The Mechanic's Companion, Or, the Elements and Practice of Carpentry, Joinery, Bricklaying, Masonry, Slating, Plastering, Pa

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NICHOLSON'S MECHANIC'S COMPANION.

: ;

OR, THE ELEMENTS AND PRACTICE

CARPENTRY, JOINERY, BRICKLAYING, MASONRY SLATING* PLASTERING, PAINTING, SMITHING, AND TURNING,

COMPREHENDING THE LATEST UPROVEMINTS

AND CONTAINING A FULL DESCRIPTION OP THE TOOLS

BELONGING TO EACH BRANCH OF BUSINESS;

WITH COPIOUS DIRECTIONS FOR THEIR USE. « AND AN EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS USED IN EACH ART

ALSO AN

Kntroiyuctfon to J^ractfcal ©feometrs.

BY PETER NICHOLSON.

lUustraUd with forty Copperplate Engravings.

PHILABELPHIJi PUBLISHED BY JAMES LOCKEN, NO. 8 SOUTH FRONT STREET.

1832.

PREFACE.

MORE than a century has elapsed since an ingenious and useful work on the Arts connected with Building was published under the title of Mechanical Exercises, by the celebrated Joseph popular the Moxon: that it was both useful and various editions testify, and at this time it is become no scarce and rarely to be met with. I* can be disparagement to its ingenious author, to say that the progress of science, and the changes in matters of art have rendered the work obsolete and useless. Turning, It treated on Smithing, Joinery, Carpentry,

Bricklaying, and Dialling.

of Moxon and I have followed the excellent plan

first described the treated each art distinctly : I have

several tools belonging to each branch of business,

next the methods of performing the various manual vi PREFACE.

operations or exercises, to which they are applicable, these are further illustrated and explained by nume-

rous plates ; the descriptions are made as plain and

familiar as possible ; and there are few operations

but will be found fully and clearly explained : finally

to each is added an Index and extensive Glossary of

terms used by workmen in each art, with references

also to the plates : and it has been my endeavour

that the description with its definition should be

clear, and show the connection between the science

and the art, thereby producing a pleasing and lasting

eflfect upon the mind.

The arts treated of are as follow: Carpentry, Joinery, Bricklaying, Masonry, Slating, Plaster-

ing, Painting, Smithing, and Turning, the whole

preceded by a slight introduction to Practical

Geometry, and illustrated by forty copper-plates.

These exercises commence with those arts which work in wood, namely. Carpentry and Joinery which are much alike in their tools and modes of working :

then comes Bricklaying, which with Carpentry are

certainly the most essential of all in the construction of a building. PREFACE. vii

Masonry and Bricklaying are in reality branches of the same art, and both founded upon principles truly Geometrical, yet I have given the precedence to Bricklaying, because it is of the most general use in this country it ; yet is generally admitted, that

Masonry is the more dignified art of the two, or indeed of all the arts concerned in the formation of an edifice. On that difficult and intricate subject, the Theory of Arches, I have endeavoured to give a familiar, and I hope a satisfactory illustration.

Slating comes next to cover in the building: then

Plastering, which is used in the finishing of buildings, and furnishes the interior with elegant decorations, and conduces both to the health and comfort of the inhabitants : Painting is not less useful than ornamental; it adds to the elegance of buildings, and tends to the preservation of the materials, whether wood or plaster.

Smithing or Smithry is extensively useful in almost every department of art as well as building; by it are made the tools which perform all the operations of the before mentioned arts, and therefore, though last, should not be least in our esteem. The use of ;

viii PREFACE. iron has also of late years been very much extended in wheels for machinery, Iron Bridges, Rail roads,

Boats, Roofs, Floors, and various other articles not necessary to enumerate here.

Turning is a curious Mechanical Exercise, and though not absolutely necessary in building, may be employed with advantage in many of its decorations.

In this article I have given a legitimate definition of elliptic turning, by which, its principles are deduced to be that of the ellipsegraph or common trammel, and this without entering into further demonstration.

This art is illustrated by plates, showing the princi-

ples of the machines, as well as by views of the

machines and tools

As the practice of the arts here treated of, is

founded in Geometry, and as the descriptions of

the materials and of the tools may be referred to the

several figures of that science, I have prefixed to the (he work such definitions as are necessary to

comprehension of any drawing or design, which is

to be executed, accompanied by many useful pro-

blems, which will enable the mechanic to understand

the configuration of its several parts in practice. PREFACE. ix and to perform many useful problems upon true scientific principles. The problems for setting out work upon the ground, and those for reducing drawings to any scale or proportion, even without knowing the scale of the original drawing, will be found interesting, and very useful in practice.

This work, which treats of the first rudiments of practice, will be found particularly interesting and useful to gentlemen who practise, or are fond of the mechanical exercises, and to young men or appren- tices in any of the professions, though, on some occasions, the older workmen may be benefitted by a perusal. The terms introduced are those in general use amongst workmen in London : and on this account it will be of essential service to young men coming to the metropolis. An art cannot be taught but by its proper terms. Other branches of art might have been introduced into this work, but those here treated of are intimately connected with each other, and have a natural afl[inity, and will, it is presumed, form upon the whole, a very interesting

work to young mechanics j those who wish for further information in the building art, and particularly

B X PREFACE. on what relates to Geometrical Construction, may consult my other publications on Practical Carpentry.

Every art is improved by the emulation of its competitors : it is therefore the ardent hope of the author that the reader may not be disappointed of meeting with abundance of that information which his mind may be desirous to obtain.

PETER NICHOLSON. PRACTICAL, GEOMETRY.

is GEOMETRY the science of extension and magnitude : by

Geometry the various angles of a building and the position of its sides are determined, as a square, a cube, a triangle, &c. : Boards and all Tools used by the Carpenter and Joiner are geometrical constructions : by Geometry all kinds of roofs and various other things laying in oblique angles are determined : the proper construction of all sorts of arches and groins depend entirely upon the principles of Geometry. I have, therefore, prefaced this work with an explanation and definition of such geometrical figures as will frequently occur in carrying on of works, and which are therefore necessary to be well known by all artizans and workmen, as well as by those who may superintend them: this slight introduction to Geometry will also be useful to all persons who wish to understand the practice and descriptions of the handy, works herein explained.

Geometry is the science of extension, and magnitude, and consists of theory and practice. The theoretical part is founded upon the reasoning of self- evident principles ; it demonstrates the construction, and shows the properties of regularly defined figures. The theory is the fisindation of the practical part ; and without a knowledge of it, no invention to any degree certain can be made. The use of Geometry is not confined only to speculative truths in Mathematics, ;

12 GEOMETRY.

but the operations of mechanical arts owe their perfection to it drawing and setting out every description of work, are entirely

dependent upon it.

DEFINITIONS.

1. A point is that which has position, but not magnitude.

2. A line is the trace of a point, or that which would be described by the progressive motion of a point, and consequently has length only. 3. A superfices has length and breadth.

4. A solid is a figure of three dimensions, having length,

breadth, and thickness. Hence surfaces are extremities of solids, and lines the extremities of surfaces, and points the extremities of

lines. If two lines will always coincide, however applied, when any

two points in the one coincides with the two points in the other,

the two lines are called straight lines, or otherwise right lines.

A curve continually changes its direction between its extreme points, or has no part straight.

Parallel lines are always at the same distance, and will never meet, though ever so far produced. Oblique right lines change

their distance, and would meet if produced.

One line is perpendicular to another, when it inclines no more

to one side than another.

A straight line is a tangent to a circle, when it touches the circle without cutting when both are produced.

An angle is the inclination of two lines towards one anotlier in the same plane, meeting in a point.

Angles are either right, acute, or oblique.

A right angle is that which is made by one line perpendicular

to another, or when the angles on each side are equal.

An acute angle is less than a right angle.

An obtuse angle is greater than a right angle. GEOMETRY. 13

Une will every where A plane is a surface with which a straight called a straight surface. coincide : and is otherwise according to Plane figures, bounded by right lines, have names angles, for they have as the number of their sides, or of their number is three. many sides as angles : the least are equal. An equilateral triangle is that whose three sides unequal. An isosceles triangle has only two sides A scalene triangle has all sides unequal. A right-angle triangle has only one right angle. acute. Other triangles are oblique-angled, and are either obtuse or An acute-angled triangle has all its angles acute. An obtuse-angled triangle has one obtuse angle. or A figure of four sides, or angles, is called a quadrilateral, quadrangle. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral, which has both pairs of its opposite sides parallel, and takes the following particular names:

A rectangle is a parallelogram, having all its angles right ones. A square is an equilateral rectangle, having all its sides equal,

and all its angles right ones. A rhombus is an equilateral parallelogram whose angles aro oblique.

A rhomboid is an oblique-angled parallelogram, and its opposite sides only are equal.

