CITIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE INITIATIVE WALVIS BAY, NAMIBIA

MAPPING OF WALVIS

DATE: 20 May 2010

PREPARED BY : Lima Maartens

PREPARED FOR : UN-HABITAT Programme Manager Private Bag 13329 Windhoek Namibia TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Introduction ...... 5 2 City Introduction...... 6 2.1 Physical Characteristics...... 6 2.2 Historical Development ...... 9 2.3 Population Characteristics ...... 11 3 Development Setting...... 13 3.1 Water Supply ...... 13 3.2 Industry ...... 15 3.3 Transportation and Telecommunications ...... 22 3.4 Energy ...... 22 4 The Environment Setting...... 25 4.1 Land...... 25 5 Climate Change-Related Impacts...... 34 6 Conclusion...... 38 7 References...... 38

LIST OF TABLES Table 1: A brief history of the town of Walvis Bay ( after Levinson, 1976; Municipality of Walvis Bay )...... 10 Table 2: Walvis Bay Urban and Rural Constituency 2001 Census Indicators (NPC, 2003)...... 11 Table 3: Summary of the sectors/areas in Walvis Bay that may be affected by various climate change-related events and the potential impacts...... 35

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Aerial view of the Walvis Bay area ( Source: Walvis Bay Salt Refiners )...... 6 Figure 2: Map of Walvis Bay’s biodiversity zones ( Source: LAB, 2008 )...... 7 Figure 3: The lighthouse at the Pelican Point peninsula ( Source: NACOMA, 2008b – Keath Wearne )...... 8 Figure 4: In order to prevent the accumulation of sand and flood water from entering the houses, most houses in Walvis Bay used to be mounted on stilts ( Source: Photo Krause, Walvis Bay )...... 14 Figure 5: The container terminal at the Port of Walvis Bay ( Source: NamPort )...... 18 Figure 6: Map indicating the proposed expansion of the current container terminal (indicated in red) at the Port of Walvis Bay ( Source: NamPort )...... 19 Figure 7: Aerial photo of the salt pans ( Source: Walvis Bay Salt Refiners )...... 20 Figure 8: Photomontage, exiting Walvis Bay on the C14 road, of the proposed wind farm with 48 turbines ( Source: Risk-Based Solutions, 2010 )...... 24 Figure 9: Structure Plan 2007 Review: Sub-regional concept ( Source: Walvis Bay Municipality )...... 29 Figure 10: Structure plan of Walvis Bay; areas above the 5m contour line is indicated in red ( Source: J. Korrubel )...... 33

LIST OF ACRONYMS BCLME Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CCCI Cities and Climate Change Initiative DRC Democratic Republic of Congo ECB Electricity Control Board

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EPM Environmental Planning and Management IBA Important Bird Area FAO Food and Agricultural Organization GDP Gross Domestic product HAB Harmful Algae Bloom kV Kilovolt LAB Local Action for Biodiversity MET Ministry of Environment and Tourism MFMR Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources MW Megawatt NamPort Namibian Ports Authority NamPower Namibian Power Corporation NamWater Namibian Water Corporation NCCI Namibia Chamber of Commerce and Industry NLA Namibia Logistics Association NPC National Planning Commission PPA Participatory Poverty Assessment RTG Rubber Tyred Gantries SA South Africa SADC Southern African Development Community SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment SCP Sustainable Cities Programme SP Structure Plan SST Sea Surface Temperature SUD-Net Sustainable Urban Development Network SWA South West Africa TEU Twenty Foot Equivalent Unit TPS Town Planning Scheme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme WBGC Walvis Bay Corridor Group WBPUA Walvis Bay Port Users Association

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1 Introduction

The United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) requires that, for the implementation of the Sustainable Urban Development Network (SUD-Net) Cities and Climate Change Initiative (CCCI) in Walvis Bay, through working with the Walvis Bay City Council, the Sustainable Cities Programme (SCP) / Environmental Planning and Management (EPM) approach be followed.

The SCP process activities are as follows (UN-HABITAT and UNEP, 1998):
Preparation of an Environmental Profile ;
Conducting the City Consultation;
Establishing and Operationalizing Working Groups;
Negotiating/formulating Strategies and Action Plans; and
Institutionalizing the EPM Process (cutting across and initiated in parallel to the above-mentioned activities).

Key EPM Principles include: cross-sectoral/institutional and system wide coordination; broad-based public/private/popular participation; priority problem-solving implementation focus; building city capacities and partnerships; using demonstration projects and upscale; attitudinal changes through joint actions or interventions; relying on bottom-up/demand led actions; feedback for national-level policy changes; central focus on development/environmental interactions; and mainstreaming environmental issues in urban planning.

The focus of this study is to report on the vulnerable areas, environmental hotspots and areas susceptible to the effects of climate change within Walvis Bay. Even though information on the activity sectors (including the environmental setting) is provided, and the generic Environmental Profile table of contents (UN-HABITAT and UNEP, 1998) was considered, the report should not be regarded as an Environmental Profile for the town of Walvis Bay, but rather as a first draft for the preparation of a comprehensive Environmental Profile for the town.

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2 City Introduction

2.1 Physical Characteristics

The town of Walvis Bay is the second largest urban settlement in Namibia and the regional capital of the Erongo Region. The Walvis Bay area is approximately 1,124 km² in size (including ~60 km of coastline) and it is situated along the Atlantic Ocean between the Swakop (north) and Kuiseb Rivers (south). The area also includes the Langstrand Resort, the Dolphin Park Recreation Resort and the N$1,5 billion Afrodite Beach Development currently under construction.

Atlantic Ocean Pelican Point Guano Platform Oyster rafts Harbour Pump-house Outer Lagoon Lagoon Walvis Bay Mouth Town Oyster Pump-house Road Farm Main Evaporation Pond 1 Lagoon

Paaltjies Road Dunes

Salt Pans Evaporation Pond 2 Kuiseb Delta

Figure 1: Aerial view of the Walvis Bay area ( Source: Walvis Bay Salt Refiners ).

On the eastern side, the Walvis Bay area extends to the Namib Naukluft Park, Namibia’s largest conservation area. The area includes the Walvis Bay Wetland and the Kuiseb River and Delta (Figure 2).

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Figure 2: Map of Walvis Bay’s biodiversity zones ( Source: LAB, 2008 ).

The Walvis Bay Wetland was proclaimed a Ramsar Site, or Wetland of International Importance, in 1995. The Wetland comprises the more than 3,000 year old Walvis Bay Lagoon, and includes the inter-tidal mudflats and the eastern half of Pelican Point. The area is regarded as a biodiversity hotspot due to the following: the rich estuarine fauna; it supports about 129,000 birds and hosts Palaearctic and intra-African migrant birds, as well as six rare bird species; it is the most important wetland bird habitat on the Namib Coast and one of the ten most important wetlands in Africa. Even though the Wetland is considered a priority conservation area by the Namibian Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET), the area is not protected and the re-declaration of the Walvis Bay Nature Reserve has been proposed (NACOMA, 2008a; EcoAfrica Environmental Consultants,

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2009). Threats to the Wetland (and its inhabitants) include: siltation of the Lagoon (silt from the ocean, wind-blown sand and dust, flooding of the Kuiseb River and the damming effect due to the salt works), pollution from activities in the harbour, development, recreation pressure, motorised craft, uncontrolled tourism, and low-flying aircraft (LAB, 2008; NACOMA, 2008b).

