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Urban Infrastructure Governance in Namibia -- a Multi URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE GOVERNANCE IN NAMIBIA A multi-level analysis of urban system transitions Nina Savela Master’s thesis Political Science University of Turku Spring 2017 . The originality of this thesis has been checked in accordance with the University of Turku quality assurance system using the Turnitin Originality Check service. TURUN YLIOPISTO Yhteiskuntatieteellinen tiedekunta SAVELA, NINA: Urban infrastructure governance in Namibia – A multi-level analysis of urban system transitions Pro gradu -työ, 132 sivua yleinen valtio-oppi Toukokuu 2017 Tämä pro gradu -työ on tehty Satakunnan ammattikorkeakoulun NAMURBAN (Urban Resource Efficiency in Developing Countries – a pilot study of Walvis Bay, Namibia) -projektille. Työ keskittyy nopean kaupungistumisen haasteisiin Namibiassa ja Walvis Bayssa, urbaanien infrastruktuurien hallintaan sekä vesi-, sanitaatio- ja energiasektoreihin. Työssä mallinnetaan näitä sektoreita järjestelminä ja tutkitaan niihin kohdistuvia muutospaineita. Mallinnuksessa sovelletaan multi-level perspective ja transition management -teorioita. Työ kuvaa järjestelmiä ja niiden vuorovaikutuksia kolmella tasolla: 1) landscape-tasolla, 2) regiimitasolla ja 3) teknologisella niche-tasolla, niiden välisiä vuorovaikutuksia ja asettaa järjestelmät teorioiden mukaiseen siirtymämalliin. Työ soveltaa adaptiivisen kapasiteetin viitekehystä ja kuvailee regiimitasojen jäsenverkostot, jäsenten kapasiteetteja sekä niiden näkemyksiä kestävistä kaupunkijärjestelmistä. Työssä sovelletaan kriittisenä näkökulmana poliittisen ekologian teoriaa sekä muita valtiotieteellisiä teorioita teoreettisten viitekehysten syventämiseksi. Työn metodologia perustuu tapaustutkimukseen ja kvalitatiiviseen kenttätutkimukseen, erityisesti osallistuvan havainnoinnin menetelmään. Suurin osa tutkimuksen aineistosta kerättiin kolmen kuukauden kenttämatkalla Namibiassa. Siihen kuuluvat haastattelut olennaisten sidosryhmien ja asiantuntijoiden kanssa, epäviralliset keskustelut, kirjallisuus ja sanomalehdet sekä ulkopuolisille asiantuntijoille tehty kysely vaikuttavimmista Namibian kaupunkikehitykseen vaikuttavista tekijöistä. Kaupunkikehityksen vaikuttavimmista tekijöistä osallistujat mainitsivat 1) vesikriisin, 2) maanomistuksen ja asumisen sekä 3) rakenteelliset puutteet. Lisäksi vastauksissa mainittiin aluesuunnittelu, julkinen liikenne sekä taloudellisia ja sosiaalisia tekijöitä. Urbaanin vesi- ja sanitaatioregiimin ominaisuuksia ovat epätasaisesti jakaantuneet vesivarannot, vanhentunut lainsäädäntö, eriävät käytännöt, eriävät näkemykset teknologian kalleudesta ja tarpeellisuudesta sekä julkisten keskustelualustojen, keskeisten valvovien instituutioiden sekä osaavan työvoiman puute. Urbaanin energiaregiimin ominaisuuksia ovat suuri riippuvuus tuodusta sähköstä, ideologinen jakautuminen kaasun ja uusiutuvan energian välillä, aktiivinen julkinen keskustelu uusiutuvan energian ratkaisuista, itsenäisten energian tarjoajien ja markkinoita hallitsevan valtionyhtiön NamPowerin roolit sekä siirtyminen yhden ostajan mallista kohti muunneltua yhden ostajan mallia. Loppupäätelmänä työssä esitetään, että veden ja energian välisen yhteyden ymmärtäminen on olennaista kaupunkikehityksessä, työssä käytetty teoriapohja voisi hyötyä valtiotieteellisten teorioiden näkökulmista ja sitä tulisi soveltaa enemmän kehittyvien maiden tapauksissa. Mallintamisen tulokset saattavat edesauttaa kaupunkisektorien kapasiteetin rakentamista. AVAINSANAT: Namibia, urbanisaatio, infrastruktuuri, kestävä kehitys UNIVERSITY OF TURKU The faculty of Social Sciences SAVELA, NINA: Urban infrastructure governance in Namibia – A multi-level analysis of urban system transitions Master’s thesis, 132 pages Political Science May 2017 The research in this thesis was conducted as a part of the project NAMURBAN (Urban Resource Efficiency in Developing Countries – a pilot study of Walvis Bay, Namibia), a two-year project of Satakunta University of Applied Sciences in Finland. It focuses on the challenges rapid urban development imposes in Namibia and the city of Walvis Bay, on urban infrastructure governance and sectors of water, sanitation and energy. It models these sectors in forms of systems and adapts the multi-level perspective (MLP) and transition management (TM) approaches. The systems and their interactions are described in three levels: 1) the landscape level, 2) regime level and 3) technological niche level and situated in a transition model. The thesis describes the regime membership network of these regimes, the capacities of members and their perceptions towards sustainability transitions of the urban systems through adaptive capacity framework. It adapts the critical viewpoint of