrite/marcasite…. Intense Piedmont and Appalachian provinces, the surrounding sediments, and the post-depositional alteration, but by (2) kaolinite minerals are a common dia- presence of marine trace fossils, micro- ground water oxidative weathering genetic product of those rocks, and (3) fossils, and bioturbated zones. Possible and microbial action, has removed the historical gradient would have caused environments include intertidal salt most of the dark organic matter the transport of rocks from the Piedmont marshes (Horstmann, 1983), brackish or and altered pyrite to hematite and and Appalachians to the Coastal Plain. shallow marine (Schroeder, 1979), tidal goethite. This alteration process has Yuan (2000) noted that clays and micas flats (Patterson and Murray, 1984), and also resulted in considerable recrys- of Piedmont rocks show similar K-Ar the neritic zone (Hurst and Pickering, tallization in the older, soft, coarse ages to the commercial clays. However, 1997). Note the rather broad marine kaolin, which was likely mediated by other precursors have been considered. setting in clays above the “freshwater” carbonic and sulfuric acids released Buie (1964) argued for a volcanic origin soft clays (see Appendix). during alteration of the organic mat- of the clays, although recent studies Of course, the most fundamental ter and pyrite (Pickering et al., 2003, indicate this to be unlikely because the question is why the clays are so pure. pp. 73, 74). 224 Creation Research Society Quarterly

However, the level of diagenetic recrystallization begins and bio- transitional environments for both the activity seems to be more severe in the turbation is intense, especially in accumulation and purification of clay, soft clays than the hard clays, which is upper kaolins. Aerobic bacterial pure kaolin lenses should have formed. the opposite of what might be expected action contributes to leaching of The real mystery is why east-central if groundwater diagenesis was the pri- Na, Ca, and K from feldspar and Georgia contains large accumulations mary purification agent. Tertiary clays, mica, creating more kaolinite. of virtually pure clay relative to the rest which would be more accessible to Pyrite oxidizes to hematite and of the Coastal Plain. groundwater action for many millions of goethite. Second, there are a number of years, show preservation of sedimentary 5. The above sequence is repeated inconsistencies in the uniformitarian features, a similar mineralogy to that of during Eocene sea level chang- framework. The Marion Member of the modern marshes, abundant gray (unoxi- es, but the clays are deposited in Huber Formation has only one clearly dized) clay, and well-preserved sequence a marine, rather than freshwater, identifiable fining upward sequence. from sand to micaceous kaolin to clay. setting. Surely during millions of years of del- Yuan dismissed the idea that the up- 6. Sea level rises in the Late Eo- taic deposition, more than one fining per hard clay formed from the reworking cene, resulting in the deposi- upwards sequence would have been or redeposition of the soft clay, although tion of the Clinchfield Sand deposited. This is especially puzzling that idea was advocated for Brazilian and Twiggs Clay, sealing lower when we realize that the vast modern clays by Sousa et al. (2006). Yuan (2000) kaolins from groundwater re- Mississippi delta formed in just a few argued that reworking was impossible charge. Bacterial action con- thousand years. Perhaps the Marion because the lower soft clay is purer and sumes most of organics. Member sequence is a single hydraulic more extensively recrystallized than the 7. Subsequent erosion breaches event and was deposited rapidly. And the upper hard clay. However, this assumes the Twiggs Clay and leads to Marion Member is not unique. Several that the lower clay was not diagenetically the recharge of oxygenated other key stratigraphic units—each span- affected after the deposition of the upper groundwater “to saturate the ning millions of years—contain very few clay, and that the upper clay was not clay lenses” (Yuan, 2000, p. 44). sequences. altered during the redeposition process. There, organics are removed It is interesting that the inferred Yuan (2000) admitted that the soft clays and recrystallization of kaolinite Campanian (Cretaceous) and Ypresian may have contributed in small part to the minerals starts. Also, muscovite (Eocene) highstands produced terres- upper clay because sedimentary clasts is altered to very coarse vermi- trial commercial kaolin deposits, while of the lower clay are found above the form kaolinite and pyrite is again the Priabonian (Eocene) highstand Cretaceous unconformity. oxidized. produced a marine smectite—the In summary, Yuan (2000) described Twiggs Clay. This is especially surpris- the following sequence: Critique of ing given that the latter highstand was 1. Updip crystalline rocks weather Uniformitarian Theories 164–328 ft (50–100 m) lower than earlier (aided by bacteria) over long There are several weaknesses to the uni- highstands (Pickering et al., 2000, their periods of time to saprolite. formitarian theories. On a conceptual figure 1.2). This curiosity is noted, but 2. Saprolite is eroded and trans- level, it is clear that the assumptions not explained: ported by high-energy streams of deep time and past depositional Locally in Georgia, the Late Eocene to Coastal Plain deltas during environments similar to modern set- was also a major highstand, but ac- the Late Cretaceous. tings are not part of Earth’s history. companied by marine smectite clays 3. Clay minerals accumulate in One of the key weaknesses is that these (Twiggs Clay) rather than fluvial to organic rich marshes by floc- theories do not explain the geographic marginal marine kaolin (Pickering culation in ponds and lagoons uniqueness of the kaolin belt in east- et al., 2000, p. 16). on the delta. Decaying organic central Georgia. This point cannot be Why did higher sea levels produce material creates anoxic condi- over emphasized but is often ignored. non-marine kaolinite and lower sea lev- tions, which result in pyrite and Current models posit conditions that els produce a marine smectite? anaerobic bacteria. would have existed in many other places Geologists consider kaolin purity is 4. Sea level falls, leading to subaer- near the Fall Line. Anywhere crystalline a function of oxidation and winnowing ial weathering, erosion, uncon- rocks were weathered, rivers were car- during lowstands: formity surfaces, and pervasive rying the resulting clay to the Coastal Lowstands would have led to ero- paleosol horizons. Kaolinite Plain, and sea level changes created sion and unconformities, but would Volume 44, Winter 2008 225

also have exposed large areas of well-oxidized sediments throughout the related (Rossetti and dos Santos, 2006). new coastal plain to weathering entire recharge zone. Furthermore, the distinctions between and leaching by groundwater; this Finally, concepts explaining the the two types of clay may not be as clear during an interval of geologic time origin of lateritic or bauxitic soils by cut as first thought: when greenhouse climates prevailed long periods of weathering have many Attempts to substitute the term (Pickering et al., 2000, p. 16). problems. Despite claims that these soils Cretaceous kaolin for soft kaolin Why was this not also true for the require up to a million years to form, and the term Tertiary kaolin for hard younger Twiggs Clay? Millions of years modern examples demonstrate other- kaolin have not been very successful of weathering and leaching should have wise (Froede, 2007; Klevberg and Bandy, because occasional Tertiary kaolins altered the smectite in the Twiggs Clay. in press). The primary mechanism of have soft kaolin textures and unusual Purification during lowstands also pres- “laterization,” leaching by infiltration, Cretaceous kaolins have somewhat ents problems for the kaolins. The same has been shown to be less of a factor hard textures…. Austin (1998) also lowstands that supposedly “cleaned up” than groundwater action. Even unifor- noted that Tertiary kaolin clays in the kaolin should have created thick soil mitarian geologists now trumpet the Georgia could be as coarse as 50% horizons and plant growth on top of the role of groundwater and bacteria in clay finer than two microns, which would clay deposits that would have contami- diagenesis, and admit that the process be coarser than many of the typical nated the exposed clays. Additionally, can occur rapidly. Hurst and Pickering Cretaceous kaolins (Yuan, 2000, millions of years would have created a (1997, p. 283) noted: p. 37). well-established drainage system that In permeable layers or zones, how- Another problem that uniformitar- would have been transporting organics ever, where conditions were oxic and ians face is the difficulty of deriving a and the less pure clay of the Piedmont groundwater contained chelating clear stratigraphic succession in the area. and mixing both with the kaolin, further organics or H2SO4 (from bacterially In the upper Coastal Plain, classification decreasing clay purity. mediated oxidation of sulfides), the and correlation are based primarily on In the same vein, it is interesting rate of weathering was high, and lithology. Because lithology is a func- that the stratigraphically higher hard could accomplish strong kaoliniza- tion of environment and source as well clays are not as dramatically altered as tion in a few thousand years. as time, correlation may or may not the lower soft clays. After all, they are Thus, parameters other than deep follow time lines. For example, the Pio closer to the surface, should have been time could have contributed to a rela- Nono Formation was excluded from exposed to more than 20,000,000 years tively rapid chemical purification of the the Oconee Group because it contains of groundwater and microbial action; Georgia kaolins. no commercial grade clay. But is that and would have been exposed to a simi- The kaolin of east-central Georgia relationship one of lateral facies varia- lar climate for weathering, winnowing, is thought to have originated from the tion? Geologists support their conten- etc. as the soft clays (since the setting has alteration of updip igneous and meta- tion by claiming that the Pio Nono is remained unchanged for 100 million morphic rocks to saprolite, the transport separated from Oconee sediments by an years). Observation of the natural world and deposition of kaolinite muds, and unconformity, but by their own admis- suggests that the preservation of any pure their subsequent diagenesis. This is not sion it is “subtle.” The problem is not mineral deposit is the product of unusual inconsistent with the Flood, once issues unique to the Pio Nono and Oconee conditions, and common sense suggests of timing are resolved. The problem is Group sediments. Other stratigraphic that such preservation must be rapid to not so much the formation of kaolinite units could very easily be distinct facies avoid dilution—a more common process minerals in sufficient bulk quantity, but of similar age. Correlation is quite dif- than concentration. Timing is also a fac- their concentration and preservation ficult. Figure 7 illustrates the variation tor with regard to the role of the Twiggs as nearly pure lenses. That problem between the stratigraphy of the kaolin Clay. The absence of the Twiggs Clay is doubled by the occurrence of two belt and that from just the other side appears to correspond to the oxidation distinct types of commercial clay (hard of the South Carolina border. In both of kaolin bodies in stratigraphically lower vs. soft), and their apparent stratigraphic areas, there are abundant well and core units. However, the Twiggs clay was sup- separation (Figure 4). As noted, geolo- data. But even so, the stratigraphic posedly absent for 60,000,000 years, with gists (e.g., Yuan, 2000) do not believe complexity may be largely artificial. As kaolin buried in a shallow sedimentary that the upper kaolin was derived from the early stratigraphers noted, the bulk environment near the recharge zone. the lower in Georgia, but Brazilian of the sediments consist of fining upward The time prior to the Twiggs Clay geologists believe that the analogous cycles of gravel, sand, silt, and clay; some should have been sufficient to create Capim River deposits are genetically capped by kaolin lenses, and others not. 226 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Geologists expecting to see the remains stage. The Coastal Plain sediments as a rain. Variations in bacterial concentra- of millions of years of deposition may whole consist of a massive and continu- tions in both sediments and groundwater see complexity of a time-based system, ous blanket from the Northeast around may also have been affected. In any rather than the simplicity of a hydraulic the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, where case, early diagenetic processes would and environmental one. For example, many thousands of feet of sediment have been accelerated by acidic and they note that unconformities are crucial accumulated to form the present day oxic conditions quite different from the in their allostratigraphic approach, yet continental slope, shelf, and exposed present day. Although evidence does not are the “regional” unconformities really coastal plains. As a whole, these sedi- support a direct volcanic precursor for regional and do they represent long peri- ments and their subsequent modification the kaolins, the overlying Twiggs clay—a ods of time? Often, it appears not: by erosion probably resulted from reced- siliceous smectite—probably did result The boundary with the overlying ing floodwaters. However, the variety in part from volcanic ash, and it is not Jeffersonville Member is a “subtle of facies suggests rapid changes in sea entirely unreasonable to suspect that part unconformity and not easily dis- level and lateral hydraulic variation. of the kaolin deposits did, too. tinguished” (Pickering et al., 2000, The late-Flood interpretation is also Another element bounding a diluvial p. 11). supported by the unconsolidated nature explanation would have been tectonic Finally, there is a geomorphological of the sediments and the dip-oriented instability. Uniformitarians date nearby reason to doubt the proposed unifor- interfingering of marine and freshwater basement rift basins as “Triassic” and as- mitarian history. Landscapes are not facies throughout the vertical record. sume they were quiescent by Late Creta- stable, and for any region to remain Therefore, we conclude that the kaolin ceous time, but in the diluvial paradigm, basically unchanged for 100 million was probably deposited late in the Flood. the rifting occurred immediately prior years stretches credulity, given modern The updip, near surface location of the to Coastal Plain sediment deposition. erosional rates or even plate tectonic clays also means that they would have These rift basins occur throughout the cycles. This is even more true given the been subject to physical and chemical Coastal Plain, from Canada to South subtropical climate of the area. groundwater fluctuations expected from Georgia (Schlische, 1993). In Georgia, the Flood recession up to the present, al- the Gulf Trough/Suwannee Strait exhib- A Diluvial Setting though clearly there was not time for the it tectonism synchronous with Coastal At this time, we cannot offer a complete extended exposure of the clay surfaces Plain sedimentation. Just to the east, the diluvial model for the formation of soft to weathering and winnowing posited upper Coastal Plain sediments overlie or hard kaolin clay minerals, but we by uniformitarian workers. the sedimentary fill of the Dunbarton do propose a number of constraints The distribution of marine and ter- Basin. Updip, the Piedmont Province that any such model must consider. restrial sediments within the Coastal exhibits evidence of widespread igneous Before any specific diluvial interpreta- Plain demonstrates sea level fluctuations and tectonic activity during the Flood. tion can be attempted, the bounding during their deposition. Once marine These factors may have contributed to assumptions must be revised. These waters had permanently withdrawn from elevated levels of hydrothermal activity, include, of course, the time available the upper Coastal Plain, the adjustment including the migration of hydrothermal for clay formation and the probability of of climatic conditions to post-Flood solutions up from basement rocks into depositional conditions much different weather patterns would have resulted the newly deposited overlying sedi- from the low-energy paleoenvironments in higher precipitation and more rapid ments. Furthermore, this activity may posited by uniformitarians. Because groundwater influx for a period of time also have accelerated the formation of the uniformitarian model depends on as the new hydrologic system was being clay minerals in the Piedmont Province. millions of years of groundwater and established. This elevated precipitation/ The association of kaolin lenses and bacterial polishing of very low perme- recharge condition would have lasted for carbonate karst in northwest Georgia ability clays, the major challenge for several centuries after the Flood, due to and with bauxite in the western Coastal a diluvial explanation is to find other climatic changes brought about by the Plain certainly suggests hydrothermal mechanisms to explain clay purity or to Ice Age. The re-establishment of vegeta- influences (Silvestru, 2003). show that the same mechanisms operat- tion and fluvial drainage systems would It may well be that saprolite from the ing over thousands of years could yield also have affected the groundwater Piedmont Province was the precursor of the requisite purity. system. Groundwater chemistry would the commercial kaolin clay, but saprolite What are the bounding parameters have also been affected by global late to does not require long periods of in situ for a diluvial model? First, we must post-Flood volcanism which would have weathering to form, given the proper set the context in terms of the Flood generated a significant amount of acid chemical environment. However, it Volume 44, Winter 2008 227 may also be true that the kaolin and the 2. Could clay “polishing” occur Conclusion saprolite are both manifestations of the during rapid dewatering of The kaolins of east-central Georgia are same geochemical processes occurring acidic, oxygenated pore fluids unique deposits; not simply in their com- at the same time. It is interesting that the during clay compaction rather mercial purity, but also in their origin mineralogy of most of the Cretaceous than over millions of years by and history. Uniformitarian explanations updip sediments in east-central Georgia slow infiltration by less acidic focus on modern processes operating consists of physically immature quartz and less oxygenated groundwa- over tens of millions of years. But their sand with a kaolin matrix. Perhaps these ter? greatest weaknesses are that these pro- sands are the diagenetic products of 3. If the soft kaolin is the result cesses should have produced ubiquitous arkosic sands, like the Pio Nono Forma- of a very rare combination of impure kaolin deposits along much of tion, with the feldspar strongly altered sedimentary, chemical, and the Fall Line. Like many other unusual to kaolinite by acidic, oxygenated pore preservation factors, then is it features of the rock record, a close ex- fluids. not reasonable to re-evaluate the amination of the data indicates that Although kaolin is quite common in genetic relationship between the the standard uniformitarian scenarios many sedimentary rocks, it is relatively soft and hard kaolin? cannot explain the actual phenomena rare in commercial accumulations, Related questions regarding deposi- in a consistent manner. Many aspects especially when found as an apparent tional environments and the timing of of the Coastal Plain sediments are better sedimentary deposit. Although exact the emplacement of the Coastal Plain explained by rapid, unique erosional and mechanisms for deposition and pres- should also be addressed. depositional processes rather than 100 ervation are elusive, one fact stands Although at present many geologists million years of uniformitarian stasis. out quite clearly: it is much easier to reject the hard clays as reworked deposits Like many other phenomenon that pres- emplace a lens of pure kaolin rapidly of soft clay, that possibility should not be ent mysteries for uniformitarian geology, than to do so slowly. In the Coastal rejected. Uniformitarians see the current a change in paradigms may shed light Plain, there was an abundant supply of clay lenses as being approximately the on the origin of these unusual deposits. terrigenous gravel, sand, silt, organic same size and shape as when they were Rapid hydraulic and geochemical pro- material, fossils, and other “impuri- originally deposited. But it is certainly cesses may facilitate explanation, and ties.” The unusual conditions required possible that the initial clay deposits were this cursory examination of the upper to deposit a pure kaolin lens would not more widespread, and that their current Coastal Plain suggests that to be the be expected to last. Thus, while unifor- configuration reflects their preservation case. Growing knowledge of the Georgia mitarian theories focus on how to refine as much as their original state. If noth- kaolins will reveal clues to their rapid an organic-rich kaolin deposit following ing else, deriving the hard clay from emplacement and their unusual purity, deposition, they ignore contamination pre-existing kaolin saves explaining how and we predict that superior models and that would have been occurring simul- the same very unusual depositional/dia- mechanisms will be found in the diluvial taneously, caused by the same factors genetic processes happened twice—a paradigm. they propose would create pure clay. problem for either paradigm. Also, evidence of high-energy erosion Differences between the hard and and redeposition of kaolin bodies must soft clays are as easily explained in the Appendix have happened quickly; otherwise the diluvial paradigm as in the uniformitar- Uniformitarian clay mineralogists have redeposited kaolin clasts would have ian. The absence of fossils, with the defined all of the various clay minerals been disaggregated. The greatest failure rare exceptions of large plant remains into formal clay groups based on their of their theories is that many deposits of (i.e., stumps) in the lower clays would atomic structure and charge (Chamley, commercial kaolin along the Atlantic fit their rapid deposition as floodwaters 1989). While uniformitarian geoscien- and Gulf Coastal plains should be pres- receded—further evidence that they tists recognize that clays can diageneti- ent, given uniformitarian conditions. formed in an unusual setting. The pres- cally alter to other clay mineral groups The diluvial paradigm raises several ence of fossils in the upper clays is also following burial, they have also used new avenues of research regarding the consistent with a sedimentary origin in them to recreate paleofacies, which origin of the clays. These can be sum- the retreating, fluctuating marine waters requires the assumption that one type of marized in the following questions: of the Flood via reworking of soft kaolin. clay has not subsequently been changed 1. Can localized clay purity be The presence of marine waters at the into another. The kaolin clays have his- explained by local, ephemeral Fall Line suggests a late Flood rather torically been identified as indicative of geochemical environments? than a post-Flood setting. freshwater deposition, although they can 228 Creation Research Society Quarterly