The town of Walvis Bay is protected from the Atlantic Ocean by the 10 km long sandpit terminating in Pelican Point . Southwards, the sandpit extends to Donkey Bay, Paaltjies and the Namib Naukluft Park. The Pelican Point peninsula, apart from housing the lighthouse (Figure 3) and a service building for NamPort, protects the Walvis Bay harbour from south-westerly winds and currents (LAB, 2008). Summer bird counts in the area always amount to more than 20,000 and an estimated 250,000 terns visit the Ramsar site every year (NACOMA, 2008b). Mammals frequenting the area include jackal, Cape fur seals, Heavyside’s and Common dolphins (LAB, 2008). It has been proposed that the Pelican Point area be included in the Ramsar Site (NACOMA, 2008b).

Figure 3: The lighthouse at the Pelican Point peninsula ( Source: NACOMA, 2008b – Keath Wearne ).

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The Kuiseb River and Delta is found in the National Namib Naukluft Park. The desert and dune areas around the Kuiseb River support unique and well-adapted communities of fauna and flora with low species density, but with high endemism (LAB, 2008; EcoAfrica Environmental Consultants, 2009).

The 30 km stretch of coastline between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund, including the dune belt area , is also regarded as a biodiversity hotspot: the dune belt area host specially adapted desert organisms; the coastal section is designated as an Important Bird Area (IBA); and it has the most important breeding area for the endemic Damara Tern (EcoAfrica Environmental Consultants, 2009). As large dune areas are conserved in the Namib Naukluft Park, the area is not considered an important habitat for conservation purposes and it is currently categorised as a recreation area. It has been recommended that the dune belt be included in the Walvis Bay Nature Reserve, and that the areas east of Long Beach and at Dune 7 be maintained as free zones for off-road driving (NACOMA, 2008a).

2.2 Historical Development

Walvis Bay was discovered by Bartholomeu Dias in 1487. During the 16 th and 17 th centuries it is believed that whalers, sealers, and even pirates anchored at the natural harbour. The annexation by the Dutch Government in 1793 was never officially recognised and in 1795 the British flag was hoisted. The Germans, even during the German rule of South West Africa (SWA; now Namibia), were forced to turn the less natural harbour of Swakopmund into a port.

In 1898, the Cape Government constructed a jetty at Walvis Bay. At the end of the First World War, a rail link was built in Swakopmund and the use of Swakopmund as a port was discontinued. At the time, Walvis Bay consisted of three wooden houses, a hotel and a shop. In 1922 another jetty was built at Walvis Bay, followed by a large quay (Levinson, 1976) and in 1926, vessels were able to moor at a quayside, where a concrete wharf 1,500 feet long and 100 feet wide, could accommodate three large vessels at a time. Slaughter houses and a cold storage plant could be found at the northern half of the quay and large quantities of chilled meat was exported. A whaling station, where whales were

9 reduced to oil and bone meal, was also present. During 1929, more than 350 whales were caught by nine vessels that operated from Walvis Bay harbour (Anon., 1937).

Only with the outbreak of the Second World War, and a world shortage in foodstuffs, did the sardine fishing industry become vitally important to Walvis Bay. The Walvis Bay Canning Company was founded in 1946 and two years later it started producing fishmeal and oil. Canning commenced in 1949. The period between 1950 and 1958 was an important period of growth for the fishing industry and by 1960 312,000 tonnes of sardine, worth N$ 17 million, were landed by six factories. The landed value doubled in the next ten years (Levinson, 1976) and during the 1960s, the fishery for sardine, with catches totalling 7.5 million tonnes, was one of the most productive fisheries in the world. Catches, however, declined to 3.9 million tonnes in the 1970s, 0.6 million tonnes in the 1980s and 0.7 million tonnes in the 1990s (see Table 1).

Table 1: A brief history of the town of Walvis Bay ( after Levinson, 1976; Municipality of Walvis Bay ). 1487 Walvis Bay is discovered by Bartholomeu Dias who calls the bay Golfo da Conceicão. 1670 The first European settlers come to live in Walvis Bay. 1793 The Cape Dutch colonise the area. 1795 Whaling becomes popular in the seas near Walvis Bay. 1878 Walvis Bay is proclaimed a British territory. 1884 Control over a water oasis at Rooibank triggers a fight between the Germans and the British. 1899 Walvis Bay gets its first desalination equipment. 1910 Walvis Bay is incorporated in the Union of South Africa (SA). 1911 Walvis Bay is allocated an area of 1,124 km 2. 1912 The first whaling station is built. 1920 South West Africa (SWA) reverts to SA, which makes Walvis Bay part of SWA again. 1923 A water extraction plant is built near Rooibank. 1925 The start of the use of whaling factory ships in the area. 1931 Walvis Bay gets municipal status, and its name becomes official. 1932 A guano factory is set up outside Walvis Bay. 1945 The fishing boom (pilchard) starts in Walvis Bay. 1949 The canning of pilchards commences. 1960 The salt refining and sewage treatment plant is built. 1966 The SA occupation of SWA is declared illegal. 1968 The largest number of fish is caught in one catch off Walvis Bay. 1977 SA is forced to give up SWA, but retains control over Walvis Bay. 1979 The fishing industry struggles to make money and many loose their jobs. 1990 Namibian Independence; Walvis Bay remains under SA control. 1994 SA has its first democratic elections and Walvis Bay is handed back to Namibia. 1995 The Walvis Bay Lagoon is declared a Ramsar Site. 1999 Negotiations re. the Local Agenda 21 project commences; the project starts in 2001. 2001 Walvis Bay wins the Dubai Award for the Tutaleni housing project. 2008 Completion of the Walvis Bay Local Action for Biodiversity (LAB) project. 2010 The Walvis Bay Cities and Climate Change Initiative (CCCI) commences.

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2.3 Population Characteristics

The results of the 2001 Namibia Population and Housing Census – Erongo Regional Profile and more specifically for Walvis Bay’s Urban and Rural Constituencies (NPC, 2003) are summarized in Table 2. The population of Walvis Bay increased from ~44,000 (2001 Census) to 60,000 (Walvis Bay Municipality, 2007; LAB, 2008).