A trapezium is a quadrilateral, which has neither pair of its sides parallel. A trapezoid hath only one pair of its opposite sides parallel. Plane figures having more than four sides, are in general called the polygons, and receive other particular names according to number of their sides or angles. of six sides, A pentagon is a polygon of five sides, a hexagon decagon a heptagon seven, an octagon eight, an eneagon nine, a sides. ten, an undecagon eleven, and a dodecagon twelve angles equal and A regular polygon has all its sides, and its ;

if they are not equal, the polygon is irregular. sides, An equilateral triangle is also a regular figure of three 11 GEOMETRY.

and a square is one ofthe four ; the former being called a trigon, and the latter a tetragon.

A circle is a plane figure, bounded by a curve line, called the

circumference, which is every where equi-distant, from a certain

point within, called its centre.

The radius of a circle is a right line drawn from the centre to the circumference.

A diameter of a circle is a right line, drawn through the centre terminating on both sides of the circumference

An arc of a circle is any part of the circumference.

A chord is a right line joining the extremities of an arc.

A segment is any part of a circle bounded by an arc and its chord. A semicircle is half a circle, or a segment cut ofTby the diameter. A sector, is any part of a circle bounded by an arc, and two

radii, drawn to its extremities.

A quadrant, or quarter of a circle, is a sector having a quarter

part of the circumference for its arc, and the two radii perpendicular to each other.

The height or altitude of any figure is a perpendicular, let fall

from an angle or its vertex, to the opposite side, called the base.

The measure of any right lined angle, is an arc of any circle contained between the two lines wh'ch form the angle, the angular point being the centre.

A solid is said to be cut by a plane, when it is divided into two

parts, of which the common surface of separation is a plane, and this plane is called a section.

DEFINITIONS OF SOLIDS.

A prism is a solid, the ends of which are similar, and equal parallel planes, and the sides parallek grams.

If the ends of the prism are perpendicular to the sides, the prism is called a right prism. GEOMETRY. 15

If the ends of the prism are oblique to the sides, the prism is called an oblique prism.

If the ends and sides are equal squares, the prism is called a cube.

If the base or ends are parallelograms, the solid is called a parallelepiped.

If the bases and sides are rectangles, the prism is called a rectangular prism.

If the ends are circles, the prism is called a cylinder.

If the ends or bases are ellipsis, the piism is called a cylindroid.

A solid, standing upon any plane figure for its base, the sides of which are plane triangles, meeting in one point, is called a pyramid.

The solid is denominated from its base, as a triangular pyramid is one upon a triangular base, a square pyramid one upon a square base, &;c<,

If the base is a circle or an ellipsis, then the pyramid is called a cone.

If a solid be terminated by two dissimilar parallel planes as ends, and the remaining surfaces joining the ends be also planes, the solid is called a prismoid.

If a part of a pyramid next to the vertex be cut off by a plane parallel to the base, the portion of the pyramid contained between the cutting plane and the base is called the frustum of a pyramid.

A solid, the base of which is a rectangle, the four sides joining the base plane surfaces, and two opposite ones meet in a line parallel to the base, is called a cuneus or wedge.

A solid terminated by a surface which is every where equally distant, from a certain point within it, is called a sphere or globe. If a sphere be cut by any two planes, the portion contained between the planes is called a zone, and each of the parts contained by a plane and the curved surface is called a segment.

If a semi-ellipsis, having an axis for its diameter, be revolved round this axis until it come to the place whence the motion began, the solid formed by the circumvolution is called a spheroid.

If the spheroid be generated round the greater axis, the solid is called an oblong spheroid. 16 GEOMETRY.

If the solid be generated round the lesser axis, the solid is called an oblate spheroid. A solid of any of the above structures, hollow within, so as to contain a solid of the same structure, is called a hollow solid.

PLATE I.

A an acute angle. B two lines inclined, and would meet and form an angle if produced. C a perpendicular c d is said to be perpendicular to a h, and the angles c d a, cb d axe both right angles.

at point when this is the case, D several angles meeting a ; each is denoted by three letters, the right angle is the criterion of judging of every other angle ; db c is a right angle, a & c an obtuse angle, e & c an acute angle. E a right angle. F an acute angle, being less than a right angle G an obtuse angle, being greater than a right angle.

H, I, K, L triangles. H an equilateral triangle all the three sides a b, b c, c a being equal.

I an isosceles triangle, a b and b c being only equal.

K a scalene triangle, all the sides being unequal. L a right angled triangle. M, N, O, P, Q, R quadrilaterals or quadrangles, M N 0 P square; are parallelograms; M N rectangles ; M an oblong; N a

; trapezoid. O a rhomboid ; P a rhombus ; Q a trapezium and R a T, U,V polygons, T a pentagon, U a hexagon, and V an octagon. W a circle, a the centre, b a point in the circumference, aba. radius. X a circle, c the centre, d and e points in the circumference,

in circumference,

C 1, D 1 sectors, D 1 a quadrant, c a, cb radii at right angles, a b arc.

E 1 a triangle, ab, b d, da the sides, a b the base, d c a perpendicular to the base called the altitude.

PLATE II.

Fig. 1, 2, 3, 4 are all parallelepipeds and consist of six sides ; when two opposite sides are perpenc(icular to the other four, the

parallelopiped is denominated a rectangular prism, and if the four sides be equal rectangles, the prism is called a square prism as

fig. 1,2; and if all the four sides are equal squares, the prism is called a cube, as fig. 1. The reason why called a parallelopiped

is because each pair of opposite sides are parallel planes. The

structure of a rectangular prism occurs more frequently in the practice of carpentry and joinery than any other form whatever,

all timbers and boards for the use of building are cut into this

form. Doors, shutters, &;c. are thin rectangular prisms, as fig. 4.

Fig. 5 is a cylinder.

Fig. 6 a hollow cylinder. Fig. the 7 section of a cylinder cut off by a plane parallel to the axis.

Fig. 8 the sector of a cylinder contained by two planes forming an angle, and the curved surface of the cylinder ; the line of con-

course of the planes being parallel to the axis of th'6 cylinder.

Fig. 9 a prisraoid ; the ends of chisels which contain the

cutting part is of this form.

Fig. 10 a wedge ; the end of a chisel contained by the face

and the basil are of this form. 18 GEOMETRY.

Fig. 11a square pyramid.

Fig. 12 an octagonal pyramid inverted Fig. 13 a cone.

Fig. 14 inverted hollow cone. Fig. 15 a sphere.

Fig. 16 a spheroid.

Prob. I. From a given point in a given straigU line, to erect a

"perpendicular. Pl. 3. Fig. i.

Let F F be the given straight line, and C the given point. Take any two equal distances C a and C 6 on each side of the point C from the points a and : h with any equal radii greater than C a or C 5, describe arcs cutting each other in D. Draw D C and it will be the perpendicular required.

Pbob. II. To hi fall a perpendicular from a given point to a given

straight line. Pl. 3. Fig. 2.

Let C be the given point and E F the given straight line. From the point describe C an arc cutttng E F at a and b. With any equal radii greater than the half of a & describe arcs cutting each other at D. Draw C D and it will be the perpendicular required.

Prob. m. When the point is at or near the end of the line.

MetJiodfirst, Pl. 3. Fig. 3.

Let be C the given point, E F the given line. In E F take any point a and with the radius a C describe an arc C D. Take any other point & in E F, and with the distance h C describe an arc, cutting the arc C D, at C and D, draw C D and it is the perpendicular required GEOMETRY. 19

Prob. IV. To draw a perpendicular from a point at the end of a

line. Pi. 3. Fig. 4.

Let E F be the given straight line, and F the given point. Take any point a above the line and with the radius a C describe an arc C F & cutting E F at 5. Draw b aC; then draw C F and it will be the perpendicular required.

Pbob. v. To bisect a straiglit line. Pr. 3. Fig. 5.

Lot E F be the given straight line. From E and F as centres,

and with any distance greater than the half of E F as radii, describe two arcs cutting each other at A and B. Draw A B

cutting E F at C, then E F is bisected in C.

Prob. vi. To bisect a given angle. Pl. 3. Fig. 6.

Let E F G be the given angle. From the point F describe an

arc a b cutting F E and F G at the points a and b, also from the

points a and b, with the same radius, or any other equal radii,

describe arcs cutting each other in C. Draw F C and it will be-

sect the angle as required. That is, the angle E F G is divided

into two equal angles E F C and CFG.

Prob. vn. To make an angle equal to a given angle. Pi. 3. Fig. 7 and 8.

Let E F G be the given angle. Draw the straight line H L From the point F describe an arc a b cutting E F and F G at

the points a and b. From H as a centre, with the same radius,

describe an arc c d cutting H I at c. Make c d equal to a b. Draw RdG and the angle I H G is equal to E F G. as required. ;

20 GEOMETRY.

Prob. VIII. Through a given point to draw a line parallel to a

given right line. Pl. 3. Fig. 9.

Let A B be the given right line, and D the given point. Draw any right Hne DA; in A B take any point c and make the angle B c E equal to the angle BAD, make c equal E to A D ; draw D E, then D E is parallel to A B.