and do occur in marine settings (often Cravero, F., E. Dominguez, and C. Iglesias. problem of soils. In Oard, M.J. and defined as a shallow setting and usu- 2001. Genesis and applications of the J.K. Reed (editors). Rock Solid Answers: ally in association with an active fluvial Cerro Rubio kaolin deposit, Patagonia Responses to Popular Objections to setting). Furthermore, kaolin can form (Argentina). Applied Clay Science Biblical Geology. Master Books, Green from the chemical alteration of marine 18(3–4):157–172. Forest, AR. clays, such as smectite. The “freshwater” Dombrowski, T. 1993. Theories of origin for Kogel, J.E. 2000. Kaolin mineralogy: Key interpretation of Georgia kaolins de- the Georgia kaolins. In Murray, H.H., W. to Resource quality, process response, pends on the absence of marine fossils, Bundy, and C. Harvey (editors). Kaolin and product development. In Kogel, but that might not be a reliable indicator Genesis and Utilization, pp. 75–98. Clay J.E., S.M. Pickering, Jr. E. Shelobolina, if these clays were eroded, transported, Minerals Society, Boulder, CO. J. Yuan, and T.M. Chowns. Geology of and deposited during the Flood. This Fentaw, H.M. and T. Mengistu. 1998. Com- the commercial kaolin mining district of is another example of uniformitarian parison of Kombelcha and Bombowha central and eastern Georgia, pp. 17–36. assumptions that are often hidden be- kaolins of Ethiopia. Applied Clay Science Georgia Geological Society Guidebook neath the surface; taken for granted by 13(2):149–164. 20(1), Atlanta, GA. most geologists, but inappropriate for Froede, C.R., Jr., 1997. The Flood Event/ Kogel, J.E., S.M. Pickering, Jr. E. Shelobo- diluvial studies. Clay minerals can (and Ice Age stratigraphic boundary on the lina, J. Yuan, and T.M. Chowns. 2000. likely have) diagenetically altered fol- United States southeastern Coastal Geology of the Commercial Kaolin lowing burial. We need to consider the Plain. Creation Research Society Quar- Mining District of Central and Eastern conditions expected during the Flood terly 34:75–83. Georgia. Georgia Geological Society framework and seek to resolve the kaolin Froede, C.R., Jr. 2007. Geology by Design: Guidebook 20(1), Atlanta, GA. question from that perspective. Interpreting the Rocks and Their Cata- Patterson, S.H. and H.H. Murray. 1984. Ka- strophic Origin. Master Books, Green olin, refractory clay, ball clay, and halloy- Forest, AR. site in North America, Hawaii, and the References Harris, R.S. 2003. Re-evaluating the origin Caribbean region. USGS Professional Buie, B.F. 1964. Possibility of volcanic origin of an Upper Eocene diamictite in the Paper 1306, Washington, D.C. of the Cretaceous sedimentary kaolin of Coastal Plain of east-central Georgia: Pickering, S.M., Jr. and V.J. Hurst. 1989. South Carolina and Georgia. In Bailey, an impactoclastic layer? Lunar and Plan- Commercial Kaolins in Georgia, Occur- W.F. (editor). Clays and Clay Minerals, etary Science XXXIV (1965 pdf). http:// rence, Mineralogy, and Use. Geological Proceedings of the 12th National Confer- www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2003/ Society of America, Southeastern Sec- ence, Macmillan, New York, NY. pdf/1965.pdf (accessed 2/2007). tion Guidebook 3. Buie, B.F. and R.C. Fountain. 1967. Tertiary Hetrick, J.H. and M.S. Fridell. 1990. A Pickering, S.M., Jr., T.M. Chowns, and D.M. and Cretaceous Age of kaolin deposits in Geologic Atlas of the Central Georgia Avant, Jr. 2000. Kaolin stratigraphy and Georgia and South Carolina, p. 19. Geo- Kaolin District. Georgia Department its use in exploration. In Kogel, J.E., logical Society of America, Southeastern of Natural Resources Geologic Atlas 6, S.M. Pickering, Jr. E. Shelobolina, J. Section Annual Meeting. Atlanta, GA. Yuan, and T.M. Chowns (editors). Ge- Chamley, H. 1989. Clay Sedimentology. Horstmann, K.M. 1983. Estuarine-tidal flat ology of the Commercial Kaolin Mining Springer-Verlag New York, NY. depositional model for the Paleocene- District of Central and Eastern Georgia, Chen, P-Y., M-L. Lin, and Z. Zheng. 1997. Eocene Huber Formation, East-Central pp. 3–16. Georgia Geological Society On the origin of the name kaolin and Georgia. Masters Thesis. Duke Univer- Guidebook 20(1), Atlanta, GA. the kaolin deposits of the Kauling and sity, (Address?). Pickering, S.M., A.M. Elser, E. Shelbolina, Dazhou areas, Kiangsi, China. Applied Huddlestun, P.F. and J.H. Hetrick. 1991. J.R. Anderson, Jr., and D.M. Avant, Jr. Clay Science 12(1–2):1–25. The Stratigraphic Framework of the Fort 2003. Minerals in transition: examples Clark, O.M. 1992. Eufaula Bauxite District, Valley Plateau and the Central Georgia of intensive weathering in the kaolin Alabama-Origin, Exploration, and Min- kaolin district. 26th Annual Georgia Geo- mining district of Central Georgia. In ing Problems. In Rheams, K.F., and G.H. logical Society Guidebook 11(1). Elliot, W.C. (editor). Classic Clays and McClellan (editors). Industrial Minerals Hurst, V.J. and S.M. Pickering. 1997. Origin Minerals, pp. 68–84. Field Guide from of the Southeastern United States – Pro- and classification of Coastal Plain ka- a joint meeting of the Clay Minerals ceedings of the 2cnd Annual Symposium olins, southeastern USA, and the role of Society and the Mineralogical Society on Industrial Minerals, pp. 9–15. Circu- groundwater and microbial action. Clays of America, Athens, GA. lar 161, Geological Survey of Alabama, and Clay Minerals 45(2):274–285. Rossetti, D. and A.E. de Araujo dos Santos, Jr. Tuscaloosa, AL. Klevberg, P. and R. Bandy. In Press. The 2006. Analysing the origin of the Upper Volume 44, Winter 2008 229

Cretaceous-? Lower Tertiary Rio Capim Shelobolina, E. 2000. Role of Microorgan- Pittsburgh PA. semi fl int (Para State, Brazil) under a isms in Development of Commercial Sousa, D.J.L., A.F.D.C. Varajao, and J. Yvon. sedimentologic perspective. Sedimentary Grade Kaolins. In Kogel, J.E., S.M. Pick- 2006. Geochemical evolution of the Geology 186(1–2):133–144. ering, Jr. E. Shelobolina, J. Yuan, and Capim River kaolin, Northern Brazil. Schlische, R.W. 1993. Anatomy and evolu- T.M. Chowns (editors). Geology of the Journal of Geochemical Exploration tion of the Triassic-Jurassic continental Commercial Kaolin Mining District of 88(1–3):329–331. rift system, Eastern North America. Central and Eastern Georgia, pp. 45–56. Yuan, J. 2000. Origin of the Georgia-South Tectonics 12(4):1026–1042. Georgia Geological Society Guidebook Carolina Commercial Kaolins. In Kogel, Schroeder, C.H. 1979. Trace fossils of the Up- 20(1), Atlanta, GA. J.E., S.M. Pickering, Jr. E. Shelobolina, per Cretaceous-Lower Tertiary and Basal Silvestru, E. 2003. A hydrothermal model of J. Yuan, and T.M. Chowns (editors). Ge- Jackson Group, east-central Georgia. rapid post-Flood karsting. In Walsh, R.E. ology of the Commercial Kaolin Mining Masters Thesis, University of Georgia at (editor). Proceedings of the Fifth Interna- District of Central and Eastern Georgia, Athens, Athens, GA. tional Conference on Creationism, pp. pp. 37–44. Georgia Geological Society 233–239. Creation Science Fellowship, Guidebook 20(1), Atlanta, GA.