Table 2: Walvis Bay Urban and Rural Constituency 2001 Census Indicators (NPC, 2003). Walvis Bay Urban Walvis Bay Rural Population size: Total 27,941 16,293 Male 16,411 8,534 Female 11,523 7,759 Sex ratio: males per 100 females 142 110 Age composition (%): < 5 years 9 11 5-14 years 13 16 15-59 years 69 71 60+ years 5 2 Marital status: 15+ years (%): Never married 55 63 Married with certificate 26 20 Married traditionally 1 2 Married consensually 6 13 Divorced/Separated 2 1 Widowed 2 1 Private households: Number 6,471 4,426 Average size 3.9 3.7 Head of household (%): Males 67 63 Females 33 37 Literacy rate 15+ years (%)*: 93 98 Education 15+ years (%): Never attended 4 6 At school 7 8 Left school 81 86 Labour Force, 15+ years (%): In labour force - employed 66 59 In labour force - unemployed 34 41 Outside labour force 17 15 Housing conditions, % households with: Safe water 99 99 No toilet facility 0 2 Electricity for lighting 92 89 Main source of income (%): Farming 1 1 Wages & Salaries 78 77 Cash remittance 4 7 Business, non-farming 7 8 Pension 6 2 Fertility: average number of children per 2.9 3.6 11

woman: Mortality: infant deaths per 1,000 live births: Females 38 53 Males 36 30 Mortality: life expectancy at birth (years): Females 68 49 Males 56 67 Disability (%): With disability 3 3 * Literacy at 81.4% (LAB, 2008).

In terms of the incidence of poverty by region, the Khomas and Erongo Regions are better off than other regions in the country: the Khomas and Erongo Regions have 6.3 and 10.3% poor households and 2.4 and 4.8% severely poor households, respectively (vs. the Kavango Region with 56.5% poor households and 36.6% very poor households) (NPC, 2009).

During the village-level Participatory Poverty Assessment (PPA) for the Erongo Region (October 2005 - February 2006), two areas of concern for the Walvis Bay CCCI were researched: Armstraat (Walvis Bay Rural Constituency) and Tutaleni and Okahenge, Kuisebmond (Walvis Bay Rural and Urban Constituencies).

The Armstraat site is divided in two by the boundary fence of the Namib Naukluft Park (see Figure 2: Topnaar Settlement). This divide has created a gap in the community, mainly Topnaars, and the strong ethnic identity that the people used to share is crumbling. There are around 100 permanent residents in Armstraat, divided on 42 households (NPC, 2007). The Topnaars belong to the Nama group of people and it is believed that they are the oldest inhabitants of Namibia. They were the first settlers within Walvis Bay since the early Stone Age and have lived off the oasis created by the Kuiseb River and Delta for centuries (LAB, 2008). The Topnaars are mainly subsistence small stock farmers, but many households also depend on the !Nara fruits, a wild watermelon, for income. Potable water is supplied via the Namibian Water Corporation (NamWater) pipeline and can be obtained from communal water points with plastic tanks. Most of the houses are made of corrugated iron bought in Walvis Bay and from wood collected in the Kuiseb Riverbed. The Armstraat site has a clinic and primary school and a mobile clinic visits twice a month. A number of small shops sell basic groceries and alcohol, but foodstuffs are mainly bought in Walvis Bay. There is also an office with a public phone that is shared by the agricultural

12 extension officer and the traditional authority. Priority problems identified in the area (ranking of 1 = high priority) include: poor leadership (1), Government restrictions on livelihoods (2), unemployment (3), water problems (4), poor service provision (5), and poorly attended church services (6).

Kuisebmond has a population of between 38,000 and 40,000 people, consisting of all the major ethnic groups. Most people live an urban life, with their livelihood based on cash income. The latter is either obtained from formal employment (in the industries connected to the harbour, or domestic work in Walvis Bay), or self-employment (e.g. selling homemade food and home brew). Both formal (made of bricks) and informal (shacks built in the backyards of formal houses) houses are found in Kuisebmond. There are several schools, churches and shops; there is also a clinic, a hospital, and an old age home. Tutaleni and Okahenge are both part of Kuisebmond. Tutaleni is believed to house around 4,500 people and Okahenge 13,000. Priority problems identified in the area (ranking of 1 = high priority) include: unemployment (1), HIV/AIDS (2), prostitution (3), poor education (4), poor housing (5), over population (6), and laziness of people (7) (NPC, 2007).

3 Development Setting

3.1 Water Supply

The Kuiseb River has its origin in the Khomas Hochland after which it flows for 440 km through the Namib Desert before it reaches Walvis Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. Less than 1.5% of the upland water catchment ultimately reaches the Lower Kuiseb Delta.

Several bedrock barriers can be found in the lower sandy riverbed of the Kuiseb: Narob, Swartbank, Rooibank and Mile 16 (the start of the Kuiseb River Delta). The northern arm of the Kuiseb River, which previously caused flooding of Walvis Bay, was blocked off in 1961 by building a flood protection wall across the river and thus forcing the river to flow along the southern arm.

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The Kuiseb River last reached the sea in 1934 and 1963 (see Figure 4: the photo was taken from the direction of 6 th Street; the two water towers were directly behind the old railway institute, currently the Shoprite Shopping Centre). The reductions in run-off can be ascribed to the following: the construction of dams in the upper reaches of the Kuiseb River; natural storage in the sandy riverbed; the tendency of the river to meander and penetrate the riverbed; short periods of flooding due to heavy rains over a few days; dune encroachment on the river bed; and the moisture content of the sandy riverbed (hot dry sand absorbs more water than moist sands) (Stubenrauch Planning Consultants, 1999).

Figure 4: In order to prevent the accumulation of sand and flood water from entering the houses, most houses in Walvis Bay used to be mounted on stilts ( Source: Photo Krause, Walvis Bay ).

NamWater operates both the Rooibank and Swartbank Water Schemes. The Rooibank area is divided into the A (12 boreholes), B (11 boreholes) and Dorop South abstraction areas. Swartbank supplies mainly Rio Tinto’s Rössing Mine, as well as Swakopmund of water. Potable water is pumped from a series of boreholes to the Rooibank treatment facility after which the treated water is fed to the Mile 7 reservoir outside Walvis Bay. The

14 water then gravitates, through a series of pipelines, to the communities of Walvis Bay, Meersig, Kuisebmond and Narraville. A network of smaller sized pipelines, branching off from the main feed pipelines, serves the above-mentioned communities, as well as Langstrand, the airport, the harbour and fish factory area (Stubenrauch Planning Consultants, 1999).

3.2 Industry

The main industries in Walvis Bay include: fishing and mariculture, the harbour (including cargo handling), engineering, tourism, salt, guano, property development, and services.

The full range of business support services is available in Walvis Bay, including banking and finance, insurance, stock broking, accounting, general business consultancy, advertising and marketing agencies, and conference facilities. In addition, there are several primary and secondary schools, distance education institutions, three libraries, a museum and a maritime training college.

3.2.1 Fishing The Namibian fishing industry is the country's second largest export earner of foreign currency (after mining) and the third largest economic sector (after agriculture and mining) in terms of contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In terms of the value of production, Namibia ranks among the top ten fishing countries globally (Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO); http://www.foa.com.na).

The main species harvested commercially off Namibia include: small pelagic fish (sardine and juvenile horse mackerel); trawled species (including longline) (shallow and deepwater Cape hake, adult Cape horse mackerel, monkfish and kingklip), crustaceans (Cape (west coast) rock lobster (landed off L űderitz) and deep-sea red crab), linefish (tuna); and Cape fur seals (Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources (MFMR)). Mariculture production off Walvis Bay comprises oysters and mussels and the possibility of growing seaweed is being investigated (L. Oellermann, University of Namibia, pers. comm.).

