Lonaard Magazine is a peer-reviewed periodical, publication of Lonaard Group in London Issue 6, Volume 1, November 2011, ISSN: 2045 - 8150

TRADITION VERSUS MODERNITY FROM CULUTRAL DISCOURSE TO ARCHITECTURAL CRISIS

Waleed Al Sayyed 1 1. Architect, Scholar and Academic – London, UK.

Sent for evaluation on (09 September 2011), and was approved on (17 November 2011)

Abstract This paper is concerned with an issue that gained so much attention and momentum during the last four decades and was the centre of debate and discussions; that is the question of tradition and modernity. This paper will detect how it became an important issue in /Islamic culture in general and in architecture in particular. The inquiry will start at the cultural broad level, before turning to the architectural level, when the issue of tradition and modernity became a ‘crisis’. One important line of inquiry will be to understand the components of the so called 'Islamic' architecture, which is believed to be part of the problem that engulfed Arab Moslem thought within architectural context. By unfolding this broad cultural subject within its architectural dimension, this paper is only a start to shed light on some terms used in the architectural as well as the cultural discourse, which need to be re-visited. The methodology will be to evaluate, review and discuss available data on the record to account on this crisis.

1. Introduction This paper will look briefly at the factors why Tradition and modernity has emerged since the tradition versus modernity has become pivotal to mid-seventies as a major problematic issue within Arabic culture in general and to the Arabic Arab cultural discourse in general and in architectural thought in particular. In the following architecture in particular. Thinkers and architects two sections, the first will address how this issue have sought to view tradition each on their own features in Arabic thought, as we will investigate rights. They have been divided into three schools prevailing methodologies in tackling this of thought: The first adheres to tradition with a problematic issue, while the second will trace nearly total rejection of modernity. The second, attempts by leading Arab architects to recognise contrary to the former, seeks to superimpose this issue in Arab architectural arena. Both sections modernity over tradition which is seen as an aspect are meant to familiarise the reader with reasons of retrogression. The third, however, adopts a why such an issue is considered to be vital in Arab methodology of reconciliation between tradition architectural discourse. and modernity where tradition has been understood in a contemporary context.

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2. Tradition-modernity in the Arab culture nation could relate (implicitly or explicitly) to it (Habbabi, 1985: 99, Zurayq, 1985: 366 ). Some Tradition and modernity came about as an thinkers distinguish Modernity Mu'asaarah from emergent recent phenomenon in contemporary contemporaneity Hadathah, as the latter is the Arab culture only recently, as it only emerged conscious choice rather than living at a certain time upon the seventies when most Arab countries with no intellectual choice. Al-Khadoor argues that gained independence from direct colonization that the use of the word modern Mua'sir instead of preceded that era. Critics and thinkers, Arkoun contemporary Hadeeth is misleading in the sense and Al-Jabiri's, to name but a few, argue, as we that it embeds mere relation to time that will review in due course, that this issue came distinguishes the past from the present, and embeds upon the unbalanced cultural interaction with the a superficial prejudice that favours the present 'West' with the emergence of many factors that assuming it should be better than the past (Al provided the right circumstances for a problematic Khadoor, 1995: 61, Taysini, 1985: 99, Sharabi, issue sustained by retrogression and cultural decay 1990: 367-370). Sharabi and others describe and a unique state of weakness of Arab States and contemporaneity as timeless, when it does not refer culture in general. Within the normal objective to a certain period of time. He also negates the course of events, time and place, tradition versus assumption that the present should be better than modernity can be only a natural phenomenon of the past, and hence the future should be better than continuity with the past, where the present the present. Instead, he argues, contemporaneity is eventually follows historical precedents. For this, reflected in themes, concepts, ideas and meanings, the question that comes to mind is: What are the hence, according to him, our ancestors, in this reasons that made this issue become problematic in sense, could be more contemporary than us Arab/Moslem culture in recent times? (Sharabi, 1990: 371-375, Arkoun, 1990: 329, Al- Let us begin by stating that the issue is dividing not Khadoor, 1995: 85-89). Available writings on this uniting thinkers and scholars for many reasons, issues notably show that Arab thinkers use the two some to do with the standing points of views, words for one or more of these purposes: Some use ideologies, and the misuse of terminology, while the terms in the duality (tradition-modernity or others to do with differences in cultural tradition-contemporaneity) to distinguish between attachments/adherence from one thinker to another. the past and the present. Others use the term to Thinkers, at a first glance in their writings, seem to refer to socio-cultural issues (Sharabi, 1990: 377, distinguish between two basic terms; tradition Arkoun, 1990: 349, Al-Khadoor, 1995: 89). In versus contemporaneity and tradition versus contrast, others view the pair (tradition-modernity) modernity. The former, some argue, embeds a as two entities: one as a dominant model that more positive theme than the latter. Habbabi and dictates and the other is a replica (Taysini, 1985: others argue that contemporaneity Hadathah 87, Habbabi, 1985: 106-107, Al-Jabiri, 1991 b: 30- denotes continuity and belonging rather than a 31). Others refer to the phrase to indicate the mere notion of time, as not all what is 'modern' to a process in which the past is integrated with the

