Militarization and Securatization in Thailand's Deep South

Southern Thailand/Patani Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Editors: Anders Engvall, Srisompob Jitpiromsri, Emma Potchapornkul, Norbert Ropers

Bangkok: Peace Resource Collaborative 2020 Southern Thailand/Patani Understanding the Dimensions of Conict and Peace

published by Peace Resource Collaborative

Contributing authors:

Editorial team: Graphic designer:

Printed by Parbpim Limited Partnership

Printed in Thailand

Contents

1 2 Violence in Southern Thailand´s Border Provinces. 3 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand´s Southern Border 5 6 About the Authors

Paul Chambers

Anders Engvall

6 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Srisompob Jitpiromsri is a lecturer and research associate at the - Southern Region”. Recent publications include the introduction for “Quagmire of Violence in Thailand’s Southern Borderlands” in Asian peacebuilding organisation.

Christopher M. Joll (Chris) Muslim Merit-making in Thailand's Far South

7 About the Authors

Pindarica Malyrojsiri Studies under the Asian Peace Builders Scholarship Programme. She for multilingual policy and planning for the southern border region/ Patani.

Emma Potchapornkul also conducted research and advocacy on politics and human rights

8 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Norbert Ropers the Berghof Foundation in Berlin and now serves as a senior advisor.

Napisa Waitoolkiat Khaki Capital: The Political Economy of the Military in Southeast Asia

9 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview Anders Engvall Norbert Ropers

1. Purpose to use the term “Patani” in reference to the former sultanate.1 development are contested between the parties. The fairest way to

1 There are two spellings of this historical word: The Thai “Pattani” refers to one of of Patani and is used by supporters of the Patani movement. Both terms are used the distinction.

10 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

provinces and the resistance movement undermines this control by

2. The Southern Context they are a minority in Thailand as a whole. The southern border area is conform to the borders of modern day nation-states. of the three provinces.

11 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview

leaders from both sides have been the targets of violence perpetrated 3 This suggests that religious tolerance has declined in Southern Thailand and it has

Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 3 Asian Studies Review border-provinces. Fishermen of South Thailand: The Malay Villagers

12 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

resistance against the state. barrier in terms of interactions with the state and its representatives as Thai is the only accepted language. Conservative Thai language policy fails to create opportunities for mutual understanding. The failure of the Thai state to accommodate local language use has prevented the reverse holds true for areas with lower levels of violence. This gives weight to the commonly held view that one source of friction in the region is the conservative Thai language policy that is perceived as discriminatory towards the local minority language. Statistics further indicate the division between a large share of

Linguistic Diversity and National Unity: Language Ecology in Thailand

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core part of the region corresponding to Pattani and northern parts of percent in most sub-districts. The share is lower in peripheral areas economic development and for integration of minorities throughout the country. 11 religious curriculum does not prepare these students for formal

11 Joseph Chinyong Liow and Don Pathan, Confronting Ghosts: Thailand’s Shapeless Southern Insurgency

14 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

on a dual-curriculum basis. They provide both religious instruction and the government system may reinforce a perception that the Thai also increase a sense of perceived distance from the Thai state and its institutions. The region’s low levels of educational attainment are The region’s geographical diversity also has implications for livelihoods and economic opportunities. Coastal regions vary both in interior areas are dominated by a rubber monoculture that is highly insurgent and state strategies. The lowland areas have a higher population be reached at any of the border crossings and two larger border crossings connect the two countries’ railway systems. The southern border provinces are among the poorest regions of

2003 Census Project in the Southern Region

15 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview

Thailand together with some of the peripheral regions in the northeast and north. This is driven both by lower income among the economically active as well as the higher numbers of dependents within families. They are also much less economically developed than other parts of the 13 and household income is well below the average for rural Thailand. there are also persistent economic cleavages within the area. Sino-Thai division in economic activities among the ethnic groups creates a spatial structure for the ethnic settlements where urban locations provide higher income levels.

3. A History of Submission, Accommodation and Rebellion contested among the parties. The fairest way to engage with this reality

13 Getting back on track: reviving growth and securing prosperity for allhttp:// - ity-for-all.

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ethnolinguistic and political formations that have shaped the region now the region was obliged to pay tribute to the Kingdom of Siam although a certain level of self-rule was maintained. This period lasted until the region was formally integrated into the Kingdom of Siam via the

Ghosts of the Past in Southern Thailand: Essays on the History and Historiography of Patani Ghosts of the Past in Southern Thailand: Essays on the History and Historiography of Patani, Ghosts of the Past in Southern Thailand: Essays on the History and Historiography of Patani

17 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview

- at the end of the nineteenth century. control of the southern provinces. Patani aristocracy. and gave traditional ruling families a greater role in governing the area.

in Thai South and Malay North: Ethnic Interactions on a Plural Peninsula in Ghosts of the Past in Southern Thailand: Essays on the History and Historiography of Patani The Journal of Asian Studies The Provincial Administration of Siam 1892-1915: The Ministry of the Interior under Prince Damrong Rajanubhab Surin Pitsuwan, Islam and Malay Nationalism: A case study of the Malay-Muslims of Southern Thailand-

18 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

A system of indirect monarchy to constitutional rule. the global trend towards nationalism and the attendant assimilation of government was content with maintaining authority and central control over the southern border provinces without assimilating its population and ethnolinguistic identity. their positions in the provincial administration to Thai Buddhists from the center. population.

The Historical Journal Asian Survey

19 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview as the government dismantled local laws and discriminated against the demanded greater autonomy: the overseas movement was led by descendants of former sultans and the domestic movement was led by The campaign had a - ment’s close collaboration with Japan during the war and of the resistance. accommodation with respect to the southern border provinces.

Minority Problems in Southeast Asia Kings, Country and Constitutions: Thailand’s Political Development, 1932-2000 A Modern History of Southeast Asia: Decolonization, Nationalism and Separatism Islam and Malay Nationalism.

20 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

language as well as culture and have been integrated into the country’s population in the region. governance structures. at a somewhat lower intensity. resistance movement transformed from a movement of traditional increase in separatist sentiment as a succession of separatist groups - tives of the Thai government. These insurgent activities continued

Muslim Separatism: The Moros of Southern Philippines and the Malay of Southern Thailand

21 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview

combination of conventional military campaigns and amnesty programs. emerged as the main insurgent group and the movement made a number started by conducting a systematic mass-indoctrination campaign of the local southern population in order to build a solid political base before eventually launching its violent struggle. - region. The incident culminated with the storming of the highly symbolic army camp several hours away.

Violent Incident at Tak Bai and Problems of Human Security in the Area of Three Southern Border Provinces

22 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

opposition against the state has escalated at times when central control over the area has increased and when systems for local resolution of is associated with the dismantling of a system of governance that had directs the group’s activities. Council under which there are military and political wings. The two building mass support among the general population in the region. primary aim of the group is to ensure that the political wing gains control over the population and destroys the state’s legitimacy among

Deciphering Southern Thailand’s Violence: Organisation and Insurgent Practices of BRN-Coordinate

23 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview

them to alternate between their identities as combatants or civilians. the security forces to generate sympathy for the insurgents’ cause and The Thai state has responded to the insurgency with violent suppression and with a pervasive police and military presence that has volunteers and rangers.31 Security agencies have also resorted to

31 Southern Thailand: The Problem with Paramilitaries - mendations Following its Review of the Country’s Second Periodic Report at its

24 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

agents or those perceived to be a symbol of the Buddhist-dominated Violent incidents tend to follow linguistic and religious patterns reinforcing the view that southern insurgents rely on ethnic and religious any change in the ratio of civilian versus non-civilian deaths.

25 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview

focused on military suppression and development assistance. The thousands of troops were dispatched to the Deep South following the responsibility for the violence and the prime minister ordered security forces to hunt down the perpetrators. Counterinsurgency doctrine in Thailand has largely been strategy focused on a two-pronged approach of security and development. The doctrine underlying this approach posited that the suppression of insurgents needed to go hand in hand with development assistance since the latter would enable the military to conduct propaganda operations in order to win the hearts and minds of the local population. approach remains in doubt.

26 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

operating in the southern border provinces.33 The leadership of these

33 Confronting Ghosts.

27 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview

published reports on the supposedly secret meetings. to support the establishment of a peace process but the body did not - nication channels between the Thai government and insurgent leaders.

Peace Dialogue: Confronting Violence in the Deep South, 1991-2011

28 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Several factors have hampered the development of a viable peace the national level has coincided with the southern violence and disrupted secret negotiations aimed at co-opting or sowing division among the - tions to support peace initiatives.

29 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview

The signing of the “General Consensus on Peace Dialogue demands. of the peace dialogue process.

30 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

bureaucratic structure within the region as well as in the capital to ensure that the military could guide and control all measures related to the dialogue process. the Dialogue Panel within this structure and he remained in this position - sive negotiation strategy was marred by internal disagreements. At the - representative although this has been disputed by several persons close process forward. The government was primarily interested in pursuing

The Peace Dialogue Process in Southern Border Provinces

31 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview

had the additional advantage of enabling them to test the capacity of their negotiation partner to control the operations of resistance broaden the concept and it was agreed that the area would also be the - Prayut declared that he was not ready to sign the Terms of Reference Team. This dealt another blow to the peace process as the ToR could deciding to treat the dialogue process as an informal process. Between

Locating Peace Through Harmonizing Religion, Gender, and Age: Thailand’s Deep South and Indonesia’s Aceh Province

32 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

on both sides was not enough to overcome the deep divisions between building. th Region their engagement with Thai state representatives would include a longer participation of additional third parties beyond the government of

33 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview

shift in the military government’s public policy vis-à-vis the Deep South government. The two other factors turned out to be more promising. Several of the resistance movement as well as his engagement with a broad spectrum of civil society seemed to signal the military’s shift in public the assertion that the time was not yet ripe for negotiations. 7. Civil Society Engagement -

34 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace years with reference to the importance of conserving Thainess. Another civil society’s critical voice denouncing both Thai government policies vis-à-vis the resistance movement and the insurgent’s violations of

Overcoming Violence Through the Power of Reconciliation Global Change, Peace & Security Negotiating Thainess: Religious and National

35 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview

interest. particularly in local and alternative media. Socio-economic and remains a dearth of discussion on collective and transgenerational cohesion has become increasingly apparent. The most notable transformation within the local civil society failed to deliver any progress and several Thai governments dismissed the need for a political settlement. This period could be described as a who saw the need to raise awareness of alternative political power-

https://deepsouthwatch.org/th/ - .

36 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace sharing models in the Deep South’s multi-ethnic environment. Several and self-determination. of the resistance movement to engage in public political discourses. aspirations of local communities.

Elusive Peace: Insurgency in Thailand’s Far South The Freedom to Decide our Future: Patani People Call for a Peaceful Settlement

37 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview factor underlying this fragility was the limited political legitimacy of - locutors with the local population. The government and the security the resistance movement could only engage with civil society through discreet channels because they did not want to endanger their own among both the resistance movement and civil society. This has made - light of the continuing violence. A potential bridge builder between these two trends could be the human rights and rule of law activists but this activist base remains relatively small.

38 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

8. Social Cohesion and Peace Survey Results Some observers have also noted increased divisions within the of the Thai-Buddhist and Sino-Thai populations are considered more unemployment in the region. argument is that many have moved from rural to urban areas where they wealthier Buddhist families have established second homes outside of the three southern border provinces. Another trend observed has been -homogenous settlements in the region. not undermined the principled attitude of local people to accept

Demographic Research

39 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview

and religious authorities manage critical incidents is the more decisive factor. number of respondents who chose not to answer or stated that they did absence of a safe space for freely sharing opinions will create challenges

7 Policy Recommendations for the Deep South/Patani: Policy Recommendations for Political Parties Concerning the Southern Border Provinces (2019)https://peaceresourcecollaborative.org/en/publication policy-recommendations-the-deep-south. The other categories between these two - 7 Policy Recommendations,

40 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

The second topic relates to education. The education system in percent of respondents mentioned education reform as a crucial issue their family home. of the state.