Book Review Pioneer Explorers of Intelligent Design: Scientists Who Made a Difference by Don B. DeYoung BMH Books, Winona Lake, IN, 2006, 128 pages, $13.00.

This is the latest book by prolifi c author he describes this pioneer book as “an and drawings adorn the pages. An ap- Don DeYoung. It is not that the book illuminating and encouraging ‘Hebrews pendix contains an alphabetical list of represents the plowing of new ground, 11 Hall of Fame’ for creation science. 106 additional people (Faraday, Newton, but at present it is the broadest survey These 144 major contributors to sci- Linnaeus, etc.) discussed in Dr. Henry yet of a particular landscape—namely entifi c discovery during the past 500 Morris’s earlier compilation, Men of deceased authors important in the his- years believed in the God of creation Science—Men of God (1982). tory of science along with their religious and the biblical record of His mighty All of us concerned about the his- orientations. DeYoung stresses that “The works” (p. xi). tory and impact of science should have entire foundation of modern science and The table of contents includes a DeYoung’s book available for reference, technology was laid down by men and complete 7-chapter list of the pioneer as well as to present as a gift to budding women of faith” in a “biblical world- explorers according to their special fi elds scientists. view” (p. xiii). of interest (astronomy, mathematics, In my offi ce on the bookshelf are medicine, etc.). Chapter 8 sadly has 16 Reference eight other books dealing with compa- names of “Missing Persons” from the Morris, Henry. 1982. Men of Science—Men rable topics; however, DeYoung’s book list of creationist pioneers, including of God. Master Books, Green Forest, has a broader coverage than any other. Isaac Asimov, Charles Darwin, and Carl AR. This coverage includes many Protestants Sagan. There is an alphabetical name and Catholics, along with Jews and even index of all the above. Wayne Frair the Deist Benjamin Franklin. This “Pioneer” publication also has 1131 Fellowship Road Dr. John C. Whitcomb writes a an introduction, conclusion, references, Basking Ridge NJ 07920 brief but excellent foreword in which and Scripture index. Many small photos 230 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Was the Prostate Gland Poorly Designed?

Jerry Bergman*

Abstract he common claim that the prostate is poorly designed is reviewed, and it is Tconcluded that many very good reasons exist for its design and placement around the urethra. The main prostate problem, benign prostatic hypertro- phy, is caused by disease, hormone imbalance, and other health problems, not poor design.

Introduction fibromuscular structure that contains a diastase, fructose, beta glucuronidase, Enlargement of the prostate, a condi- conglomerate of 30 to 50 small saccular a potent fibrinolysin, spermine, and tion called benign prostatic hypertrophy glands. The entire prostate is divided into several proteolytic enzymes (Bloom (BPH), or benign prostatic hyperplasia, two main lobes and is totally enclosed in and Fawcett, 1969). Semen contains occurs in approximately half of all men a tough fibrous capsule (Garnick, 1996, mucus, which has an alkaline pH of 7 by age 60. The most common result p. 27). The proximal section connected to 8 and serves to neutralize the acidic of BPH is blockage of urine flow in to the bladder is called the base, the male urethra and female reproductive males. This problem is widely touted by opposite end, the narrow distal part, the tract to allow sperm to survive their trip Darwinists as proof of poor design and apex. The main divisions of the prostate from the testicles to the uterine (fal- evidence that humans were not designed are the central region, the transitional lopian) tubes. but rather evolved by natural selection (inner) region, which surrounds the ure- of random mutations. thra, and the peripheral, or outer layer (Naz, 1997). For a diagram of its internal The Poor Design Argument structure, see Figures 2 and 3. A common dysteleological claim is that The Prostate Gland Among the prostate’s several func- the human prostate gland is poorly de- The prostate in an average adult male tions, one is to produce the secretions signed because it surrounds the urethra, is a walnut-shaped gland four cm long that constitute much of the volume of a thin tube resembling a miniature straw by two cm wide and weighing about 20 the seminal fluid (Swanson and Forrest, that carries urine from the bladder to grams. Found only in males, it is small 1984). The prostate is called a complex exit the body (Garnick, 1996, p. 26). An at birth, enlarges rapidly at puberty, and semen factory; and its secretions consist example of this poor-design argument is sometimes shrinks in octogenarians. of a thin, opalescent liquid that contains the following claim: Located directly below the bladder, it a soup of complex compounds, includ- In human males, the urethra passes surrounds the urethra where the ure- ing citric acid, phosphatase, prostaglan- right through the prostate gland, a thra exits the bladder (see Figure 1). din (named after the prostate gland gland very prone to infection and The prostate gland itself is a complex because it was first discovered there), subsequent enlargement. This blocks the urethra and is a very common medical problem in males. Putting a collapsible tube through an organ that is very likely to ex- * Jerry Bergman, Ph.D., Northwest State College, Archbold, OH 43502, pand and block flow in this tube is [email protected] not good design. Any moron with Accepted for publication May 9, 2007 half a brain (or less) could design Volume 44, Winter 2008 231

Figure 1. Cross section of the male reproductive system showing the prostate located below the bladder, and the deferent duct (vas deferens), the tube along which sperm travels to the prostate, then to the urethra and out of the body. Also shown are the urogenital diaphragm, which supports the prostate and separates it from the structures below. Last, the seminal vesicle and bulbourethral (Cowpers) gland are seen, two other secretory organs that add their secretions to the semen. From Baggish, 1996. Drawn by B. L. Lindley-Anderson.

male plumbing better (Colby et al., 1993, p. 1). University of Chicago Biologist Jerry Coyne wrote: Why did God—sorry, the Intelligent Designer—give whales a vestigial pelvis, and the flightless kiwi bird tiny, nonfunctional wings? ... What a joker! And the Designer doesn’t seem all that intelligent, either. He must have been asleep at the wheel when he designed our appendix, back, and prostate gland (Coyne, 2006 p. 1). Professor Karen Bartelt wrote that if we assume, as intelligent design postu- lates, that humans can discern design, then I submit that they can also discern poor design (we sue companies for Figure 2. A cutaway of the prostate showing the internal structures. The four this all the time!). In Darwin’s Black distinct zones shown are based on microscopic structural differences. All of these Box, Behe refers to design as the pur- zones have differences based on anatomy and function. The two vas duct tubes poseful arrangement of parts. What and the two seminal vesicles are located behind the bladder and for this reason are about when the parts aren’t purpose- shown as dotted lines. From Baggish, 1996. Drawn by B. L. Lindley-Anderson. ful, by any standard engineering 232 Creation Research Society Quarterly