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Tradition versus Modernity: from cultural discourse to architectural crisis present (Hanafi, 1980: 34). However, one common reject modernity completely, others are more usage of this term seems to be by associating it tolerant as long as it does not contradict with what with an identity problem and a cultural related he calls ‘pure tradition’. The third group, Hanafi crisis. This meaning springs to mind in most continues, adheres to a more intellectual approach writings where thinkers invoke tradition- seeking to interpret aspects of the present in modernity, Asalah wa Mua'asara, as a reference to difference to traditional themes (Hanafi, 1980: 27). a cultural 'crisis'. For this, thinkers tackle the issue This methodology, mainly prevalent in religious on many levels: Some investigate tradition with its studies, is criticized for being incapable of coping intertwined cultural issues on the level of with emerging changes, thus escaping back to the terminology (Al-Jabiri, 1985a, Al-Shahham, 1986, past, as well as being ‘non-historic’ in the sense Amarah, 1980, Amin A., 1975a, Arkoun, 1985, that it lacks the objective reading of the past Arawi, 1974, Hanafi, 1980, Galiun, 1990, Al- (Hanafi, 1980: 28, Arawi, 1978, Taysini, 1979, Deeb, 1986, Sallam, 1989, Abu Talib, 1987). Arkoun, 1992, Al-Jabiri, 1992a). Others who Others detect the influences of the issue on the adhere to modernity, critics argue, view ‘tradition’ social, cultural, economic or political structure of as part of a retrogressive past or one of its aspects. the Arab world (Sharabi, 1990, Suleiman, 1987, They claim it adds no good to the present that it Tarabishi, 1993, Taysini, 1979, 1985, Uraibi, 1991, should be neglected altogether (Hanafi, 1980: 30). Kabeel, 1991, Jeedah, 1985). Others are concerned This approach, according to Hanafi, favours with history (Al-Doori, 1984, Sa'eedan, 1988, ‘modernity’ and all aspects that relates with Daqqaq, 1985), while some are focused on the advanced examples of the industrial West. effect of language upon such an emerging crisis However, this approach is criticized for being a (Al-Khadoor, 1995, Al-Jabiri, 1985a, 1986, replica of ‘international’ models, ignoring the 1991a). importance of the ‘self-identity’ of culture within the context of place and time (Hanafi, 1980: 31). As a result, it is notable that there exist three main The third group conciliates tradition and approaches to tackling the issue of ‘tradition versus modernity. Abdul Basit Seeda has elaborated on modernity’ in the Arab world: the first endorses this approach in his thesis and argues that it can tradition, the second superimposes modernity over take one of two forms. The first is ‘external tradition, and the third compromises between the reconciliation’ by adopting a modern theory and two. Those who adopt tradition have been applying it on ‘tradition’. This approach is also, described as 'traditionalists' and their approach as Seeda notes, utilized by Arab graduates from ‘conventional’ or Salafiyyah. Hassan Hanafi has Western universities. He also claims that this accounted on this approach and pointed out that it occurs accidentally rather than intentionally as the appreciates ‘tradition’ as a sacred heritage that purpose in most cases is to attract attention to the contains the ideal solution to the past and present. person rather than to the ideas themselves. Some However, within this methodology, Hanafi argues, call this 'the return of the prodigal son’. (Seeda, tradition has been dealt with in different way: 1990, Hanafi, 1980). The second, ‘internal while some adhere totally to the tradition that they

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Waleed Al Sayyed conciliation’; matches positive aspects of tradition upon the Arab world. He argued that 'Orientalism' with the needs of the modern times with regard to in its basic methodological system only views social transformations. However, he criticizes this conquered nations as anthropological creatures to approach of being 'eclectic' (Seeda, 1990: 32). study and control. In this sense, 'Orientalism's After this brief introduction, we turn to the ideas are mere functional ideas that integrate with question: how did tradition versus modernity an overall colonisation system (Said, 1979, 1991: become an important issue in Arabic discourse and 124-133). Since the publication of 'Orientalism' how did it evolve? Following, we will preview the Arab critics and thinkers have contributed to this emergence of this issue in Arabic discourse, and issue in different ways. Many writers had in mind then in architecture in particular. an identity problem and an issue of confrontation between a foreign culture and a dominated or 2.1 The emergence of tradition and modernity deteriorating Arab one. While some sought to in Arabic discourse analyse the current entangled situation, others As we noted earlier, the issue of tradition and alluded to the past to understand its parameters, modernity gained significance in the mid seventies giving much importance to 'tradition'. Writers in the Arab world. Thinkers and critics became across the Arab world tackled Arabic Islamic more aware of an identity problem that manifests thought, its evolution, formation and the current itself in cultural aspects following the end of a state. colonization era that swept across the Arab world. One of the remarkable contributions is the work of One of the elite Arab writers to highlight this the late Moroccan philosopher Mohammed Abed confrontation and subjection of Arab culture to Al-Jabiri. In his works, Al-Jabiri highlights the Western influence, resulting in an identity issue of tradition and modernity from different problem, was Edward Said. In his book points of view, which we will preview next as well 'Orientalism', first published in 1979, Said argued as others'. that the cross cultural confrontation between the West and the Orient was more than scientific Al-Jabiri set out a project in the early 1980 s in expeditions exploring aspects of culture. He writes: four publications hat tackle tradition and 'Orientalism is a system of representation, framed contemporary Arab discourse and thought (Al- by a whole set of forces that brought the Orient Jabiri, 1982, 1986, 1991-a,1991-b). In addition, he into western learning, western consciousness and, started a project he published in three consecutive later the western empire' (Said, 1979: 203). Said volumes. His aim was to analyse, understand, and critically reviewed colonising powers' views about evaluate the Arab thought, mind, and the mentality the 'Orient' from the 18th century, which many behind the vast heritage considered the 'golden age writers consider the beginning of 'Orientalism'. He of Arabic civilization'. He aimed at understanding founded his argument upon Michael Foucault's the factors behind the evolution of 'tradition' and theories of domination and power, where the process of tradition evolution. Orientalism was a tool of Western domination