7 Policy Recommendations Language of instruction in Southeast Asia (Paper commissioned for the 2017/8 Global Education Monitoring Report, Accountability in education: Meeting our Commitments)

41 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview

The third topic relates to the assessment of the peace process in general with only small variations between the identity groups turned out to be based on a rather sceptical assessment when compared party does not listen to and respect the other.” Agreement with the statement “the state only wants to gather intelligence and end violence instead of building sustainable peace” was similarly high. preferred form of governance in the region. To enable the respondents Respondents from Thailand.

of peace polls played an important role in helping guide political parties in the peace The People’s Peace Process in Northern Ireland

42 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

9. Future Scenarios The future of the southern border provinces is closely connected progressive reform-oriented camp that included but was not limited to progressive democratic vision of the country. they have instituted in order to maintain power. This includes a tailor-

four Peace Survey waves.

43 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview

with the “Deep State” political structure of the country. Given the alliance would be prepared to agree to any substantive political if the progressive parties were able to form a government in the future. The second development would be a willingness on the part of sharing in general. the future a government comes to power that is willing to negotiate with invariably cover elements of a truce or the cessation of hostilities/ the approval of the military leadership. developments on the ground and has led to failures with respect to their of force. This interpretation views the avoidance of non-combatant

44 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace be remiss to interpret the decrease of violence as an indicator for the The most unpredictable but also the most promising factor is connected to future socio-political developments in the Deep South. have responded to the immediate humanitarian needs of the violent - and religious features of the region. Some observers view these -

45 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview

that often burden negotiations between states and resistance movements.

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Bibliography

Forging Peace in Southeast Asia: Insurgencies, Peace Processes, and Reconciliation Thai South and Malay North: Ethnic Interactions on a Plural Peninsula Ghosts of the Past in Southern Thailand: Essays on the History and Historiography of Patani The Provincial Administration of Siam 1892-1915: The Ministry of the Interior under Prince Damrong Rajanubhab. The Freedom to Decide our Future: Patani People Call for a Peaceful Settlement. Muslim Separatism: The Moros of Southern Philippines and the Malay of Southern Thailand. Singapore: A Modern History of Southeast Asia: Decolonization, Nationalism and Separatism. London: Tauris

47 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview

Locating Peace through Diversity: Thailand’s Deep South and Indonesia’s Aceh Province Deep South Incident Database. Pattani: Prince of Southern Thailand Asian Survey Fishermen of South Thailand: The Malay Villagers Thailand.” Asian Studies Review Deciphering Southern Thailand’s Violence: Organisation and Insurgent Practices of BRN-Coordinate. Civilians in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces.” Last border-provinces.

48 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Following its Review of the Country’s Second Periodic Report https:// . The Peace Dialogue Process in Southern Border Provinces. Southern Thailand: The Problem with Paramilitaries. Southern Thailand’s Peace Dialogue: No Traction. The People’s Peace Process in Northern Ireland. Scotts Southernmost Provinces of Thailand.” Demographic Research Buddhism in Southern Thailand.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies Buddhist Fury: Religion and Violence in Southern Thailand. .

49 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview

https://deep. Ghosts of the Past in Southern Thailand: Essays on the History and Historiography of Patani. In Ghosts of the Past in Southern Thailand: Essays on the History and Historiography of Patani, The Historical Journal Language of instruction in Southeast Asia (Paper commissioned for the 2017/8 Global Education Monitoring Report, Accountability in education: Meeting our Commitments) Confronting Ghosts: Thailand’s Shapeless Southern Insurgency. al. Getting back on track: reviving growth and securing prosperity for all http://document - ity-for-all. Global Change,

50 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Peace & Security Mapping National Anxieties: Thailand’s Southern Thai South and Malay North: Ethnic Interactions on a Plural Peninsula Overcoming Violence Through the Power of Reconciliation 2003 Census Project in the Southern Region Negotiating Thainess: Religious and National Identities . Lund: Centre for Theology and Elusive Peace: Insurgency in Thailand’s Far South 7 Policy Recommendations for the Deep South/Patani: Policy Recommendations for Political Parties Concerning the Southern Border Provinces recommendations-the-deep-south. Islam and Malay Nationalism: A case study of the Malay-Muslims of Southern Thailand. Ghosts of the Past in Southern Thailand: Essays on the History and Historiography of Patani

51 Chapter 1 The Southern Conflict and Its Transformation: An Overview

Southern Thailand” Asian Journal of Peacebuilding Senate Committee. Violent Incident at Tak Bai and Problems of Human Security in the Area of Three Southern Border Provinces Linguistic Diversity and National Unity: Language Ecology in Thailand. Chicago: University of Chicago International Actors . Peace Dialogue: Confronting Violence in the Deep South, 1991-2011 Kings, Country and Constitutions: Thailand’s Political Development, 1932-2000. London: The Peace Dialogue Panel. The Peace Dialogue Process in Southern Border Provinces Minority Problems in Southeast Asia The Journal of Asian Studies

52 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Locating Peace Through Harmonizing Religion, Gender, and Age: Thailand’s Deep South and Indonesia’s Aceh Province Ghosts of the Past in Southern Thailand: Essays on the History and Historiography of Patani Thailand: A Short History

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Annex

Preliminary Demands by the BRN from 29 April 201350

1. This Peace Dialogue is between the Representatives of Patani following: in this Peace Dialogue that plays the following roles: Peace Dialogue. and the international community.

54 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

3. The process of Dialogue must be witnessed by the representatives reasons: community. witnesses who are mutually trusted and agreed upon by both parties. guaranteed by both parties. and cultural identity. Thai government to release all detainees held by the Thai authority due to political reasons and to abolish all warrant of terrorists and separatists.

55 Chapter 2 Violence In Southern Thailand’s Border Provinces: Status, Trends and Patterns 2004-2018 Anders Engvall

1. Understanding Fourteen Years of Violence in Southern Thailand The analysis is largely focused on separatist violence as this database records insurgency-related incidents and other types of violence

56 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

from escalated violence to consolidated peace. At one end of the spectrum are areas where there is no political transition. areas move to phases of accelerated transition - in this chapter.

2. Levels of Violence and Casualties

57 Chapter 2 Violence In Southern Thailand’s Border Provinces: Status, Trends and Patterns 2004-2018

the violence and of the large human cost in terms of lives lost and for those who have lost loved ones as well as the burden of living in

Figure 1: Annual Levels of Violence, 2004-2018

58 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

insurgents had been building up prior to the launch of their violent to the south occurred in the absence of well-coordinated or clear built support for the insurgent movement. This was evident in the inability violence. The violence only started to decline after the appointment of General Anupong Paochinda to the position of army commander-in- arrest operations that limited the militants’ operational space. There was a second escalation in violence during the elected served as army commander-in-chief. Since the public launch of a peace

59 Chapter 2 Violence In Southern Thailand’s Border Provinces: Status, Trends and Patterns 2004-2018

Figure 2: Monthly Violence Levels, 2014-2018 the inability on the part of Thai security agencies to put a decisive end to violence in the region.

3. Intensity of Violence An alternative measure of the impact of violence on the population in the southern border provinces is the number of victims as a share of the total population in the area. This can be interpreted as the annual victim of violence. The intensity of violence follows the same trends as the levels of violence as indicated by the overall number of victims.

60 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Figure 3: Annual Intensity of Violence, 2004-2018

are overrepresented among victims.

61 Chapter 2 Violence In Southern Thailand’s Border Provinces: Status, Trends and Patterns 2004-2018

Figure 4: Cumulative Risk of Violence, 2004-2018

4. Drivers of Violence be attributed to militants acting on political motivations. Drawing on

Figure 5: Incidents by Type of Violence, 2004-2018

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violence related to criminal activities accounts for an increasing share policies. There has also been an increase in the proportion of incidents information to determine the cause.

Figure 6: Deaths by Type of Violence, 2004-2018 insurgency and together with fatalities attributed to crime and undeter- has been a steady decline in deaths attributed to the insurgency yet the share of fatalities arising from undetermined circumstances has remained

63 Chapter 2 Violence In Southern Thailand’s Border Provinces: Status, Trends and Patterns 2004-2018

Figure 7: Share of Deaths by Type of Violence, 2004-2018 The share of incidents and fatalities attributed to the insurgency accompanied by a decline in the share of incidents and fatalities with a determined cause.

Figure 8: Number of Deaths by Type, Monthly 2014-2018

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5. Forms of Violence types of armed struggle by the level of symmetry between parties as central state tend to be between two parties with similar levels of strength manpower and the technology of the weapons they possess. Given this

Figure 9: Incidents by Form of Violence, 2004-2018 modus operandi,

65 Chapter 2 Violence In Southern Thailand’s Border Provinces: Status, Trends and Patterns 2004-2018

followed by bombings. Although most of the forms of violence refer to refer to a two-sided form of violence whereby two individuals or groups engage in violence against each other. The other forms of violence are distinction between perpetrators and victims can be made.

Figure 10: Deaths by Form of Violence, 2004-2018 This dominance becomes even greater when comparing the share these types of bombs rarely have any human impact.

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Figure 11: Share of Deaths by Form of Violence, 2004-2018 There has been an increase in the share of incidents and deaths

Figure 12: Number of Deaths by Form, Monthly 2014-2018

67 Chapter 2 Violence In Southern Thailand’s Border Provinces: Status, Trends and Patterns 2004-2018

Figure 13: Deaths by Weapon Type, 2004-2018

An alternative way of analysing the character of violence is to This reinforces the perception of the violence in Southern Thailand as primarily being a case of asymmetric warfare whereby militants been few and far between.

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Figure 14: Share of Deaths by Weapon Type, 2004-2018

6. Geographic Patterns within the region. Some districts see consistently elevated levels of violence while others are spared the brunt of the violence.

69 Chapter 2 Violence In Southern Thailand’s Border Provinces: Status, Trends and Patterns 2004-2018

Table 1: Most Violent Districts by Incident

2004-2018 District Province Incidents Ra-ngae Raman Rueso Bannang Sata Pattani Pattani Pattani Sai Buri Pattani Bacho

Table 2: Most Violent Districts by Deaths 2004-2018 District Province Deaths Ra-ngae Rueso Bannang Sata Raman Sai Buri Pattani Pattani Pattani Pattani

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The ten most violent districts share some common features that provide insights into the factors contributing to violence in the area. populations that are susceptible to recruitment into the insurgent heartland and staging ground for the separatist movements and they insurgency form a contiguous area of high violence at the centre of the three provinces. All are interior districts with upland and forest areas that provide easy cover. The top ten list also includes the strategically district in terms of number of incidents and the second most violent in given its position as a secondary administrative centre and because it is hotspot given this coastal area’s symbolic and strategic importance. The least violent districts include those that are largely Thai- importance. These districts have not been spared from occasional violence

71 Chapter 2 Violence In Southern Thailand’s Border Provinces: Status, Trends and Patterns 2004-2018 one hundred deaths over the entire fourteen year period.