political ecology and other theories of political science to deepen the theoretical frameworks of transitions and adaptive capacity. The methodology of the thesis is grounded on a case study and qualitative field research, especially on participant observation method. Most of the material was received during a three-month field visit to Namibia in autumn 2016. This material includes interviews with relevant stakeholders and experts, informal discussions, literature and a questionnaire posed to external experts of the most influential forces in urban development in Namibia. As a result, the following themes are considered as the most influential forces in urban development: 1) water crisis, 2) land ownership and housing, and 3) structural deficits. Other considerable responses included urban spatial planning, public transportation and economic and social issues. The urban water and sanitation regime is characterized by an unequal distribution of water resources, outdated legislation, various practices between the regime members, varying perceptions of the need and expense of technology and the lack of public domains for discussion, key monitoring institutions and a skilled workforce. The urban energy regime is characterized by a high dependency on imported electricity, ideological division between gas and full renewable energies as means of modern electricity supply, active public debate on renewable energy solutions, the roles of independent power producers (IPPs) and market-dominating state parastatal NamPower, and the shift from a single-buyer model to a modified single-buyer model. The thesis concludes that understanding the water-energy nexus is essential in urban development; the MLP approach would highly benefit from the theoretical field of political science and should be orientated towards a developing country context. As a result, system modeling may further assist in capacity building in urban sectors. KEYWORDS: Namibia, urbanization, infrastructure, sustainable development ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank Dr. Minna Keinänen-Toivola research manager, for her incredible encouragement and support in this thesis project. I also want to thank Professor Henri Vogt and Juha Vuori for their contribution and great advice. I am grateful to all of those at SAMK with whom I have had the pleasure to work during this thesis and other related projects and Jarkko Levänen and Sara Lindeman from Aalto University, who introduced me to this project and with whom I have the opportunity to work further. I want to thank especially Professor Mashauri and Professor Kgabi and other staff members of NUST for welcoming me and guiding me during my stay in Namibia, Dr. Robert Mueller for an interesting trip to Walvis Bay and discussions with the locals, my friends in Namibia, who assisted me with the printed material, seminars and events and with whom I spent an unforgettable time in Namibia. I want to thank Tarah Shapange Tarah for his assistance at NUST and Kristine Endjambi for being a helpful and fun co-worker. I would like to thank all my friends here in Finland, who either shared the same feelings about the thesis project or supported me in other ways. I am grateful to my family, especially my mum and dad, who offered great mental support, my brother Riku and my sister Anu and her family. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF GRAPHS AND PICTURES ................................................................................................. i ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................................. i FOREWORDS ................................................................................................................................... iii 1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 1 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ............................................................................................ 8 2.1 Infrastructure governance and ownership ........................................................................... 8 2.2 Complex adaptive systems ............................................................................................... 10 2.2.1 System levels ................................................................................................................. 14 2.2.2 System transition ........................................................................................................... 20 2.3 Adaptability and adaptive capacity ................................................................................... 25 2.4 Reclamation in the city of Windhoek – an example of system adaptation and transition 31 3. METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................................
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