Prob. ix. To draw a line parallel to another line at a given distance. Pt. 3. Fig. 10.

Let A B be the given right line, C the given distance from any two points in A B, as A and B as centres describe two arcs dYLe

and fig. Draw II I to touch the arcs at the points H and I and H I is parallel to A B and at a given distance C.

Prob. x. Three straight lines, of which any two are greater than the third, being given to describe a triangle, the sides of which will he respectively equal to the three given lines. Pl. 3. Fig. 11.

Let the three straight lines be A B C : Make D E equal to C, from D as a centre with the distance of B describe an arc at F, From E as a centre with the distance A describe another arc, cutting the former at F. Join F D and F E ; and D E F is the triangle required.

Prob. xi. The side of an equilateral triangle being given to describe

the triangle. Pl. 4. Fig. 1.

Let A be the given side. Place A upon any straight line B C and with the same extent from the points B and C as centres GEOMETRY. 21

describe arcs, cutting each other in D. Join D B and D C, and

B C D is the equilateral triangle required.

Prob. XII. To describe a square, ike sides of which shall he equal to a given right line. Pl. 4. Fig. 2.

Let A be the given right line, which place upon any straight line B C. Make the angle C B E a right angle, and B E equal to B C through the points E and C. Draw E D and D C paral-

lei to B C, and B E, and B C D E is the square required.

Prob. xiii. To describe a hexagon, the sides of which shall he

equal to a given line. Pl. 4. Fig. 3.

Let A. be the given line, which place upon any straight line B C. From the points B and C, with the distance B C describe arcs cutting each other at L With the distance I B or I C describe the circle B C D E F G, then apply the side B C successively to the circumference as chords, the circumference will be divided into equal parts, and the hexagon formed as required.

Prob. xiv. To describe any regular polygon, the sides of which shall he equal to a given line. Pl. 4. Fig. 4.

Set the given line upon any other convenient line, and with a radius equal to the given line, describe a semicircle upon this line.

Divide the semicircle into as many equal parts as are to be sides in the polygon ; then the half of the diameter is one side of the polygon, through the centre of the semicircle, and through the second division from the other end of the diameter draw another right line, which will form an adjoining side to the former ; bisect 22 GEOMETRY.

Bach of these adjoining sides by perpendiculars, and the meeting of these perpendiculars will give the centre of a circle, which will contain the straight line given.

Fig. 4 is an example of a pentagon.

Fig. 5 is an example of a hexagon.

Fig. 6 is an example of an eneagon.

Pkob. XV. To inscribe a polygon in a given circle. Pl. 4. Fig. 7, 8.

Draw the diameter of the circle, and another diameter at right

angles, produce this last diameter so that the part produced shall

be three quarters of the radius ; divide the first diameter into as

many equal parts as the polygon is to consist of sides : through

the second division, and the extremity of the part produced of the

other diameter, draw a line to cut the circumference without

the points, the chord of the arc intercepted between the point

in the circumference thus found and the diameter, applied

successively to the arc, as other chords will form the polygon

required. Fig. 7 example in a pentagon, Fig. 8 example in an octagon.

Prob. XVI. A square being given to form an octagon, of whichfour of the sides at right angles to each other, shall be common to the middle parts of the sides of tJie square. Pl. 4. Fig. 9.

Let I G K L be the square given. Draw the diagonals I K

and G L cutting each other at m ; from the centres I, G, K, L

and with the radius I m, or G m, &c. describe arcs G B, A m

D, C m F, E ?ra H cutting the sides of the square, at A, B, C, D, E, F, G, join B C, D E, F G, H A and A B C D E F G H H ;

will be the polygon as required. GEOMETRY. 23

Prob. XVII. In a given circle to inscribe a hexagon or an equaliteral. Pi-. 4. Fig. 10.

Apply the radius successively as chords A B, B C, C D E, D E F, F A, and A B C D E F A will be the hexagon. From A with the radius A B or A F describe the arc B F. Join the chord B F. Make B D equal to B F; and join D F and B F D is the equilateral triangle required.

Prob. xviii. In a given circle to inscribe a square or an octagon. Pl. 4. Fig. 11.

Let A B C D E F G H A be the circle. Draw the diameters A E and C G at right angles. Join A C, C E, E G, G A and A C E G A will be the square required. Bisect any two adjacent angles by diameters, and the whole circumference will be divided into eight equal parts, A B B C C D, D E, E F, F G, G H, H A ; the chords of which being joined will form the octagon A E C D E F G H A as ret quired.

Prob. xix. In a given circle to inscribe a pentagon. Pl. 4. Fig. 12.

Let A B C D E A be the given circle. Draw the diameters A/ and ^ at right angles, cutting ^ each other in the centre at I: bisect I at i: from i as a centre, g with the distance i A, describe an arc A k cutting h at Jc : from as g A a centre, with A A; as a radius, describe an arc k E, cutting the circumference at E : join A E, then apply A successively E to the circumference as chords, and A B C D E will be the pentagon required. 24 GEOMETRY. PRACTICAL PROBLEMS PERFORMED ON THE GROUND.

given point to a right Pkob. I. To erect a perpendicular from a C

line A B, by means of a Tape or String. Pl. 5. Fig. i.

Take two equal distances C A and C B, extend the tape to any length greater than A B, double it, put a pin in the meeting, open place one end of the double distance, or the ring at out the tape ; and a third A, and let another person hold the other end at B, person take hold of the string at the pin, and stretch it out to D, then the stake at D and the point C will be in a perpendicular to A B. To illustrate this, suppose C A, C B each ten feet, then A you may extend the line to forty feet, which B is twenty feet ; being doubled, the division will fall upon twenty feet, let the ring be put upon A, the divison of forty upon B; let the division of twenty feet in the middle of the line be extended out to D, while

the ends A and B are held fast : then drive in the stake D, and it

will give the point whence the perpendicular may be drawn to C, upon the right line A B. N. B. Though three persons are mentioned here, one may accomplish the business by slicking an arrow in at A, and hooking cross draughts, and the ring over it ; then take a stake with two cross drive it in at B, hook the line at forty feet round two of the draughts, then extend the middle at twenty as before.

end a right Prob. II. To erect a perpendicular at or near the of

line, A B, hy means of a Tape. Pl. 5. Fig. 2.

Take any distance D B (say ten feet) extend the tape to aj^y greater length, (say twenty feet,) fasten the ring at D, and the other

end (twenty) at B, lay hold of the middle (at ten) and stretch it out

to C, carry the end of the tape B round to E, until the point E be

in a straight line with C and D, keeping C and D ftist, and the string GEOMETRY. 25 completely stretched, drive in a stake or pin at E, then shall the points B and E be in a straight line, perpendicular to A B as required.

Pbob. in. Anotlier raeihod by the Tape. Pl. 5. Fig. 3.

Suppose the perpendicular erected upon B C from B. Take the numbers 3, 4, and 5, or any multiple of these numbers, say,

6, 8, and 10 ; then 6 and 8 make 14, and 10 make 24 ; make B C six feet, put an arrow in at C, on which hook the ring of the

tape; and fasten the division six feet at B and twenty-four feet

again at C lay hold of the line the division fourteen feet, ; on which carry to the point A, until both parts of the line become

stretched, and the points A and B will be in a perpendicular to BC.

The same Figure.

To do the same thing by means of a jive foot rod. Make B c three feet, with four feet; and the end of the rod resting

on B, describe an arc at A, with five feet, and the end of the

rod resting on C, describe another arc crossing the former at

A ; then shall the points A and B be in a line perpendicular toB C.

Prob. rv. To describe the segment of a circle to any length. A B and perpendicular height C D. Pl. 5. Fig. 4.

Take the middle of A B at C : fix the angle of the square at C, direct the outer edge of the stock in the straight line A B, lay a rule upon the outer edge of the blade, and draw the perpendi-

cular D C F. In the same manner take the middle of (he Vn\Q D 26 GEOMETRY

A D at E, and draw the perpendicular E F, the meeting F of the two perpendiculars will give the centre of the segment : take a slip of wood, and mark the distance D F from one end, put a brad- awl or nail through the rod at the mark, and through the point F,

lay hold of the other end of the rod at D, and with a pencil at D,

carry it round from A to B, pressing the pencil gently to the plane, and the point will describe the arc A B D.

N. B. Segments of circles are generally described upon a floor: but when this cannot be conveniently obtained, a temporary rough

boarding is laid, which wiil be sufficient for brick or stone arches;

but if the arc to be drawn is for joinery, and where different pieces

of wood are to be fitted, the surface would require to be traversed and straightened in length and breadth. The foregoing method may be readily applied where the space

is unlimited, or the radius of a moderate length : when the radius is very great, so that a rod of sufficient length cannot be obtained,

and where there is sufficient room, a wire may be used for a

radius instead of a string, which cannot be depended upon in such

cases, being liable to stretch ; but if you have an arc to describe, and are confined to limits, which the radius would exceed, the

most eligible method will be as follows :

Fig. 5. Let A, B, C be any three points whatever, it is required

to draw the arc of a circle through them without making use of the centre.