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Tradition versus Modernity: from cultural discourse to architectural crisis

Al-Jabiri's first volume in a series called Critics on Strauss's argument that 'the La raison Constituente the Arab Mind was 'The Evolution of the Arab implies the existence of the La raison Constituee, Mind' (Al-Jabiri, 1991c). Al-Jabiri starts this study meaning that the evolution of the La raison by adopting a methodology of 'conjecture- Constituente is a result itself of a prevailing set of refutation' of all inherited tradition. He introduces rules or another La raison Constituee. This lead first the idea of using the word 'mind' to indicate him to make comparisons between the 'Arab mind' not the human organ, but rather the process of as a product of preceding cultures, particularly analysis-synthesis by which the human mind Greek, and to detect influences of Plato's and produces knowledge and science. He refers to what Aristotle's thought upon the formation and relates to the Arabs as the 'Arab mind' meaning the evolution of Arab culture (Al-Jabiri, 1991c: 17- process of thinking that produced literature, 35). science, etc. as means and context (Al-Jabiri, He then embarked on the investigation of Arab 1991c: 11-17). He argues that understanding the culture since its evolution in the era that preceded process by which 'the Arab mind' functions as the spread of in the 7th century, which led means and contextual axiom will eventually make him to conclude that 'time in the Arab culture had clear the distinction between 'Arab mind' and come to a standstill in terms of the production of 'French, English, or European mind' , etc. in the cultural knowledge' (Ibid.: 42) and that way it produces knowledge and heritage as a 'contemporary Arab countries live, culturally, in process rather than as a product. (Al-Jabiri, 1991c: the same era that preceded Islam; which witnessed 11-13). Al-Jabiri argues that in order to be able to the prosperity of knowledge and cultural think within a certain socio-cultural milieu, it is not production' (Ibid.: 50). Then he marked a later enough to think about its issues, but rather the period within the Abbasid dynasty called 'The thinker has to think with and of its issues by means writing-down era', in which Arabs were involved of the epistemological system that formulated these in the reproduction of their cultural heritage up to issues within its socio-cultural parameters. Al- that date not as has been introduced or inherited Jabiri, from this standing point, criticizes but as has been perceived according to 'Orientalists' for being 'outsiders' to the culture they contemporary circumstances (Ibid.: 56-71). From were studying (Al-Jabiri, 1991c: 13). Al-Jabiri then this perspective, Al-Jabiri studied aspects of Arab borrows Lalande's distinction between La raison culture. He started with language as the basic tool Constituente and La raison Constituee, to define to produce knowledge as a means and context. He the 'Arab mind' under investigation as: 'the set of put forward an interesting argument that Arabic, up rules that the Arab culture imposes upon Arabs or to our current time, is only a reflection of the those who belong to that culture as a means of 'world of the Bedouin', in the sense that it reflects, acquiring knowledge, in other words the and is confined to the ' Bedouin world', who epistemological system' (Al-Jabiri, 1991c: 15). depicted the ‘desert’ around him (Al- Jabiri: However, he does affirm the interrelation between 1991c: 75-95). the two distinctive 'minds' considering Levi

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Al-Jabiri then investigated Islamic hsitory from the the world based on the connection between the death of the Prophet in the 7th century to the mid infinite and the definite, and upon spiritual 9th century. He argued that 'Islamic culture during thinking, myths and magic. The third system Al- that period is as much a reflection and a production Jabiri defines is the rational logical epistemological of religion, as we can ascribe Greek culture to system (Burhan); introduced to Arab thought philosophy' (Ibid.: 96). Al-Jabiri argues that that through the translation of Greek knowledge in the era witnessed the evolution of a crisis'; where ‘writing-down era’. This system is based upon the upon, the elite of that era were involved in science and philosophy of Greek thinking as superficial marginal debates, while offsetting the developed by Aristotle. Such a system is based real meaningful matters to do with the basis upon upon a framework that views the world as one which evolving sciences at the time, mainly logical entity, based upon the relation between religious, had been founded (Ibid.: 101). He then cause and effect. It also establishes the ground for reviews what he believes different Islamic knowledge that is the result of rational thinking, doctrines contributed to the evolution of the crisis from certain logic to logical conclusions (Al-Jabiri, by establishing what is known to historians as the 1992a). Al-Jabiri argues that these three 'linguistic debates'. Al-Jabiri adds that the spread epistemological systems prevailed in a context of of mythical interpretations and witchcraft beliefs conflict and contradiction within the Arab culture. contributed to the decline of culture and This conflict was sustained by the political struggle complicated the crisis, as the prevailing analysis- between Shia’a and Sunni, leading the former to synthesis process then lacked logic and led to what adopt the second system (Sufi), and the latter the he calls the 'retired mind in the Arab culture' (Ibid.: first system (Bayan). Both sects invoked certain 149). aspects of the third system (Burhan) occasionally.