had clinical BPH (Naz, 1997, p. 10). Furthermore Naz found that the prostate is not likely to expand or enlarge because of poor design, but rather it usually en- larges as a result of poor health, bacterial or viral infection, or other diseases, ge- netic mutations, hormonal imbalance, race or ethnicity influences, poor diet, smoking, sexual habits, obesity, use of certain medications, excess androgen production, lack of testosterone regula- tion, or cancer (Naz, 1997). For this reason, blockage is not the result of poor design but rather is a clear early indication that something is wrong (such as BPH or prostate cancer), and Figure 3. A cross section of the prostate gland showing the body of the gland, the that the affected person should consult connective capsule that protects it, and the ejaculatory ducts through which the a physician to determine the cause. It is sperm travel. The prostate secretions enter the urethra via the prostate excretory for this reason that changes in urine flow ducts. The verumontanum is an elevation, or crest, in the wall of the urethra often trigger an examination that allows where the seminal ducts enter. From Baggish, 1996. Drawn by B. L. Lindley- early detection of prostate cancer, usu- Anderson. ally by taking a Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) test and by digital examination of the prostate. Thus, early systems of prostrate problems can actually have the criteria? When confronted with the retirement age, it can interfere with benefit of yielding a higher level of prob- “All-Thumbs Designer,” whoever urine flow. Also, when the prostate en- ability of successful treatment of more designed the spine, the birth canal, larges, it obstructs the urethra, distorts severe conditions (Foster and Bostwick, the prostate gland, the back of the the bladder neck outflow tract, and 1998). Cancer cells often originate in throat, etc. Behe and the ID people interferes with the normal sphincter the posterior region of the prostate, retreat into theology (1999, p. 4). mechanisms so that bladder evacuation hence early cancer can be felt as very The online encyclopedia Wikipedia can become incomplete. This condition hard nodules on rectal examination. (2006), under the heading “Argument causes the patient to assume that he has from Poor Design, a Dysteleological emptied himself, but some urine always Argument against the Existence of God,” remains in the bladder. This results in Causes of Benign listed as the first example of poor design the problem that requires a patient who Prostate Hypertrophy the “urinary tract in the human male, has just passed urine to urinate again The causes of BPH are not well un- especially the unnecessary passage of after only a very short time. derstood. BPH occurs mainly in older the urethra through the prostate gland. Urine flow blockage in males is usu- men and does not develop in men who As the prostate almost always grows with ally caused by the enlargement of the were castrated before puberty. For this age, it eventually compresses the urethra prostate, the medical condition known as reason, factors related to aging and the and often makes urination difficult or benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH). Al- misregulation of hormones produced by even impossible.” Contrary to anti-in- though enlargement occurs in about half the testes are believed to be major causes telligent design proponents, this claim of all men by age 60, the condition often of BPH. Men produce both testosterone assumes that you can detect design in can be treated with medication and in and small amounts of estrogen, a female biological systems. about 70% of all cases the enlargement hormone, throughout their lives. As men is minor (rated less than moderate), and age, the amount of active testosterone the number of moderate to severe cases in the blood decreases, leaving a higher Evaluation of the Claim increases with age (Naz, 1997, p. 9). proportion of estrogen (Snyder et al., It is true that when the prostate becomes One study found only 25 to 30 per- 1999). Animal studies suggest that BPH diseased or enlarges as a man approaches cent of men in the 70 to 74 age range may result from the higher amount of Volume 44, Winter 2008 233 estrogen within the gland and this condi- Rather than the urethra going similar in different mammalian species tion increases the activity of cell growth through the prostate, it is more accurate and is highly conserved, which is evi- promotion hormones. to describe the prostate as an expanded dence that the system is well designed, Another cause focuses on dihy- part of the urethral wall. Each of the highly effective, and functional (Foster drotestosterone (DHT), which is a distinct glandular regions of the prostate and Bostwick, 1998). testosterone-derived substance that may develops from a different segment of the Those claiming that the prostate help to regulate prostate growth. Most prostatic urethra (see McNeal, 1998, p. is poorly designed must have a better animals lose their ability to produce 19). The fact that the prostate is part of alternate design in mind. The only other DHT as they age. Even with a decrease the urethra is actually an example of option is a separate prostate located to in blood testosterone level, some older intelligent design because this design al- one side of the urethra. This would men continue to produce high levels lows the prostate to more rapidly deposit require a new duct system that would of DHT in the prostate. High levels its secretions into the urethra, where they add a cumbersome set of structures and of DHT and other hormones such as mix with the seminal vesicle secretions. greatly slow the flow of semen into the oxytocin may encourage abnormal cell The prostate’s 30 to 50 glands secrete urethra. This alternative design would division, causing BPH (Cook and Sheri- into 16 to 32 small excretory ducts that require another structure to propel the dan, 2000; Nicholson, 1996). Evidence open independently into the urethra so semen into the urethra and yet another for this conclusion includes the finding that they rapidly transfer their products system to help propel the semen along that men who do not produce excessive (Foster and Bostwick, 1998, p. 3). This the urethra to replace the several roles DHT levels do not develop BPH. rapid transfer is required in order for that the prostate now serves. Research also suggests that BPH can the system to operate effectively. The develop due to instructions given to cells prostate’s smooth muscle is a highly effec- early in life. This theory concludes that tive system to empty the tubules during The Nerve Plexuses BPH occurs because cells in one sec- the sexual response, thus forcing semen The prostate also contains abundant tion of the gland reawaken later in life rapidly into the urethra. The tubules nerve plexuses, mostly consisting of as a result of these instructions. These open on both the right and left sides non-myelinated nerve fibers and sensory reawakened cells then deliver signals to of the colliculus seminalis, a U-shaped nerve endings. As noted, the prostate other cells in the gland, either instruct- opening that runs along the urethra. itself contracts during sexual excitement, ing them to grow or making them more The entire prostate also contracts and it is this contraction that produces sensitive to certain growth hormones. during the sexual response, in turn much of the pleasure accompanying contracting the U-shaped urethra, thus sexual activity due to the abundant nerve forcing semen forward in the urethra. plexuses. Autonomic nerves arising from Reasons for the Existing Because the many small cavernous the hypogastric plexus contribute to the Urethra Designs holes all open directly into the U-shaped prostate plexus. The normal healthy One reason for the existing design is the opening, prostate contraction helps to prostate is, for this reason, a source of prostate serves both as a support for the effectively propel the semen forward pleasure rather than of pain (see Mor- bladder and a spacer between the blad- during the sexual response. It must travel ganstern and Abrahams, 1996, p. 4). der and the urogenital diaphragm. This out of the urethra with sufficient force allows the vas deferens and the seminal to make its journey successfully in order vesicles room to connect to the urethra. to achieve fertilization. In the words of Other Functions Because the urethra is a small, narrow Baggish, the urethral capsule segment of the Prostate tube without a substantial support sys- squeezes fluid out of the prostate during Another function of the prostate is to tem, the bladder, when full, would cause ejaculation (1996, p. 2). help control urine flow. A Cleveland kinking of the urethra. One possible The rhythmic contractions of the clinic urologist report concluded that solution could be support of the bladder prostate propel the semen forward in the “prostate gland, which surrounds the by ligaments to prevent its interfering the urethra during the first stage of tube that allows urine to flow outside the with possible urethra outflow, but this the sexual response (Katchadourian, body, also helps to hold back urine until would require a new support system, new 1989, p. 71; deGroat and Booth, 1980; the time to release (Shuman, 2006). attachment sites, and other structures. Dunsmuir, and Emberton, 1997). A one- When the prostate is removed, most Economy allows the prostate to serve way valve (the preprostatic sphincter) men experience some degree of incon- this role as well as the other roles noted prevents retrograde flow of semen. This tinence, usually lasting from three to six in this paper. �complex and intricate structure is very months, but sometimes lasting for the 234 Creation Research Society Quarterly rest of their lives (Dierich and Felecia, designed structure with many accessory ful comments on an earlier draft of this 2000). Post-prostatectomy incontinence structures, all of which are important, article. levels can range from total to incon- and none of which are vestigial as once tinence occurring only under certain taught by Darwinists. This brief review conditions, such as in the stress incon- can only outline some of the major References tinence condition. About 10 percent structures and functions of the prostate Baggish, J. 1996. Making the Prostate of all men experience extreme urinary itself. An example of one structure is Therapy Decision. Lowell House, Los incontinence after prostate surgery. This the utriculus prostatius. Once thought Angeles, CA. is often temporary, but may last for years to be useless, it is now known to be an Bloom, W., and D. Fawcett. 1969. A Textbook (Newman and Dzurinko, 1997; Burgio important accessory gland (Bloom and of Histology. Saunders, Philadelphia, et al., 1990). As Leach (2004, p. 1) notes, Fawcett, 1969, pp. 718–719). PA. loss of bladder control after prostate Bartelt, K. 1999. A central Illinois scientist surgery is a devastating complication responds to the black box. The Real that has a significant negative impact Summary News 7:1, 4. on quality of life. Those claiming that the prostate is Burgio, K. L., K. L. Pearce, and A. J. Lucco. The major cause of post-operation poorly designed usually show evidence 1990. Staying Dry: A Practical Guide prostatectomy incontinence is disrup- of a shallow knowledge of its many func- to Bladder Control. The Johns Hopkins tion of the involuntary sphincter muscle tions. To prove their claim, they need University Press, Baltimore, MD. at the bladder neck. This injury from the to propose a better design that deals Colby, C., and L. Petrich. 1993. Evidence surgery can be permanent or temporary equally well with its many functions and for jury-rigged design in nature. The Talk. due to swelling, leaving only the volun- requirements. Until then we must con- Origins Archive. http://www.talkorigins. tary lower sphincter. Lack of the prostate clude that the prostate is well designed org/faqs/jury-rigged.html (Accessed after surgery, though, also contributes for its many roles. The problem is not 9/15/07). to the problem. Because females lack poor design but infections, mutations, Cook, T., and W. P. Sheridan. 2000. Devel- a prostate to help control urine flow, teratogens, degeneration of the genome, opment of GnRH antagonists for prostate some feel this is one of several reasons and unhealthy behavior. cancer: new approaches to treatment. why women are much more likely to Board specialist in pathology, Ag- The Oncologist 5:162–168. suffer from incontinence. Incontinence atha Thrash, wrote that for all the pros- Coyne, J. 2006. Ann Coulter and Charles in women results mainly from sagging tate’s lowly credentials, it is an amazing Darwin. Coultergeist. The New Republic (prolapse) of the anterior vaginal wall piece of engineering (Thrash, 2006. Online. July 31, 2006. initiated by the trauma and stretching p. 1). The prostate’s several functions deGroat, W.C., and A.M. Booth. 1980. Physi- due to childbirth labor. Harvard Medi- include producing the conditions (such ology of male sexual function. Annuals of cal School MD, Andrew Weil wrote as the required pH) allowing sperm to Internal Medicine. 92:329–331. concerning prostatectomy: survive their trip from the testicles to Dierich, M., and F. Felecia. 2000. Over- Surgical removal of the prostate the fallopian tubes for fertilization. It coming Incontinence. Wiley, New York, gland is another expensive and pain- serves all of these tasks remarkably well. NY. ful operation, frequently resulting in After the childbearing years are past, the Dunsmuir, W., and M. Emberton. 1997. impotence and urinary dysfunction. prostate can cause problems, but from Surgery, drugs, and the male organism. It is done as treatment of benign a clinical standpoint, it is remarkably British Medical Journal 314:319 prostate hypertrophy (BPH) and free of disease even during these later Foster, C.S., and D.G. Bostwick. 1998. early stages of prostate cancer. In the years. Only in the fifth or sixth decade Pathology of the Prostate. Saunders, case of cancer, removal of the gland of life does it cause problems, usually Philadelphia, PA. is often unnecessary if the cancer is when long past its primarily reproduc- Garnick, M.B. 1996. The Patient’s Guide to not aggressive (Wallenchinsky and tive function. Prostate Cancer: An Expert’s Successful Wallace, 1993, p. 117). Treatment Strategies and Options. Pen- guin Books, New York, NY. Acknowledgements Katchadourian, H. A. 1989. Fundamentals Are Any Prostate Accessory I wish to thank Vij Sodera, MD, William of Human Sexuality, 5th Edition. Holt, Structures Vestigial? Morris, MD, Jody Allen, RN, David Rinehart, and Winston, New York, NY. As scientists study the prostate, they Deming, MD, E. Norbert Smith, PhD, Leach, G. 2004. Incontinence treatment have learned that it is a complex, well- and Clifford Lillo, MA, for their help- options for post-prostatectomy. Prostate Volume 44, Winter 2008 235

Cancer Research Institute Newsletter Lowell House, Los Angeles, CA. tors). 1984. Men’s Reproductive Health. 7(2)1–3. Nicholson, H. D. 1996. Oxytocin: a para- Springer Series: Focus on Men, Vol. 3. McNeal, J. 1998. Anatomy and normal crine regulator of prostatic function. Springer, New York, NY. histology of the human prostate. In Fos- Reviews of Reproduction 1:69–72. Thrash, A., M.D. 2006. Prostate disease ter, C.S., and D.G. Bostwick (editors), Shuman, T. 2006. Prostate Cancer:Urinary counseling sheet. Uchee Pines Institute, Pathology of the Prostate, pp. 19–34. Incontinence. The Cleveland Clinic Seale, AL. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA. Report, Cleveland, OH. Wallenchinsky, D., and A. Wallace. 1993. Morganstern, S., and A. Abrahams. 1996. The Snyder, P.J., H. Peachey, P. Hannoush, The Book of Lists: The 90s Edition. Little, Prostate Sourcebook. Updated edition. J.A. Berlin, L. Loh, D.A. Lenrow, J.H. Brown and Company, Boston, MA. Lowell House, Los Angeles, CA. Holmes, A. Dlewati, J. Santanna, and Wikipedia. 2006. Argument from poor de- Naz, R. K. (editor). 1997. Prostate: Basic C.J. Rosen. 1999. Effect of testosterone sign, a dysteleological argument against and Clinical Aspects. CRC Press, Boca treatment on body composition and the existence of god. www.wikipedia. Raton, FL. muscle strength in men over 65. Journal org. Of interest is the fact that this claim Newman, D.K., and M.K. Dzurinko, with of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabo- has been dropped in newer versions of foreword by Ananias C. Diokno. 1997. lism 84:2647–2653. this article, such as the version accessed The Urinary Incontinence Sourcebook. Swanson, J.M., and K.A. Forrest (edi- June 21, 2007.

Book Review Creation’s Sensible Sequence by John B. Mulder Publish America, Baltimore, 2007, 82 pages, $10.00.

This small book provides a clear “walk Thus, mammals are useful for food, and there are scores of known planets through the creation week.” Author John clothing, medical research, companion- beyond the seven members of the solar Mulder is a retired professor and veter- ship, transportation, work, sport, hunt- system (p. 38). The book has no fi gures narian living in Kansas. He effectively ing, protection, and entertainment.(p. or index. It concludes with a clear gospel challenges the big bang and nonliteral 44). A future book edition can clear up presentation. The author’s website is creation days, while favoring traditional some problems: The ocean tides are www.jmulder.org. creation ideas such as the vapor canopy not caused by earth magnetism (p. 32), theory. Major emphasis is given to the the Milky Way galaxy is not recognized Don DeYoung practical, benevolent aspects of creation. as the center of the universe (p. 34), [email protected] 236 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Book Review The Language of God by Francis Collins Free Press, New York, 2006, 295 pages, $26.00.

Author Francis Collins directed the rent naturalistic climate of the National claims that no serious biologist doubts highly successful Human Genome Pro- Academy of Science, Collins probably evolution (p. 99). As a member of the gram during 2000–2005. This project could not survive as a leading science American Scientifi c Affl iation (p. 198), cataloged the three billion letters of our spokesman if he challenged evolution- he apparently is unaware of the Cre- DNA molecular blueprint, the complete ary doctrine. ation Research Society membership. human genome. The data would fi ll two Collins believes that the alleged big Creationists are wrongly accused of million sheets of paper, a stack 555 feet bang singularity is a direct evidence insisting that every word of the Bible is high—as tall as the Washington Monu- of the Creator (p. 65). However, the literal (p. 175). In confl ict with conserva- ment (p. 2). The research laboratories author appears unaware of recent phys- tive theology and recent RATE fi ndings, of twenty genome centers around the ics-astronomy excursions into theoretical he interprets Genesis 1–2 as nonliteral world were utilized. eras before the big bang event. That is, poetry (p. 150). This best seller describes the author’s in secular science, the big bang is no Author Collins offers several evi- life struggles and achievements. Dr. longer the beginning of time, but just dences to support his evolutionary stand. Collins is a man of deep faith, and one episode in a larger picture of cosmic First, he claims there is no conflict numerous quotes show a strong infl u- history. Evolution is described as “utterly with the second law of thermodynam- ence from the writings of St. Augustine compelling” (p. 146). As a consequence, ics (p. 92). He explains that making a and C. S. Lewis. Francis’s parents were in Collins’s view, Adam and Eve were bed or planting a garden results in an 1960s-era free thinkers. They lived on a not literal people. Instead, we share a increase of order in one place, at the farm in Virgina with no indoor plumb- common ancestry with apes (p. 200). I expense of disorder elsewhere. Debate ing (p. 36). am unsure why Collins also challenges over the implications of the second law During his college days, Collins the historicity of Old Testament patri- has continued for years. Second, when drifted between agnosticism and atheism archs such as Jonah and Job (p. 209). Collins attempts to support macroevo- (p. 16). A turnabout came in medical Dr. Collins feels that the term “cre- lution, his examples are in the realm school when he observed the testimonies ationist” has been “hijacked” by literal- of microchanges including stickleback of terminally-ill patients. He also was im- ists (p. 172). Also, he does not like the fi sh and mutations of the AIDs virus (p. pressed with the pull of our conscience confusing label “theistic evolution.” As a 132). Third, imperfections in nature toward right behavior, called Moral result, he suggests the new word “biolo- are described, including our eyesight Law by C. S. Lewis in Mere Christian- gos” for those who accept God-directed (p. 191). Here, Collins is not current ity (1952). evolution. Others also have tried new on creation research and also does not A central chapter clearly explains titles in the past. Stephen Jay Gould consider implications of the curse on details of the Human Genome Program. suggested “non-overlapping magisteria” nature. Fourth, the intelligent design Also, a 38-page appendix surveys bioeth- for the distinct worlds of science and movement is challenged as a “God of ics. And where does Collins land in the religion. Astronomer Howard Van Till the gaps” approach, a ship that is headed creation-evolution issue? As expected, uses the term “fully- gifted creation.” “to the bottom of the ocean” (p. 195). but still disappointing, he fully embraces Collins writes strongly against the Collins suggests that our blood-clotting theistic evolution. Of course, in the cur- young-earth creation movement. He mechanism, and also the molecular Volume 44, Winter 2008 237 motor of bacteria, could form slowly important question: Can a person hold a out the gospel message of salvation in and by chance. These, he claims are consistent theistic evolution worldview detailed, crystal-clear fashion (p. 221). not irreducibly complex. Fifth, jumping and be a believer? That is, can he or she In spite of the fact that he runs with genes, molecular homology, and junk be a child of God, a part of the king- the macroevoltuionists, and is used by DNA are offered as further evidence for dom? There surely is a range of views them, it appears to me that Collins is a macroscopic evolution. However, each in our Quarterly readership, and only man of God. of these has been interpreted from the God knows the human heart. Yet, I am creationist worldview in this quarterly. much impressed with the testimony of Don DeYoung Let me conclude the review with an Francis Collins in this book. He spells [email protected]

Book Review Before the Dawn: Recovering the Lost History of our Ancestors by Nicholas Wade Penguin Group, New York, 320 pages, $25.00.