Prepare two rods, each having one of its edges straight, and each at least equal to A C the chord lay the edge ; ofone of the rods close to the points A and B, having one end at B lay ; the straight edge of the other rod to coincide with the points B

and C, having the one end also at B ; notch and fix the rods

together at B, and to keep the angle invariable nail a strip F G across the legs B D and B H; move the whole round, keeping the

edge of the rod B D close upon the nail, pin, or brad-awl at A, and

the other leg B E close to the nail, pin, or brad-awl at C ; a pencil placed at their meeting B pressing the point gently to the surface, will describe the arc required. GEOMETRY. 27

Prob. v. To describe a semi-elliptic arch to any length A B and height C D with a pair of compasses. Pl. 5. Fig. 6.

Take the height C D and apply to the length from B to E towards the centre ; divide the distance E C into three equal parts, set one of them towards B from E to F. Make C G equal to C F, and with the distance G F from G describe a small arc at H, and with the same distance from F describe another cutting the former arc

H. Draw H G I and H F K. From the centre H with the distance H D describe the arc I K. From the centre G with the distance G I describe the arc I A. From the centre F with the same distance, or F B describe the arc K B, then A I D K B will be the semi-ellipse required.

N. B. This is a mere representation, and cannot be true ; for

no part of a circle is to be found in the mathematical ellipse, since

the curvature is continually varying from one axis to the other. It

is always lame at the junctions, and is only a makeshift, for want of

better means. The following method by the trammel is correct, being derived from geometrical principles.

Fig. 7. The instrument called the trammel, consists of two pieces

of wood joined together at right angles, with agroovein the middle

of each; the trammel rod is a square bar with three points, or pins,

made exactly to fill the gjooves, and to slide easily in them, so that two of the pins must be made moveable, and to be always in a

straight line with the third, which maybe a pencil passing through

a hole. The machine is thus prepared : set the first pin from

the pencil to the height, and the second from the pencil to half the

length, then put the pins in the grooves, which being fixed upon

the axis, move the point B round from A to B, and describe the

curve A B C D, it will be the true ellipse required.

Prob. vi. Any three straight lines being given to find a fourth

proportional. Pl. 6. Fig. 1.

Let C A, A E be any two straight lines forming an angle. 28 GEOMETRY.

Make A B equal to the first of the given lines, A C equal to the second, A D equal to the third. Join B D, and draw C E parallel to B D, cutting A E produced at E. Then will A E, be a fourth proportional to A B, A C, A D, or A B, A C, A D, A E.

Pkob. vn. To divide a line in tJie same proportion as another is

divided. Pl. 6. Fig. 2.

Let A E be the given line, divided into the parts A B, B C,

C D, D E and A 1, the line to be divided, forming any angle

with A B. Join £ I, and draw B F, C G, and D H, parallel to E I, cutting A 1 at F G H, then the parts A F, F G, G H,

I, will H be to one another, or to the whole line A I, as the

par.t3 A B, B C, C D, D E, are to one another, or to the whole line A E.

pROB. vin. Any distance being given in feet and inches, of a part one drawing of to divide a given length of a similar part of another drawing into feet and inches, so as to form a proportional scale. Pl. 6. Fig. 3.

Let A B represent 57 feet 2 inches, the length of one drawing, the part between 40 and A being 7 feet 2 inches, then the distance between 40 and B will contain 50 feet ; and let C B be the length of another drawing, either of greater or less extent than the former, it is required to find the scale of the new drawing. Join A ; C draw : 0, 0 10 10 : 20, 20 : 30, 30 : 40, 40, parallel to A .C, cutting C B in 0 : 10, 20, 30, 40 ; then the distance of every two adjacent divisions will be 10 fee of the new scale. The first 10 feet may be sub-divided into feet, by divisions parallel lines in the same manner, and by this means the scale of a new drawing may be found, when the whole length, or any part, GEOMETRY. 29 and the scale of the original drawing, and the whole length, or any similar part of the required drawing are given.

Prob. IX. A drawing being given witlwut a scale to proportionate another, having the dimension or extent of some pari ofthe intended drawing. Pl. 6. Fig. 4.

Draw two lines A B, B C, forming any angle ABC with each other, as before, from the angular point ; on one of the lines B C set off the extent of the part of the required drawing, from Bto C; from the same point B set the extent of the corresponding part of the other drawing, from B to A on the other line, and join A C. Make A B a scale of any number of divisions, as five, divide B C in the same proportion ; sub-divide one of the extreme parts of A B into tenths, find the proportionate tenth of the corresponding part for the original drawing, and of B C ; then will A B be a scale B C a corresponding scale for the required drawing.

Example, Figures 5, 6, 7.

Suppose A B C D A to be an original drawing, as a plale for a book, and to be of greater length or height than the page will admit of: then let the given height be E H, construct two proportional scales, fig. 7, as described in this problem, then all the dimensions and distances of the diagrams of fig. 6. will easily be proportioned to the corresponding dimensions and distances of the diagrams, fig. 5. A very accurate method, where any of the diagrams are very oblique, is to produce the sides to the boundary lines in the original drawing, then finding the corresponding points in the boundary lines of the required drawing, and by this means the angles of position may be had with the greatest correctness. In :

30 GEOMETRY. circles, the position of their centres must be found by measuring from the corresponding boundaries, and then their radii from the respective scales. Parallel lines may be drawn by the parallel ruler.

Prob. X. To draw a diagonal scale.

Suppose A B to be a scale agreed upon, consisting of 50 feet, the divisions separating each two adjacent 10 feet, being 0, 10, 20, SO. Draw the parallel lines AC, . 0, . . 10, 10 . . 20, 20

30, 30 . . B D. Take any convenient opening of the compass,

run ten parts from A to C, and from B to D, through the divisions,

draw parallels ; then C D being numbered as A B : divide A 0 into 10 equal parts, and also C 0 ; from the points 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,

&o. in A B to the points : 3: 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. draw 0, 1 ; 1, 2 2,

3, 4, &c. By this means you may obtain the hundreth part of

the distance AO, or C 0, according to the parallel you measure

foot, upon ; thus, suppose you required 32 feet, and 4 tenths of a you must place the foot of your compass on the fourth division

from 30, on the line A B, in the vertical line 30, 30, and extend the

other leg along the fourth parallel, till it fall upon the diagonal 2,

3, and this extent will be equal to 32.4 feet, and thus any extent whatever may be found. Draftsmen seldom or never make use of a diagonal scale, as

persons in the habit of drawing, will judge of any small part

as nearly hy the eye, as if measured by the best divided diagonal

scale, at least without the assistance of a glass ; and thus employ-

ing a common scale will be a great saving of time. However, in

the solution of a mathematical problem in mensuration, it may be

applied with advantage where time would be of less consideration,

in order to obtain the accuracy desired, or to confirm the truth of a calculation. CARPENTRY.

§ 1. Cakpentey in civil architecture, is the art of employing timber in the construction of buildings.

The first operation of dividing a piece of timber into scantlings,

or boards, by means of the pit saw, belongs to sawing, and is

previous to any thing done in carpentry.

§ 2. The tools employed by the carpenter are a ripping saw, a hand saw, an axe, an adze, a socket chisel, a firmer chisel, a

ripping chisel, an augur, a gimlet, a hammer, a mallet, a pair of pincers, and sometimes planes, but as these are not necessarily

used, they are described under the head of joinery, to which they are absolutely necessary.

§3 OF SAWS.

A saw IS a thin plate of steel, indented on the edge, so as to

form a series of wedges, with acute angles, and for the conveni-

ency of handling, a perforated piece of wood is fixed to one end, by means of which the utmost power of the workman may be

exerted in using it.

Saws have various names, according to their use. It is obvious,

in order that the saw should clear its way in the wood, that the

plate should decrease in thickness from the cutting edge towards :

32 CARPENTRY. the back, and for this purpose also, besides this additional thickness, most saws have their teeth bent towards the alternate sides of the plate, this must always be the case where the plate is broad in very narrow plates the cutting edge is made thicker than usual. Such saws as are not intended to cut into the wood their whole breadth, have strong iron or brass backs, in order to stiffen them, and keep them from buckling or bending; both external and internal angles of the teeth of saws are made to contain sixty

degrees, and the magnitude of the teeth is proportioned to the size

of the saw, and accommodated to its «se. Some saws are used for dividing the wood in the direction of the Pbre, and to any extent of distance exceeding the breadth

of the plate, at pleasure ; others are only employed in cutting in

a direction perpendicular to the fibres, to any breadth or thickness;

the former case requires the front edges of their teeth to stand

almost perpendicular to the line passing through their angles, in

order to cut through, or make a way through in less time than if

set backwards, which is better adapted to the latter case: for otherwise, the points of the teeth would run so deep into the

wood, as to prevent the workmen from pushing the saw forward

without breaking it. The saws commonly used by the carpenter,

are the ripping saw, and the hand saw ; which are particularly described under the head of joinery, as well as other saws used

in that branch.