In his 'The structure of the Arab Mind', Al-Jabiri This resulted in a lax mentality and thinking, open defines three epistemological systems that to indiscriminate and acceptance of all thought and prevailed within Arab culture since its evolution in beliefs, including myths and miracles, and denying the ‘writing–down era’. The first is the ‘literal’ or the rationale behind things. Moreover, Al-Jabiri ‘dictating’ epistemological system (Bayan) which argues that this struggle between the three Al-Jabiri claims was embodied in the Arabic contradictory systems ended up with the language. Such a system establishes a gap between supremacy of (Sufism) above the Sunni as well as cause and effect. The second system he calls the Shia’as minds. It thus demolished not only the ‘Sufi’ epistemological system (Irfan); introduced to other two systems, in that it introduced non-logical Arab culture through the pre-Islamic inherited discourse to the realm of (Bayan) and (Burhan), legacy, when a struggle at the beginning of the but also entered the realm of the majority of people Abbasid period emerged between Sunni and Shia'a who were relatively illiterate. Therefore, Sufi political thought, especially the Isma’ili, Sufi buildings were erected to praise the realm of the philosophy, witchcraft, myths, astrology, and new power that defeated the ‘mind’ and became magic. Such a system establishes a certain view of the system by which all aspects of social, political,

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Tradition versus Modernity: from cultural discourse to architectural crisis economic, and cultural life had to be justified and he claims as influential in the evolution of related to' (Al-Jabiri, 1992a: 72-131). Al-Jabiri knowledge and science during the 'golden era' of describes that era as the ‘decline of civilization’ Arab civilization (Arkoun, 1997: 65-74). Arkoun which announced the retirement of the Arab mind. also investigates the effect of the Islamic religion It introduced the ‘retired mind' both the mind of upon thought on the one hand, and the effect of the Bayan system, and the Burhan system (Al- religion upon society on the other and argues that Jabiri, 1991c: 186-252, 1992a, 1991: 58-70). throughout Islamic history thought was subject to many variables rather than one, and that the Another fairly similar line of thinking and critical detection of these turning points is key to skeptical approach can be found in the writings of understanding the emergence of the 'crisis' in Mohammed Arkoun, which focus on the analysis Arabic Islamic thought (Arkoun, 1997: 206-240). and criticism of Arabic Islamic thought (Arkoun, Arkoun draws attention to two major turning 1985, 1985a, 1987, 1992, 1993, 1997). In his points: One is the intervention of 'Orientalism' and writings Arkoun seeks to understand the evolution the new vision it provided to understand past of tradition within the Arab culture, and most heritage (Arkoun, 1997: 245-269, 1994: 30-79). importantly key turning points of its evolution. The second is the tendency to divide religion Arkoun integrates three elements he regards affairs from the political life of the State or responsible for the evolution/regression of Arab (Ilmaniyyah) by Ataturk (Arkoun, 1997: 275-290). cultural knowledge, namely: thought, language, and the socio-historic milieu (Arkoun, 1997: 206). In addition to some factors raised by Al-Jabiri, He establishes three systems to understand the past Arkoun adds more, for example, and calls for the or 'tradition'. The first is to understand tradition as evaluation of the traditions we inherited to verify 'all what has been thought of', which will which can be accepted that suits our times. In other eventually lead to the other two: 'the nonthought words, the traditions produced in a certain past of' tradition, or the decisions that have been time can still be accepted provided that we can discarded, ignored or omitted during the evolution understand the process and minds that influenced of a certain tradition at a certain time, and the third, its evolution in the first place. This leads to explore 'the impossible-to- think of at the time' tradition the essence of tradition not as superficial forms, (Arkoun, 1997: 59-63). Arkoun argues that but rather as inherent embedded meanings and understanding the circumstances and factors that themes. This means that we are invited to led to the adoption of a certain tradition over reconsider some decisions that were not possible to another is central to a better comprehension of the think of during the production of tradition, which process, not the product, responsible for its were either impossible to think of at the time, or evolution. Like Al-Jabiri, who considers the 'mind' not thought of at all, but might be possible to be central to his investigation of (thought, language, thought of or considered in modern times for the socio-historic milieu), Arkoun questions the change of circumstances. Arkoun also considers essence of what he calls 'the Islamic mind' and its the study of language, and argues that it has been a role in the production of 'religious sciences', which major factor in the decline of Arab thought.