The new African genesis in Wade’s it happened 60,000 years ago in the anatomically similar races living on the book has a brave group of pilgrim African garden. Presumably the females same continent. Nevertheless Wade’s hominids trying to get out of Africa, but that pass through this checkpoint have fi nal breeding stock of 5,000 is shuffl ed Neanderthals have blocked the passes already conformed to the mitochondria with a fl orish, and out of it comes the Suez and Gibralter. It is 60,000 years signature of Mother Eve. Nicholas Wade two righteous genetic streams required ago, and inside the caravan is the holy is a science writer for the New York for the founding of the human race. All grail of prehistoric humanity, the true Times. He is not alone in thinking that the happy mutations of modern Homo mitochondrial DNA and the legitimate genetics would lend itself readily to a sapiens are accounted for, and their male y chromosome. These genetic grand unifi ed theory of evolution. Rather selecting pressure is itemized. Language credentials must be passed on invio- than a grand synthesis, however, genet- is brought forth as a more economical late. In ambush behind the rocks are ics has backed evolution into a corner. form of social grooming and to help with the age-old inhabitants of Eurasia, the If hominids out of Africa cohabit freely the organized hunt. Neanderthals, war clubs at the ready. with the preexisting cave people of Eur- Other milestones of human history This is the story Nicholas Wade sets up asia, they create an impure strain that is read like the paragraph headings of a in his best-selling book. And so another not consistent with genetics. No evolu- study Bible. Clothes become necessary theory is offered to prop up Darwinism tionary mechanism has been discovered to prevent sunburn after we “dropped” and make it fi t the unfolding facts of the that prevents this fatal merge. It would our body hair. Murder is recognized as human genome. be convenient to discover a plague that a glitch on our altruistic pathway, but Let’s review: the back-counting of could select against all the archaic cave- actually may be a sign of higher intel- the mutation rate of the y chromosome men and leftover Australopithecus. ligence: execution of a pesty neighbor demands a reducing valve to mark all By offering the war senario, Wade is would always trump the piecemeal effort male humanity. This founding event the fi rst popular science writer I know of just wounding him. becomes the fountainhead of all human- of to admit the problem and address ity, male and female. By common count, it. But war could never separate two Joe Fisher 238 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Proceedings of the Microbe Forum 2007, Answers in Genesis, Petersburg, Kentucky

Introduction rate baramins, or were they created as Evolutionary theory is quick to point For many years, the roles of microbes as parts of other organisms? Or were they out the relative “simplicity” of microbes part of God’s wonderful design have been created as part of the earth on day 3? and that they represent the common an- neglected. Creationist literature is largely These are just some of the intriguing cestor from which all of life has evolved. void of topics related to these tiniest of questions facing the fi eld of creation New discoveries reported almost daily creatures. Perhaps it is because many microbiology. show microbes are anything but simple. people associate microbes as the cause Recently, Dr. Joseph Francis has The ability of microbes to adapt to their of death, disease, and suffering. This is suggested that microbes form the “or- environment through various genetic true for only a fraction of microbes; the ganosubstrate” of life. They serve as mechanisms, such as in the case of an- large majorities are extremely vital for intermediaries between living things and tibiotic resistance, is often touted as an sustaining life on earth. Their roles range the physical world around them. Just as example of evolution in action. While from recycling nutrients in soil and water we have organelles (tiny organs) inside this leads to change within a bacterial to symbiotic relationships that provide our cells, microbes might be thought population, it doesn’t support the type necessary factors to their host. Their role of as extracellular organelles that help of change needed for microbes-to-man in death and disease is a result of the Fall living things interact with their environ- evolution. In addition, microbes are and the curse on all living things. ment. For instance, it is predicted that unique, differing from animals, plants, The task of creation microbiology microbes reside on every living creature and humans in their need for variety to is enormous, considering the number where they have been shown to play deal with changing environments that of microbial species that have yet to be long-term benefi cial and life-sustaining they may not be able to escape. discovered and characterized. Some roles, and thus it appears that microbes This forum was needed to draw on estimates put the number of bacterial could have been created as part(s) of the knowledge of biblical creation scien- species on earth at 10 million. If there each of the original baramins. Microbes tists from around the country who have is a unique bacteriophage species for are found in abundance in terrestrial been formally trained and specialize in every bacteria species, then the number and aquatic environments, where they microbiology. It was hoped that through of viral species could easily be estimated participate in all major biogeochemical this vital sharing of knowledge that ideas to be several orders of magnitude greater cycles. Therefore, microbes could have and models could be discussed and than 10 million. The task of understand- been created as part of the soil and dur- published to bring the topic of microbes ing and observing the microbial world ing the formation of the great bodies of to the forefront of creation biology. The is daunting when one considers that we water on earth. In addition, few microbes forum was held at Answers in Genesis have documented only around 5000 operate as isolated single-cell creatures; headquarters in Petersburg, Kentucky, bacterial species. In addition, there is many cooperate in intricate and complex June 26–29, 2007. much yet to be learned about algae, communities. Some microbes can form fungi, macroparasites and the enigmatic elaborate multicellular plantlike struc- “chimeric” lichens. Could there be other tures that include leaf, root, and stemlike Abstracts creatures composed entirely of microbes confi gurations. Perhaps microbes existed of which we are unaware? In addition, in these forms more commonly in the Creationist Model of how do we classify microbes taxonomi- pre-Fall garden than they do today. We Bacterial Mutations cally from a creation perspective? Do certainly are not seeing the full picture, Kevin Anderson they fi t into conventional or baraminic but we can observe remnants of the “very Mutations in a bacterial cell may affect taxonomical convention? How do we good” creation in the microbial world. the organism’s phenotype. This can view them biblically? What day were In this model, pathogenic microbes are play a key role in bacterial adaptation they created? What were they originally seen as a deviation from God’s original to changing environments. Such mu- created for? Were they created as sepa- plan, due to the Fall of man. tational adaptation appears to have de- Volume 44, Winter 2008 239 signed features and serves the organism’s the mutation usually becomes less ben- sites of the ribosomes, which is expected. survival and contribution to ecological efi cial and perhaps even detrimental. As In fact, eukaryote 80S cytosolic ribosome niches. However, creationists have such, benefi cial mutations in bacteria sequences are more conserved than tended to have an inconsistent view of fi t well in a creation model where bio- mitochondrial ribosomes in relation to such “benefi cial mutations” within a logical systems and functions were fully prokaryote ribosomes. Nearly all of the creation framework. formed at creation, and some subse- peripheral portions of the 55S ribosomes Various mutations can be shown to quent mutations can provide conditional are not homologous to 70S ribosomes in provide a benefi cial phenotype to bac- benefi ts even though the mutation is sequence or protein/rRNA content. terial populations. This phenotype can generally degenerative. Also, mutations It is widely accepted that the amount often undergo strong positive selection, give bacteria the ability to rapidly adapt of rRNA has been reduced over evolu- but the effects are generally temporary to ever changing environments and tionary time from prokaryotes to mam- and limited. Some common examples food sources. malian mitochondrial ribosomes and of beneficial mutations are those in- replaced by proteins recruited from the volved in adapting to stress conditions. How Do Mitochondrial nuclear genome. However, Reclinomo- For instance, adaptive mutations are a Ribosomes Fit into the nas americana, frequently presented unique phenomenon used by bacteria to Theory of Endosymbiosis? as a close link to prokaryotes, has more survive very specifi c stressful conditions. Daniel Criswell rRNA than most prokaryotes, as does The exact mechanism is controversial The endosymbiotic theory postulates the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and but appears to involve a mutation rate that eukaryotic cells arose from the the vinegar eel C. elegans has even less higher than random mutations would symbiosis of smaller aerobic prokaryotes rRNA than mammals. generate. Various mutations also enable living within a larger prokaryote. These The signifi cant differences in global bacteria to survive temporary exposure symbionts evolved an interdependence ribosome structure, sequence homol- to high temperatures or starvation. Such of biochemical systems leading to the ogy, and even evolutionary phylogeny mutations usually involve loss of certain development of eukaryotes with special- contradict the expectations of traditional sigma factors, DNA repair, or specifi c ized organelles such as mitochondria. endosymbiotic theory. Based on these regulatory controls. Antibiotic resistance The mitochondria of mammalian cells differences, the endosymbiotic theory of is another example of stress survival. and other eukaryotes are theorized to be eukaryotic origins should be rejected. Some mutations potentially enable the the descendents of aerobic prokaryotes bacterium to survive exposure to various that were engulfed by larger prokaryotes. Creation Microbiology and antibiotics, but the resistance results This assumption was based partly on the Origin of Disease from loss or reduction of preexisting the notion that ribosomes found in the Joseph Francis activities such as enzymatic, regulatory, mitochondria would be similar to the Many pathogenic microbes appear to be or transport systems. Other examples in- 70S ribosomes found in prokaryotes. altered when compared to non-disease- clude several subpopulations of mutant However, it is now apparent that ribo- causing microbes. Creationists suggest strains of bacteria obtained over a period somes in mammalian mitochondria and that this alteration may have occurred of up to 20,000 generations. These mu- other eukaryotes are unique, with little as a result of the Fall. However, some tants have a greater “fi tness” than the resemblance to prokaryote ribosomes. microbes may cause disease, not be- wild-type strain. However, analysis shows Prokaryote 70S ribosomes are 2/3 cause they are altered in some fashion that most contained deletion mutations ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) and (through genetic changes), but because in various genes. 1/3 protein by weight, while mammalian they have spread to a location that allows These examples entail mutations mitochondrial 55S ribosomes are 2/3 them to invade an organism they were that are phenotypically benefi cial under protein and 1/3 rRNA, making the 55S not created to interact with. certain environmental conditions. How- ribosome heavier but more porous than Consider, for instance, the cholera- ever, these mutations also frequently the 70S ribosomes. Structural analysis causing bacterium Vibrio cholera. This eliminate or reduce preexisting cellular has confi rmed this and shows that the in- bacterium secretes several factors that systems and functions. This has been ternal structures of prokaryote ribosomes are involved in virulence. However some referred to as antagonistic pleiotropy, versus mitochondrial ribosomes are of these same virulence factors have a temporary benefi t for surviving one quite different. There is no signifi cant been shown to promote growth of Vibrio environmental condition at the expense sequence homology between mitochon- cholera on chitin. Chitin is the most of systems used for other environments. drial and prokaryote ribosome nucleic abundant polysaccharide in the ocean If the environmental conditions change, acids or proteins except at the functional because it is a major component of 240 Creation Research Society Quarterly many exosekeleton-bearing sea creatures explained by a combination of factors, more likely to become pathogenic via like shrimp, lobsters, and crabs. Vibrio including mutations, mobile genes, and transduction or another undetermined cholera and other Vibrio species appear man’s protective defense mechanisms. mechanism(s). Future investigations to be intricately involved in the degratory The hypothesis is that a common pattern will explore this inverse relationship of cycle of chitin and appear more fi t for in the origin of bacterial diseases found prodigiosin production with motility this environment than other locations in many is the modification and dis- (i.e. fl agella), pathogenicity, and host in which they are found. The Vibrio placement of originally ‘good’ bacteria. dependency. Germ genesis in S. marc- cholera-induced breakdown of chitin A common focus among creationists escens (from saprophyte to pathogen) promotes a major infl ux of carbon into has been the degeneracy in genomic appears to be a good model of bacteria the ocean environment. Several events pathways that lead to pathogenesis. Most that fi rst lost metabolic pathways, then must occur to move Vibrio cholera from bacterial diseases are too complex to be acquired foreign genes (phages), and the chitin-rich environment into a loca- the result of the simple deterioration fi nally had its DNA “stirred.” A once tion where they cause disease in humans. of a bacterial genome. A more likely harmless saprophyte has now become For instance, Vibrio cholera is found genome “recipe” for germ genesis is to an opportunistic pathogen. off the coasts of many countries, but reduce, add, and “stir” the DNA. The cholera occurs as an epidemic in only loss of genomic and metabolic pathways Viral/Bacterial Attenuation a few locations. In addition, epidemics has been typically understated in the and Its Link to Innate Oncolytic tend to take place after the occurrence evolutionary biology literature. Potential: Implications of of certain extreme weather conditions. The bacterium Serratia marcescens the Perfect Original Creation Furthermore, there is some evidence may serve as a model for genomic decay in the Beginning to suggest that cholera toxin, which leading to pathogenicity. Serratia marc- Luke Kim causes major loss of salts from the hu- escens is noted for the production of a The Bible tells us that microorganisms man body, may promote life-sustaining bright red pigment called prodigiosin. such as bacteria and viruses were cre- salt metabolism changes in sea creatures The metabolic pathways involved in ated by the Lord (Col. 1:16). Since the that move from freshwater to saltwater prodigiosin production are numerous discovery of microorganisms, they have environments. and complex, so mutations affecting any been mainly recognized as disease-caus- From a creation view, it appears then of these pathways could result in loss of ing agents. However, most microorgan- that the origin of microbial-based disease pigment production. Most (70–93%) isms are benign (indirectly benefi cial) or has at least two primary causes: (1) post- Serratia infections are caused by natu- benefi cial to humans or other organisms. Fall genetic alteration of the original rally occurring white mutants, which For example, recent cancer/molecular good microbe and/or (2) post-Fall dis- also often bear antigenic fl agella and biology studies show that many benign placement or movement of the microbe appear to be more host dependent. or attenuated bacteria/viruses are pow- from the site where it performed its In the initial stages, we seek to devel- erful anticancer agents, specifically benefi cial function. This work was fi rst op and elucidate a research model using targeting cancer cells while sparing the presented at the fi fth annual meeting Serratia marcescens. UV irradiation can normal ones. Even pathogenic strains of of the Creation Biology Study Group, transform prodigiosin-producing organ- bacteria and viruses can be attenuated 2006 (Occasional Papers of the BSG isms into non-producing white mutants. to convert them to oncolytic viruses 8:14, 2006). In our experiments to maximize random or bacteria. Currently, some of these mutations correlated with loss of prodigi- oncolytic viruses and bacteria are being Using Serratia marcescens as a osin, radiation time infl uenced mortality used for various stages of clinical trials Model to Elucidate Aspects of and the number of white mutants that for anticancer therapy. Germ Genesis in Bacteria grew. The degeneracy of prodigiosin The Bible suggests (Gen. 3:18) that Alan L. Gillen production in our experiments has some post-Fall viral/bacterial oncolytic activ- For creationists, biblical studies and cur- similarity (i.e. some UV white mutants ity may have arisen as a phenotypic rent microbiological research suggests have greater motility and have lost some extension of preexisting normal viral/ that factors leading to pathogenicity in metabolic capabilities) to that in clini- bacterial activities (possibly serving a bacteria may be attributed to the fall of cal strains (933 and WF), suggesting a role as apoptosis inducer, activator of man and the curse on the original “good” possible link to pathogenicity. The initia- cellular signalling pathways, etc.) due creation, which is now undergoing de- tion rate and degree of pathogenicity in to a change to harsh biological environ- cay. The origin of bacterial diseases is the UV white mutants is unknown, but ments. Ubiquitousness and persistence complex and multifaceted and may be those that develop numerous fl agella are of these microbes in the biological eco- Volume 44, Winter 2008 241 system strongly implicate a benefi cial upstream of the ERV. Furthermore, ex- understanding of fungal biology stems microbe-host interaction in the original pression of syncytins is under the control from research on plant pathogenic fungi. creation and subsequent disruption of of host sex hormones. If the syncytins are Since the Fall, many plant-fungal inter- the benefi cial microbe-host interaction indeed essential for mammalian repro- actions have deteriorated into parasitic after the Fall. Nonetheless, due to their duction, they appear to be components and/or pathogenic relationships: biotro- genetic flexibility, some viruses and of an irreducibly complex system that phic, hemibiotrophic, and necrotrophic bacteria today still display some of their have to be created together to perform interactions. These interactions result original/derivative functions, such as on- the intended function. in famine and potential contamination colytic activity. The study of benefi cial These fi ndings suggest that at least of crops with toxins harmful to humans microbe-host interactions will help us some ERVs must have been incorpo- and animals. Also of concern is the comprehend the correct biological view rated into the initial design of eukaryotic expansion of medically relevant fungi. of microorganisms (before and after the life. Exogenous retroviruses might have Fungal pathogens are diffi cult to treat Fall) from a biblical perspective. been created simultaneously for the in humans and animals due to the simi- maintenance of ERVs or for transduc- lar biochemistry of fungal and animal Endogenous Retroviruses: tion of cellular genes. systems. Recent research demonstrates Remnants of Germline Infection a possible mechanism for the rise of or Created in the Cell? Pathogenicity Tools and animal pathogenesis in fungi: co-opting Yingguang Liu Mycotoxins: In the Beginning of environmentally relevant survival The genomes of all vertebrates and or after the Fall? mechanisms for survival in the host en- humans harbor multiple copies of en- Ira S. Lucks vironment. More research is needed dogenous retroviruses (ERVs), most of Fungi are amazing organisms. As a to elucidate the means by which these which are replication-defi cient. The en- group, they have colonized practi- originally “very good” microorganisms dogenization theory has been proposed cally every ecological niche on earth. devolved into the destructive pests and by evolutionists to explain the origin of Originally created “very good,” certain pathogens they have become. ERVs, i.e., they diverged from exogenous fungal interactions have degenerated retroviruses that infected the germline of over time, resulting in serious human Adaptive Mutation and the host’s ancestors. The best evidence and animal diseases. Fungi are also the E. coli ebg Operon for the theory is that some modern ex- capable of producing powerful com- Georgia Purdom ogenous viruses can infect the germline pounds called mycotoxins, which are Much research has been done on the ebg and be inherited. However, the theory products of the nonessential processes (“evolved β-galactosidase”) operon of is contradicted by several obvious facts: of secondary metabolism. Mycotoxins the bacterium Escherichia coli over the 1. Stable endogenization of modern are a type of secondary metabolite, and last 30 years. It has been observed that exogenous retroviruses is rare in nature. as such are not normally required for in this operon specifi c mutations occur 2. Xenotropic ERVs reside in cells that normal growth and reproduction. In (at codons 92 and 977 in the ebgA gene have no receptor for them. 3. Essential fact, one particular mycotoxin, ergot that codes for the ebg β-galactosidase) benefi cial functions of some ERV genes alkyloid, may have been the cause of that enable the bacterium to metabolize and irreducibly complex coordination the Salem Witch Trials. Consumption lactose suffi ciently to allow growth. In- between ERVs and host DNA sequences of ergot alkyloid can result in halluci- terestingly, these mutations occur when argue for coexistence of ERVs and the nations, convulsions, and gangrene of an E. coli lacZ- (gene for β-galactosidase host from the beginning. the extremities. Other mycotoxins are in the lac operon) population undergoes Several instances of benefi cial ERVs potent carcinogens, while others are carbon starvation in the presence of lac- have been observed. Recently, there immunosuppressive. However, other tose. These mutations have been termed has been much investigation on the secondary metabolites are useful. Many “adaptive mutations,” as they are not function and regulation of syncytins, antibiotic drugs including penicillin and found when the bacteria are subjected which are the env proteins of ERVs. cyclosporin are secondary metabolites. to different adverse environmental con- Syncytins have been shown to be critical Likewise, many cholesterol-lowering ditions. Adaptive mutations are widely for inducing cell fusion during placenta drugs are based on the “statin” class of accepted as an example of “evolution development. Effi cient tissue-specifi c secondary metabolites. in action.” expression of human syncytin-1 requires Fungi have been important in Hall’s work needs critical evaluation. cis-acting elements in both the ERV and agriculture for centuries as both com- Mutations in the Ebg system are clearly host sequences (including an enhancer) modities and crop pests. Much of our not an example of evolution but of muta- 242 Creation Research Society Quarterly