§ 4. THE AXE

Is an edged tool, having a long wooden handle, for reducing timber to a given form or surface, by paring away slices of unequal thickness ; is used by a reciprocal motion in the arc of a circle, generally in a vertical plane, forming the surface always in the same plane, and has therefore its cutting edge in a longitudinal plane, passing through the handle ; the slices cut CARPENTRY. S3

away are called chips, the operation is called chopping, and the

surface reduced to its form is said to be chopped ; but among

woodmen the operation is called hewing.

§ 5. THE ADZE

Is also an edge tool with a long wooden handle for reducing

timber to a given form of surface, by paring away thin slices of

unequal thickness, by a reciprocal motion in the arc of a circle,

and in a vertical plane ; but its cutting edge is perpendicular to a

longitudinal plane passing through the handle. It forms a much

more regular and smooth surface than the axe. The operation is

also culled chopping.

The use of the adze is to chop and pare wood in a horizontal

position.

§ 6. THE SOCKET CHISEL

Is used for cutting excavations ; the lower part is a prismoid,

the sides of which taper in a small degree upwards, and the edges considerably downwards : one side consists of steel and the other wedj^e, of iron : the under end is ground into the form of a

forming the basil on the iron side, and the cutting edge on the lower end of the steel face. From the upper end of the prismoidal part rises the frustum of a hollow cone, increasing in diameter

upwards ; the cavity or socket contains a handle of wood of the same conic form : the axis of the handle, the hollow cone, and the middle line of the frustruni are all in the same straight line.

The socket chisel, most commonly used,, is about an inch and quarter or an inch and a half broad. It is chiefly used in mortising, and is the same in carpentry, as what the mortise chisel is in joinery. Nos. 3 &, 4. E ;

34 CARPENTRY.

§ 7. THE FIRMER CHISEL

Is formed in the lower part similar to the socket chisel ; but each of the edges above the prismoidal part falls into an equal concavity, and diminishes upwards, until the substance of the metal between the concave narrow surfaces, becomes equal in thickness to the substance of the metal between the other two sides, produced in a straight line, meet a protuberance projecting equally on each side : the upper part of the protuberance is afl at, or straight surface, from the middle of which rises a pyramid, to which is fastened a piece of wood in the form of a fruslrum of a pyramid, tapering downwards ; this piece of wood is called the handle : the middle line of the handle, of the pyramids of the con-

cave, and of the prismoidal parts, are all in the same straight line.

§ 8. THE RIPPING CHISEL

Is only an old socket chisel used in cutting holes in walls for

inserting plugs, and for separating wood that has been nailed together, &c.

§9. THE GIMLET

Is a piece of steel of a cylindric form, having a transverse han. die at the upper end, and at the other end a worm or screw ; and a cylindric cavity called the cup above the screw ; forming in

its transverse section, a crescent. Its use is to bore small holes

the screw draws it forward in the wood, in the act of boring, while

it is turned round by the handle ; the angle formed by the exterior

and interior cylinders, cuts the fibres across, and the cup contains the core of wood so cut : the gimlet is turned round by the application of the fingers, on alternate sides of the wooden lever at the top. CARPENTRY. 35

§ 10. THE AUGER

Is the largest of all boring tools, it has a wooden handle at the upper end at right angles, to a long shaft of iron and steel ; at the lower end is a worm or screw of a conic form, for entering the wood ; so far it is similar in construction to the gimlet : the lower part of the shaft, axis, or spindle is steel, and is of a pris- nioidal form, to a certaia distance, from the end upwards. The edges are nearly parallel, and the sides taper in a small degree

prismoid is arbitrary ; but upwards ; the part of the shaft above the it is obvious, that in order to pass the bore freely, its transverse dimensions must be less than the lower part. The worm has its

axis in the same straight line with the axis of the shaft. The

lower end is hollow, or cut into a cavity on one side of the cone, and forms a projecting edge on the narrow surface of the prism

called the tooth, which is brought to a cutting edge. The part of the lower end on the other side of the cone projects before the face of the prismoidal part in the form of a wedge, the

line of concourse of the two sides of the wedge forming a cutting

edge. The vertex of the cone is the greatest extremity of the

lower end ; the cutting edge of the tooth is something higher or

nearer to the handle, and the cutting edge of the wedge-like part

still nearer to the handle. Any point being given as the centre of a cylindric hole on the surface of a piece of timber, the vertex

of the conic screw is placed in that point ; then keeping the mid-

die line of the shaft perpendicular to, or at the inclination to be

given to the surface of the timber ; turn the auger round with both

hands, the screw will draw it downwards into the wood, and when

it has got a certain depth, the tooth will begin to cut a portion of

the cylindric surface of the hole : when the part of the cylindric

surface is cut half round the circumference, or perhaps a little more, the projecting wedge-like part will begin to cut out the

bottom, and the core will rise in the form of a spiral shaving, by

continuing to turn the handle. This construction of the auger is

of very late invention, and is certainly a great improvement.

The lower part of the old form of the auger is a semi-cylinder 86 CARPENTRY.

on the outside, and the inside a less portion of a larger cylinder,

the bottom of the cutting part is formed like a nose-bit : before

this auger can be entered in the wood, a cavity must be first made with a gouge.

§ 11. THE GAUGE

Is made out of a solid piece of wood notched with an internal

right angle, or consisting of two narrow planes perpendicular to

each other ; one of these straight surfaces forms a shoulder, the

other surface has two iron teeth placed in a perpendicular to

the intersection of the two surfaces, so distant from one another as to contain the thickness of the tenon, or breadth of the mortise, and the tooth next to the shoulder so far distant from the intersec tion, as the tenon is distant from the face. When you gauge, press the shoulder close to the wood, and the other surface of the gauge which contains the teeth, close to the other surface of the wood to be gauged ; then draw and pull it backwards and forwards, and the iron teeth will scratch the wood so as to make a sharp incision or cut. When carpenters have occasion to alter their gauge for other work, they either file away the old teeth and put in new ones ; or, if the distance between the old ones will answer, they cut away a parallel slice from the shoulder, or put a new piece on before it.

§ 12. THE LEVEL

Consists of a long rule, straight on one edge, about 10 or 12 feet in length, and another piece fixed to the other edge of the rule, perpendicular to, and in the middle of the length, and the sides of this piece in the same plane as the sides of the rule ; this last piece having a straight line on one side perpendicular to the straight edge of the rule. The standing piece is generally mor- ;

CARPENTRY. 37 tised into the other, and firmly braced on each side, in order to secure it from accidents, and has its upper end kerfed in three

places, one through the perpendicular line, and one on each side. The straight edge of the transverse piece has a hole or notch cut out on the under side equal on each side of the perpendicular lines.

A plummet is suspended by a string from the middle kerf at the top ofthe standing piece, so that when hanging at length, the bottom

of the plummet may not reach to the straight edge, but vibrate

freely in the hole or notch. When the straight edge of the

level is appUed to two distant points, and the two sides placed vertically, the plummet hanging freely, and coinciding with the

straight line on the standing piece, then these two points are level:

but if not, let us suppose that one of the points is at the given

height, the other point must be lowered or heightened according

as the case may require ; and the level applied each time, until the

thread is brought to a coincidence with the perpendicular line.

By two points, is meant two surfaces of contact, as two blocks of wood or chips, or the upper edges of two distant beams.

The use of the level in carpentry, is to lay the upper edges of joists in naked flooring horizontal, by first levelling two beams as

remote from each other as the length of the level will allow ; the

plummet may then be taken oflf, and the level may be used as a

straight edge. In the levelling of joists, it is best to make two

remote joists level first in themselves, that is, each throughout its

own length, then the two level with each other ; after this, bring one

end of the intermediate joists straight with the two levelled ones,

then the other end of the joists in the same manner, then try the

straight edge longitudinally on each intermediate joist, and such as

are found to be hollow, must be furred up straight.

§ 13. TO ADJUST THE LEVEL.

Place it in its vertical situation upon two pins or blocks of wood

then, if the plummet be hanging freely, and settle UDon the line on 38 CARPENTRY. the standing piece, or if not, one end being raised, or the other end lowered, to make it do so, turn the level end for end, and if the plummet fall upon the line, the level is just ; but if not, the bottom edge must be shot straight, and as much taken off the one end as you may think necessary; then trying the level first one way and then the other as before, and if a coincidence takes place between the thread and the line, the level is adjusted ; but if not, the operation must be repeated till it come true.

§ 14. THE PLUMB RULE

Is a prismatical piece of wood, with a line drawn down the middle of one of the sides, parallel to the two adjacent arrises on the same face. Its use is to try the vertical position of posts, or other work perpendicular to the horizon, by means of a plummet suspended from the upper end of the rule, and a notch cut out at the foot, in order to allow room for the plummet to vibrate freely.