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Other important arguments can be noted in light of thought that determined its class structure Abdullah Al-Arawi's writings (1970, 1974, 1978, within its political, economic, and historical 1980, 1983, 1992), where the Arab thought is the milieu, and argues that 'Arab society is fragmented realm of his investigation. His writings are based due to Imperialism, each class within it struggles to upon the political parameter in difference to the defend its interests by all means; one of which is Arab thought; and the socio-economic dimension ideological' (Ibid.). He studies the 'traditionalist' and conflict with thought . His claims that conflict movements in the Arab world, and criticizes them exists as political ideology that resulted in the for being dedicated to tradition with no evolution of class-related thought during certain consideration to modern ideas. He later calls for a periods in the Arab history. His book 'The Arabs revolutionary study of the 'other' in order to and historical thought' marks his inclination to progress towards modernity and change (Arawi, adopt Marxist theory and a class-history-political 1980, 59&207, 1978: 20, 1974:167). model to analyse Arab thought within its historical Hassan Hanafi's contributions in the subjects of context (Arawi, 1980: 11-25). Hence, Imperialism, tradition and modernity are also of interest because directly or indirectly produced social classes and of ideas and argument he put forward (Hanafi, affected interrelations among them, as well as the 1980, 1981a, 1981b, 1991). Hanafi investigates link between the past and the present. He argues 'tradition' and the challenge of modernity from that 'the ideological Arab situation is a result of the three main perspectives: The first, in which he pressures of Imperialism in all its aspects, and is studies heritage in order to formulate a certain the result of a class conflict' (Arawi, 1980: 13). point of view in his book 'Tradition and From this point of view, Arawi argues that any Modernity' (Hanafi, 1980). In the second he thought which is a result of certain social factors studies 'western tradition', in 'An Introduction to does eventually reflect that situation, and in order Occidentalism'. The third where he examines the to bring any ideological change this will result in 'present' in search of a theory in his 'Contemporary conflict. Moreover, he argues that such Issues in Modern Arab Thought: Parts I &II). contradictory forces tend to adopt prevailing In his first study, Hanafi highlights certain issues thought which is subject to change, yet they are that he considers vital when looking at 'tradition'. also subject to an inherited situation or one which His approach tends to include socio-cultural, resulted from outside change or political decisions historical, and political aspects. He therefore (Ibid.: 13). Arawi then distinguishes two factors tackles the issue on different levels; the first from a that govern ideas and which become part of the socio-historical perspective, where he argues that social system, one 'is the role of these thoughts we should understand 'tradition' in the light of our which determines the relations between classes in 'present', and that we should grasp the past as per society, the other is the essence and the structure of our modern time not as we inherited it (Hanafi, these ideas which are determined by their 1980: 10-26). This leads us to note that some may evolutionary factors' (Ibid.: 14). He then describes, have bias with the past that leads to stagnation and analyses, and evaluates the Arab society in the

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Tradition versus Modernity: from cultural discourse to architectural crisis a limited view of tradition (Hanafi, 1980: 37). To The third proposal is at the level of changing the many 'tradition' is associated either with the cultural milieu if necessary; that is, Hanafi argues 'sacred' or 'untouchable', and 'any attempt of that 'tradition' is the outcome of the 'superiority' of change is a sacrilege' (Ibid.: 39). On a third level, certain aspects of cultural environments over Hanafi tackles the educational systems and Islamic others, either to do with family, lifestyle, political studies in particular, where, according to him, there system, etc. However, these dominant aspects is a split between the thinker/scholar and his might not be the case at present, which means that cultural background in the sense that 'his study of in order to revive a certain tradition, the his tradition is on the level of theory which does contemporary cultural environment has to match not influence him or his real world, whereas its precedent when tradition evolved (Ibid.: 157- tradition should be the essence of his existence, his 168). Hanafi's finally argues the need for an overall past, present, and future' (Hanafi, 1980: 75). 'rebuilding' of the traditional sciences in the light Hanafi suggests solutions for the desired change. of contemporary variables (Ibid.: 170-216); in The first proposal is at the level of language. He other words, he calls for another 'writing-down argues that 'the basic traditional sciences in our era', which Al-Jabiri introduced in his studies. heritage are still limited to the borders of the rigid Hanafi establishes what he calls 'Occidentalism', or language that can no longer cope with the modern the study of the Western Renaissance, in order to scientific world or can describe it' (Ibid.: 124). understand its evolution (Hanafi, 1991: 31). Hanafi Hence, he suggests that 'since language is the argues that intellectuals in the Third world suffer axiom to translate and interpret thought, then from various problems that prevent progress and modernizing the language will influence and affect changes in the cultural milieu. These modernize thought itself' (Ibid.: 125). problems vary from external ones such as political The second proposal is at the level of exploring repression, co-option, corruption, and greed, or new innovative methods of analysis-synthesis by personal factors related to livelihood, which might utilizing what he calls 'psychological lead to segregation of the individual from his consciousness' in reading and understanding the socio-cultural environment, or immigration to tradition. He identifies various layers within the another culture. In the light of these problems that 'relation between the mind of the transmitter, in surround contemporary Arab culture, Hanafi this case the creator of the 'tradition', and the tackles the dialectic relation between tradition and receiver (us),' (Ibid.: 153). According to him, the modernity in the Arab world and argues that this analysis of the hidden socio-psychological 'mind' marks a standstill state in thought and change of the inventor of the tradition, either in its (Hanafi, 1981a: 19-53). physical or non-physical aspects, will lead to a Such writings reviewed indicate the significance of better understanding of tradition, its evolution, as this issue in the Arab discourse and the impact it well as ways of preventing any misreading of has upon aspects of culture. Now let us review the tradition (Ibid.: 151-156). problem in the realm of Arab architectural thought.