Table 3: Least Violent Districts by Incidents 2004-2018 District Province Incidents Pattani Pattani Kabang Betong Pattani Krong Pinang 313 Kapho Pattani Table 4: Least Violent Districts by Deaths

2004-2018 District Province Deaths Pattani 31 Kabang Pattani Betong Than To Krong Pinang Kapho Pattani

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Map 1: Most and Least Violent Districts by Incident, 2004-2018

Map 2: Most and Least Violent Districts by Deaths, 2004-2018

73 Chapter 2 Violence In Southern Thailand’s Border Provinces: Status, Trends and Patterns 2004-2018

An interesting pattern emerges when the distribution of incidents by incident form a contiguous and distinct area at the centre of the of incidents according to deaths. has governed Thailand and been responsible for managing the southern

74 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Ma p 3: Most and Least Violent Districts by Incident, 2014-2018

Map 4: Most and Least Violent Districts by Deaths, 2014-2018

75 Chapter 2 Violence In Southern Thailand’s Border Provinces: Status, Trends and Patterns 2004-2018

7. Soft and Hard Target Victims the fact that civilians are often the direct targets of violence or are

Figure 15: Share of Soft and Hard Target Deaths, 2004-2018

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paratively more in periods of relatively low intensity insurgency coupled groups tend to avoid direct confrontation.

Figure 16: Soft Target and Hard Target Deaths, 2004-2018

civilian fatalities. This is clearly a worrying trend that indicates either that the perpetrators are directly targeting civilians or that perpetrators of soft target casualties.

77 Chapter 2 Violence In Southern Thailand’s Border Provinces: Status, Trends and Patterns 2004-2018

Figure 17: Injured Civilians and Hard Targets, Monthly 2014-2018

8. Gender and Violence male. The share of male fatalities has remained fairly constant at more

Figure 18: Number of Female and Male Deaths, monthly 2004-2018

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Figure 19: Female and Male Deaths, 2004-2018 also been episodes of higher rates of violence towards women.

Figure 20: Number of Dead Female and Male, Monthly 2014-2018

79 Chapter 2 Violence In Southern Thailand’s Border Provinces: Status, Trends and Patterns 2004-2018

The Impact of Violence Across Age Groups 1

Figure 21: Share of Deaths by Age Group, 2004-2018

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Figure 22: Deaths by Age Group, 2004-2018 The share of fatalities among children and youth has increased among this age group can also be observed. The share of fatalities among the elderly has remained fairly constant over the fourteen years.

9. Victimis ation by Religion The southern border provinces are culturally and religiously are Buddhists.

81 Chapter 2 Violence In Southern Thailand’s Border Provinces: Status, Trends and Patterns 2004-2018

Figure 23: Share of Deaths by Religion, 2004-2018

protection of the Buddhist population as they are perceived to be centers that are of economic and strategic importance. These urban centers also tend to be inhabited by a relatively large share of Buddhists. Buddhist population groups have moved to more secure locations

82 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Figure 24: Deaths by Religion, 2004-2018

shift in the deployment of security forces from the use of army units sent from other parts of the country towards the use of locally recruited

10. Conclusion and Discussion separatist in nature but since then there has been an increase in the share

83 Chapter 2 Violence In Southern Thailand’s Border Provinces: Status, Trends and Patterns 2004-2018 of violence attributed to criminal and more undetermined causes. The the core of any understanding of the drivers of violence in Southern Thailand is the clear association between the levels and character of the together with the parallel political dialogue. The average person living in the southern border region faces a to the insurgency but recent years have seen an increased share of a recent increase in the use of other modes of violence. Guns are the tactics generally used by insurgent groups engaged in asymmetric warfare when facing a state that is better armed and that maintains territorial control. There is large intra-regional variation in violence with a group of districts forming a core area comprising the highest levels of violence. base for the insurgency. The strategically important urban centers of low levels of violence in districts with large Thai-Buddhist populations and along the border.

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soft targets rather than hard targets belonging to the militant groups or there has been a worrying increase in the number of female victims. many young persons are also victimised. Although most victims are despite the decline and despite a shift to a situation best described as a of violence but there has been an increase in the share attributed to come from a broader spectrum of society as more and more groups are and character of the violence is shaped by the tactics of the state and solution.

85 Chapter 2 Violence In Southern Thailand’s Border Provinces: Status, Trends and Patterns 2004-2018

Dataset

Campus.

86 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securatization in Thailand’s Deep South Paul Chambers Napisa Waitoolkiat

1. Introduction security agencies have enforced state policy in the Deep South since years ago. The historical legacy of military authoritarianism in the region along with the state’s monopoly on force means that security agencies

87 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

result has been a vicious cycle of tension and violence between security about peace. security forces engaged in the Deep South under successive governments and what have been important turning points in southern security

2. Brief History until 2014 out control over the region while reactively attempting to contain any dissent against the state. This push-and-pull behavior has shaped the evolution of a predominantly heavy-handed security policy that has

88 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

1 Under absolute monarchy provinces into Siam followed by martial repression: This event tense relationship between Thai security forces and Thanarat - tionary group against Thai state. 3 Under Prem Tinsunalonda Southern Border Provinces Administrative Center Police given lead in Deep South policy resulting in harsher state repression. - tionary violence.

89 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

General Sonthi Boonyaratglin/ brief state pragmatism. General Surayud Chulanont Revival of state repression General Surayud Chulanont “Politics leading the in Deep South. Pursuit of peace dialogue army repression. 11 post-coup decrees and General Prayut Chan-o-cha renewed state repression. Under General Prayut and pursuit of a new peace Chan-o-cha alongside repression. Table 1: 12 Crucial Turning Points in Southern Security Policy

The southern crisis has deep historical origins and involves a

90 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

1 Despite During military-oriented approach albeit with a greater emphasis on development 3

1 Thanet Aphornsuvan, Rebellion in Southern Thailand: Contending Histories Southern-Thailand. 3 ”

91 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

sought to build command and control to win the hearts and minds of populations susceptible to insurgent forces rather than using force alone. pursuing conciliation. to increase cooperation among government agencies on the southern insurgency’s political issues.

Asia Report,

92 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace among the separatist groups and the emergence of new ones. 6 Disunity among insurgent Bersatu and two other insurgent groups. Bersatu led targeted assassinations Democrat Party.

nasional-brn. in Rethinking Thailand’s Southern Violence Bangkok Post

93 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South overall control of southern security matters in the hands of police police were accused of greater human rights abuses in the south and were best dealt with by the center without any local input.11 State increasingly implicated in human rights abuses. Soldiers and police now

11 The Nation

94 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

informational security. Following the appointment of General Anupong Paochinda as Anupong’s stern approach to counterinsurgency aligned neatly with the Luk Sua Chaoban henceforth commence in terms of southern counterinsurgency policy. elected civilians were to now lead the way in establishing peace and which could be used to shore up its voter base. Despite the enhanced

Legitimacy Crisis in Thailand

95 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South over SBPAC.13 a landslide election and there were hopes for change in Thailand’s Thai had failed to win a single seat in the far South and thus saw no This was partly due to the predecessor government’s success in -

96 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

autonomy when it came to prosecuting counterinsurgency in the region. dialogue. These negotiations were the direct result of successful 1. 3. convicts and nullify all arrest warrants related to the Deep

97 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

movement not a separatist movement.14 The state was also divided over the negotiations. During the They contended that Thailand must not surrender territory to appease the rebels and claimed that even granting autonomy would cede too

Prachathaihttp://www.prachatai. . Asia Report

98 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

it was hoped that the cessation of violence might persist beyond Ramadan. which had always been suspicious of negotiations.

https://www.lowyinstitute.org/sites/

99 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

3. NCPO Security Policy in the Deep South until 2019 The putsch initially seemed to indicate the victory of anti- repressive counterinsurgency measures coupled with avowed support they also presided over an increase in army arrests and targeted raids of villages or venues deemed to be hotbeds of sympathy for the resistance movement. Junta leader

Bangkok Post, National News Bureau of Thailand,

100 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

th Army Regional th Prem. Resolve the Protracted Southern Unrest Problem to manage coordination Policy Formulation

Co-ordination of Government Strategies Steering Committee

Implementation of Policy in the Deep South

Ratchakitcha .pdf- Isra News, Ratchakitcha .

101 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

Prayut as the brain-child of the incoming Army Commander-in-Chief reducing violence. The CSDS structure was divided into three parts: the

Isra News .

102 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Committee

Secretariat

ISOC SBPAC NSC responsibility: responsibility: responsibility: Safety in Life and Justice Group Welfare Promotion Understanding Group; Security Maintenance Group Education Group; Group Development/ Commerce Group

Figure 2: Ad Hoc Committee Structure for Extinguishing the Deep South Crisis (CSDS)

Deep South Watch Khao Sod

103 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

Steering Committee for Peace Dialogue Chaired by:

Peace Dialogue Panel Chaired by:

Area-based Inter-agency Coordination Working Group Chaired by:

Figure 3: Three-Tiered Structure for Peace Dialogue

“gain recognition and international support for the right to self-deter- all participating insurgent groups ascribed to “the claim for independence.”

Benar News http://www.benarnews.org/english/ . Deep South Watch

104 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

- toward moderation could have been an insincere public relations stunt to garner support from the general population and to improve its standing represented a victory for military moderates and a transformation of historically rooted in a cultural and ethnic division where insurgents encompasses the four traditional command and control strategies

105 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

is sustainable in the face of right-wing military opposition. This is a principal challenge facing Thai military moderates in the Deep South. related to it had been mutually considered and agreed upon. At the end These legal powers have led to the concentration of a large number of amount of funding dedicated to counterinsurgency in the region increased. made up of soldiers and included numerous paramilitary Taharn Phran

Bangkok Post, security.

106 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Unit Title Civilian Bureaucrats - - - Combat Support and Assistance Unit Developmental Support Unit Patrol and State Support Unit Total - although

31 Ratchakitcha,http://www. Knights of the Realm: Thailand’s Military and Police, Then and Now

107 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South villages possessed Chor Ror Bor volunteers.33 been released for these volunteers since then. Beyond these two militia of this unit was to “train women in Pattani Province in self-protection alongside regular army units. thth Development Division. Special stnd 3rdth Army Region.

33 Non-Violence International Southeast Asia Bangkok Post . Isra News,

108 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

th the Thai state money since paramilitaries and militias cost less than the militias largely come from the region and are therefore more familiar - human rights violations. Paramilitaries and militias undergo less training than regular troops and have a reputation for using more violence than regular army troops.

The Nationhttp://www.nationmultimedia. . - Asia Report paramilitaries.pdf.

109 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South with overseeing the implementation of a roadmap to end the insurgency. control over the management of all state agency budgets destined for the Deep South. The Forward Cabinet was given the power to redirect ministries’ Deep South program budgets for any other purpose in the The Forward Cabinet minister on obstacles and possible solutions to “douse” the insurgency. Although it was hoped that the Forward Cabinet’s establishment the body has had its share of problems. th Army Region are responsible for Deep disagreements over policy between the head of the Forward Cabinet

Bangkok Post . Benar Newshttps://www.benarnews. .

110 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace and the army commander could easily generate friction between the achieving a cohesive state policy. The same - Forward Cabinet while acting as deputy defense minister. Teerachai has th Army Region commander.

Bangkok Post .

111 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

most of which were part of the counterinsurgency campaign.

Isra News, accessed . http://www.bb.go.th/topic-detail. http://www.bb.go.th/topic- h .

112 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Year Integrated Plan Integrated Plan ISOC Budget ISOC Budget Budget (baht) Budget (USD) (baht) (USD) Total 48,555,584,600 1,566,309,180 15,123,840,900 487,865,835 Table 3: Budget for the Integrated Plan to Rectify the Southern Problem

provinces is also distributed throughout the budgets of individual

Integrated Plan Integrated Cumulated Cumulated % 2019-2020 Budget Plan Budget Budget Budget Increase (baht) (USD) (baht) (USD) Overall 11,924,266,300 384,653,752 38,500,662,700 1,241,956,861 223% Armed Forces Police Table 4: Budget for the Integrated Plan vs. Cumulated Budget to Rectify the Southern Problem 2019-2020

113 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

the Deep South allocated to the security agencies. Almost half of the budget is apportioned to the security sector. This proportion also in- militias.