tion and natural selection, allowing for Fall. For example, the bacterium Vibrio ary sense. Examples include Naegleria adaptation to the environment. A major cholera causes the human intestinal (Order Schizopyrinida), causative agent implication of this research is an under- disease cholera. The infection is deadly of primary amebic meningoencephalitis. standing that adaptive mutation makes because of the toxin the bacteria secrete. The parasite must adapt from a bifl agel- limited changes, which severely restrict Could this toxin have had an alternative lated form without pseudopodia in water its use as a mechanism for evolution. function before the Fall? A very similar to an actively reproducing stage in a host Adaptive mutations can readily fi t toxin is produced by V. fi scheri, a curi- that is able to avoid or neutralize the within a creation model, where adaptive ous light-emitting symbiotic bacterium sophisticated immune system response. mechanisms are a designed feature of found in the Hawaiian bobtail squid. V. This also includes the parasite’s ability bacteria. Further understanding of these fi scheri is not fatal to the squid but are in to immediately adjust physiologically to mutations in the ebg operon may help a complex symbiotic relationship— in the new environment of the host (i.e., the development of a creation model for return for producing light, the bacteria temperature, pH, electrolyte gradients, adaptation of bacterial populations in receive nutrients from the squid. Could CO2/O2 concentrations, etc.). response to the adverse environmental this also be true for protozoa that may Carl Zimmer said in Natural History conditions in a post-Fall, post-Flood have had a mutualistic existence in (Sept., 2000) that parasites were perhaps world. man before the Fall? Or did they adapt the dominant force in the evolution of (resulting in parasitism) after the Fall, life. Creation scientists counter that Creation, Evolution and particularly after the Flood, when there parasites do not contribute to change Protozoan Parasites were drastic environmental conditions but had benefi cial roles as a part of God’s Frank Sherwin requiring rapid changes? Adaptation “very good” original creation and have Parasites are viewed as odious creatures for some protozoa would possibly be degenerated leading to their collabora- (indeed, most are!) tolerated and studied signifi cant, but not in a macroevolution- tion in the effects of the Curse. only because of economic impact and misery given to beast and man. What does science really know regarding pro- tozoan parasite origin? Scripture doesn’t say anything about parasites, but they are living creatures Worldview Affects Scientific Interpretation: and therefore had to be created by God. Same Data, Different Conclusions But God’s original creation was very good, which means these creatures at Many evolutionists would have you believe that creationists cannot conduct one time briefly had a good/neutral real science. These evolutionists have used their powerful positions function. There are extant protozoa liv- in the scientific community to consistently censor any research ing mutualistically in some termites and with a creationist viewpoint from publication in scientific journals. ambrosia beetles that secrete cellulolytic This is not because of inferior science by creation scientists, enzymes. Such degradation results in a source of nutrition, while the protozoa but from their preconceived biases. derive protection in the insect gut. I would like to present a possible Now you can meet creation scientists, examine their original scientific research origin of protozoan parasites from a firsthand, and ask your own questions about origins research. creation worldview. Four groups are addressed: Plasmodium, trypanosomes, Join our Creation Research Conference on April 11–13, 2008, ciliates, and amebas. The creationist and hear presentations by several scientists from the Creation Research Society. must confront the question of their origin (as with all parasites): Were they Grace Bible Church present before the Fall in a dormant 3625 South 19 Avenue capacity, or did they have some other Bozeman, Montana function? Protozoan populations may Free admission have lived symbiotically or mutualisti- cally in man and animal before the Fall, For more information call 406-587-0455 or email [email protected]. only to take on a parasitic mode after the Volume 44, Winter 2008 243

The policy of the editorial staff of CRSQ is to allow letters to the editor to express a variety of views. As such, the content of all letters is solely the opinion of the author, and does not necessarily refl ect the opinion of the CRSQ editorial staff or the Creation Research Society.