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The Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME) is a highly productive, but complex ecosystem that borders the coasts of Angola, Namibia and SA. Significant environmental variability, on several temporal and spatial scales, is evident as can be seen in the variability in the status of its living marine resources. As the BCLME is at the confluence of the Atlantic, Indian and Antarctic oceans, the area and its fauna and flora are expected to be especially sensitive to (the impacts of) long-term climate change.

Shannon, Crawford and Hutchings highlight several examples of variability and changes that occurred in the Benguela during the past half century (see Appendix 1: www.bclme.org/news/docs/Background%20document.doc ):

The Physical Environment : i) A rise in sea surface temperature (SST) of 1 °C, on average, occurred in the coastal and offshore areas of the BCLME between 1920 and 1990; ii) Benguela Niño events occurred on average every 10 years during the 20 th century; Benguela Niña (cold events) were most intense in the early 1980s and 1997; iii) An increase in sea level (around the coast of southern Africa) of 1.2mm / year over a period of 30 years; iv) The major hypoxic (low oxygen) event in the northern Benguela of 1993-1994 possibly attributed to the recruitment failure of Namibian hake in the early 1990s; and v) Perceived increase in the frequency of hydrogen sulphide eruptions along the coast of Namibia (with associated local and ecosystem impacts).

The Biological Environment : i) Copepods (crustacean zooplankton) seem to be more abundant off Namibia than what they were two decades ago; and ii) The occurrence of harmful algae blooms (HABs; “red tides”); it is uncertain whether the HABs are increasing in frequency and may be associated with climate change in the Benguela.

Living Marine Resources and the Environment : i) A significant decline in epipelagic fish resources (sardine and anchovy) off Namibia; ii) Subsequent severe impacts on seabirds in Namibia; between 1956 and 2005, the Namibian populations of African penguins and Cape gannets declined by 85% and 95%, respectively; iii) Likely increase in horse mackerel and pelagic gobies (in the mid-water) and jellyfish; iv) A large increase in the numbers of Cape fur seals in Namibia; and v) A decline in Cape (west coast) rock lobster

16 catches off Namibia and SA during the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s (mainly the result of unsustainable harvesting and inappropriate management).

During May 2007, an expert workshop on climate change and variability and the impacts thereof on the BCLME region was held in Cape Town, SA. Some of the major findings (in addition to that mentioned above and specifically related to Namibia) of the workshop were:
An increased frequency of “warm events” off southern Angola and Northern Namibia during the past decade;
A long-term increase in southerly winds that induce upwelling (southern Benguela);
A ~10-fold increase in zooplankton in the Benguela during the past 50 years;
The failure of the sardine stocks to recover could be attributed to the warming trend, competition with the increased horse mackerel stocks, or heavy predation;
Horse mackerel stocks off Namibia increased (after the collapse of the sardine stock), but stock levels are now declining;
A perceived northward expansion of deepwater hake in Namibia;
Rock lobsters in the central Benguela are shifting southwards and eastwards in the southern region;
A northward expansion of seals into southern and central Angola; in the central Benguela seals have stabilized; and
Apart from the decline in penguin and gannet populations, several other seabirds that do not depend on fish as food expanded their range eastwards in recent decades; increased outbreaks of avian flu and cholera, the latter that are symptomatic of stressed populations.

It was concluded that there has been persistent decadal variability in the BCLME, but that it is not clear whether these changes can be linked exclusively to climate change, or whether they are part of inherent, natural long-term cycles (Media Release: http://www.bclme.org/news/index.asp#climate change workshop).

3.2.2 Port of Walvis Bay The Namibian Ports Authority (NamPort) was established in 1994 and manages the Ports of Walvis Bay and Lüderitz. Walvis Bay is a sheltered deepwater harbour and Namibia’s 17 largest commercial port. The port is the dominant player for transhipment to Zambia, Botswana, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Angola, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). It is also a natural gateway for Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries that export to Europe and the United States. More than 3,000 vessel calls are received at Walvis Bay and approximately five million tonnes of cargo is handled per annum.

Walvis Bay’s approach channel and port was deepened in 2000, allowing the port to handle bigger vessels. The port also contains a container terminal (see Figure 5) with increased containerization being the focus for NamPort’s expansion programme. During 2009, NamPort handled 180,000 Twenty Foot Equivalent Unit (TEU) and an increase to 230,000 is anticipated for 2010. NamPort also manages a Syncrolift dry dock facility that can accommodate vessels up to 2,000 tonnes, as well as two floating docks with a lifting capacity of 8,000 tonnes each. During 2009, NamPort purchased its fifth mobile crane, as well as six Rubber Tyred Gantries (RTGs; container handling equipment) (Namibia Trade Directory, 2010; www.namport.com ).

Figure 5: The container terminal at the Port of Walvis Bay (Source: NamPort ).

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The existing container terminal at the Walvis Bay will reach its full capacity (with no possibility for expanding the stacking area) by 2012 and NamPort plans to construct a new container port facility on reclaimed land and inside the current port limits (Figure 6). The project is also believed to be of strategic national importance, i.e. the Port of Walvis Bay can play an important role in facilitating trade in Sub-Saharan Africa (DMC-CSIR, 2010). Construction of the new facility is anticipated to start mid- to end-2011 (T. Eimann, NamPort, pers. comm.).

Other development projects include: the strategic expansion of the Walvis Bay Ship and Rig Repair Yard, the construction of a new Marine Petroleum Offloading Facility and the Walvis Bay Marine.

Figure 6: Map indicating the proposed expansion of the current container terminal (indicated in red) at the Port of Walvis Bay ( Source: NamPort ).

NamPort is also the dominant player in the Walvis Bay Corridor Group (WBCG). The latter was established in 2000 and is an integrated system of tarred roads and rail networks accommodating all modes of transport from the Port of Walvis Bay via the Trans-Kalahari, Trans-Caprivi, Trans-Cunene, and Trans-Oranje Corridors ( www.wbcg.com.na ). Other

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WBCG players include Namibia Logistics Association (NLA), Walvis Bay Port Users Association (WBPUA), Namibia Chamber of Commerce and Industry (NCCI), TansNamib Holdings, Walvis Bay Municipality, the Roads Authority, and various Government Departments. Walvis Bay is linked to Gabarone (Botswana) and Gauteng and from there to the Maputo Corridor via the Trans-Kalahari corridor. By using the latter corridor (vs. Durban or Cape Town) between five and seven days of transit time can be saved (Namibia Trade Directory, 2010).

3.2.3 Salt Refiners The Walvis Bay Salt Refiners (Salt & Chemicals) started production in 1964. Coarse and refined salts (through solar evaporation) are exported to SA, as well as other markets in west Africa. Output in 2008 was 624,000 tonnes; the company employed 108 employees on a permanent basis during 2008 (The Chamber of Mines of Namibia, 2009).

During high spring tide conditions, combined with a North wind, the entire area of 4,500 ha (Figure 7) is flooded. An increase in sea level would be disastrous to the company (R. Stanton & S. Anderson, pers. comm.).