Police Armed Forces

Figure 4: Share allocated to security agencies in the 2019-2020 cumulated budget

apportioned to the Deep South. There is no mention of Chor Ror Bor in the budget.

114 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

The growth of the counterinsurgency budget parallels an increase remains high and in some areas continues to increase. The budget for • • spreading propaganda about the need to unite under the Thai • • • • visiting various parts of the region and disseminating informa- • granting partial or full amnesties to repentant insurgents.

The Nation

115 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

and to turn them against the separatists. Another strategy is the Pha Khon Klab Ban a limited amnesty program whereby former insurgents are given the provided they plead guilty to charges levelled against them in court. To bolster intelligence in the Deep South and support law The tactic aimed to identify insurgents from among the local population. Rights Commission of Thailand pointed out that the increased use of th Army Region raises doubts as to whether they are genuinely trying to adhere to human

Benar News

116 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace rights principles. Another criticism raised in relation to the practice has been the charge of religious insensitivity following security forces use number of initiatives in the region. These include encouraging and becoming more established in the region.

4. Principal Problems and Dilemmas Facing Thai Security Policy in the Deep South members refused even to be a part of any negotiations and some groups in response to proposals that would grant limited autonomy for the

117 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South that Thais are Thais.”- Apirat has been continuing with the state’s traditional two-pronged - gency measures combined with attempts to restart discreet dialogue with national level could also present yet another obstacle to the resumption of negotiations. A second problem with Deep South counterinsurgency policy money in.

Reuters Isra News,

118 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

a steady source of income in the form of higher salaries and illicit even the most rudimentary training in human rights. A fourth and related problem has been the misbehavior of some have long tainted Thai bureaucrats. Despite the numerous reports of the local population. -

International Bar AssociationIBAnethttps://www.ibanet. .

119 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South all help to ensure immunity from prosecution for soldiers and police. in charge of the Deep South has led to an absence of policy durability. th Army Region. Since th Deep South has promoted tensions among various security agencies - and have even resulted in “chaotic” security operations. The issue of

Chalermchai Sittisart and Gen. Apirat Kongsompong Wikileaks . .

120 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

collaborate. Responses from both police and military interviewees suggested that interagency rivalry these tensions occur not only between service personnel on the ground A seventh problem has been the inconsistency of counterinsur-

121 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

An eighth problem provides an autocratic answer to the issue of had been reinstated by the Abhisit government. Since the establishment clear that the military will continue to maintain control over Deep South continue to be undermined. has come about from the implementation of a more brutal military or threats immediately without having to wait for approval fromsuperiors.” Such an order invariably set the stage for heightened state-sanctioned

Bangkok Post, - Thai PBS tour-restive-south/.

122 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

well embolden hardline military factions to push for an end to the peace dialogue on the basis that enhanced force is all that is necessary to deal with the insurrection.

5. Strategies and Activities of the Resistance Movements owes to the fact that there are various groups resisting the Thai state and they often disagree on strategy. Beginning with the strongest armed

123 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

Step 1 consciousness through education covering Patani’s subversion. Step 3 baht increase insurgent recruitment and training. of a Patani national consciousness. Final insurgent military preparation. Revolution. Table 5: Seven-Step Strategy for Patani Secession62 Although negotiations are not included in this seven-step

https://www.newmandala.org/wp-content/ uploads- gency.pdf Security Studies Journal,

124 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

- Daily Excelsior, Timehttp://content.time.com/time/ Wikileaks Deep South Watch .

125 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

the use of radical means for achieving political change in the Deep South. Although the seven-step plan’s validity could be disputed on the basis that the strategy does not correlate completely with the actions holistic tool through which they have generally sought to achieve their ends. and maintained a resolute silence with respect to claims of responsibility. for Thai intelligence to identify the perpetrators. Both soft targets and hard

Combating Terrorism Center, West Point thai-insurgency.

126 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace groups would step up and engage in a fresh round of negotiations with - sonal capacity. Despite attempts made by the Thai state to entice the pursuing dialogue with the Thai state and preferred to adopt a wait-and- million recruits comes across as somewhat implausible.

New Mandala,

127 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

Given the numerous allegations of soldiers intentionally targeting to counter the oft-repeated accusations made against the Thai military. An alternative interpretation of insurgent strategy was proposed by the Or Sor achieving an independent Patani state. The volunteer believed that from illicit enterprise. Questions and rumors surrounding the resistance movement demonstrated some willingness to negotiate with the Thai state and to -

128 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

The persistence of the resistance movement has compelled Thai security forces to employ both political as well as military strategies. Academic sources have noted how the state’s counterinsurgency structure South policy still made reference to “solving the problem through military believed that their practice of handing over security suspects Deep South problem can only be resolved with a political solution. They in terms of policy. Although the traditional mentality of the security apparatus has been “to drain the swamp”- i.e. use force to separate militants from local people - the military has come to understand that it must played an important role in this endeavor as facilitator of the negotiations.

Deep South Watch

129 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

6. Concluding Remarks: Future of Security Policy in the Deep South have Thai security forces’ engaged in the Deep South under successive governments and what have been important turning points in southern contributed to greater state-society tensions. The result was the -

Deep South Watch

130 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

has highlighted nine problems and dilemmas hindering security forces disagreements within the resistance movement has prevented them from achieving any substantial policy cohesion. military’s strategy of repression overlaid with an ostensible support for or threats immediately without having to wait for approval from

Bangkok Post

131 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South superiors Commander General Apirat. Such willful disregard on the part of the military leadership has set the stage for heightened state repression in initiative faltered when Thailand pressed for one district to be used as Apirat responded by announcing that soldiers would be ordained and stationed inside Buddhist temples in the Deep South. This policy has since begun to be implemented. Although dialogue between the two have continued. of the Thai military that over a decade of heightened security investments

Thai PBS inspection-tour-restive-south/. The Nation . The ordaining of soldiers represented the public revival of a policy implemented

132 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

commencement of dialogue with insurgents represented an avenue for recognition that the military must try to win the “hearts and minds” of movement is beset with internal disagreements and may never succeed in uniting as a coherent entity against the Thai state. Given these violence.”

Deep South Watchhttp://www.deepsouthwatch. .

133 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

Bibliography

Combating Terrorism Center, West Pointhttps://www.ctc.usma. edu/posts/the-smoldering-thai-insurgency. Rebellion in Southern Thailand: Contending Histories Bangkok Post Legitimacy Crisis in Thailand Security Studies Journal, . . http://www.benarnews. html.

134 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

. http://www.bb.go. . http://www.bb.go.th/topic-detail. . . Time, http://content.time.com/time/world/ . South.” New Mandala deep-south/. https://web.archive.org/ . http://www. deepsouthwatch. the deep south of Thailand].” https://deepsouthwatch.org/sites/

135 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

. Deep South Watchhttp://www.deepsouthwatch.org/ . https://www.newmandala.org/wp- content . Jihad.” Asia Report Doubt.” Asia Report- doubt.pdf. with Paramilitaries.” Asia Report the-problem-with-paramilitaries.pdf. http://isranews.org/south-news/scoop/ . . http://www.isranews.org/

136 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

-. https://www.isranews.org/content- . and Uncertain Resolution.” Deep South Watch . Knights of the Realm: Thailand’s Military and Police, Then and Now https://tbinternet. . Bangkok Post, neighbourhood-watch. Prachathai http://w.

137 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

- Lowy Institutehttps://www.lowyinsti- . Rethinking Thailand’s Southern Violence . Bangkok Post . Bangkok Post south-delegation. Bangkok Post . - Benar Newshttp://www. . temples in troubled South: Army chief.” The Nation http://www.nationmultimedia.com/detail/

138 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

national. The Nation http://www.natio. The Nation Benar News https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/thai/forward-commit- . . . Civilians and Firearms Proliferation in Southern Thailand.” Non-Violence International Southeast Asia.

139 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

laws.” International Bar Association (IBAnet), . over Proposals to Cut Budget.” The Nation, . south.” Reuters,http://www.reuters.com/ article- . Terrorism Research and Analysis Consortium. “Barisan Revolusi - terrorism.org/group/barisan-revolusi-nasional-brn. http://englishnews.thaipbs.or.th/army-chief- . http://englishnews.thaipbs.or.th/army-chief- . Review.” -in-Southern-Thailand. Southern Violence.” Wikileaks, . Wikileaks, .

140 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

in the Deep South76

sheds some light on the dynamics that shape interactions on the ground among those responsible for implementing state policy. Perspective 77 departments were involved in resolving the Deep South problem and

interviews. Such an approach gives respondents broad leeway in interpretation and a ranger.

141 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

leaders no longer had to listen to the opinions of elected civilian leaders policy approach. The policies of previous civilian-led governments were contrasted believed to have appointed people to positions overseeing Deep South policy based on partisan cronyism not based on their Deep South 1. th Army th Army Region commander should serve commanders. Since army commanders also tended to place

142 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

th these loyalists would also end up only serving a one-year term if the army commander only served a one-year term. 3. would prevent them from recruiting more children. The military’s misapplication of decades-old anti-communist The secretive nature of the insurgents and their use of guerilla 78 that the police today tend to focus more on political strategies before

143 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South relations with religious leaders and this had helped them build trust count as owing to this policy of moderation and trust-building and dismissed the military’s claim that this was due to police residing was borne out by a recent survey which found that local communities - and the military. under the current and previous administrations also highlighted the

144 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace police and military. budget was still proportionally smaller when compared to the combined need not abide by these strict budgetary rules ensured that the military was able to circumvent legal obstacles that police could not avoid. irregularities on the part of the police could be attributed to the institu- Perspective of a former Buddhist Ranger (eight years) currently an Or Sor Volunteer for 3 years81 Rangers and Or Sor Or Sor Or Sor volunteer’s welfare

145 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

Or Sor applied to the positions. Volunteer salary scales only have 13 levels Government Administration. The interviewee described how in the past local people were recruited and trained to be rangers and because it was believed their recruited people from outside areas because locals had grown frustrated with the corruption and had stopped becoming rangers.3

- tional stipends. Thus there would be a discrepancy between the number of reported rangers versus the actual number of rangers within a company.

146 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

this to the fact that rangers carried out army operations that over- Supap-burut Chut Dam and this made them more of a target. The interviewee eventually resigned greater danger. volunteers could avoid being embroiled in any disagreements between police and the army because they were ultimately answerable to the army or police. Volunteer duties could be limited to simply providing was less ambiguous and he felt there was now more stability. The interviewee also believed that Prayut closely followed what was

147 Chapter 3 Militarization and Securitization in Thailand’s Deep South

- lated themes came up repeatedly in interviews with representatives of - as well as a degree of acrimony on the part of the volunteer.

148 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces Emma Potchapornkul

1. Introduction related cycles of revenge and counter-revenge. This has given rise to injustice arising from the existing justice process and administrative system” as one of 1

1 http:// .

149 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

Budget to Rectify the Southern Problem suggests that the government is an ideal of accountability and fairness in the protection and vindication of rights and the prevention and punishment of wrongs.”3

3 .

150 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

this ideal of accountability and fairness. to embed this assessment within a discussion of the changes to the overall also addressing the negative impact of the violence on the minority Thai- Buddhist population in the region. 1.1 Historical Context split the Patani Kingdom between these two newly-formed territories.

and traditional mechanisms but these mechanisms are beyond the scope of this paper.

151 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

and on other ethnic groups scattered throughout the country’s peripheral memory of a large group can endure over generations.

https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/ .

