A Legacy of Wilderness

A Legacy of Wilderness researching the extent of rewilding and the shift in nature experience in the netherlands Jacob Knegtel – 10878955 MA Thesis – Heritage and Memory Studies University of Amsterdam, Graduate School of Humanities Dr. Hanneke Ronnes & Dr. J. Renes March 6th, 2016 A Legacy of Wilderness researching the extent of rewilding and the shift in nature experience in the netherlands Jacob Knegtel a legacy of wilderness jacob knegtel Table of contents Acknowledgements 7 1. Introduction 9 Relevance 10 2 Theory and methods 11 2.1 Theoretical framework 11 The wilderness concept 11 Evolution of wilderness 12 Wilderness as heritage 16 The Dutch view of nature 18 2.2 Methodology 20 Structure and methods 20 Operationalization 22 2.3 Conclusion 24 3. Historical framework 25 3.1 Rewilding in the United States 26 3.2 Rewilding in Europe 29 3.3 Conclusion 33 4. Groeve ‘t Rooth: the beginnings of Dutch wild nature? 34 4.1 Context 34 4.2 Key-informant analysis 38 4.3 National policy 41 4.4 Provincial policy 43 Profitability 44 Rewilding 44 4.5 Conclusion 46 a legacy of wilderness jacob knegtel 5. Oostvaardersplassen: A habitat for the wild 48 5.1 Context 48 5.2 Key-informant analysis 50 5.3 Habitat 52 Grazing theoretics 55 ‘Wilderness’ 55 5.4 Enclosure 57 Borders and protection 57 Debate and critique 58 Rewilding 59 5.5 Conclusion 60 6. Tiengemeten: The wilderness experience 62 6.1 Context 63 6.2 Key-informant analysis 64 6.3 Views of nature 66 Conflicts 67 Perspective shift 68 6.4 View of wilderness 69 Experience 70 Rewilding 71 6.5 Conclusion 75 7 Conclusion 76 Bibliography 80 Images 89 a legacy of wilderness jacob knegtel Acknowledgements Before reading this MA thesis, it is important to know that its conception was made possible because of a multitude of people who have contributed to this research. I would first like to thank three people in particular. My supervisor Hanneke Ronnes has aided me tremendously throughout this last year and a half. Within this last se- mester, her recommendations and critique have made it possible for me to carry my research skills to a higher level, especially within the field of heritage and memory studies. Her corrections and tips regarding my thesis I see as immensely valuable, and made it possible to strengthen my argumentation and conclusions. Secondly, I would like to thank Hans Renes for his lectures, that have further opened my eyes to this academic field, and of course for his contribution as a second reader. Thirdly, I would like to thank my mother for her dedication and devotion to my academic career, her immensely valuable criticism, and for making it possible to even go to university. Likewise, my brothers and sister have given me the same confidence to pursue this path within academia. Next, I would like to thank all the experts who have contributed to this research. Their valuable perspectives made it possible to attack this subject from many inter- esting sides. Also, I would like to thank all my teachers for their valuable insights and lectures this past year and a half, and in particular Ihab Saloul for his assistance during the writing process of this thesis. Lastly, my thanks go to Bert Creyghton for sharing his thoughts and giving me the idea of researching this subject, and my co-students for their immense enthusiasm and support throughout this masters programme. I hope you will enjoy reading this thesis. 7 a legacy of wilderness jacob knegtel 1. Introduction In 2015, Johan van de Gronden published a 198-paged bundle of essays, titled ‘Phili- sopher in the Wild’ (Dutch: ‘Wijsgeer in het Wild’). The Dutch philosopher and director of the Dutch World Wide Fund (WNF) wrote this book to summarize his views on the current state of affairs concerning nature management worldwide. He looks back at history and illustrates through personal experiences how past nature movements have shaped current management practices. He zooms in on the heritage of the American painter Thomas Cole and the writer Henry David Thoreau, the works of Charles Darwin, and the Chinese philosophy behind Taoism. Often he shifts his focus to the Netherlands. Compared to these foreign examples, Dutch nature always seems to belong in a category of its own; functional nature. Van de Gronden states that he has always been puzzled about the utilitarian character of Dutch nature, in which a distance between man and nature seems non-existent (Van de Gronden, 2015). Notwithstanding Van de Gronden’s words, the Dutch seem to have grown fond of a new movement these last few years that has gained popularity within the spheres of international nature management. ‘Rewilding’ entails the protection of virgin natural landscapes and the development toward a natural state of ‘wilderness’, with minimal humans interference. Growing more popular in the United States nowa- days, the Dutch equivalent of this term (‘herwildering’) is nowhere to be found in the