Postmodernism and Relativism

Thanks to Dr. Kevin Anderson for the the contributions of Derrida, Foucault, denies not only Christianity, but also the timely editorial in the Fall 2007 issue of Lyotard, and others. Postmodernism research method of natural science that the Quarterly. No doubt I am far from (or deconstructionism, contextualism, Christianity spawned (cf. Reed, 2001). the only one to point out how post- poststructuralism, or “nonreason,” to modernism is inimical to the scientifi c quote Francis Schaeffer’s prescient Anderson, K. 2007. “Postmodern creation- method (Klevberg, 2000, pp. 38, 39, 43). description) denies universals, leaving ists?” CRSQ 44:73–74. His description of his encounter with it with only particulars. This can only Klevberg, P. 2000. “The philosophy of se- the college professor and the path of equate with relativism. It is also the quence stratigraphy—Part II: application the “emergent church” is important for child of existentialism, which is also to stratigraphy.” CRSQ 37:36–46. all of us to understand. My only quarrel relativistic. It is, as Schaeffer called it, Reed, J.K. 2001. Natural history in the with his editorial is his statement that “antiphilosophy.” Postmodernism is not Christian worldview. Creation Research “relativism began to creep into many just a rejection of modernism’s claims of Society Books, St. Joseph, MO. postmodernist writings” (Anderson, universals based on human reason and 2007, p. 73). It did not; relativism is experience alone; it is also a rejection of Peter Klevberg foundational to postmodernism, as any claims for universals. That clearly Great Falls, MT clearly seen in its development through

Response to “Postmodernism and Relativism” Errata I agree with Mr. Klevberg that relativism Mr. Klevberg and I both agree, it is an On page 155 of the Fall is foundational to postmodernism. My integral part of their philosophy, regard- CRSQ, the following sentence comment was meant to refl ect that post- less of their desire to distance themselves appears: “When the environ- modernists (certainly those with whom from it. mental temperature drops to I have corresponded) do not associate freezing, or 0 degrees Celsius, themselves with relativism. However, as Kevin Anderson, Ph.D. the spadix temperature can be Editor maintained at 25 degrees Cel- sius, or 45 degrees Fahrenheit (Knutson, 1972).” This should read “77 degrees Fahrenheit.”

In “The Range of Sizes of Ga- lactic Supernova Remnants” in the March 2007 CRSQ, there is an error in Appendix B on page 247. The relation D = 1000 π θ d/ (180 x 60) should have been written as D = π θ d/ (180 x 60). 244 Creation Research Society Quarterly

CRSnet Brochures

It may be of interest to the CRS member- Man, Geology, Catastrophe, Astronomy, delphia. For more information, contact ship that a number of us involved with Bible & Church. Paul G. Humber: paulhumber@Verizon. the Society’s email forum, the CRSnet, If nothing else, these two works can net or www.CRMinistriesPhilly.com, have recently produced two brochures. refresh our own minds in order to be 327 Green Lane, Philadelphia, PA These are: Reasons to Reject Evolution better prepared when questions arise. 19128, (215) 483-9846. and Reasons to Affi rm a Young Earth. Early reports indicate these publications Meanwhile may I encourage other The fi rst piece lists thirty reasons to are already having an impact. CRS members to consider joining us set aside the idea of evolution. While The group is presently working on on the CRSnet. Information on how the reasons are not exhaustive in their a third piece. Although yet to be titled, to join can be found elsewhere in this explanations, they present enough the concept is to address additional CRSQ. thought that a person might be encour- problems with evolution. aged to take a closer look at what he Each of these brochures is attractive Sincerely, or she believes to be true. The second and a good evangelistic tool. They are Dan Schobert piece lists fi fty reasons to question the inexpensive and easily available. Plover, Wis 54467 old earth position. These reasons are The work on these was under the [email protected] collected under: Dinosaurs & Humans, guiding hand of Paul Humber of Phila-

Erratum In “Lava Extrusion and the Age of Iceland,” page 135 of the Fall CRSQ, the following fi gure should have ap- peared as Figure 21.

Figure 21. Comparison of three disparate historic plate motion scenarios. The accepted spreading rate between the North American and Eurasian plates is approximately 19 mm per year (Feigl et al., 2000, pp. 25, 655; Jónsson et al., 1997, pp. 11, 918), but the great disparity between this accepted value and observations has prompted some to look for a “leaky microplate” solution (Foulger and Anderson, 2005). Volume 44, Winter 2008 245

Minutes of the 2007 Creation Research Society Board of Directors Meeting

On Thursday, 7 June 2007 a meeting of research, publications, fi nance, mem- number of voting members decreased the Board of Directors (BOD) was held bership, Quarterly, Creation Matters and slightly, while the number of sustaining at the Embassy Suites Motel, Phoenix, constitution/bylaws/advanced planning and student members increased slightly. Arizona, from 1900 hours to 2100 hours committees each met separately for Members and subscribers in the USA to plan for the committee meetings and approximately one and one-half hours and outside the USA numbered 1,536 to proceed with some preliminary ac- to plan for the closed business meeting and 186, respectively. There were 277 tions, e.g., approval of the 2006 minutes, on Saturday. During lunch, a fi nancial life members, 240 senior members, and budget instructions, and reports from the presentation was made by Darline 223 library subscribers. lab and periodicals committees. Present Wood, who is currently doing the annual A lengthy discussion was held regard- were: M. Armitage, T. Aufdemberge, E. accountant reviews for CRS. During ing the impact of new postal rates on Chaffi n, D. DeYoung, R. Humphreys, supper, special presentations the cost of the postage surcharge G. Howe, D. Kaufmann, L. Lester, for foreign memberships and M. Oard, R. Samec, and G. subscriptions. The two categories Wolfrom, and staff members K. for surface mail (“economy” for and D. Anderson. Not able to single mailings, and “books” for attend: D. Faulkner, G. Locklair, bulk mailings) have been elimi- J. Reed, and D. Rodabaugh. The nated by the United States Postal 2006 minutes were approved as Service. The new foreign mail published in the CRSQ. Armitage category, called “First Class reported that the following were Mail International” (FCMI), elected to a three-year term to is essentially equivalent to the the BOD: D. DeYoung, R. Hum- old airmail rates (with an addi- phreys, D. Kaufmann, L. Lester, G. tional price increase). On the Locklair, and R. Samec. positive side, delivery time will The lab committee report by be signifi cantly improved for those who DeYoung stated that in the com- were made to board members for years had previously received the journal by ing year the number of trees on the lab of service: Russ Humphreys (15 years) surface mail. However, for most of our property will be reduced, some shingles and George Howe (41 years). members and subscribers outside the will be replaced on the publications On Saturday, 9 June 2007 the meet- USA, there will be a substantial increase building, the lab and book building will ing of the full BOD was held at the Em- in membership and subscription rates to be painted, the mailbox will be moved bassy Suites Motel (Phoenix, Arizona) capture the increased cost of postage. to the same side of the highway as the from 0830 hours to 1230 hours. Present The new, board-approved annual rates lab, and the RV that had been donated were: M. Armitage, T. Aufdemberge, E. are listed in Table I. to the CRS will be sold. Chaffi n, D. DeYoung, R. Humphreys, Because of the additional burden The periodicals committee reported G. Howe, D. Kaufmann, L. Lester, M. that this postage increase places on our its recommendations for payment of Oard, R. Samec, G. Wolfrom, and staff international supporters, the member- part-time staff, the activities of its editors, members K. and D. Anderson. Not able ship committee recommended, and and the possible addition of new section to attend: D. Faulkner, G. Locklair, J. the Board approved, a paperless option editors for the Quarterly. The recom- Reed, and D. Rodabaugh. for which the members will have all mendations of the committee were ap- The membership committee re- the benefits of membership but will proved by the board. The meeting was ported that the total of memberships and not receive printed copies of the CRSQ adjourned at 2100 hours. subscriptions for the past membership and Creation Matters. This includes, On Friday, 8 June 2007 the BOD year (June 2006–May 2007) remained of course, the benefi t of access to the and staff traveled to the Van Andel stable at 1722. The breakdown by cat- electronic version of these publications Creation Research Center (VACRC) in egory was: voting, 690; sustaining, 710; via the website. The annual cost of the Chino Valley, where the lab, Internet, subscriber, 298; and student, 24. The paperless option will be $31 for regular 246 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Table I. Membership and subscription rates.

Printed copies of publications Canada, Other Paperless (access to Category US Mexico Countries electronic versions only) Regular members (voting / sustaining) $35 $53 $70 $31 Senior and student members $30 $48 $65 $26 Subscribers $38 $56 $73 not yet available

members, $26 for seniors and students. reasons. It was passed that we accept The constitution committee report For the near future, the paperless option Master Books as our copublisher under resulted in the BOD’s passing a proposal cannot be made available to subscribers. arrangements discussed. We are having to delete the offi ce of fi nancial secretary These fee changes will become effective Master Books publish all future road from Article I of the bylaws. The trea- as soon as the application forms and web- logs. Also, the second edition of the Carl surer will assume the functions of the site information can be updated. Addi- Froede book will be published by Master fi nancial secretary. This amendment tionally, the committee recommended, Books, with the stipulation that CRS will be voted on at our 2008 annual and the Board approved, an immediate purchase the fi rst 500. Master Books also meeting after notifi cation of all BOD increase in the life membership fee from will publish the Oard/Reed book under members prior to the meeting. $350 to $500. the tentative title: Rock Solid Answers: The Internet committee reported The publications committee report- Responses to Popular Objections to Bibli- that the visits to the CRS website (www. ed that overall book sales have declined cal Geology. creationresearch.org) appear to have lev- by 4%, but the number of orders has The CRSQ on CD will again be eled off in the last year. The most recent remained the same, meaning that the updated by George Hunter. monthly statistics reveal approximately amount per order has declined slightly. The member discount in the CRS 76,000 “page-reviews” and 38,000 unique Also, the committee reported they are bookstore will be continued and will “sessions.” Total website income for the well under budget for various be evaluated at the next BOD past year (including memberships and meeting. A sum of $5000 was donations as well as publication sales) proposedproposed fforor aann uupgradepgrade ooff was down 3.3%. Revenue from Internet the online bookstore. There publication sales alone decreased 16%. was a discussion of steps to The Web site continues to serve as the market books by using the primary source (85%) of new members. newsletter to advertise new A list of current e-mail address aliases books. There is already a using the “creationresearch.org” domain promotion of new books was distributed. At the conclusion of the online. membership year (May 31), there were 577 registrants for the members-only area of the website, compared to 450 for the previous year. The primary feature of the members-only section is immediate access to the current CRS periodicals. The Web site’s directory of local and in- ternational will be updated by M. Armit- age. We will investigate improvements and upgrades to the Web site that might help streamline member-discounted purchases through the online bookstore. A modest gift will be awarded to our volunteer webmaster, Fred Williams, Volume 44, Winter 2008 247 in recognition of his much-appreciated year. He stated that this investment will the hope that we will not need this. The service to the society. give us an estimated 6.7% return in our fi nancial secretary asked to be relieved of Two other Internet-related activities investments. The fi nance committee his responsibilities after completing his were reported. First, CRSnet remains recommended to the BOD that the duties for the 2007–08 fi scal year. This viable as the listserv-based, e-mail discus- fi nancial secretary be allowed to base request was granted. sion forum for the society. Approximately future reports on a yearly basis beginning It was passed to nominate T. Aufdem- 200 members are registered, with about with May 1 and ending April 30. This berge, D. Faulkner, M. Oard, and D. 160 participants receiving the numerous motion was passed. The BOD approved Rodabaugh for the 2008 BOD election. daily e-mails on various topics. Second, the fi nance committee’s recommenda- It was passed to set the BOD size at 14 a CRS Weblog (www.crsblog.org) has tion that the CRS offi ce in Chino Valley for the coming year. been created to focus additional atten- be permitted to open a money market ac- The following offi cers were elected tion on the CRS. Abstracts from publicly count into which they may invest surplus for 2007–08: President, D. DeYoung; available CRSQ articles are “blogged,” funds until they are needed. Vice President, E. Chaffi n; Recording together with links to the full articles on The BOD also passed the fi nance Secretary, D. Kaufmann; Treasurer, the Web site. committee’s recommendation that the G. Locklair; Financial Secretary, T. The research committee reported fi nancial secretary send to the offi ces Aufdemberge; and Membership Secre- that two new proposals and extensions in Chino Valley the amount our invest- tary, G. Wolfrom. of funding for four old projects were ap- ments earned during the 2006–07 fi scal It was passed to hold our 2008 proved. Mark Armitage, George Howe, year, minus the amount the CRS would BOD meeting on June 13, 14 and 15 and Michael Oard reported ongoing have earned in interest had we not at Answers in Genesis headquarters in research that is supported by the research borrowed from ourselves. The fi nance Petersburg, Kentucky. committee. committee presented to the BOD an The meeting was adjourned at 1230 The fi nancial secretary’s preliminary unbalanced budget. The BOD passed a hours. report showed that the value of our budget of $307,800 by authorizing the investments grew by almost 10% dur- borrowing of up to $24,000 from the Respectfully submitted, ing the fi rst eleven months of this fi scal CRS’s non-endowment investments with David A. Kaufmann, Recording Secretary

Book Review Atlas of Creation, Vol. 1 by Harun Yahya Global Publishing, Talatpasa Mah. Emirgazi Caddesi Ibrahim Elmas Is Merkezi A Blok Kat 4 Okmeydani, Istanbul, Turkey, 2007, 800 pages, No price listed.