152 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

- The parallels drawn between past and more recent events reinforce waging violence. The following section will attempt to evaluate the

2. Formal Mechanisms of Justice 2.1 Legal Framework in place in the Southern Border Provinces

153 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

Two sets of laws have been used in tandem to strengthen law enforcement’s capacity to address the criminal and violent acts related to discern the pattern or procedure in which the special security laws the system. 2.2 Application of Special Security Laws in the Southern Border Provinces Table 1: Special Security Laws Search Law Enforcement Superior and Detention Political Amnesty Immunity area power arrest rallies The 1914 Prohibited Provided Martial court mentioned for Law Act warrant without individual court soldiers warrant

154 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Search Law Enforcement Superior and Detention Political Amnesty Immunity area power arrest rallies The 2005 Prime Prohibited Provided Emergency court mentioned Decree on warrant days Government without Administra- district of court tion in warrant States of Emergency The 2008 Prime Allowed Allowed Internal district of 11 court warrant13 provided Security warrant for Act (ISA) Betong of districts of

Doctor of Philosophy in Political Science. University of Canterbury

155 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

three special security laws in force in the four southern border provinces that provides impunity for perpetrators of a variety of human rights violations. 11 13

Bangkok Post Bangkok Post . . 11 application of Criminal Procedure Code standards to criminal investigations, detentions and arrests in most circumstances” such that “arrest and detention is regulated by the Criminal Procedure Code and subject to the scrutiny of the Courts of Justice 13

13 156 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

instead. Although it has been described as the most moderate of the it still provides a range of enforcement powers act “.” Section security case if the person confesses their guilt and agrees to participate underpinnings that lead individuals to carry out violence. Although its operational procedures participated in the rehabilitation programme to date.

T - S S

157 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

Basic legal protections are often violated under the special security laws. obligations of accountability and adherence to human rights principles. • Arbitrary and Inconsistent Application of the Special Security Laws The seemingly arbitrary and inconsistent manner in which the

158 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

• Disproportionate Use of Power construed as promoting independence. in Pattani.

“ “ “ .

159 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

documentation purposes. The activist was later released having had the contents of his phone searched and after disclosing details such as his car registration number and information about his close friends. • Detention under Special Security Laws without charge in locations other than prisons. These informal detention entitlements guaranteed under the Criminal Procedure Code. Detainees

https://prachatai. . .

160 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace detainees may launch a motion of habeas corpus .

release unless lawful grounds are shown for their detention. Asian Studies Review - mendations Following its Review of the Country’s Second Periodic Report at its https://tbinternet. .

161 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

undue delay. • Torture, Extrajudicial Killings, and Enforced Disappearance 31 Reports that this was followed by a particularly heavy-handed response on the

31 -

162 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

counter-revenge.

Figure 1: Number of Torture Allegations received by MAC between 2007 and 12 March 2018 “between 2004 and 2017, Duay Jai documented 219 cases of extrajudicial killings in the SBP, of which 10 were documented in 2017. MAC also documented 12 allegations of extrajudicial killings in 2017 in Yala province alone.”33 force. Families of suspects and human rights groups dispute these claims.

163 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

or associated with the Deep South. - government. .

https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Trea- . https://www. . . https://prachatai. .

164 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

ensure prompt, impartial and thorough investigations are carried out into all allegations and complaints concerning the unlawful and excessive use enforced disappearances and extrajudicial killings, including in the context of the southern border provinces” and that “it should also ensure that perpetrators are prosecuted and, if convicted, punished with appropriate sanctions.” 2.3 Application of Regular Criminal Laws in the Southern Border Provinces

Table 2: Regular Criminal Laws

Law Legal function Criminal Procedure Provides the rules of procedure for all stages of the Special Case The Criminal Code Primary source of criminal laws. Prohibited acts include

165 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

Law Legal function Computer Crimes Contains provisions that describe acts constituting Computer Crimes responsibilities to enforce this law. Criminalises and establishes procedures to prevent Laundering Act money laundering. Prevention and Suppression of Terrorist Financing Source: Reproduced and adapted from ICJ “Thailand – Southeast Asia Security Laws” https://www.icj.org/south-east-asia-security-laws/thailand-southeast-asia- security-laws/ Regular criminal laws applied in the southern border provinces enforced with respect to insurgency-related crimes.

featured.

166 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

The manner in which these sets of criminal law have been applied have contributed to the perception of discriminatory treatment against echo that helped spur armed resistance to the state and disturbed many locals, who regard the Pondok as repositories of Malay identity.” The family

https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/thailand/southern-thailand- s-peace-dialogue-no-traction.

167 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces documented cases. as well as a degree of protection that is largely inaccessible to grassroots human rights defenders. - criminal complaint after she wrote an open letter to the military personnel had beaten a man during arrest. She was accused of “damaging the reputation” of a Deep South para- would not be prosecuted. and violation of the Computer Crimes Act for publishing a report that documented alleged cases of torture and ill- treatment by authorities in the southern border provinces since

but have been edited for brevity.

168 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

into allegations of human rights violations in the southern committee” to ensure accuracy of information and to ensure - of human rights violations. was sentenced to a year in prison after the Supreme Court upheld the verdict of the lower courts that found Anuphong guilty of falsely complaining that he had been tortured into

169 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

the alleged torture and ill-treatment of a suspect in military damages.- after it found that he had been “physically assaulted” during

170 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

3. Prosecuting Security Cases in the Southern Border Provinces does not use military courts to try civilian defendants in the southernmost Phattalung and Satun Provinces. The Courts of Justice have authority or municipal level. The publication process which are outlined below.

- - - . and large-scale loss as well as cases deemed to have caused public disturbance and Charges and the Protection of Citizens Rights: A Case Study of the Four Bordering Provinces in Southern Thailand

171 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

• Quality of Justice Delivery a conviction. Attempts have since been made to recruit prosecutors with always feasible given the undesirability of the region as a destination for those from elsewhere in the country. on security cases.

172 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

to attract candidates. • Duration/Timeliness - The collected.

annual disposal rates over the same period were also high for Criminal Cases in the .

173 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

Suspects who the burden of having to go through such a drawn-out procedure can argued against the issuance of anything more binding than regulations - tions state that the Court of First instance must endeavour to conclude and the Supreme Court within two years. before the prosecutor informed Pornpen that she would not be prosecuted. three human rights defenders that they would drop the defamation

174 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

prosecute them. This amounts to a total of one year and two months that the three activists had to bear the weight of a possible prosecution. and dissent. • Coordination among Relevant Agencies poor coordination between agencies. This had led to some suspects to be vetted and to decide whether any would proceed to court.

Periodic Review reveals a trend of increased restrictions on civil and political rights https://www.upr-info.org/en/review/Thailand/ .

175 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

to the percentage of cases that were forwarded by prosecutors to the higher conviction rates was said to be due to prosecutors’ more rigorous scrutiny of the strength of evidence and insistence on sound forensics evidence as a basis for forwarding cases to trial. •

Bangkok Post, says. . .

176 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

referred to the not referred to

issued with dismissed by

proceeding to dismissed by

Figure 2: Prosecution of Security Cases the number of cases that are referred to prosecutors by investigators was not possible to access data on the verdicts handed down in these suspects in security cases. This is despite the large amounts of money

177 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

From the number of cases dismissed by prosecutors and by admissibility of evidence. The special security laws allow suspects to This undermines the principle of due process. From the perspective of - Criminal Procedure Code states that any evidence derived wrongfully by unlawful means is prohibited. Another challenge is the reluctance of witnesses to testify because of distrust in the witness protection concern for their own safety. Avoiding too much engagement with state against possible retaliation on the part of the resistance movement. This • Transparency obtain up-to-date comprehensive data on security cases. The Annual

178 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

an overview of civil and criminal cases throughout the country’s nine administrative regions but it does not provide much in the way of Sources of public information on security cases predominantly tend to be media reports on the verdicts handed down in such cases. cited due to issues with comparability. Security cases are divided into four categories: Cases where cases regarding deaths during security operations or deaths of suspects in custody.

https:// . http:// for-life-for-mall-bombing/ http://www. .

179 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

Concerning the allegations made by some human rights groups that some of these law the extent required for the performance of their duty.” deaths of suspects in custody are divided into deaths from natural causes

https://www.ohchr.org/en/ . Various human rights reports of deaths in custody include the notable cases of Assari the death occurred in self-defence or whether there was disproportionate use of force .

180 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

local people view law enforcement with suspicion and fear.

is the idea that government and its agents are also answerable to the law. The law provides for access to courts and administrative bodies to has received criminal sanctions as a result of their actions. As discussed the failure to secure criminal prosecution or even internal state sanction indicates the reluctance of the courts and other state investigatory bodies to see state violence as a crime.”

181 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

fellow detainees and his family compared against the inconsistent and particularly troubling given that the supply of false testimony is itself

http://www.nationmultimedia.com/detail/national/ .

182 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace accessibility. There are some instances which allow for cautious optimism set a precedent for other similar cases involving civilians. A separate hearing was called to investigate allegations that the individual was also tortured whilst in custody after his family lodged a petition with the court. post outside of the region.

. security. security family-of-yala-suspect-cite-army-torture.

183 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces was mostly the fault of the state. The apology was televised throughout the country. beaten at a corn plantation in Pattani by the head of a patrol unit. The verdict was said to set a precedent for others to hold authorities accountable for their actions under the law. Thirteen eyewitnesses said the men were unarmed and no weapons were transferred and no charges were brought.

https://prachatai.com/english/ . .

184 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

5. Access to Justice Thailand’s Administrative Court is the principle agency to a dispute arose as to whether the Administrative Court or the Court of

185 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

or victims of bureaucratic or administrative abuse. has been described as the most important governing body set up by the central government for the Deep South. Since its - power dynamics within successive civilian or military-dominated

Contemporary Southeast Asia Contemporary Southeast Asia

186 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace of power. and Liberties Protection Department. The Special Cases Department investigates complaints received by the Damrongtham Center about - tigations. The other two departments sponsor programmes to educate year term to consider how to provide retroactive compensation to families of the disappeared. A cabinet resolution was passed outlining

187 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

of each case.

Figure 3: Compensation to Victims of Human Rights Abuses as retroactive compensation to victims of human rights abuses. regulations on assistance to victims of the unrest as well as victims of as compensation to victims of human rights abuses.

188 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

who have lost a parent due to the unrest. a government agency. often remained empty. Centre found it did not provide an environment where vulnerable -

- .

189 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

South announced that SBPAC would see its role limited to that of a personnel”. These developments have signalled to local people that that can genuinely address local grievances.

https:// . to criticisms that the agency was unable to carry out its function as a problem-

190 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

are national agencies and do not only cover the southern border provinces. whether to recommend that the public prosecutor bring charges against - for data regarding the number of complaints of malfeasance in relation Regulation on Disclosure and Dissemination of Documents and Data

border-agencys-power-curtailed. This regulation gives the agency the discretion to decide which documents and - .

191 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

Figure 4: Report of complaints received by the NHRCT110 not disaggregate according to the four districts that are also considered part of the

an independent international association of national human rights

192 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

111 violators on its behalf or on behalf of complainants. - gations.113 on measures or guidelines for the promotion and protection of human rights to relevant government agencies. - - regarding the number of complaints made in relation to security cases in

111 https://prachatai. . 113 .

193 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

meant to serve. As the criticism levelled at these state agencies has Some have also provided support by engaging with branches of the state

6. Is the State of Justice Improving?

194 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

6.1 Assessment of the State of Justice Administration in the Deep South international standards. remains a gap between policy and implementation.

Justice.

195 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces of relevant agencies and improvements to database management by data. constitute an attempt to suppress information that casts the military in large number of villages that had been renamed in Thai as part of an

196 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

for their children. is problematic. Compensation may provide some temporary relief from substitute for serious investigations to determine the whereabouts of “inactive post.” of alternating civilian and military control. These measures do not bode

197 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

continued allegations of human rights abuses on the part of security deployed to support counterinsurgency operations to undergo specialist who have been accused by local people of engaging in vigilante violence rangers have also gained a reputation for indiscipline and brutality. As how the entire security apparatus is viewed. Security forces are often process.

- paramilitaries.pdf.