In order to put up a post perpendicular to the horizon, place the bottom of the post in its situation, and the sides as nearly vertical

it fixed as the eye may direct ; if the post stands insulated, must be in this position with temporary braces, at least from two adjoining

all the four sides ; then try the plumb sides ; but if very heavy, from rule upon one side, and if the thread coincides with the line, that side of the post is already plumb, but if not, the top must be moved forwards or backwards, accordingly as it leans or hangs, as much as appears to be wanted, by previously moving the front and rear braces, and fixing them anew, while the other two remain, to stay the

if there be a other sides : apply the plumb rule again as before, and coincidence between the line and the plummet thread, then that face is perpendicular, but if not, the several similar operations must be repeated till found to be so. Proceed in the same manner with the other two parallel sides of the post, until they are made plumb, and by this means the post will be set in a true vertical position. :

CARPENTRY. 3

§ 15. THE HAMMER

Consists of a piece of steel, through which passes a wooden

handle perpendicularly ; the steel is flat at one end, or in a small degree convex. The use of the hammer is for driving nails into wood by percussive force. The other end of the hammer, that is not used for driving nails, is sometimes made with claws, and sometimes with a rounded edge, like a semi-cylinder. The claws are for laying fast hold of the head of a nail, to be drawn out of a piece of

wood ; for this purpose the back of the hammer is rounded, so that the hammer, in the act of drawing the nail, may not penetrate with its other extremity into the wood ; and this also lessens the distance of the force to be overcome from the fulcrum, and consequently increases the power employed. When the hammer is used, place the back of it upon the wood, and the claws so as to have the nail fast between them, lay hold of the handle and pull the contrary way to that side of it on which the nail is; then, if the force be sufficient, the nail will be drawn out of the wood, and the nail thus drawn will come out almost straight. Some people, instead of pulling the handle of the hammer the contrary way to the side on which the nail is on, (and thereby making it describe a circle in a plane, perpendicular to the surface of the wood, and through the longitudinal direction of the head,) turn the hammer sideways the nail is easier drawn by this way, but then the surface of the wood is more injured, as well as the nail, which is frequently so much bent as not to be of any more use. Claw hammers are chiefly used in the country ; and those with their other extremity rounded like a cylinder, are used in town for clinching and rivet- ting. In driving a nail, when the hammer comes in contact with the head of the nail, if the striking surface is not perpendicular to the shank of the nail, the nail will not be driven into the wood, or only in a small degree, but will be bent sideways towards an oblique angle, and will thus frequently break the nail, unless it be well entered, and so strong as to resist the force acting thus obliquely. The reader must here observe, that no force can act with its full effect upon another, unless in a line perpendicular to the surface of contact. 40 CARPENTRY.

§ 16. THE MALLET

Is similar in its construction to the hammer, but the head is a thick block of wood, of a structure in form of the frustum of a pyramid, the side of this frustum tending to some point in the handle continued. Ito use is for mortising and driving pins into wood. The object is struck by the narrov/ sides of the mallet.

§ 17. THE BEETLE OR MAUL

Is a large mallet to knock the corners of framed work, and to set it in its proper position, and is sometimes used for driving short piles into the ground, where it would be unnecessary to use greater power. The handle is about three feet in length, and for these heavy purposes both hands are employed. This is more used in the country than in London, where they use a sledge hammer for the same purpose.

§ 18. THE CROW

Is a large bar of iron, used as a lever to lift up the ends of heavy timber, in order to lay another piece of timber, or a roller, under it. One end of the crow has claws.

§ 19. THE TEN FOOT ROD

Is a rod about an inch square, divided in its length into feet and inches, for the purpose of setung out work. The method of raising a perpendicular by a ten foot rod, is described in the Practical

Geometry, page 25. Prob. hi. Instead of a ten foot rod, some use two five foot rods for the same purpose. CARPENTRY. 41

§ 20. HOOK PIN

Is a conical piece of iron, with a hooked head, declining up-

wards in the form of a wedge. The top is flat, for the purpose of

driving it down ; and the shoulder which rises from the cone, stands perpendicular to the axis, and is used for driving it out of a hole, when it is fixed fast. The hook pins are the same in carpentry, as what the draw bore pins are in joinery, viz. they are employed after the tenons have been entered in the mortise and bored, as shall be presently shown, in drawing the shoulders of the tenons home to their abutments in the mortise cheeks : when there are several mortises and tenons in the same frame, as many hook pins are employed. The method of boring, and using the hook pins, is thus: bore a hole first through the mortise cheeks, not very distant from the abutments ; enter the tenon, and force it home to its shoulders as near as you can ; mark the tenon by the hole, and draw the tenon out of the mortise. Then pierce a hole through the tenon, about one third of its diameter nearer to the shoulder, and enter the tenon again, bringing the shoulder as near to its abutment as possible ; drive in the hook pin with considerable force ; the convex circumference will bear upon alternate sides of the mortise and tenon, viz. upon the farther side of the hole of the tenon, and upon the nearest side of the mortise from the joint ; the shoulder of the tenon being brought home to its abutment, the hook pin may be drawn out of the hole ; for this purpose there is a hole through the upper part of it, by which it is

sometimes drawn out with another hook pin ; but if driven in very fast, it will require the assistance of a hammer to strike it upon the shoulder upwards, and two or three smart blows will soon loosen it ; when drawn out, enter the pin, and drive it home with force, or till it be sufficiently through and fast, so as not to be driven farther without breaking. F F 42 CARPENTRY.

§ 21. THE CARPENTER'S SQUARE

Is a square of which both stock and blade consists of an iron

plate of one piece ; it is in size and construction thus : one leg is eighteen inches in length, numbered from the exterior angle, the bottom of the figures are adjacent to the interior edge of the square, and consequently their tops to the exterior edge : the other leg is twelve inches in length, and numbered from the extremity

towards the angle ; the figures are read from the internal angle,

as in the other side ; each of the legs arc about an inch broad.

This implement is not only used as a square, but it is also used as a level, and likewise as a rule : its application as a square and as a rule is so easy as not to require any example : but its use as a

it level, in taking angles, may be thus illustrated ; suppose were required to take the angle which the heel of a rafter makes with

the back, apply the end of the short leg of the square to the heel point of the rafter, and the edge of the square, level across the

plate, extend a line from the ridge to the heel point, and where this line cuts the perpendicular leg of the square, mark the inches,

and this will show how far it deviates from the square in twelve inches.

§22. OPERATIONS.

Having now mentioned the principal tools, and their application,

it will here be proper to say something of the operations of Car-

pentry, which may be considered under two general heads ; one of individual pieces, the other the combination of two or more pieces. Individual pieces undergo various operations as sawing, planing, rebating, and grooving, or ploughing : the operation of the pit saw planing, rebating, is so well known as hardly to need a description ; grooving, or ploughing, are more frequently employed in Joinery, and will be there fully described. The other general head may be sub-divided into two others, viz. that of joining one piece ot timber to another, in order to make one, two, or four angles, the CARPENTRY. 43

other that of fastening two or more pieces together, in order to

form one piece, which could not be got sufficiently large or long in

a single piece ; there are two methods of joining pieces at an angle, one by notching, the other by mortise and tenon.

Notching is the most common and simple form that prevails in permanent works, and in some cases the strongest for joining two

pieces of timber together, at one, two, or four angles : the form of

the joint in this is varied according to the situation, the positions

of the sides of the pieces, the number of angles, the position of the pieces, and the quantity and direction of the force impressed

on one or both pieces, or according to any combination of those

circumstances. The most useful are the following.

§ 23. To join two pieces which are to form four angles, and the surfaces of one piece are both parallel and perpendicular to those of (lie other.

A notch may be cut out of one piece, the breadth of the other, which may be let down on the first piece, or the two pieces may be reciprocally notch ed to each other, and for furth-er security, nails, spikes, or pins, may be driven through both : this form is applicable where each of the pieces are equally exposed to strain in any direction : when one piece has to support the other transversely, the upper piece may have a notch cut across it to a

breadth ; suppose two-thirds of the thickness of the piece below, and the lower piece must have an equal notch cut out on each upper arris, leaving two-thirds of the breadth of the middle entire, by which the strength of the supporting, or lower piece, is less diminished than if a notch of much less depth had been cut the whole breadth : this mode is applicable to carcass roofing, in letting the purloins down upon the principal rafters, and the common rafters again upon these ; also in carcass flooring, it is employed in letting down the bridging joists upon the binding joists. :

44 CARPENTRY.

^ 24. To join one piece of Timber to another, to form two right angles with each other, and the surfaces of the one to he parallel

and perpendicular to those of the other, and to he quite immoveable, when the standing piece is pulled in a direction of its length, while

the cross piece is held still.

Dovetail the end of the perpendicular piece, that is, form it like

a truncated isosceles triangle, the wide part being on the extremity,

make a corresponding reverse in the other, and if both these pieces

be horizontal, and the former laid upon the latter, they will answer

the intended purpose without the addition of nails, spikes, or pins

in this mode, if the timber is not sufficiently seasoned, the perpendicular piece may be drawn out of the transverse piece, to a certain

distance, according to the degree of shrinking.

