Chapter 8: Sanitation and Hygiene 1 This chapter focuses on sanitation and hygiene factors for preppers. Its primary focus is on the disposal of human effluent. On average a person produces 128 grams or a little over one quarter of a pound of fecal matter a day. Fecal matter is nutrient rich and eventually it is converted into compost by bacteria and microorganisms where its nutrients are recycled into the soil. It is a matter where and how this decomposition occurs. Unfortunately, fecal matter is also a source of disease that can be transmitted to other people if care is not taken. For preppers, there are essentially three approaches to disposing of human effluent. The first method is to decompose it onsite. The hot and cold composting approaches are examples of this approach. The second approach is to store it and transport it to another site where it is decomposed. The vault systems typify this approach. The third approach is to flush it where it is transported to another site for decomposition. There is no onsite storage of the human effluent. Central sewage treatment plants exemplify this approach. For most preppers, disposal of human effluent is determined by the existing facilities being used, whether those facilities work, and the length or duration of the crisis situation. For homesteaders using a composting toilet or outhouse, most likely continue using their outhouse or composting toilet in a crisis situation. People on a septic system will most likely continue using their septic system during a crisis situation. However, they may need to add an external water source to operate the system. People on central sewage will use it as long as it works. When any of the systems normally used become inoperative, alternative approaches are needed. This chapter discusses the thee disposal methods. Each section provides a basic understanding of how the disposal system works and how to use it in an emergency situation. The last section focuses on hygiene factors which can be used to reduce fecal disease transmission. Principles of Disposal This section focuses on categorizing and describing the three basic disposal approaches. Eventually, fecal matter is broken down and eaten by bacteria. The issue is how and where it is done. Where it occurs focuses on whether it is done in the backyard or onsite or in a sewage treatment plant? How it is done focuses on hot composting, cold composting or storing it in a tank for later disposition. The other concern involves the byproducts or harmful substances remaining from the decomposition process. There are two types of composting: hot and cold composting. The alternative is that the waste products are held in a storage tank until they are disposed of at a later date. Composting (Figure 8.1) – In order to compost, a proper environment needs to be created in which bacteria and microorganisms can thrive and consume the fecal matter. First, there needs to be food present for the microorganisms to consume. This can be any decaying organic substance. For this 1 This chapter was written by Robert B. Kauffman who is solely responsible for its content. This chapter is copyrighted © Robert B. Kauffman, 2015. Chapter 8 – Sanitation and Hygiene page / 8.1 Copyright © 2016 Robert B. Kauffman discussion, the primary food source is human effluent. Because it is human fecal matter, care needs to be taken to prevent diseases from being transmitted to others. Second, there needs to be microorganisms and bacteria present. These microorganism are naturally found in the soil and provided with the right environment they will thrive and reproduce. Third, bacteria needs water to thrive or better stated it needs a damp and moist environment. Often, saw dust, peat or similar water absorbing substances are added to absorb the Figure 8.1: Compost Pile – A compost pile needs food, moisture, oxygen, and heat for the microorganism to thrive and reproduce. Source: internet – water. When the compost pile is [file:\CompostPile[96].jpg]. sitting in water, the pile is denied oxygen and an aerobic bacterial action. The fourth element is oxygen . Bacteria need oxygen to consume the food source. It may be necessary to periodically turn the compost pile to ensure complete digestion of the compost and to ensure oxygen is present. Fifth, composting needs heat to start the reaction. Composting is an exothermic reaction which produces heat as a byproduct. In hot composting, there is sufficient food present (feces or other materials present) that the heat produced from the consumption of the food results in sufficient heat to stimulate the bacteria to reproduce and consume even more food. This creates a chain reaction of reproduction and consumption. In order to facilitate the bacterial action, an external heat source may be applied to the compost pile. This could be sunlight or an electric heating element. Cold Composting – Usually, the food supply (i.e. decaying