198 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

paramilitaries. 6.2 Constitutional and Legal Framework following d’état. Although the administrative arrangements in the southern border have implications for the prospects of positive advances in the promulgated an interim Constitution giving themselves broad powers

- http:// .

199 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

embeds impunity. Considering the “no”. with respect to its legitimacy.

. http:// .

200 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

or amended by passage of legislation. Some orders imposed particularly severe restrictions by detain persons in informal detention centres for up to seven days without That Committee’s powers at the regional and provincial level. Regional and

https:// .

201 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

Given the role of prosecutors in bringing - pendence. 131 Deep South.

power-boost-not-political. https://prachatai.com/english/ 131 Rule of Law Index 2019 Report Rule of Law Index 2017–2018 Report https:// - Rule of Law Index https://. .

202 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

6.3 Perception of Justice 6.3.1 Understandings of Justice academic institutions has attempted to gauge the views of the local population and opinion leaders 133 underpinned by the law”. This could largely be interpreted as conforming concerned with making and implementing decisions according to fair processes that ensure ‘fair treatment’” and whereby “rules must be impartially followed and consistently applied in order to generate an unbiased decision.”

collaboration is possible or who is willing to collaborate. 133 .

203 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

agreed that Thai-Buddhists/Chinese were generally treated better than - than Thai-Buddhists/Chinese in terms of religion and language. This although this may also be viewed as merely an attempt to co-opt

204 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

there remain some controversies mainstream educational system. Variations in responses across the three annual surveys must be - currently dominate discussions in the region. Regarding recommendations to the dialogue parties as to which topics should be prioritised for 6.3.2 Government Interventions and Perceptions of Injustice The government’s often clumsy responses to instances of

http://peacebuilding.asia/language-educational-policies-south-thailand/ .

205 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

resulted in protests staged by groups on both sides of the debate. The strongly that the ban was a restriction on their religious freedom. As region has started becoming more vocal with respect to their feelings of the three southern border provinces have migrated to urban centres or are said to have moved out of the region entirely. The belief that the

http://www.nationmultimedia.com/detail/ national. https://www. .

206 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

numbers in the area have declined since the violence re-emerged in that this belief among Thai-Buddhist inhabitants is contributing to the rise of a new Buddhist nationalism. Successive Thai governments have the Deep South. The group blame the government for the apparent th Army Region chief Lt- - of double standards in the treatment of people and in the provision of

http://www. . http://www.nationmultimedia.com/ .

207 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

6.3.3 Perception of Justice for Malay-Muslims and Thai-Buddhists at the local level state agencies are distinct and only partially coordinated and the manner in which they interact with or are embedded in society are a glimpse into how communities navigate their engagement with and Rumours and conspiracy theories that circulate throughout the region varies substantially depending on both the branch of the state and the - sources to accentuate their Thai ethnic identity to gain preferential

208 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

The observation that the actions of the Thai state security apparatus has treatment and develop similar views is suggestive of how the Thai reversed with respect to the decentralised local level government. representation and responsiveness to all sectors of society and made - how power operated outside formal channels with entry points available channels of power were largely inaccessible. Alienated from the local

This enabled observation of deeper comparative insights into state-society relationship dynamics within the communities.

209 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

of the Deep South. This was understood as a means of gaining access forms.

7. Transitional Justice transitional justice is the full range of processes and mechanisms associated with a society’s attempt to come to terms with a legacy of large-scale past abuses, in order to ensure accountability, serve justice and achieve reconciliation…Transitional justice consists of both judicial and non-judicial processes and mechanisms, including prosecution initiatives, facilitating initiatives in respect of the right to truth, delivering reparations, institutional reform and national consultations. Whatever combination is chosen must be in conformity with international legal standards and obligations.” 7.1 Justice vs. Peace - a way to deter future human rights violations and to support peacebuild-

210 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace rather than prosecutions due to the need to contain spoilers in many introduced as partial and conditional. replaced in the second and third waves by social harmony. General suggesting understandable fatigue at the prolonged impact of the violence on an increasingly fractured society. A more interesting divergence emerged between general respon- portion agreeing that amnesty was something to be provided in all of general respondents felt that amnesty should be provided in non-

in Berghof Handbook on Transitional Justice & Reconciliationhttps://www. reconciliation-theory-and-practice/.

211 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

found that opinion leaders tended to have more information than the general population about the Southern Thai peace process. An awareness - gregate responses according to identity groups. This could provide an The issue of amnesty for members of the resistance movement concerning national security cases without condition.” During the for dialogue party members to enter Thailand in order to engage in

212 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

issued three additional trust-building proposals to the Thai government following the tentative agreement between the parties to implement a also included the proposal to release some political prisoners who could following the Thai government’s refusal to formalise the initiative by any document was unnecessary. concessions towards the resistance movement’s interlocutors. -

. https://www. .

213 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

of the Peace Dialogue Team. region responded to the additional follow up measures of the “Bring the opposition.

http:// mara-patani/ https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/thai/Thailand-militants . https://www. their-homes. .

214 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

7.2 Truth vs. Justice to prosecutions and as important mechanisms for counteracting cultures provides redress for victims and may contribute to individual and social healing and reconciliation. regarding the potential of truth commissions became more sober following the wide gaps between commission mandates to develop detailed recommendations on societal reforms and the non-implementation of such proposals by the governments that received them.

215 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

“” ignored. family. later the charges against the surviving protesters were dropped. The

Global Change, Peace & Security .

216 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

- political engagement and dialogue.

8. Conclusion - A strong disconnect between the policy and operational level is apparent when compared with the local populations’ perceptions of treatment indicate that attitudes and feelings towards the state as a whole are shaped by the positive or negative interactions that form part of their

217 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

minds are viewed as insincere or as an attempt to co-opt their support. improvements appear to be piecemeal and ad hoc. Absent of any progress appears to depend on the capacity of individual prosecutors also undermined by the potentially compromised independence of the attempted suicide of the Deputy Presiding Judge in the courtroom of inadmissibility of evidence.

218 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

investigation. past violence perpetrated on both sides. but one element.

https://prachatai.com/english/ 219 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

Bibliography

asia/language-educational-policies-south-thailand/. Security Charges and the Protection of Citizens Rights: A Case Study of the Four Bordering Provinces in Southern Thailand. - in-district.

220 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

border-agencys-power-curtailed. - centre-nearing-completion-isoc-says.

221 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

resettling-returnees-near-their-homes. benarnews.org/english/news/thai/Pattani-school- https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/thai/Thailand- https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/thai/bring- - Criminal justice in solving the problem of

222 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces- statistic.html. Berghof Handbook on Transitional Justice & Reconciliation - tion-theory-and-practice/. - - land.” Asian Studies Review plan.

223 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

transmitted to the Kingdom of Thailand prior to the submission Following its Review of the Country’s Second Periodic Report rule-of-law/. -

224 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

with Paramilitaries.” Asia Report the-problem-with-paramilitaries.pdf. south-east-asia/thailand/southern-thailand-insurgency-not- east-asia/thailand/southern-thailand-s-peace-dialogue-no- traction. “Assessment of Thailand’s follow-up actions for the implemen- - html.

225 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

to-die/. for-mall-bombing/ Global Change, Peace & Security -

226 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

- - - Statistical-information/Statistical-information-on-complaints/

227 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

http://www.benarnews.org/english/news/special-reports/ people’s opinions on the peace process in the Southern Border Contemporary Southeast Asia

228 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Prachathai. “Police search student activist’s house in Deep South.”

229 Chapter 4 The Administration of Justice in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces

pdf. Thai PBS. “Tourists return Betong emergency decree lifted.” http:// englishnews.thaipbs.or.th/tourists-return-betong-emergency- decree-lifted/. peace-dialogue-process-mara-patani/. Southern Border Provinces Administrative Centre in Perspective.” Contemporary Southeast Asia

230 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

- - Rule of Law Index 2017–2018 Report. - Rule of Law Index 2019 Report. View-Reduced.pdf.

231 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation Pindarica Malyrojsiri

1. Introduction Thai language was a critical component in the construction of a common the nation and imposed upon diverse populations within Thailand.1

1Fighting Words: Language Policy and Ethnic Relations in Asia

232 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

- 3 This chapter analyses how language and education are intrinsically language and education policies could provide the impetus to help education that the Thai government provides free of charge to all Thai -

3 Nationalism and Ethnic Politics -

233 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation

The main discussion around language-in-education and language shared balance of power or a more symmetric power-relationship be achieved to enable diverse linguistic identities to survive and thrive with dignity. in Thailand and in the southern border provinces/Patani. The second and how they became an assimilationist tool used to further Thailand’s nation-building process. The third part describes how the emergence of the armed resistance groups created national security concerns that led to greater restrictions in the education sphere. Part four compares the South and is followed by a discussion of the implications of monolingual language recognition and planning may help protect and promote non-

Foundation http://www.berghof-foundation.org/ .

234 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

alternative language-in-education planning and policy has the potential to re-balance asymmetric power-relations. Such policy and planning is crucial for creating the conditions that can help defuse the contestation of identities and address grievances stemming from unmet linguistic and educational needs. The author used a combination of methods to formulate this analysis. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to assess attitudes towards language-in-education policies and practices in the region.

2. Contextualization: Language in Thailand and the Southern Border Provinces/Patani particular language as well as the development of that language. Language planning is generally understood as consisting of three Status planning consists of both policy-level planning and structural planning. Policy-level planning is concerned with

235 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation

concerned with identifying an administrative approach that is Corpus planning refers to linguistic development and includes and government. designation of Thai as the de facto national language and its designation as the medium of instruction in the education system was aimed at

State-Ethnic Ethnicity Some Observations on Ethnicity, State and Ethnic Problems

236 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

increase Thai literacy rates are outlined in the national agenda and serves as one of the country’s national education goals. the country’s borders.

Education in Multicultural Southern Bounders com/language/tha.

237 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation

238 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

instruction in the formal education system. the Thai language over the course of the twentieth century can be viewed as a success if one considers its preponderance throughout the country. the years.

3. Language and Education as Tools for Assimilation and Nation-Building changes to language and education were instituted together with the country.

239 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation

town. The newly established government schools were poorly received diverse ethnic private schools. This was followed by the Primary 13 The policy of nation-building and assimilation accelerated and prohibiting the wearing of traditional dress. Such mandates

240 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace of the local people. These policies aimed to supplant the linguistic and cultural identities of minority ethnic groups with the Thai cultural identity continued to focus on assimilation through the imposition and forced these protests were violently suppressed by the Thai authorities. the Thai language.

History and Politics in Malay World Islam, Education, and Reform in Southern Thailand: Tradition & Transformation Muslim Separatism: The Moros of Southern Philippines and the Malays of Southern Thailand History and Politics in Malay World

241 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation

The main goal of education in the southern border provinces/Patani was to foster Thai language literacy and this was integrated into the national agenda of the heterogeneity. The goal of creating an educated and literate populace went hand-in-hand with a political agenda that involved cementing the Siamese rule. The emphasis on Thai language education was highlighted during understand to facilitate communication.” The directives in his speech language literacy in the region.

4. Armed Resistance, National Security, and Education period saw the emergence of a number of armed resistance groups.

Education in Multicultural Southern Bounders.

242 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

reform of the political system by proposing an autonomous region language in the region. The Thai state’s counterinsurgency response to the armed resistance included measures to tighten control of non-formal educational establishments in the Deep South as concerns grew that education in separatism. their curriculum. The threat of Communism also fed into national security concerns and led to intense monitoring of these educational establishments.

Security Studies Pamphlet Islam, Education, and Reform

243 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation

additional criteria under which these schools were supposed to reform.