Figure 7: Aerial photo of the salt pans ( Source: Walvis Bay Salt Refiners ). 20

3.2.4 Guano During the 1930s, a guano platform was built over Bird Rock that can be found 400 m offshore and approximately 7 km north of Walvis Bay. Guano production varies between the years (depending on the amount of fish available and subsequently the numbers of breeding and roosting seabirds); on average the guano is about 5 cm thick, yielding 650 tonnes of guano per annum. The guano is collected during February-March, at the end of the breeding seasons of the various bird species. Cape Cormorants make up approximately 99% of the birds that use the platform. Other species that have been recorded include: Kelp, Hartlaub’s and Greyheaded Gulls, Greater Flamingoes, the African Black Oystercatcher and the Turnstone. The platform serves as one of three sites in southern Africa (the other sites are Dassen Island (SA) and Lake St Lucia (KwaZulu- Natal)) where Great White Pelicans (between 150-200 pairs) breed annually. Other species that use the platform for nesting/breeding include the Whitebreasted Cormorant (~700 pairs) and Crowned Cormorants (~100 pairs) (Underhill, 2003).

3.2.5 Tourism Tourist activities include: desert quad biking, dune paragliding, sandboarding, scenic flights, Namib Desert tours, seal and dolphin boat cruises, sailing and catamaran marine trips, beach or ski boat angling, horseriding, lagoon kayaking, and trips to the Kuiseb Canyon and Delta.

Places of interest in Walvis Bay include the Civic Centre and Museum; the Rhenish Mission Church – the oldest building in Walvis Bay that was prefabricated in Hamburg in 1879, shipped to Walvis Bay, and reassembled (Levinson, 1976); the Hope Locomotive – brought into the harbour in 1899; the Port of Walvis Bay; and one of the key attractions of Walvis Bay, the Lagoon.

Other places of interest include Dune 7 – the largest coastal dune in the area; the guano platform - 9 km north of Walvis Bay; the Gobabeb Desert Research Station – established in 1962 and situated in the Namib-Naukluft Park; as well as the Park and its many

21 attractions – Sandwich Harbour, the Naukluft Mountains and the Kuiseb Canyon, to name but a few.

3.3 Transportation and Telecommunications

Walvis Bay is a sheltered deepwater harbour and Namibia’s largest commercial port. The port is the dominant player for transhipment to Zambia, Botswana, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Angola, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). It is also a natural gateway for Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries that export to Europe and the United States.

The area is linked to a developed road network covering more than 40,000 km and providing access to the majority of towns in Namibia. A 30 km tarred road links Walvis Bay to Swakopmund. The primary route, the B2, is tarred and linked to the Trans-Caprivi Highway that links Walvis Bay with Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe, as well as the DRC. Walvis Bay is also linked to Gabarone (Botswana) and Gauteng (SA) and from there to the Maputo Corridor via the Trans-Kalahari corridor. A gravel road, via the Kuiseb Valley, links the area to the central and southern regions of Namibia.

Walvis Bay International Airport is located about 15 km east of Walvis Bay, handles daily connections to Windhoek, Johannesburg and Cape Town, and is the major export hub of fish and other resources to the rest of Africa and Europe.

A national network of railways, covering 2,382 km, connects Walvis Bay and Lüderitz with key destinations in Namibia and SA.

Due to substantial investment in the telecommunications infrastructure, including the installation of optical fibre cable networks and broadband systems, telephone and internet connections are widely available in Walvis Bay.

3.4 Energy

The Namibian Power Corporation (NamPower) can currently generate 393 MW of electricity: ~120 MW from the Van Eck Coal-fired Power Station outside Windhoek, ~249 22

MW from the Ruacana Hydro-electric Power Station, and ~24 MW from the Paratus Diesel-fired Power Station at Walvis Bay. During the dry season, the supply drops to 144 MW as the run-of-river Ruacana Hydro-electric Power Station only operates during the wet season. During 2007, the demand for power peaked at 539 MW. Traditionally, Namibia imported up to 54% of its electricity, mainly from Eskom, SA’s power utility. However, in recent years Eskom has been unable to meet SA’s own growing domestic demand. Namibia thus needs to increase its power generation facilities, especially in light of the economic growth in the Erongo Region, as well as to reduce dependency on SA.

NamPower is currently investigating the feasibility of constructing a Coal-fired Power Station of either 200 MW, or 400 MW or 800 MW on Site B (Farm 39) or Site C (Farm 58) close Walvis Bay. The following infrastructure may also be needed: a coal stockyard at the power station; an ash disposal facility, which will include transporting the ash; transmission lines linking the power site with the national grid; a transport system to bring coal from the Port of Walvis Bay to the power station; pipelines to carry water (possibly including seawater) to and from the plant; and a 100 MW multi-fuelled (diesel and heavy fuel oil) power plant (known as a black start generation facility).

Walvis Bay was chosen as the location for the Coal-fired Power Station for the following reasons: i) the coal will be imported from SA, Botswana and/or Indonesia by ship or rail and the transport costs will be lower (vs. operating a power station further inland); ii) placing the power station close to the port of Walvis Bay will support the Namibian transmission grid stability; iii) there is an existing 220 kilo Volt (kV) transmission line between Walvis Bay and Windhoek and electricity can easily be transmitted into the Namibian grid; iv) the bulk of load growth is expected to be in and around the Walvis Bay and the central west coast area; v) it is expected that economic growth and energy demand will be focused in Walvis Bay, being the key industrial hub in Namibia (Ninham Shand, 2009).

In addition to NamPower’s proposed Coal-fired Power Station, InnoWind Energy (Pty) Ltd is in the process of developing a Wind Farm on Farm 37 close to Walvis Bay (see Figure 8). The company was granted a renewable 20 years, 60 MW Generation License by the Electricity Control Board (ECB), effective 1 March 2010, and intends to expand the

23 production capacity of wind energy in Namibia to 300 MW over time. Walvis Bay is an ideal location for such a project due to the following: i) the abundance of wind; ii) an ample amount of power evacuation capacity in the grid; and iii) the industrial and commercial loads along the Walvis Bay–Windhoek transmission corridor (Risk-Based Solutions, 2010).

Figure 8: Photomontage, exiting Walvis Bay on the C14 road, of the proposed wind farm with 48 turbines (Source: Risk-Based Solutions, 2010 ).

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4 The Environment Setting

4.1 Land

… local planning for coastal development requires, at a minimum, a broader vision that connects proposed economic plans with such things as spatial aspects, land use, rates and characteristics of demographic growth, shelter and service needs of the poor, infrastructure, energy efficiency and waste disposal. It also needs a vision inspired by global environmental concerns, in order to avoid damaging sensitive ecosystems and other resources . - Anna Tibaijuka (UN-HABITAT, 2009).

A Council-approved Structure Plan (SP), dating back to 1999, is in place for Walvis Bay. The SP was reviewed during 2007/08 and is currently again under revision. This Plan guides the town’s long-term (~15 years) development and is normally revised every five years. As per the Town & Regional Planners Ordinance 18 of 1954, Walvis Bay has a Town Planning Scheme (TPS) in place. The Town Planning Scheme, also dating back to 1997, is currently being reviewed.