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3 Tradition versus modernity: From cultural debate to architectural crisis

Since the second half of the 20th century, upon the independence of most of the Arab world from direct colonisation, the tension between the past and present became a hot issue. Many contemporary Arab architects then became aware of the legacy of a preceding era and were alarmed by a viable extended 'external interference', characterized by 'imported' styles and forms. This led to the adherence to the past and tradition. Such an adherence came about as a reaction against the ‘international architectural style’. The imported forms, styles, and planning theories found their way via various tracks. Firstly, they were adopted by colonizing agents as ‘alternatives’ to existing traditional planning and architectural systems, examples can be seen in some North African cities Fig. 1: Haussman's (after Curtis, 1996:34). like Fez or Meknas. In , a new system of planning after the Boulevards of Paris created by Haussman (Figure 1) was adopted by the Egyptian Khedive Ismail in the mid 19th century (Figure 2), who adopted the Gothic style, leaving Cairo with two extreme architectural faces as well as contradictory planning systems: one Gothic, to be seen in the new planning system, which contains wide, straight streets that end in a square. The other is the traditional Fatimid, characterized by narrow winding alleyways and cul-de-sacs. It was not only limited to Cairo, but the same conflicting planning systems were notable in most other Arab cities. Such an extreme contrast led many Arab thinkers and leading architects to sound the alarm of a growing problem, which has become known in Fig. 2: Cairo after Haussman's Paris: a planning system adopted by Khedive Ismail (After UIA). architectural discourse as the 'crisis in the built environment'. This ‘crisis’ in the built environment accompanied by the overall ‘crisis’ in Arab culture led to a call

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Tradition versus Modernity: from cultural discourse to architectural crisis for a review of major standing points of years later, as writers note, to the military contemporary Arab architecture. One of the first to occupation of by the British for the next 70 raise this issue was the Egyptian architect Hassan years. Eventually, this occupation led to the Fathy (1900-1989). Fathy noted a 'crisis' in emergence of a national movement against contemporary Arab architecture, he wrote: 'Arab colonization; most notably by Mohammed Abduh architecture nowadays is undergoing a bitter crisis and by the mid 20th century this long history of in the history of its development throughout all direct interference ended with the takeover of the Arab countries without exception. In fact we can government by the Free Officers in 1952 say that there is no contemporary Arab (Mansfield, 1980: 67). Hassan Fathy grew up in architecture, but rather a European architecture in this socio-political context, Steele notes, and the Arab countries' (Fathy, 1971: 21). Curtis notes developed his thoughts and ideas with close friends that Fathy was among those critics who saw the such as the artist Hamid Said, who recalls a mutual 'international style' as just one more intrusion in feeling of awareness of an emerging cultural crisis the already fragmented and colonised culture of his among Fathy’s friends (Steele, 1997: 150). own country (Curtis, 1982: 381). Therefore, Fathy -followed later by Rasem Badran, The era within which Fathy’s architectural M. Makiya, A. Ibrahim and others - led a school of theoretical thought evolved, in the 1930s, thought that adopted a practical approach to witnessed the emergence of architectural schools implement ‘traditional architecture’. Hence, many of thought, which included many western stylistic issues became under scrutiny in the discourse of architectural theories that spread across the Arab contemporary Arab architecture so it became world. In addition, there emerged some influential pivotal to understand the past to adequately doctrines, and political events. Yet, on the cultural interpret it in a modern way. Moreover, to level, it seems that this influence goes back to an understand ‘tradition' and the causing earlier period. In this regard, Edward Said circumstances for its evolution to determine mentions the Napoleonic expedition in the 19th whether it fits in place, form, space and time century as a major turning point, where by the within the present's varied needs. Curtis writes:' beginning of the 20th century Egypt had already Far from perceiving 'modernism' as an instrument had a long history of foreign consecutive for universal liberation, critics like Fathy saw it as interference by European powers. This left a destructive force that was reducing the whole imprints upon the social as well as cultural life, and world to a hollow sameness'. (Curtis, 1982: 381). also affected the architectural heritage (Said, 1991: For this, the subject of ‘tradition’ came to the front 25). Said notes that Egypt was exposed to foreign stage where many questions were raised; most cross-cultural influence as early as the era of important of which is: how many traditions exist Khedive Ismail in 1863, followed by the within the Arab geo-climatic, regional, trans- declaration of Egypt’s bankruptcy and the regional, as well as socio-cultural environments? declaration of the public debt owed to England and Do we have a single tradition that embeds all in 1878 (Said, 1991: 30-35). This led four