material) is the limiting factor which results in a much slower decomposition of the food material. It is still an exothermic reaction, but not as noticeable as in hot composting (see next section). Normally, the limited heat generated is not hot enough to kill pathogens. Outhouses, pit privies, catholes, and composting toilets are examples cold composting toilets. As a rule, the food source in a outhouse and pit privy is added intermittently. This tends to limit the food source and the potential for hot composting. Although cold composting is usually associated with third world countries, many of the same issues face those in this country which are composting fecal matter as part of homesteading or because they are living in a more primitive setting due to a crisis situation. Consideration needs to be given to passing fecal borne diseases through the soil, water, and poor hygiene practices. Hygiene practices are covered in a section toward the end of this chapter. Chapter 8 – Sanitation and Hygiene page / 8.2 Copyright © 2016 Robert B. Kauffman Figure 8.2: Dry Composting Toilet – This scene depicts a dry composting toilet in a third world setting. Source: internet – [file:\DryComposteToilet[120].jpg]. Fecal borne diseases can be transferred from compost back into the soil and transferred to vegetables grown in the soil. Plants grown in the soil like potatoes or vegetables that come in contact with the soil can be contaminated. Figure 8.2 presents a typical dry composting situation used in third world countries. It is easy to see how human borne diseases can easily be passed on to other people through the soil and garden. View the diagram in Figure 8.2 from a risk management perspective and placing barriers between potential hazards and the target. First, the cistern collecting water from the roof is uphill from the toilet and compost area. This reduces contamination by space. In the toilet, any leaching of protozoa, viruses and bacteria is downhill of the cistern. From a risk reduction standpoint, the location of the cistern reduces the likelihood of contamination of the water source. However, the toilet as pictured could be a problem with contaminating the garden. The toilet is not far from the kitchen. The close proximity enables flies and other varmints to potentially contaminate the activities occurring in the kitchen. Good hygiene and sanitation practices are necessary to reduce contamination. The next concern involves the compost used in the garden. Since the composting process is a cold composting process, pathogens may not be killed. Several barriers can be used to prevent or reduce contamination. The compost can be used only in those areas of the garden with vegetables bearing vegetables above ground. This separates the potential contaminants by space. Next, the vegetables can be thoroughly washed and clean to remove potential contaminants. Or third, the compost can be used in Chapter 8 – Sanitation and Hygiene page / 8.3 Copyright © 2016 Robert B. Kauffman other non-garden areas where the transmission of contamination is less likely (e.g. flowers). In summary, cold composting generally occurs where there is an intermittent addition of a food source (e.g. fecal matter). Generally, several people contributing intermittent contributions is not sufficient to create a hot composting situation. Traditionally, cold composting is associated with outhouses, catholes, pit privy, and similar disposal methods. Hot Composting (see Figure 8.1) – In hot composting, there is sufficient food (feces or other materials) present for the bacteria to reproduce and consume even more food. The exothermic reaction and heat produced can be felt and seen. Normally, a temperature range between 140 oF to 160oF is desirable (Rodale’s Organic Life, 2013). This is sufficient heat to kill most weeds and diseases that might be present. In the literature, there is little to no emphasis on hot composting. The strategies focus on either cold composting or storage for transport and disposal at a later date and location. The limiting factor for hot composting is having a sufficient food supply for the microorganisms. The storage method can be used in conjunction with the hot composting method. Storing wastes in five-gallon buckets provides a sufficient food supply for hot composting. The fecal matter and urine can be combined with sawdust or other organic matter to create a hot composting compost pile that will kill the Figure 8.3: Pit Composter – People deficate into a 55 gallon drum. The pathogens present. drum is removed from the outhouse and mixed with sawdust in Figure xx0836 where it undergoes hot composting. Source: author – [file:\cc51 In an outdoor recreation setting, the pit toilet01.jpg] l>Source: author – [file:\cc51 pit toilet01.jpg]. Appalachian Mountain Club (AMC) developed a technique of using a vault toilet system using a 55-gallon drum to store the fecal matter (Figure 8.3).