244 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

to counter this threat eventually transformed into violent physical confrontation. That the armed resistance movements have they represent tangible instantiations of the Thai state’s assimilationist policies. resistance movements have targeted public education personnel and and education constitute some of the foremost grievances that have state’s cultural assimilation policy and discrimination against local

accessedhttp://

245 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation

identity.

5. Current Education Provisions in the Deep South The Thai education system provides nine years of compulsory national or sub-national educational authorities.

Prachathai Thailand http://www.bic.moe.go.th.

246 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

formal education system. a) Thai Government Schools/ Thai Government School with Intensive Islamic Program

247 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation

31 Table 1 displays the number of government schools and the

Table 1: Number of Government Schools in the Deep South Elementary Secondary Province No. of No. of No. of No. of Schools Students Schools Students Pattani *all *all districts districts in Total 1,070 190,244 88 75,813

248 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

b) Secular Private Schools c) Private Islamic School language studies for religious purposes at these schools and the Basic d) Pondoks

249 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation

e) Tadikas

250 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

in both the Jawi and Rumi script. students enrolled at these establishments in each other four provinces. Table 2: Number of Non-Government Schools in Deep South

Province Private Secular Private Private Pondok Tadika School Islamic School Islamic & Secular School

Schools Students Schools Students Schools Students Schools Students Schools Students

Pattani

31 1

Total 123 59,813 80 35,867 183 173,020 434 40,708 1,872 195,162

primary schools. These schools are the most popular choice of school

accessed February

251 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation

33 religious teacher or leader since most other career opportunities are system may also do so because of low academic attainment at the government primary school or because of their perceived develop their own language or community-based curriculum in order to accommodate the needs of their students as long as it remained in Despite the freedom concerns still feed into the discussions of education provision in the

252 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

and language classes. Public and private schools in the region have individual teacher and the institution’s policy as to whether additional

Type of Thai Government School School/Thai Private Thai Government School Type of Curricula taught together alongside regular Thai Language for Grade 1-3 for Grade 1-3 Classes

253 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation

Malay Language Students use Jawi- Classes language language studies classes. used as the classes. medium of instruction. Other Some regular schools Focuses on Arabic Languages promote other foreign schools promote other languages such as foreign languages such language with the Jawi script. foreign languages

before the full of adoption of Thai as the medium of instruction. Bahasa

6. Implications of Thai-only Education Policy Thailand’s strong assimilationist culture and its historical promotion of Thai as the only medium of instruction has threatened the

Education Development Plan in the in Special Administrative Region of the Southern Border Provinces

254 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

point where some languages are considered endangered. of non-dominant minority groups. areas. language shifts. education has led to disparity in educational outcomes between students

255 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation to be illiterate in Thai. able to learn in their mother tongue. Students struggling to understand and refuse to communicate in Thai. a relationship between students and the social-cultural conditions of the

http://www.multied.org. Bangkok Post,

256 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace school as one factor that had a bearing on drop-out rates. global population did not have access to education in a language they

7. The Future of Bahasa Melayu recommended that authorities develop a language policy that would into place by the Southern Border Provinces Administration Center

Final Report of Truth for Reconciliation Commission of Thailand (TRCT): July 2010 – July 2012

257 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation

- on language and culture. to identify the most appropriate way to alter the corpus to suit the local

258 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace the use of Rumi would promote greater regional integration of the favor of the Jawi script tend to highlight the script’s symbolic value. they reasoned could also act as a medium to transition from Bahasa some attempts at the national level to support the protection and

259 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation component that focused on the promotion of mother tongues and local endorsed by the cabinet. 8. Multilingual Education in Other Countries places a strong emphasis on the individual and collective right to choose as demonstrated by several rights of indigenous and minority groups. education in the mother tongue and bilingual and long-term successful educational outcomes. Peoples provided “a critical framework for ensuring the necessary transformative changes in indigenous education and the exercise of the right to self-determination” before going on to say that “educational systems should respect, recognize and include indigenous peoples’ world views, cultures, languages and traditional knowledge, while ensuring gender equality and the recognition of traditional knowledge-keepers

The Journal of the Royal Institute of Thailand

260 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace as pedagogical authorities.” States in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities or persons of indigenous origin exist, a child belonging to such a minority or who is indigenous shall not be denied the right, in community with other members of his or her group, to enjoy his or her own culture, to profess and practice his or her own religion, or to use his or her own language”. many countries have incorporated these principles into their national administered multilingual planning and policies in education. The

https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/mandated-areas1/education/recs-education.html. https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/

261 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation

the southern border provinces/Patani. a. The Kingdom of Spain conferred legislative powers to autonomous populations to manage their - Catalan Autonomous Region of the system is to prevent school segregation on linguistic grounds and education models led to the Catalan Court of Justice ruling in favor

in-catalonia.

262 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

could receive more of their education in Spanish. Basque Autonomous Region, • • •

b. South Africa After apartheid, The government then

263 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation national level. as well as with a view to developing languages that had previously been language in accordance with South Africa’s national education frame- c. Myanmar government has provided limited recognition of ethnic languages as

pdf. http://www.salanguages.com/education.htm.

264 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

- d. Bosnia and Herzegovina - contesting ethno-nationalist sentiment through the establishment of a model whereby students from all ethnic groups could study together in allows linguistic freedom

irrawaddy.com/news/burma/mon-state-allow-ethnic-language-classes-govt-schools. html.

265 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation because the three languages share similar linguistic characteristics and script. Serbian can be written in the Cyrillic or Roman alphabet while the Croatian and Serbian languages. outlined above are meant solely to contribute to the discussion on the possibilities for language-in-education planning and policy for the southern border provinces/Patani.

9. Conclusion survival in a given society. Language-in-education planning for the

h -

266 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

language-in-education model that will meet all the needs of each and should be given a greater level of autonomy to determine which type Constructive and inclusive dialogues covering a broad range of The most important aspect to be highlighted is inclusivity so that the discussion does not fall into hands of government institutions or private dialogue. and needs to share their views and raise their concerns. This will best accommodate the reality of diverse populations and provide an opening to create the environment and conditions in which the contestation of identities may be defused and eventually lead to the resolution of grievances stemming from unmet linguistic needs and interests.

267 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation

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- History and Politics in Malay World. Nationalism and Ethnic Politics Fighting Words: Language Policy and Ethnic Relations in Asia

268 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

go.th. Muslim Separatism: The Moros of Southern Philippines and the Malays of Southern Thailand. Singapore: language/tha. Education in Multicultural Southern Bounders. - - - the-south.pdf. Islam, Education, and Reform in Southern Thailand: Tradition & Transformation -

269 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation

- Bangkok Post . Education Development Plan in the in Special Administrative Region of the Southern Border Provinces and the Thai language as medium: The case of bilingual

270 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Southern Border Provinces.” http://rescom.trf.or.th/display/ State-Ethnic Ethnicity. Some Observations on Ethnicity, State and Ethnic Problems Security Studies Pamphlet - - -

271 Chapter 5 Language and Language-In-Education as Key Features of the Conflict and its Transformation

TRCT. Final Report of Truth for Reconciliation Commission of Thailand (TRCT): July 2010 – July 2012 Rights of the Child.” https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalin- indigenouspeoples/mandated-areas1/education/recs-education. html. The Journal of the Royal Institute of Thailand http://www.multied.org. http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/mon-state-allow-ethnic-language-classes-govt-schools.html.

272 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond Christopher M. Joll

1. Introduction 1 has had long-standing and close contacts

1 Islam in Modern Thailand: Faith, Philanthropy and Politics, The Burmanization of Myanmar’s Muslims Between Integration and Secession: The Muslim Communities of the Southern Philippines, Southern Thailand, and Western Burma/ Myanmar Living on the Margins: Minorities and Borderlines in Cambodia and Southeast Asia Burmese Lives: Ordinary Life Stories under the Burmese Regime

273 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

3 and Cambodia. more attention than they have received over the last decade. Anthro- -

3 Coast of Sri Lanka The Sri Lanka Reader: History, Culture, Politics Nations and Nationalism Living on the Margins: Minorities and Borderlines in Cambodia and Southeast Asia Islam at the Margins: The Muslims of Indochina Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population The Global Religious Landscape , Global Civilization: A Buddhist-Islamic Dialogue- Common Ground between Islam and Buddhism

274 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

but Thai-based religious -

Numen Lived Islam in South Asia: Beyond Turk and Hindu: Rethinking Religious Identities in Islamicate South Asia Beyond Hindu and Muslim: Multiple Identity in Narratives from Village IndiaReligion, Science, and Empire: Classifying Hinduism and Islam in British India Religious Nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in India The Buddha on Mecca’s Verandah: Encounters, Mobilities, and Histories along the Malaysian-Thai Border Ethnic Relations in Kelantan: A Study of the Chinese and Thai as Ethnic Minorities in a Malay State Dynamic Diversity in Southern Thailand Brokers of Morality: Thai Ethnic Adaptation in a Rural Malaysian Setting An Anthropology of Curing in Multiethnic Thailand Thai South and Malay North: Ethnic Interactions on a Plural Peninsula The Muslim World

275 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

interethnic interactions in South Thailand follows Chayan Vaddhanaphuti’s as “ethnic” have developed for more than one reason. minorities as threats to national security during periods of communist adopting a comparative approach to this topic. As few problems or considering the past. This chapter’s second section interrogates the

International Journal of Buddhist Thought and Culture in Buddhist Societies in South and Southeast Asia The Politics of Scholarship and Trans-Border Engagement in Mainland Southeast Asia: A Festschrift in Honor of Ajarn Chayan Vaddhanaphuti

276 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

ations reveal that Thailand is an ethnic and linguistic geobody and that

Map 1: Analysis of Violent Events (Source: Engvall 2020, 73)

2. Comparative Approaches to Interreligious Interactions: A Methodological and Theoretical Prolegomena

277 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

address some issues about the constraints and concerns that have led 11 tham bun hulu A nuanced treatment of Buddhist-

11 Muslims in Global Societies We Love Mr King: Malay Muslims of Southern Thailand in the Wake of the Unrest Whose Place Is This? Malay Rubber Producers

278 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

number of reasons. Following a decade in metropolitan Pattani and since in more rural areas. There is more than one South Thailand and Pattani 13 opportunities to revisit assumptions about the cultural geography of plains and the Deep South. features and contributions of case studies and comparative historical are temporally and spatially contingent. David Snow notes that while

13 Ayutthaya.

279 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

understandings are produced by triangulating multiple sources of - generate theory whose robustness increases in proportion to the number and heterogeneity of case studies considered. sources. The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia preferences but historians can easily mitigate assertions that their Researchers who consider a diversity of past approaches and divergent conclusions can

The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements The Social Science Encyclopedia Methodological Practices in Social Movement Research

280 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace provide a number of new insights. David Gilmartin and Bruce Lawrence’s study of interactions cul-de-sacs and forever circling eddies. Gilmartin and Lawrence identify the other.” and competing nationalist inventions. -

in The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics Beyond Turk and Hindu Ethnic and Religious Identities and Integration in Southeast Asia E- International Relations, Students

281 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

long having been on the menu. The latter asserts that although identities

See also Joseph Ruane Ethnopolitics Advance in Anthropology Buddhist Warfare Ethnic and Racial Studies Theory and Society The Landscape of Qualitative Research: Theories and Issues - Islamic Thought in Southeast Asia: New Interpretations and Movements

282 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Anyone familiar with Thai politics will appreciate the utility of this erroneously assume that clashes primarily occur across-rather than within-religious or linguistic divides.