The appearance of this book is awe- The tome weighs 13 pounds (6 kg) is no fossil justifi cation for evolution. This inspiring, but its underlying message and has a heavy red cover 38 cm long, 27 is a verbal echo of the book’s emphasis, could be alarming. Major themes are cm wide and 5 cm thick. Accompanying even though standard mainline geologi- creation, anti-Darwinism, especially the book is a CD with an hour-long illus- cal dating is not questioned. For example, from the fossil record with more than trated and music-punctuated commen- The Mesozoic era was “248 to 65 million 600 full-color pages, and the promotion tary, primarily on the fossil record. It states years ago” (p. 35). of Islam, which the author considers to repeatedly that fossil forms are exactly the The specified author is Harun be “true religion” (p. 2). same as living specimens today and there [Aaron] Yahya [John], which is a pen 248 Creation Research Society Quarterly name for Adnan Oktar (p. 4). There for Creation Research, Answers in Gen- “is a religion of peace and well-being” are fascinating critiques of this man on esis, Geoscience Research Institute, and (p. 622). Turkish web sites. Beyond the 800 pages Creation Ministries International are not I obtained a copy of the Koran from a of the volume are another 20 pages referenced. However, there are citations local mosque in New Jersey, and I find it picturing additional books by Yahya from some recent scholarly anti-evolu- to be a mélange. Some quotes follow per- and translations of them. Each of these tionary books, including Evolution: A taining to so-called peace and toleration: pages has colored photos of the covers Theory in Crisis (M. Denton,1985), The “The Jews have striven against Allah’s re- of 36 different books, totaling about 700 Mystery of Life’s Origin (C. Thaxton et vealed order”(Part 6, Surah 5 Al-ma’ida, different books. Author Yahya’s 1956 al., 1984), The Origin of Species Revisited 32 commentary); “The only reward of birth was in Ankara, and he is Turkish- (D. Forsdyke, 2001), Darwin Retried (N. those who made war upon Allah and His university educated. Macbeth, 1971), Of Pandas and People messenger and strive after corruption in Darwinism, the author says, “is the (P. Davis et al.,1989), Darwin’s Black Box the land will be that they will be killed biggest scandal in history, founded en- (M. Behe, 1996 ), and Icons of Evolution or crucified, or have their hands and feet tirely on lies, fraud, and irrational and (Wells, 2000). on alternate sides cut off, or they will be illogical claims” (p. 587). When Allah Yahya writes dogmatically, for ex- expelled out of the land” (Part 6, Surah wants something, “He merely says ‘Be!’ ample, “Not one single fossil has pointed 5 Al-ma’ida, 33); “Slay the polytheists and it is.” (Part 1, Surah 2 Al-baqara, to any transition between living species” wherever you find them, and take them 117). Thus we have “flawless [intelli- (p. 19). He claims there are no changes (captive) and besiege them, and lie in gent] design” (p. 627). when fossil plants and animals are ambush for them everywhere”(Part 10, On page 794, when dealing with compared with living types. But he does Surah 9 At-tawba, 5); “If they [converts time as a “relative perception,” Yahya indicate that, for humans and other crea- to Islam] turn back (to enmity) then says that “time may flow at different tures, the changes all would be within seize them and slay them wherever you paces in different settings” and quotes the species (p. 587). Interestingly, the find them” (Part 5, Surah 4 An-nisa, 89); Surat al-Hajj, 47, which says, “Verily Koran indicates that Allah “created man “Fighting is obligatory for you, though a Day in the sight of your Lord is like from a clinging clot” (Part 30, Surah 96 it be disliked by you” (Part 2, Surah 2 a thousand years of your reckoning” At-alaq, 2). Al-baqara, 216); “Fight against those (also see Part 21, Surah 32 As-sajda, 5). On page 729 is a diagram of dog from among the People of the Scripture Interestingly, the Bible clearly stated this variation. A type of wolf is shown to be who do not believe in Allah...and who concept more than half a millennium the ancestor of the dog varieties. But the do not adopt the religion of truth” (Part earlier (2 Peter 3:8). The author’s advice wolf actually is classified in a different 10, Surah 9 At-tawba, 29). is to “get a Qur’an as soon as possible and species from modern dogs. So for this Yahya’s book represents a massive read God’s book with an open heart and reason, the biblical term “kind” would amount of work in collecting and com- a conscientious and unprejudiced view have been preferable to “species” for this piling material in an absolutely beauti- and learn the original religion from its larger group. ful presentation. But with all of its size true source” (p. 744). However, Christi- According to Yahya, “Darwinism and beauty, basically it is like a meal of anity predates the Qur’an by more than and the materialist philosophy it sup- somewhat older science flavored strongly 500 years. ports” (p. 616) led to Nazism, Commu- with Islam. I personally, as a scientist The book has more than 200 sources nism, and terrorism. There is a photo of and creationist, feel that the response of cited in footnotes and endnotes, the the smoking twin towers in New York scholars to the book will be much more most recent treatise being 2001. Only City for which he essentially blames negative than positive. five publications from 2000-2001 are Darwinism, “the root of the terrorism” listed. Leading scholarly creationist (p. 621). Then Yahya turns around and Wayne Frair, Ph. D. literature from the Creation Research proclaims that Islam (along with Christi- 1131 Fellowship Road Society, Creation Science Fellowship, anity and Judaism, p. 621) is the solution Basking Ridge NJ 07920 Creation Science Movement, Institute for terrorism because it is tolerant and Volume 44, Winter 2008 249

Instructions to Authors

Submission Appearance Submit an original plus two copies of each manuscript to Manuscripts shall be computer-printed or neatly typed. Lines the editor of the Creation Research Society Quarterly (see the should be double-spaced, including figure legends, table inside front cover for address). Concurrent submission of an footnotes, and references. All pages should be sequentially electronic version (Word, WordPerfect, or Rich Text Format) numbered. Upon acceptance of the manuscript for publica- of the manuscript text and graphics is also encouraged. The tion, an electronic version is requested (Word, WordPerfect, manuscript and graphics will not be returned to authors unless or Rich Text Format), with the graphics in separate electronic a stamped, self-addressed envelope accompanies submission. files. However, if submission of an electronic final version is Manuscripts containing more than 30 pages are discouraged. not possible for the author, then a cleanly printed or typed An author who determines that the topic cannot be adequately copy is acceptable. covered within this number of pages is encouraged to submit Submitted manuscripts should have the following organi- separate papers that can be serialized. zational format: All submitted manuscripts will be reviewed by two or 1. Title page. This page should contain the title of the manu- more technical referees. However, each section editor of the script, the author’s name, and all relevant contact information Quarterly has final authority regarding the acceptance of a (including mailing address, telephone number, fax number, manuscript for publication. While some manuscripts may be and e-mail address). If the manuscript is submitted by multiple accepted with little or no modification, typically editors will authors, one author should serve as the corresponding author, seek specific revisions of the manuscript before acceptance. and this should be noted on the title page. Authors will then be asked to submit revisions based upon 2. Abstract page. This is page 1 of the manuscript, and should comments made by the referees. In these instances, authors contain the article title at the top, followed by the abstract for are encouraged to submit a detailed letter explaining changes the article. Abstracts should be between 75 and 200 words in made in the revision, and, if necessary, give reasons for not length and present an overview of the material discussed in incorporating specific changes suggested by the editor or the article, including all major conclusions. Use of abbrevia- reviewer. If an author believes the rejection of a manuscript tions and references in the abstract should be avoided. This was not justified, an appeal may be made to the Quarterly page should also contain at least five key words appropriate editor (details of appeal process at the Society’s web site, www. for identifying this article via a computer search. creationresearch.org). 3. Introduction. The introduction should provide sufficient Authors who are unsure of proper English usage should background information to allow the reader to understand have their manuscripts checked by someone proficient in the the relevance and significance of the article for creation sci- English language. Also, authors should endeavor to make ence. certain the manuscript (particularly the references) conforms 4. Body of the text. Two types of headings are typically used to the style and format of the Quarterly. Manuscripts may be by the CRSQ. A major heading consists of a large font bold rejected on the basis of poor English or lack of conformity to print that is centered in column, and is used for each major the proper format. change of focus or topic. A minor heading consists of a regular The Quarterly is a journal of original writings, and only font bold print that is flush to the left margin, and is used fol- under unusual circumstances will previously published lowing a major heading and helps to organize points within material be reprinted. Questions regarding this should be each major topic. Do not split words with hyphens, or use all submitted to the Editor (CRSQeditor@creationresearch. capital letters for any words. Also, do not use bold type, except org) prior to submitting any previously published material. for headings (italics can be occasionally used to draw distinc- In addition, manuscripts submitted to the Quarterly should tion to specific words). Italics should not be used for foreign not be concurrently submitted to another journal. Violation words in common usage, e.g., “et al.”, “ibid.”, “ca.” and “ad of this will result in immediate rejection of the submitted infinitum.” Previously published literature should be cited us- manuscript. Also, if an author uses copyrighted photographs ing the author’s last name(s) and the year of publication (ex. or other material, a release from the copyright holder should Smith, 2003; Smith and Jones, 2003). If the citation has more be submitted. than two authors, only the first author’s name should appear (ex. Smith et al., 2003). Contributing authors should examine 250 Creation Research Society Quarterly this issue of the CRSQ or consult the Society’s web site for 8. Figures. All figures cited in the text should be individually specific examples as well as a more detailed explanation of placed in numerical order, and placed after the tables. Do manuscript preparation. Frequently-used terms can be abbrevi- not embed figures in the text. Each figure should contain ated by placing abbreviations in parentheses following the first a legend that provides sufficient description to enable the usage of the term in the text, for example, polyacrylamide gel reader to understand the basic concepts of the figure without electrophoresis (PAGE) or catastrophic plate tectonics (CPT). needing to refer to the text. Legends should be on a separate Only the abbreviation need be used afterward. If numerous page from the figure. All figures and drawings should be of abbreviations are used, authors should consider providing a high quality (hand-drawn illustrations and lettering should be list of abbreviations. Also, because of the variable usage of professionally done). Images are to be a minimum resolution of the terms “microevolution” and “macroevolution,” authors 300 dpi at 100% size. Patterns, not shading, should be used to should clearly define how they are specifically using these distinguish areas within graphs or other figures. Unacceptable terms. Use of the term “creationism” should be avoided. All illustrations will result in rejection of the manuscript. Authors figures and tables should be cited in the body of the text, and are also strongly encouraged to submit an electronic version be numbered in the sequential order that they appear in the (.cdr, .cpt, .gif, .jpg, and .tif formats) of all figures in individual text (figures and tables are numbered separately with Arabic files that are separate from the electronic file containing the and Roman numerals, respectively). text and tables. 5. Summary. A summary paragraph(s) is often useful for readers. The summary should provide the reader an overview Special Sections of the material just presented, and often helps the reader to Letters to the Editor: summarize the salient points and conclusions the author has Submission of letters regarding topics relevant to the Society made throughout the text. or creation science is encouraged. Submission of letters com- 6. References. Authors should take extra measures to be certain menting upon articles published in the Quarterly will be that all references cited within the text are documented in published two issues after the article’s original publication the reference section. These references should be formatted date. Authors will be given an opportunity for a concurrent in the current CRSQ style. (When the Quarterly appears in response. No further letters referring to a specific Quarterly the references multiple times, then an abbreviation to CRSQ article will be published. Following this period, individuals is acceptable.) The examples below cover the most common who desire to write additional responses/comments (particu- types of references: larly critical comments) regarding a specific Quarterly article Robinson, D.A., and D.P. Cavanaugh. 1998. A quantitative approach are encouraged to submit their own articles to the Quarterly to baraminology with examples from the catarrhine primates. CRSQ 34:196–208. for review and publication. Lipman, E.A., B. Schuler, O. Bakajin, and W.A. Eaton. 2003. Single-molecule measurement of protein folding kinetics. Sci- Editor’s Forum: ence 301:1233–1235. Occasionally, the editor will invite individuals to submit differ- Margulis, L. 1971a. The origin of plant and animal cells. American ing opinions on specific topics relevant to the Quarterly. Each Scientific 59:230–235. author will have opportunity to present a position paper (1500 –—–—–. 1971b. Origin of Eukaryotic Cells. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. words), and one response (750 words) to the differing position Hitchcock, A.S. 1971. Manual of Grasses of the United States. Dover paper. In all matters, the editor will have final and complete Publications, New York. editorial control. Topics for these forums will be solely at the Walker, T.B. 1994. A biblical geologic model. In Walsh, R.E. (editor), editor’s discretion, but suggestions of topics are welcome. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Creationism (technical symposium sessions), pp. 581–592. Creation Science Fellowship, Pittsburgh, PA. Book Reviews: 7. Tables. All tables cited in the text should be individually All book reviews should be submitted to the book review editor, placed in numerical order following the reference section, and who will determine the acceptability of each submitted review. not embedded in the text. Each table should have a header Book reviews should be limited to 1000 words. Following the statement that serves as a title for that table (see a current issue style of reviews printed in this issue, all book reviews should of the Quarterly for specific examples). Use tabs, rather than contain the following information: book title, author, publish- multiple spaces, in aligning columns within a table. Tables er, publication date, number of pages, and retail cost. Reviews should be composed with 14-point type to insure proper ap- should endeavor to present the salient points of the book that pearance in the columns of the CRSQ. are relevant to the issues of creation/evolution. Typically, such points are accompanied by the reviewer’s analysis of the book’s content, clarity, and relevance to the creation issue. Volume 44, Winter 2008 251

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