Urban development in Walvis Bay is also regulated by a Policy for Residential Densities , a Peri-Urban Land Use Policy , the Long Beach-Dolphin Beach Structure Plan and Long Beach Design Guidelines, the Integrated Environmental Policy and Coastal Area Strategy and Action Plan (derived from the Walvis Bay Local Agenda 21 Project) and the Coastline Strategic Environmental Assessment (EnviroSolutions, 2005; NACOMA, 2008a).

The Walvis Bay SP considers human settlement in the context of the coastal and desert ecosystems and at the same time emphasizes the regionalised planning concept: … is based on the realisation that Walvis Bay and Swakopmund cannot and should not be seen as individual settlements that are in competition with each another. Functionally, they are part of the same system (Stubenrauch Planning Consultants, 1999). 25

The main features of the sub-regional concept , as applied to Walvis Bay, are as follows: 1. The natural systems are seen as the most positive elements, in the sense that they are conserved as much as possible and urban development is prevented from simply sprawling roughshod over the landscape. Urban development is thus compacted to the greatest degree possible. All biophysical habitats are seen as important in their own right, since collectively they comprise the character of the place. It is proposed that all land not earmarked for urban development in the concept should be incorporated into a municipal nature reserve. The peri-urban areas should remain peri-urban. Any developments in the area should be isolated “pavilions” within the area and not be seen as comprehensive developments . 2. Noxious and more nuisance-creating heavy industry is located behind the dune belt …Land for industrial development is also reserved in proximity to the airport. …In principle, the railway shunting yards should also be relocated from the harbour area to the industrial zone behind the dunes, both to reinforce the industry and to open up the opportunity for significant reorganisation within the harbour area. Similarly, a plan should be put in place to phase out the fuel tank-yard in the harbour (which is a hazardous location) over time and to relocate it behind the dunes. 3. The road to the east of the dune belt and paralleling the railway line should be upgraded. This should become the main connection between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund for heavier traffic (such as trucks) associated with the industry. 4. Urban sprawl northward along the coast from Walvis Bay should be prevented …It is important that the open stretch of beach that currently exists between Dolphin Beach and Long Beach should be retained. In the event of an application for a hotel development along this coast, it should be integrated with Dolphin Beach. These proposals are in line with the Long Beach / Dolphin Beach Structure Plan compiled for the Municipality of Walvis Bay. …. 5. In the same way that there are a series of temporary events associated with the coast, there should be a similar series associated with the dune. These take the form of controlled access points to the dune for off-road vehicles. If this form of activity is not carefully controlled, it poses a serious threat to the fragile ecology of the dune system.

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6. The opportunity exists for a series of discrete events associated with the Swakop and Kuiseb Rivers; …in order to enhance the uniqueness of the area; and an eco- tourist centre, including limited visitor accommodation, associated with the Topnaar community .

The Walvis Bay SP also contains recommendations with regards to the overall town area and that of the built-up area (Stubenrauch Planning Consultants, 1999; see NACOMA, 2008a for the relevant aspects related to the town and built-up areas).

The Walvis Bay Council approved the SP in October 1999 and a number of the proposals in the SP have since been implemented. The Walvis Bay TPS provides for 18 different uses of land, as well as some combined land uses, and has been in operation alongside the SP.

During 2003, Council approved the Peri-Urban Land Use Policy , a condensed form of the SP’s sub-regional concept: …the Peri-Urban area should remain peri-urban with limited or no urban development taking place. Any development in the Peri-Urban area should be scattered isolated ‘pavilions’ and not be seen as ‘comprehensive’ agglomerated developments, to allow the dominant natural desert presence to be maintained. Existing activities…will remain, but be reviewed where necessary on a case by case basis. Any major or significant development in the Peri-Urban area should be subject to environmental assessment (NACOMA, 2008a).

The Sub-regional concept of Walvis Bay (Figure 9) provides for the demarcation of defined zones (Walvis Bay Municipality, 2002) to accommodate existing and future land uses:

Zone 1: Walvis Bay Nature Reserve : This zone lays on the southerly part of Walvis Bay, roughly from the airport to the Kuiseb River. Additionally, the Lagoon, the Salt-Works and the Topnaar community settlement, which are located in this zone, present an opportunity for Cultural- and Eco-Tourism. This can be allowed without jeopardising the integrity and sensitivity of the area. The Lagoon is of international importance as a breeding ground of sea birds and is declared as a Ramsar site. In addition, the Kuiseb River is vital to Walvis Bay since it provides all the water used by the town. Since this zone is ecologically fragile,

27 in such a way that it supports unique and fascinating ecological communities, it is therefore, recommended to be left free of any development other than those relating to Cultural and Eco-tourism. Aqua-culture/agriculture activities within the Lagoon and other areas within this zone are permitted subject to an Environmental Assessment .

Zone 2: Conservation: This area includes Farms owned by Council, the coastline to the west of the main road to Swakopmund as well as the areas east of the dune belt where most of the recreational activities takes place and the area immediately adjacent to the Swakop River Bed. The Damara Tern breeding area as well as Lichen Fields are also located within this area. Activities relating to environmental conservation education, eco- tourism, hiking, passive recreation, and so forth may be allowed in this zone. The node at Long Beach/Dolphin Beach can be strengthened. No other additional node would be permitted along the coastline until such time the area between Dolphin Beach and Long Beach is fully developed. Developments at Long Beach/Dolphin Beach have to abide to both the yet to be approved Long Beach/Dolphin Beach and Peri-Urban Policies .

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Figure 9: Structure Plan 2007 Review: Sub-regional concept ( Source: Walvis Bay Municipality ).

Zone 3: Combined Recreation and Conservation: This zone makes up the dune belt to the east of the main road between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund. The area supports

29 unique and fascinating fauna and flora communities. The zone also includes the “Horse Burial” ground and an area in which the Damara Tern breeds .

Zone 4: Industrial : The zone comprises of the areas demarcated for the 3 000 hectares heavy industrial development behind the dune belt. Noxious and nuisance creating industries should be located in this area. The industrial area should not be continuous; open corridors should be encouraged in order to maintain visual connections to the dune belt. The relocation of the railway-shunting yard from the harbour to this area is also proposed .

Zone 5: Government: The zone depicts the 13 000 hectares for the Ministry of Defence as an Artillery shooting range. The various Military installations albeit redundant are also located in this zone. Zone 5 will permit only military related activities .

Zone 6: Land for Development: Any proposed development in this area should be scattered, not agglomerated, to allow the dominant presence of the desert to be maintained. All developments permitted in this zone are subject to an Environmental Impact Assessment.

Since 2003 and after the approval of the Peri-Urban Land Use Policy, Walvis Bay’s peri- urban areas have been subject to strong development pressures , especially in the coastal area between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund. Urban development in the area has in fact begun earlier: Long Beach was established in 1989 and Dolphin Beach in 1992. With the handing back of Walvis Bay to Namibia in 1994, considerable tracts of land in the coastal area were transferred from state to municipal land. This included Farms 39, 36, 46, 44, 47, 42 and 48 and effectively the whole coastal area up to the northern boundary of Long Beach. Both Long and Dolphin Beach were incorporated in the 1999 SP and TPS, and the transferred land, with the exception of Long Beach and Dolphin Beach, was zoned “Conservation” under the Walvis Bay TPS.