§ 25. Another mode,

Which prevents the perpendicular piece from being drawn out

of the transverse piece, allowing that the timber should shrink, is to

notch the transverse piece, so as that, if the breadth be supposed

to be divided into five equal parts, and three of these be notched from one edge, and one from the other, leaving one part entire, obser-

ving that these two notches should not be cut more than one third

of the thickness through ; then cut a notch out of the perpendicu-

lar, to fit the entire part of the transverse, leaving two-fifths entire towards the extremity, and when the two pieces are joined together,

the notch and the entire part of the perpendicular piece will re-

spectively fit the entire part, and the broad notch of two-fifths of the transverse piece. If the upper piece press upon the under

piece, by its own weight, or with an additional force, neither nails,

spikes, nor pins will be necessary.

These methods of framing a piece of timber, at right angles to

another, are used in cocking down the beams of a building upon

the wall-plate ; but the latter method is more generally employed CARPENTRY. 45

infinitely than the former, as being more perfect ; either method is superior to mortise and tenon for such purpose.

§ 26. To notch one piece of Timber to another, or join the two, so

as toform one right angle, in order that they may be equally strong,

in respect to each otlier.

Notch each piece half through, and nail, spike, or pin them to- other, and the gether ; or they may be partly notched on each inner edge of one again notched, leaving the substance sufficiently thick below each notch, and a part entire at the inner edge ; cut the corresponding reverses in the other piece, and when the two are joined, neither can be drawn out of the other : these two methods of joining a piece of timber to form a right angle with another, are applied to wall-plates and bond timbers at the corners of a building ; but wherever the thickness of the walls will admit, it is much better to make the end of each piece to pass the breadth of the other as much as possible, so that by this means four right

angles will be formed instead of one ; then the two may be equally notched as in the former case

§ 27. To fix one piece of Timber to another, forming two oblique angles, so that the standing piece cannot be drawn out of the transverse.

Cut a dovetail notch in the transverse piece, keeping the edge straight upon the side next to the obtuse angle, that is, forming the dovetail on the side of the acute angle ; make the corresponding notch upon the piece which has the two angles on the same side, and nail, spike, or pin them together if necessary: this form is

particularly applicable to roofing. 46 CARPENTRY.

§ 28. To cut a rebated notch in the end of a Scantling, or piece of Wood.

If the piece is not above three or four inches in either dimension, it may be cross-cut with the hand-saw to the depth, and the piece may be cut longitudinally out, or in the direction of the fiores with the same : but if the stufl' is very broad, as a plank or board, and the notch is to be cut in the breadth of the board, then you may cross-cut the face wkh the hand-saw as before, and cut the piece out with the adze to the depth required ; if it is to be cut from the edge of a board or plank, you may proceed as at first with the hand-saw only.

§ 29. To cut a grooved notch, or socket in a piece of Timber.

Cross-cut the two ends or sides with the hand-saw to the intended depth then, if ; the notch is sufficiently long or broad to admit of the breadth of the blade of the adze, you may cut out the wood

between the two kerfs with the adze ; but if the width or breadth of the tenoned piece is not of sufficient extent, you may then cut

out the intermediate wood between the kerfs with the socket chisel,

and smooth the bottom of the notch with the paring chisel.

§ 30. To cut a Tenon.

This operation is only a double rebated notch ; and consequently

the methods for cutting the tenon are the same under like circura- stances of size and dimensions. See also the next article.

§31. To frame one Timber at right angles to, and at some distance from, either end of another, both pieces being of the same quality.

To do this, the piece of timber which is to stand perpendicular ;

CARPENTRY. 47

to the other, must be reduced of its thickness by cutting away two rectangular prisms from both ends, and leaving another rectangu-

lar prism in the middle of the thickness, commonly called a tenon,

which is made to fit a corresponding excavation, called a mortise, taken out of the other piece, so that when both pieces are joined

together, two of the surfaces of the one piece will be straight with

two of the surfaces of the other, and the other two remaining sur-

faces of the one piece will be perpendicular to the other two

remaining surfaces of the other ; and if properly joined, the super-

fices of both pieces will come in contact with each other, so as to leave no interstice or cavity.

Before the mortise and tenon is made, it will be proper to say something of the proportion between the thickness of the tenon,

or breadth of the mortise, and the thickness of the stuff: Suppose the tenon to be entered in the mortise, and driven home; and

suppose the piece which has the mortise, to be held still, while a

force is applied to the other end of the tenoned piece, so as to act transversely to the mortised piece, then one or other must give

way. It is evident that if the mortise cheeks are too thin, they

will split, or if the tenon be too thin, it will break transversely

there is, therefore, some proportion between the breadth of the

mortise and the thickness of the stuff, so that the one shall be

equally strong with the other, to resist this kind of strain. Another

thing which will affect this proportion, is, whether the junction is

to be supported, as in wall-plates, or unsupported, as in joisting

a thinner tenon will be required if unsupported, than if supported for suppose that the junction has no support, the surface of both

parts lying horizontally ; and suppose a weight or force upon the tenoned piece, near to the shoulder, pressing vertically downwards,

while the mortised piece is fixed at both ends, and the tenoned piece is also fixed at its remote end ; likewise suppose that the width of the mortise is one third of the thickness of the stuff, it will perhaps be found that the under cheek of the mortise will split away, while the tenon will remain unbroken ; the mortise, therefore, requires to be still less : but there is another reason, equalliv 48 CARPENTRY. powerful, which corroborates this practice, which is, that by cutting away one third of the substance, the mortised piece would be weakened too much when thus unsupported, as is the case in joisting. Though we cannot determine with mathematical accuracy, nor by any result of experiments, common practice has sanctioned the thickness of the tenon to be about one fifth of the thickness of stuff ; this being fixed, we shall now proceed to the practice.

First square the shoulder, by drawing three fines, one perpendicular to the thickness of the tenon, and each of the other two to meet this line perpendicular to the adjoining arrises, on which the first line was drawn ; then mark the breadth of the tenon, at the place where the mortise is to be cut, in the length of the mortised

each extremity draw a line the iron square, piece ; through by perpendicular to the arrises on the one side on which the mortise is to be cut, and at the intersection of the lines, with one of the adjoining arrises, draw two other lines on the con'- us side: then, where each of these lines meet the other arris, u.^.v fines in the same manner upon the third side ; so that each of the three contiguous sides will have two lines at right angles to the arrises of that side. Take the gauge, described in section 11, and gauge the tenon from the face, and the mortise from the same side, which is to be flush with it. Then entering the handsaw by the lines drawn on the shoulder, cut the shoulders to the gauge lines, and saw off" the tenon cheeks, and thus you have the tenon completed. Then with the socket chisel and mallet knock out the core of the

mortise ; then drawbore your work together with the hook pins as in section 20, and the work will be completed.

§ 32. To join two Timbers by Mortise and Tenon, at a right angle, so that the one shall not pass the breadth of the other.

Let us suppose that each of the pieces to be framed are of yellow fir, or both of the same quality of wood. It is evident, that it CARPENTRY. 49 the mortise were cut away the whole breadth of the tenon, and the tenon of the same breadth as the piece it is formed on, that the one could not make any resistance to the other without the assistance of a pin. In order to accomplish this, the mortise must not be cut to its full breadth, but must want a certain part of that towards the end of the tenoned piece ; our next inquiry must be the proportion between the length of the mortise, and breadth of the tenoned piece, as it must be considered the strain which the mortise is liable to, is splitting, and that of the tenon, is in breaking transversely to the fibres ; for there is a certain proportion between the breadth of the tenon, and breadth of the piece on which it is cut, so that the one will resist equally the other This is a point that has not been mathematically ascertained; however, common practice allows the tenon to be reduced about one third of its breadth, and consequently the breadth of the tenon two thirds, and the length of the mortise two thirds also. As to the thickness of the tenon, or breadth of the mortise, it is the same as we mentioned in the preceding case, and will differ according as it is to lie hollow, or lie upon a solid. The cutting of the tenon, and taking out of the mortise, is the same as has been shewn in the preceding case, the pinning the same as in section 20.

joisting and walling. § 33 Of Foundations and Timbers, in

The foundations being excavated to the intended depth, the ground must be examined, by trying whether it is sufficiently firm building. in all places, so as to support the weight of the intended There are several mean't of securing foundations without pihng, but as our present subject should any artificial mea ii be required ; carpenter's pro- is carpentry, and as theie do not come under the fession, we will first suppose that the intended building is to be brick or stone, and thrit the foundation is infirm, piles must then be prepared, such, th their thickness may be about a twelfth part of their length. The IV-inces which these piles will require to be Nos. 3 & 4. F 50 CARPENTRY.

disposed, and the momentum required to drive them, will depend

on the weight of the building ; for the weight of the ram used in

driving them, ought not to be more than what would be sufficient for the purpose, as a greater number of men, or power, would

need to be employed, which would occasion an unnecessary ex-

pense. We will now suppose the piling to be completed, so as to

be sufficient for supporting the intended building ; some people lay

a level row of cross bearers, called sleepers, and plank above ;

but then observe, before the planking is laid, that all the interstices

should be levelled up to the top of the sleepers, with bricks, &c.