3. Interreligious Interactions in the Past: Historical Perspectives medieval Arab historians included descriptions of Southeast Asia in

Fighting Words: Language Policy and Ethnic Relations in Asia The Indianized States of Southeast Asia

283 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

ends.” Asia.- lebaileppai or lappai

Islamic Connections: Muslim Societies in South and Southeast Asia The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India Islam Translated: Literature, Conversion, and the Arabic Cosmopolis of South and Southeast Asia Islamic Connections: Muslim Societies in South and Southeast Asia

284 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

salat and saum sembahyang and puasa function as default terms for prayer and fasting.31 Advances in protohistoric archaeology over recent decades reveal the that is routinely referred to as South Thailand. The most dramatic 33 There is general acceptance that

31 A Study of the Evolution of the Malay Language: Social Change and Cognitive Development- , The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society The Malay Peninsula: Crossroads of the Maritime Silk Road (100 BC–1300 AD) Journal of Southeast Asian Studies The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula before AD 1500. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 33 Journal of Southeast Asian StudiesT’oung Pao Journal of the Malaysian Branch Royal Asiatic Society The Malay Peninsula,

285 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

Kerajaan A form of a phenomenon that is widespread throughout the material culture are numerous. These include the tropes in the paintings prahu kolek38 including kris. The same holds for the performing arts. Regardless of translated into local languages and adapted in ways that secure their

Hikayat Patani: The Story of Patani The Kingdom of Patani: Between Thai and Malay Mandalas Archipel Architecture of the Islamic World: Its History and Sacral Meanings Mosque Architecture in the Malay World The Decorated Boats of Kelantan: An Essay on Symbolism Spirit of Wood: The Art of Malay Woodcarving; Works by Master Carvers from Kelantan, Terengganu, and Pattani

286 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Kelantan as wayang jawawayang siam and wayang kulit. dalang nang talung.mak yong dance and the main puteri healing ceremony. Manora

Jurnal Alam Bina Jurnal Teknologi Jurnal Teknologi For studies of wayangThe Shadow Puppet Theatre of Malaysia: A Study of Wayang Kulit with Performance Scripts and Puppet Designs Asian Folklore Studies Malay Shadow Puppets: The Wayang Siam of Kelantan Their Structure” Man The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music Dynamic Diversity in South Thailand

287 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

Bradley argues that Siam subdued - dala state relations.

Nang talung is a - Journal of the Siam Society Dynamic Diversity in South Thailand The Ghosts of the Past in Southern Thailand: Essays on the History and Historiography of Patani

288 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace which were the most powerful mandalas at the time. Although in other kerajaans Seventeenth-century Dutch and Before a manner similar to the rite accompanying the ordination of Buddhist warns that the employment of the ethnoreligious

The Kingdom of Patani History of the Malay Kingdom of Patani, trans. Connor Bailey and The Kingdom of Patani The Muslim World Brokers of MoralityAnthropology of Curing.

289 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

- ponents of “multiethnic strategies for harnessing supernatural power”. Golomb’s proposal of a “shared cosmology”. phonlabunbun and transferred as tham bun tham bunpahala for merit are punya or kusalapuñña or

Anthropology of Curing, 1. The Malays Thai South and Malay North: Ethnic Interactions on a Plural Peninsula Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia

290 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace kusala. F. K. Lehman argues that kusala Puñña phala which pahala punya phala phala may have been adopted to be more translatable than punya. linguistic loyalties have been challenged. Although mention has been diversity of its geobody.

Merit and Blessing in Mainland Southeast Asia in Comparative Perspective Numen Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-Body of a Nation

291 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

possessing only loose control over their vassals. A decade after Rama Assertions other times to highlight the internal diversity of the Thais”.

Journal of Southeast Asian Studies Language and National Identity in Asia , Language Policy and Modernity in Southeast Asia: Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand

292 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

displaced languages and languages such as Chinese and Vietnamese languages. the role of central Thai as a national language. The military governments ratthaniyom country from Prathet Siam to Prathet Thai.

Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics

293 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond be used.” All inhabitants were simply “Thais”. The decrees are an Terms such as “Lao” and “Shan” were to be replaced by the word “Thai.” The ninth ratthaniyom which included not wearing any untailored wraparound cloths. these decrees represent a state-

Akademika Communal/Plural: Journal of Transnational and Crosscultural Studies must hold it to be true that all born as Thai people have the same Thai blood and Royal Gazette Volume 57

294 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace state’s ethnolinguistically and ethnoreligiously diverse population. at home or while performing salat and Chinese is one of his many contributions to scholarship on southern -

- Asian Folklore Studies Chinese Society in Thailand: An Analytical History Leadership and Power in the Chinese Community of Thailand Alternate Identities: The Chinese of Contemporary

295 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

For criteria” to vote. - - Chinese were forced to meet “stringent educational or employment a non-Thai father was not eligible for military service. These were

Thailand Asian Ethnicity Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia- Cultural Crisis and Social Memory: Modernity and Identity in Thailand and Laos Ethnic and Racial Studies

296 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Thai reluctantly participate in a “broader society from which they feel

Chinese Society in Thailand

297 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond positions in Ayutthaya’s courts. reputation for providing religious freedom for its ethnically and phuak mahamatphuak khao rit This may have contributed to branches of the Bunnag economy.

Journal of Islamic Studies Journal of Asian History The Lost Territories: Thailand’s History of National Humiliation Journal of Southeast Asian Studies Numen Chao Tang Chat nai Prawatsat Thai A History of Thailand

298 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

These minorities geographically concentrated near international borders are bumiputera privileges.

Ethnic and Racial Studies Identity and Ethnic Relations in Southeast Asia: Racializing Chineseness Chinese Southern Diaspora The New Economic Policy in

299 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

The discourse of “Thai-ness” pursued by Thailand’s nation- origins. subordinate

Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia International Journal on Minority and Group Rights - bourhood Torn by Separatism: The Case of Satun Province in Southern Thailand” Small Wars and Insurgencies Class, Culture and Space The Construction and Shaping of Communal Space in South Thailand

300 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

equal. Anyone wishing to become to this “dominant discourse and mind-set”. Chinese is the most obvious starting point for comparative historical analysis of state interactions with ethnic minorities in Thailand. These members. A proportion of Chinese in Thailand are incapable of com- municating in Thai and few second- and third-generation Chinese still

in Divided over Thaksin: Thailand’s Coup and Problematic Transition Asian Ethnicity

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Siam’s policy of assimilation has impacted educational institutions Peter Vail relates that permitted local languages to be taught. the central Thai dialect was funded. The pace with which Siamese Sangha Act. The primary driver of local resistance was that the form

Those interested in the role of the Lao language in northeastern identity should Journal of Socio- linguistics The Political Development of Modern Thailand Regions and National Integration in Thailand 1892–1992 Asian Ethnicity

302 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace during Phibun’s second tenure as prime minister. separatism.

5. Factors Impacting Interreligious Interactions The case studies considered above suggest that analysis of some by describing the range of factors impacting interactions between

Thailand’s Durable Premier: Phibun through Three Decades, 1932–1957 in Autonomy and Armed Separatism in South and Southeast Asia Journal of Southeast Asian Studies

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- while living in Patani/Pattani. against venturing into the interior where South Thailand’s most violent -

304 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

decreases the further south one travels. Claims that the three provinces become an educational hub as well as a showcase for Thai modernity. provincial capital. The importance of education is partly historical and both the most violent of South Thailand’s three provincial capitals and

Markaz is so as to resemble those of the Salaf al-Salih from which this movement/theological method derives its name. By the revival Tablighi Jama’at in South Thailand is related to its ability to recruit from South

305 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

hulu some of the operational and ethical reasons for Thai and foreign - smaller sultanates and then to four monthon-

Fasciculi Malayenses: Anthropological and Zoological Results of an Expedition to Perak and the Siamese Malay States, 1901– Surveying and Exploring in Siam

306 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

Similar observations were made about the sparsely populated and resource-rich district of Rangae. bilingual. Sathian recounts that this program resettled Buddhists from less fertile

Buddha on Mecca’s Verandah Simons Papers in Security and Development -

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rural communities that sympathy and support for violent resistance to This is due to their promotion of Thai identity and loyalty to the state through

308 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

male students studying in religious schools is twice that of female Table 1: Educational Choices among Muslims in Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat Age Gender Urban Rural No Information Not in school Religious School Private School Government School Urban 1% Rural 1% 3% Urban - Rural - 3% Urban 1% 11% Rural

Urban - 13% Rural - Urban 1% Rural 1%

Urban - 11% Rural -

Source: Adapted from Suwannarat 2011, 48–49

Children and Young People in Thailand’s Southernmost Provinces: UNICEF Situation Analysis

309 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

6. Concluding Comments impacted by the latest chapter of violence for a number of reasons. The not been my primary focus. Rather than lament my dearth of relevant - language loyalty may have been as worrying to central authorities as

310 Southern Thailand/Patani: Understanding the Dimensions of Conflict and Peace

identity groups. There is a need for more research about how young committed to.

311 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

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Southeast Asia: Politics, Meaning, and Memory Religions.” Numen Islam in Modern Thailand: Faith, Philanthropy and Politics Theory and Society Their Social Correlates in Two Southern Thai Costal Fishing The Buddha on Mecca’s Verandah: Encounters, Mobilities, and Histories along the Malaysian-Thai Border. Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies The Decorated Boats of Kelantan: An Essay on Symbolism The Indianized States of Southeast Asia Divided over Thaksin: Thailand’s Coup and Problematic Transition Whose Place Is This? Malay Rubber Producers and

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Beyond Hindu and Muslim: Multiple Identity in Narratives from Village India Religion, Science, and Empire: Classifying Hinduism and Islam in British India Regions and National Integration in Thailand, 1892–1992 Dynamic Diversity in South Thailand Class, Culture and Space. The Construction and Shaping of Communal Space in South Thailand Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia Thai South and Malay North: Ethnic Interactions on a Plural Peninsula Journal of Southeast Asian

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317 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

Living on the Margins: Minorities and Borderlines in Cambodia and Southeast Asia Fighting Words: Language Policy and Ethnic Relations in Asia Medi- eval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia Merit and Blessing in Mainland Southeast Asia in Comparative Perspec- tive - Asian Folklore Studies The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics Journal of Asian History

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319 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

Journal of Southeast Asian Studies Village.” Simons Papers in Security and Development The Shadow Puppet Theatre of Malaysia: A Study of Wayang Kulit with Performance Scripts and Puppet Designs. Separatism: The Case of Satun Province in Southern Thailand.” Small Wars and Insurgencies Autonomy and Armed Separatism in South and Southeast Asia Pew Research Center. Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population The Global Religious Landscape

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321 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

Ethnopolitics Jurnal Teknologi Jurnal Teknologi Jurnal Alam Bina The Landscape of Qualitative Research: Theories and Issues Numen The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia Structure.” Man The Muslim World Common Ground between Islam and Buddhism

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Studies The Lost Territories: Thailand’s History of National Humiliation Dynamic Diversity in Southern Thailand. Children and Young People in Thailand’s Southernmost Provinces: UNICEF Situation Analysis Thailand’s Durable Premier: Phibun through Three Decades, 1932–1957 Journal of Southeast Asian Studies Malay Shadow Puppets: The Wayang Siam of Kelantan History of the Malay Kingdom of Patani. Translated Burmese Lives: Ordinary Life Stories under the Burmese Regime Ethnic and Racial Studies Hikayat Patani: The Story of Patani Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia

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and Sino-Thai Challenges.” Asian Ethnicity Cultural Crisis and Social Memory: Modernity and Identity in Thailand and Laos A Study of the Evolution of the Malay Language: Social Change and Cognitive Development Identity and Ethnic Relations in Southeast Asia: Racializing Chineseness Alternate Identities: The Chinese of Contemporary Thailand State.” E-International Relations, Students. Islamic Connections: Muslim Societies in South and Southeast Asia We Love Mr King: Malay Muslims of Southern Thailand in the Wake of the Unrest

325 Chapter 6 Comparative Perspectives on Interethnic and Interreligious Dynamics in South Thailand and Beyond

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