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The fact that Mohammad neither encouraged nor Hillenbrand's 'Islamic Architecture: Form, invented an architectural style or a single Function and Meaning' in 1994 are examples of architectural artefact - apart from his very simple this use of the term. There seem to be differences mosque with the attached chambers for his wives - between writers in the way they use the term, as (Fig. 3) is the simple answer to such arguments. despite the seemingly similar title for the two The term 'Mohammedan architecture' can simply books, each author decides a different approach to be refuted and be very much controversial on the refer to that architecture. The former classifies it grounds that it neither denotes an architectural throughout the book according to region, whereas system nor a style hence wrongly marking an the latter provides a classification based on 'architecture' rather than a 'building'. It is almost building types across regions. Contrary to both, impossible to ignore the studies that made clear the Cresswell uses another method in his 'The Muslim distinction between 'architecture' and' building' Architecture of Egypt' in 1959, and subdivides his (Hillier, 1996: 15-21, Rapoport, 1969, 126-128), as two-volume study according to ruling dynasties the former -superior, elitist, high-style, as opposed within the Islamic period (Ayyubids, Fatimids, to the latter - inferior, popularist, vernacular. Bahrite Mamluks, etc.). Mohammed's act was 'building' rather than This shows clearly the problem that encountered 'architecture'. Evidence from the Sirah of travelers and historians. It seems that they tried to Mohammed indicates that he discouraged a man find a term, as simple as possible, to describe that from adding a dome to his roof on the grounds that architecture that spreads across time and region. In such an act can be deemed as inclinations to other words, they tried to find a common godless life. influential factor that can form an umbrella to such As for the widely-used term 'Islamic architecture', architecture without the recourse to long it similarly involves much controversy and has expressions that describe various styles, forms, or recently opened the door wide for an exclusive spatial patterns. Such a search for a framework review of major standing points in contemporary opened the door wide for doubt and debate on a Arab architecture. The investigation starts on the fundamental level of inquiry. For example Ernst level of its meaning and most importantly about its Grube writes: 'the first question we must ask use of the term in Arabic architectural discourse. ourselves is whether there is such a thing as 'Islamic architecture' (Grube, 1978: 10). He also The term, seems to be widely used to describe an questions the meanings by which we refer to architectural style, certain shapes and forms Islamic architecture; and writes: 'Do we mean the (vaults, arches, etc.), and a system of building that architecture produced for and by Muslims to serve evolved throughout a long period of Islamic rule - Islam as a religion, referring, consequently, only to mainly since the Umayyads until the Ottomans. It that architecture which did serve a religious is also widely known that, writers refer to Islamic function, the mosque, the tomb, the madrasa? Or architecture with notable variations. For example do we mean all the architecture produced in Hoag's 'Islamic Architecture' in 1975, or Muslim lands? And if this should be so, what does

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'Islamic' mean in this context? If 'Islamic' is not an the form, the function, region, dynasty, builders or adjective defining a religious quality, should it be users? What adds to the problem is the fact that if understood as a word that identifies a special kind we accept Derek Hill's argument which implies of architecture, that of a civilization reflecting, or that due to historical, cultural, and geographical determined by, special qualities inherent in Islam factors, it is not possible to find a single style of as a cultural phenomenon? Does such an 'Islamic Architecture' (Hill, 1976: 61). architecture exist? (Grube, 1978: 10). In search of an answer, two problems arise: The Similarly, Dogan Kuban led another skeptical first is the fact that 'Islamic architecture' is claimed investigation. In his article 'the geographical and to be the architecture of the minority rather than historical bases of the diversity of Muslim the majority. Secondly, we find little offered to architectural styles' in 1983 he argues that there provide evidence to sustain, explain or justify has been an extensive search to find an appropriate definitions provided. For example, the following definition for the concept Islamic architecture, but definition put forward by Hassan Fathy does not he concludes that: 'Seeking a unified architectural provide a solution but rather implies the need for expression of time and space in those diverse more inquiry. He writes: 'Islamic architecture was forms and not finding it, I arrived at the conclusion a traditional and regional art: every Islamic country that the fundamental assumption of a homogeneity had its own architecture, certainly all Islamic and unity in Islamic architecture was faulty' countries have something in common, in accord (Kuban, 1983-a: 1). No sooner had this with faith, but their environments and unprecedented argument been raised by Kuban consequently their physical needs differ widely' than the alarm was sounded, with even a touch of (Faraoui, 1980: 77). There emerge concepts that panic. This was followed by a call for the need to add complication to the problem: one provided by revise major standing points of contemporary Arab Kuban, and the other is the concept of the architecture. In fact, before that time the search for monumentality of Islamic architecture provided by a united homogeneous architecture to be put under Oleg Grabar. Kuban for example, argues that the one umbrella has been taking the shape of historic invention of a universal term, led to the invention studies, yet this has even proved to be problematic. of what he calls 'orientalist tradition', which 'rests According to Kuban, such historic studies derived on the premise that Islamic culture necessarily had mainly from Western text books can be criticized to produce artifacts with a consanguine formalism, of being centralized around Western perception which inherently expressed a universally accepted (Ibid.). Islamic world view disciplined by the religion' (Kuban, 1983-a: 1). It followed from that that Yet the fundamental question remains unanswered: Arabs or Muslims have taken this tradition as If we reject the idea that the connection between pronounced by Westerns, not because it is their Islam and architecture is NOT the criterion to find history, and tried very hard to confirm its veracity, such a definition, how can we then define the forgetting that it expresses not a universalism, but framework for the term 'Islamic Architecture'? Is it a parochialism' (Ibid.). The other emerging