The following sequence of events then took place: i) Long Beach Extension 1 was proclaimed to the south of the original Long Beach area towards Dolphin Park; ii) Portions of Farms 36, 46, 44, and erf 413 of Long Beach Extension 1 was rezoned from

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“Conservation” to “Undetermined” (under the Walvis Bay Amendment Scheme No. 10); the Minister of Regional and Local Governments, Housing and Rural Development approved the amendment in 2005; and iii) The sale of a number of large areas of land in the area to three developers: Quad-rant Engineering Services Pty (Ltd), Phincon Enterprises Pty (Ltd), and One & Only Holiday Resort was approved by the Walvis Bay Council (NACOMA, 2008a).

NACOMA (2008a) states that much of the development to date has been vehemently criticised for being insensitive to its desert and ocean setting, and hence compromising of the value of this natural landscape. Also, the ongoing urban development resulting in around 750 - 1,000 new residential units, including retail, hotels, and sporting/recreational facilities invalidates much of the approach of the Walvis Bay SP towards compacting urban development and limiting sprawl, and seemingly contravenes the zoning provisions of the Peri-Urban Land Use Policy.

In 2005, the Walvis Bay Municipality commissioned a Coastline Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) in order to: i) provide balanced protection of the coastline environment; ii) integrate environment into urban planning and development; iii) promote sustainable development; iv) stimulate alternative coastline development solutions; and v) promote coastline development awareness (EnviroSolutions, 2005).

During October 2006, the Council resolved that not all land development applications be approved, that “prime sites” be developed in accordance with a “structured development plan” and in line with “proper budgetary provisions,” that suitable sites for aquaculture be identified in discussion with MFMR, and that an application be made for the transfer to the Council of the balance of the state land under the jurisdiction of Walvis Bay on the coastline (i.e. the area north of Long Beach) (NACOMA, 2008a).

Revisions have since been made to the SP, with input from the public, and relate to: the Sub-Regional Concept, including Coastal Areas, and the Built-Up Area with Urban Design Concept Proposals for the following areas: Meersig and Walvis Bay Central; Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD)/Town Centre Precinct; the Esplanade; Kuisebmond Suburb &

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Kuisebmond Centre; and Narraville Suburb (see NACOMA, 2008a for more information related to the revisions).

NACOMA (2008a), in the SEA for the Coastal Areas of the Erongo and Kunene Regions , recommends, amongst others, the following:
The process for the revision of the Walvis Bay Municipality Structure Plan will be concluded in the next months. This will involve, in part, the discussion and approval of the proposals relevant to… This process provides a valuable opportunity for Walvis Bay Municipality and other stakeholders to resolve the land use and zoning issues that have caused controversy for a long period.
…The proposal for encouraging higher density developments and activities related to conventional tourism along the lagoon should be reconsidered or justified further, as the modelled land use suitability for conventional beach tourism in the Walvis Bay area indicates low suitability along the lagoon…
The inconsistencies between various WBM policies and planning instruments and the proposed revisions for land use in the coastal area between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund are pointed out above. It is now incumbent upon Walvis Bay Municipality to resolve the inconsistencies between the original SP, the Peri-Urban Land Use Policy, the Coastline SEA and the SP revisions.
It is also our recommendation that the fait accompli of urban and economic development on the southern part of the coast be accepted by stakeholders. …
The SP revisions propose a mix of industrial (harbour/port, notably a Bulk Cargo Handling Facility, and aquaculture), residential and public beach/recreational activities in the area. These should be accepted. …
At the same time, sufficient public beach and recreational space and access to it for residents will be needed to also be assured. Given that the land-use suitability models indicate low suitability for aquaculture and high suitability for tourism the potential for increased recreational uses of the area should set the scene .

Stubenrauch Planning Consultants (1999) in the Structure Plan for Walvis Bay state the following: The sea level has risen faster in this century than in previous centuries. Best estimates for the next century are a 30-centimetre rise by the year 2100, with an uncertainty range between 20 and 86 centimetres. For this reason, the 5-metre contour

32 has been accepted internationally as a benchmark limit for secure development. Viewed in these terms, Walvis Bay is one of the most threatened settlements in the world, for the entire town is well below this level (see Figure 10) . This problem is compounded by the fact that the ground water table in Walvis Bay appears to be rising: in the short term this poses an even bigger threat to infrastructure and buildings than sea level rise .

Figure 10: Structure plan of Walvis Bay; areas above the 5m contour line is indicated in red (Source: J. Korrubel ).

It is disconcerting that the above-mentioned statement, as far as recommendations related to Walvis Bay’s Structure Plan are concerned, seems to have been ignored in both the Coastline SEA (EnviroSolutions, 2005) and the SEA for the Coastal Areas of the Erongo and Kunene Regions (NACOMA, 2008a).

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5 Climate Change-Related Impacts

The vulnerability of a system to climate change is determined by: its exposure; its physical setting and sensitivity; and its ability and opportunity to adapt to change . - Paul Chamniern Vorratchaipan, Thailand Environmental Institute (UN-HABITAT, 2009).

A summary of the different sectors or areas in Walvis Bay that may be affected by various climate change-related events and the potential impacts is provided in Table 3.

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Table 3: Summary of the sectors/areas in Walvis Bay that may be affected by various climate change-related events and the potential impacts. SECTOR/AREA CLIMATE CHANGE-RELATED EVENT IMPACT/PRODUCED EFFECT Walvis Bay Wetland (Ramsar Sea level rise / catastrophic event (sudden elevation in sea level)
Increased erosion. Site): Walvis Bay Lagoon, Mud
Flooding and inundation. flats, and Pelican Point
Possible sedimentation of the Lagoon.
Altered distribution and abundance of species; extinction of sensitive species.
Birds: effects on feeding behaviour, population dynamics and ultimately biodiversity.
Loss of ecosystem and impact on biodiversity and tourism/recreational activities.
Reduced effectiveness of the Pelican Point sand bank and thus protection from extreme events at sea. Salt Works (Walvis Bay Salt Sea level rise / catastrophic event (sudden elevation in sea level)
Flooding and inundation. Refiners)
Reduction in exports; ceasing of operations.
Negative impact on mariculture. Kuiseb River and Delta Heavy precipitation
Increased risk of flooding.
Increased risk of habitat loss.
Disrupted water supply (to Walvis Bay). Reduction in rainfall and increased temperatures
Reduced aquifer recharge, water scarcity and increased water supply costs. Sea level rise
Saltwater intrusion into the Kuiseb aquifer and decreased freshwater availability. Coastline between Walvis Bay Sea level rise / catastrophic event (sudden elevation in sea level)
Increased erosion. and Swakopmund, including the
Flooding and inundation. Guano Platform
Housing and infrastructure damage.
Impact on financial services (insurance).
Road washouts.
Negative impact on biodiversity.
Negative impact on tourism/recreational activities.
Displacement of people. Walvis Bay Harbour Sea level rise / catastrophic event (sudden elevation in sea level)
Damage to maritime operations and infrastructure.
Impact on financial services (insurance).
Loss of production (fishing industry) and services (e.g. shipping and exports) and 35