dictionaries, and seems utopian in practice within Dutch nature management. Nevertheless, more European countries seem to have embraced rewilding, especially in Eastern Europe. Rewilding here commits to the restoration of self-regulating ecosystems to their former glory (Bravo et al., 2016). In the Netherlands, an increasing number of natural heritage sites seem to be transformed to a more ‘wild’ equivalent of themselves. An increasing number of wolves, beavers and sea eagles seem to be visiting the country, to the excitement of the Dutch people. Organizations like Natuurmonumenten increasingly use the term ‘primeval nature’, similar to the increasing use of this term in Dutch nature docu- mentaries. The Dutch seem to have grown a desire for ‘wild nature’, both in terms of nature experience and nature management. This seems to create ‘wild islands’ 9 1 introduction jacob knegtel within our planned Dutch landscape, as seen in the cover photo of this thesis. It suggests that the international phenomenon of rewilding has reached the Nether- lands, and has influenced the Dutch view of nature in all corners of society. In this research, the phenomenon of ‘rewilding’ will be researched from a heritage point of view. As rewilding seems to entail the restoration of lost history, the sustainable development and conservation of natural heritage and the renewed experience of wild nature, this study will look at this phenomenon from a cultural perspective. The main research question thus reads: To what extent does the practice of rewilding take place in Dutch nature management, and how does this scenario compare to established rewilding movements abroad? relevance This study aims to fill in a specific academic hiatus within the field of heritage studies. Numerous studies on the phenomenon of rewilding in the United States and Europe have been done these last few years, which mainly focus on the mana- gerial and biological aspects of this practice. Few studies however adopt a cultural perspective, which involves the dimension of natural heritage management and the human side of rewilding. Moreover, there hasn’t been a large qualitative study done on the prevalence of rewilding in the Netherlands, let alone studies looking at the position of Dutch rewilding in an international context. Therefore, the academic relevance of this study is significant. Seeing how this research belongs within heritage studies, the societal relevance that it possesses is also substantial. This study will take into account all spheres of society in order to research the occurrence of rewilding, and aims to illustrate the current relationship the Dutch have with nature, along with the various dimensions it covers, such as ‘wilderness’. The title, ‘a legacy of wilderness’, implies the heritagization of this diverse concept, or the way the idea of wilderness has evolved through generations and has affected the management of nature. 10 a legacy of wilderness jacob knegtel 2. Theory and methods The following chapter will delve into the academic literature, and will form a literature basis for the research chapters that will follow. This chapter is divided into two parts; the theoretical framework and the methodology. The framework discusses the conceptual and theoretical fundament of this research, embedding it in both nature management and heritage theory. The methodology looks into the methods that will be used in this paper, along with an operationalization of the core concept used in this research. 2.1 Theoretical framework At the centre of the rewilding movement within nature management lies the concept of ‘wilderness’. The term is used today in a wide manner of ways and is instru- mental for a broad array of purposes. Historically however, the development of the concept is less branched out, and shows a clear set of sources and influences over the centuries. This general framework will summarize this development, and will position the concept of wilderness within academic theory. Subsequently, the notion and process of ‘rewilding’, which revolves around the subject of wilderness, will also be theorized as such. the wilderness concept The current definition of the term ‘wilderness’ varies from source to source. Accord- ing to the Oxford Dictionaries, the word implies “an uncultivated, uninhabited, and inhospitable region” (Oxford Dictionaries, 2015). As used in legal documents, such as the still used US Wilderness Act of 1964, a wilderness “is hereby recognized as 11 a legacy of wilderness jacob knegtel an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain” (Rosenberg, 1994, p. 4), whereas the 2007 German National Strategy typifies wilderness as large natural areas that are strictly protected by but entirely absent of humans (BMU, 2007). Compared to these documents however, there exists no clear definition of wilderness in academia, as it is a heavily debated notion.

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