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Tradition versus Modernity: from cultural discourse to architectural crisis problematic idea to do with 'Islamic architecture' (Al-Maqrizi, 1916: 30). Al-Maqrizi also reveals stems from the claim that it is replete with either that the reason for the erection of this mosque in its monumental architecture that has no certain use or grand size, which seems out of proportion, was to where forms have been borrowed from outside the oppose the Citadel of Saladdin during the fight culture of Islam. On the issue of the use of such between the Mamluks (Al-Maqrizi, 1916: 33, monumental architecture, Fadan offers a rather Michell, 1978: 227, Ukashah, 1981: 192, bizarre explanation that lies outside Muslim faith, Yeomans, 1999). he writes: 'Because these buildings [monuments] are characterized by uniqueness, permanence and luxury of construction -having been built to impress God as well as the people [my emphasis]' (Fadan, 1983: 295). An example for such a monumentality can be noticed clearly in the Mosque and Madrassa of Sultan Hassan in Cairo (Figure 4), built in 1356-62.

Figure 5: The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (after Fletcher, 1987).

Figure 4: Sultan Hassan's mosque in Cairo (after Figure 6: Taj Mahal in Agra in India, (after Banister Rodenbeck, 1991). Fletcher, 1987).

This building was regarded influential for On the other hand, there are monuments or the so contemporary architects. It however provokes called 'masterpieces of Islamic architecture', questions as how it can reflect Islam that prohibits where, according to Grabar, the reasons for their unnecessary spending, let alone to justify its importance have little to do with the reasons for building in the first place. The Arab historian Al- their actual construction. One is the Dome of the Maqrizi narrates that its construction cost the Rock (Figure 5). Grabar argues that the Dome was treasury of the Islamic Empire at the time a daily erected to commemorate the Prophet's journey into expenditure of 40, 000 Dirhams for seven years the Heavens (Grabar, 1973, 1983: 7, 1996, Hoag,

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1963: 12), and the 'shape of the building, its In seeking answers to the questions, we find little technique of construction, decoration, and nearly that has been offered in this regard, apart from all such physical attributes were not created by some contributions by Grabar and others. Such Islam, but were part of the traditional, Christian, contributions are based on the fact that Islamic vocabulary of the eastern Mediterranean' (Grabar, architecture is replete with non-functional 1983: 7).He, therefore suggests that this monument iconographic signs, symbols and forms. is a shrine built for political and symbolic reasons Conclusion: Further research needed to announce an identity rather than for functional purposes. Others note that this monument was These arguments sustain the idea that Islamic erected by Abdel-Malik in 691 AD after the church architecture is 'monumental' and that much focus of the resurrection in Jerusalem (Ukashah, 1981: has been on this domain offsetting its 'vernacular' 154-155, Yeomans, 1999: 29, Hoag, 1963: 12, domain. This brings issues of form-function, the 1975: 16). vernacular, and space organisation in Islamic architecture to the front stage and raises a series of The other controversial ‘Islamic’ monument is the questions, for example: Has this issue been tackled ‘Taj Mahal’ in Agra in India (Figure 6), which properly in the research about the meaning of represents a mosaleom for a dead spouse Islamic architecture and to what extent? Have the (Golombek, 1981: 43, Hoag, 1975: 380, Wheeler, morphology and the structure of Islamic 1965: 154). Such buildings, Ukashah argues, architecture been scrutinized as far as form and prevailed in Islamic history for circumstantial function as integral coherent patterns are reasons and served short-term purpose rather than concerned? What contributions have been made to serve the public (Ukashah, 1981: 136). Begley towards the vernacular within the Arab architecture suggests a rather bizarre reason for its building that to understand its basic organisation pattern as far contradicts Muslim faith. He suggests that the Taj as space organization is concerned? The answers to Mahal was an extraordinary attempt to show on such questions have to be investigated rigorously earth God's throne as it will appear at the time of in forthcoming independent research. the resurrection (Begley, 1979: 33). Such arguments and bizarre ideas raise again our fundamental question: How can such monuments that contradicts the basics of Islam be regarded as Islamic?

This leads to more questions like: What makes an Islamic building Islamic? Is it the form, the function, the use, the purpose of erection, the hidden concepts and values embedded in its spatial pattern, or in its urban context?

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Habbabi, M., (1985), ‘Modernity and Llewellyn, O., (1983),’Sahaia’ah Values pertaining to Contemporaniety’, PP99-110, in Tradition and the Landscape Planning and Design’, Selected papers Contemporary Challenges, Symposium held in Cairo from the symposium held at King Faisal University, between 24-27 September 1984, Published by Arabic Dammam on ‘Islamic Architecture and Urbanism’, union studies centre, Beirut, Lebanon.(in Arabic). edited by Aydin Germen.

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