SECTOR/AREA CLIMATE CHANGE-RELATED EVENT IMPACT/PRODUCED EFFECT financial losses.
Severe impact on the Namibian economy. Benguela Fauna and Flora Climate variability and change (rising sea temperatures, changes
Altered distribution and abundance of species. in ocean currents and the frequency of upwelling, shifting wind
Increased pressure on available resources. and pressure regimes, changes in tidal ranges, increased
Extinction of sensitive species. occurrences of warm water events, low oxygen conditions, HABs,
Negative impact on the fishing, mariculture and and sulphur eruptions) tourism/recreational industries (and the livelihoods of coastal communities).
Impact on food security.
Severe impact on the Namibian economy. Human Settlements and Heavy precipitation
Housing and infrastructure damage. Infrastructure
Impact on financial services (insurance).
Contaminated and decreased water resources.
Need for new or upgraded flood and erosion control structures.
Road washouts.
Increased demands on storm water management systems and sewer outflows.
Increased risk of pollution from coastal waste (solid and hazardous) sites. Sea level rise
Increased coastal erosion and increased costs for maintenance and expansion of coastal erosion control (natural or man-made)
Flooding and inundation.
Housing and infrastructure damage.
Impact on financial services (insurance).
Contaminated and decreased water resources.
Need for new or upgraded flood and erosion control structures.
Road washouts.
Increased demands on storm water management systems and sewer outflows.
Increased risk of pollution from coastal waste (solid and hazardous) sites.
Reduction in energy production and supply.
Loss of sensitive areas/habitats.
Displacement of tens of thousands of people. Health Heavy precipitation / sea level rise / rising temperatures
Heat-related mortality.

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SECTOR/AREA CLIMATE CHANGE-RELATED EVENT IMPACT/PRODUCED EFFECT
Altered incidence of vector- and water-borne diseases.
Reduced resistance to diseases (due to a reduction in nutritional status/food security).
Increased health care costs. Urban and Rural Poor and Sea level rise (amongst others) and second order impacts, i.e.
Impacts will be faced much more acutely by Vulnerable (female-headed interruption in power supply, and the supply of food and water, the poor and vulnerable (vs. the rest of the households, children and the disruption of industry/commerce/businesses, migration, health population). elderly) epidemics, etc. * Some of the information provided in Table 3 was extracted from Hughes et al . (1992) (as cited by Brundritt, 2009) and Tarr (1999).

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6 Conclusion

Brundritt (2009), in the Final Report on Sea-level rise in Namibia’s Coastal Town and Wetlands: Projected Impacts and Recommended Strategies prepared by Consulting Services Africa, Laquar Consultants and Lithon Project Consultants, concludes:

The consequences of the onset of polar ice melt and sea level rise of metres along the coast of Namibia are profound, particularly as this will be accompanied by extensive set- back and remodelling of the coastline. There will be impacts on all infrastructure on the coast and on all activities that take place along the coast. … Specific areas that will need attention are the implications for the onshore and offshore diamond industry, for coastal tourism, and the implications for urban settlements, particularly Walvisbay. Rather than trying to protect the present infrastructure with massive, and overwhelmingly expensive, coastal defences, the option of managed retreat from the coast should be explored. The harbour, and its facilities and services, will need to be continually rebuilt on higher ground as the sea rises, taking care that each new location is adequately protected from the open sea. The town of Walvisbay will likely be relocated further up the Kuiseb River, keeping it close to its source of fresh water .

7 References

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CSIR/CAS/EMS/ER/2009/0029/A . Stellenbosch. 302 pp. with Summary and Appendices, prepared for Namibian Ports Authority. EcoAfrica Environmental Consultants Pty Ltd. 2009. Towards a Coastal Policy for Namibia. Green Paper . Produced for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism - Namibian Coast Conservation and Management (NACOMA) project. 92 pp. EnviroSolutions. 2005. Coastline Strategic Environmental Assessment . Prepared for the Municipality of Walvis Bay. Tender 76/2004. 74 pp. Levinson, O. 1976. South West Africa . First Edition. Tafelberg Publishers Ltd. Cape Town. 172 pp. Local Action for Biodiversity (LAB). An ICLEI Initiative. 2008. Walvis Bay Biodiversity Report . 56 pp. Namibian Coast Conservation & Management Project (NACOMA). 2008a. Environmental Assessment (SEA) for the coastal areas of the Erongo and Kunene Regions . Study Report for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. 174 pp. Namibia Coast Conservation and Management Project (NACOMA). 2008b. Namibia Coastal/Marine Bird Action Plan . Proceedings of a workshop on 1 April 2008 at Swakopmund. 25 pp. Namibia Trade Directory (Pty) Ltd. 2010. Namibia. A Review of Namibian Trade and Industry . Vol 19: 264 pp. National Planning Commission (NPC). 2003. 2001 Population and Housing Census. Erongo Region . Basic Analysis with Highlights. 79 pp. National Planning Commission (NPC). 2007. Regional Poverty Profile Based on Village- level Participatory Poverty Assessment in Erongo Region, Namibia . October 2005 – February 2006. Summary Report. 32 pp. National Planning Commission (NPC). 2009. Poverty Bulletin . March 2009. 31 pp. Ninham Shand (Pty) Ltd. 2009. Proposed 200/400/800 MW Coal-Fired Power Station and Additional Black-Start Generation Facility at Walvis Bay, Namibia: Environmental and Socio-Economic Impact Assessment . Prepared for the Namibian Power Corporation (Pty) Ltd (NamPower). 209 pp. Risk-Based Solutions. 2010. Draft Scoping (Baseline) Report for the Proposed 60 MW Multiphase Wind Energy Project on Farm 37, Walvis Bay Erongo Region, Namibia . Prepared for InnoWind Energy Namibia (Pty) Ltd .

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Stubenrauch Planning Consultants (in association with Uytenbogaardt and Dewar; Architects, Planners, Urban Designers and Piet Louw; Architects, Planners and Urban Designers). 1999. Structure Plan for Walvis Bay. Volume 1 General Discussions and Findings . 170 pp. Volume 2: Recommendations. Prepared for the Municipality of Walvis Bay. 59 pp. Tarr, J. 1999. Namibia’s Country Study on Climate Change. An Overview of Namibia's Vulnerability to Climate Change. Desert Research Foundation of Namibia . 161pp. The Chamber of Mines of Namibia. 2009. Annual Review 2007 – 2008 . 96 pp. Underhill, L. 2003. Seabird Sites of Namibia. Bird Rock: the Walvis Bay Guano Platform . http://web.uct.ac.za/depts/stats/adu/walvisbayguanoplatform.htm United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat). 2009. Cities and Climate Change Initiative . Launch and Conference Report. Oslo 17 March 2009. 68 pp. United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 1998. The SCP Process Activities: A Snapshot of what they are and how they are implemented . 19pp. Walvis Bay Municipality. 2002. Policy: Peri-Urban Land Use in the Walvis Bay Municipal Area. 4 pp.

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