The planking, however, will not be necessary, provided that the

pihng be sufficiently attended to, and thus the expense of the foun-

dation will be materially lessened. All timber whatever, of which

the thickness stands vertical in the building, being liable to shrink,

will also make the building liable to crack, or split, at the junctions

with the return parts. In cases where the ground is not very soft,

a balk is sometimes slit in halves, and these either laid immediately

at the bottom, or at the height of two or three courses, and this

will frequently prevent settlements, which are occasioned by an unequal pressure of the piers, and the intermediate brick-work or

masonry, under apertures. Suppose the foundation to be brought

up to its height, or to the level of the under sides of the ground

joists ; the ground plates must be laid, and sleepers, at eight or ten feet distance where the floors are intended to be boarded : these sleepers are supported upon small pillars or piles of brick, or by

stones, at five, six, or eight feet distance, according to the substance of timber used for the sleepers, and their ends supported by

the walls. The next thing is to lay the ground joists. When the

bricklayer has got to the top of the first windows, the carpenter

may lintel the windows : but if the joisting of the next floor is laid

upon the lintels, the wall-plate and the lintels will form one con-

tinued length of timber, which will be much stronger than lintels, having only nine or ten inches bearing upon the walls. Suppose now the wall-plates laid round the exterior walls, and returned in

flank or party-walls, except at the flues, and likewise Uiid in cross- CARPENTRY. 51 walls of brick or stone; or if a timber partition is required, and the joisting to be supported by this partition, the'partition is seldom carried up, the joisting is first laid and levelled ; instead of the partition, a plank or other piece of timber is laid under the joisting at the place, and this supported by uprights, which are forced up with wedges, so as to bring the top of the joists to a level; before the joisting is put down, the trimmers of stairs and ehimnies must be framed in. If a double floor is to be laid with girders, be sure to lay templets, or short pieces of timber, under the girders, as this will distribute the pressure over a greater surface, and thereby prevent settlements. The naked flooring being laid, in carrying up the second story, bond timbers must be introduced opposite to all horizontal mouldings, as bases and surbases. It is also customary to put a row of bond-timber in the middle of the story, of greater strength than those for the bases and surbases. The work being so far advanced, we will suppose the building roofed in and

completed ; as there will be immediate occasion for resuming the subject in the description of a wooden building.

§ 34. Stud-worh and Plaster Buildings.

The foundation being made secure, and the several scantlings for grouEiij^plates, principal posts, posts, bressummers, girders, trimniers,^f®ists, &;c. being prepared and framed, agreeable to their severul situations. Timbers laid on the foundation, or next to the ground, are generally of oak, as ground -plates, which should be about eight inches broad, and six inches vertically. The front and

rear plates are to be framed by mortise and tenon, the front and

rear plates being mortised, and the flank ^)ieces consequently tenoned. Sometimes the flank pieces are mortised to receive the joists. The ground plates are to be bored with an inch and

half auger, and pinned together with oak pins, made taper towards

the point, and so strong as to withstand the blows of the mallet,

when driven tight into the hole. As the wood which carpenters

work upon is generally heavy timbers, a block is laid under the 62 CARPENTRY. corner to bear the plate off the foundation, so as to allow room for driving of the hook pins ; when the wooden pins are driven, remove the blocks, and let the plates bed firmly on the foundation.

But before the pins are driven, if there be any girders it must be fitted in, and all the joisting and trimmers, for they cannot be got in afterwards. We shall suppose that every thing is got to its birth, and the work pinned together. Four corner posts, eight inches by six, viz. of the same scantling as the ground plates, are erected, presenting their narrow sides to the front, and extending the whole height of the building, till they meet the wall-plates.

These corner posts are called principal posts, and are mortised and tenoned into the ground-plates, and also for the purpose of being inserted into the rising-plates. At the height of the principal story, two mortises must be cut in each principal post ; which being set up, enter the tenons of the next bressummers into the mortises, and stay the principal posts, by means of temporary braces, fixed to the framed work of the floor. Set up the several intermediate story posts, or those whicli are framed into the interstices, and tenon the ends of these posts into the bressummers or interstices, as it may happen whether there are interstices between the bressummers or not. Proceed in like manner with the bressummers, girder, and joists, of the next story. It does not always happen that there is a girder, but if one side of it should prove to be wainy, that side must be turned upwards, and the shoulders of the joists must be scribed upon the wains. We shall now suppose, the principal posts, story posts, or other intermediate posts, bressummers, girders, floor joists, trimmers, and trimming joists, all completely fitted together, you may proceed to pin the work together, and put on the raising plates, which are let down upon the tenons of the principal posts, and then complete

to put the truss if the roof ; you may then begin up partitions, there be such, and fill in the larger interstices in the outside framing, and in these partitions with quarters.

§ 35. What now remains to be done belongs to the joiner, and will therefore be found under the article Joinery. CARPENTRY. 63

In the description of this wooden fabric, as there are several particulars respecting the scantlings and bearings of timbers, not

mentioned, the following table may be referred to, not only to sup ply these wants, but on various other occasions.

In the following tables, the first vertical column contains the

heights or bearings in the clear of timbers ; the second, the scant,

lings in inches for firwood ; and t'he third, the scantlings in inches for oak wood ; the corresponding parts are to be found in each ho-

rizontal row, as is sufficiently plain from the tables.

§36. TABLE I.

BEARING POSTS.

Height. Fir. Oak.

Feet. Inches by Inches. Inches by Inches.

8 6 X 10 7 X 12 10 7 X 11 8 X 13 12 8 X 12 9 X 14 14 9 X 13 10 X 15 16 10 X 14 11 X 16 18 11 X 15 12 X 17 20 12 X 16 13 X 18

§ 37. The table of bearing posts here given, is considered as sufficient only for supporting two or three stories of a dwelling house, it is impossible to give a table that will be adequate to every class of building. These scantlings do not depend upon the height of the building, but upon the weight with which the several floors are loaded.

The supporting timbers required for the construction of a warehouse, ought to be very different from those employed in a common dwelling house. It must be farther observed that all bearing F 2 54 CARPENTRY.

posts which stand insulated, ought to be exactly square ; but, as

in general they are stayed sideways by doors, windows, or in-

tertices ; the sides of the pieces employed are of unequal

dimensions : giving a greater depth, requires less timber to make them equally strong, and by making them thinner, gives more ample area for light, which is particularly wanted in shop stories.

Another observation ; the table above is not constructed, so as to make the story posts at different heights equally strong, even under the same circumstances of weight, as higher posts would be more

liable to accidents than lower ones, so that there is a continued increase of strength from the lower to the higher posts. We cannot say positively, what the exact scantlings for bearing posts of given

heights ought to be, though the weight which they have to support were known, as we have no detail of experiments sufficient to enable us to establish a principle of calculation. We have there-

fore, nothing else to depend upon but our experience, and what we see commonly put in practice. Two practical men will not always exactly agree, in what ought to be a standard under par-

ticular circumstances. The breaking of timber by compression,

is so intricate of itself, that men of science have not agreed as to

the general law by which a transverse fracture is produced. With regard to the difference of strength between fir and oak, Muchen- broek asserts, on the authority of his own experiments, that

although oak will suspend half as much again as fir, it will not

support as a pillar, two thirds of the load : upon this authority also, the author has ventured to make the oak scantling larger than

the fir. CARPENTRY 5S

§38. TABLE II.

GIRDERS.

Bearing. Fir. Oak.

Feet. Inches by Inches. Inches by Inches.

12 10 X 8 9X7 16 12 X 10 11 X 9 23 14 X 12 13 X 11 24 16 X 14 15 X 13

>.VW%/WWVVVVVVWMWVVVVV\S

§39. TABLE m.

BRIDGING JOISTS.

Bearing. Fir. Oak.

Feet. Inches by Inches. Inches by Inches.

4 4X2^ 3i X 2x 6 B X 2} 4^ X 2i 8 6X2} H X H 10 7X2} 6} X 2} CARPENTRY.

§40. TABLE IV.

BINDING JOISTS.

Bearing. Fir. Oak.

Feet. Inches by Inches. Inches by Inches.

8 7X4 6X4 10 8X4 7X4 12 9X4 8X4 14 10 X 4 9X4

§41. TABLE V.

TIE BEAMS.

Bearing. Fir. Oak.

Feet. Inches by Inches. Inches by Inches.

20 8 X 4 7 X 31 30 10 X 6 9X5^ 40 12 X 8 11 X 7^ 50 14 X 10 13 X 9^ 60 16 X 12 15 X 111 CARPENTRY. 67

§42. TABLE VI.

I PRINCIPAL RAFTERS.

Bearing. Fir. Oak.

Feet. Inches by Inches. Inches by Inches.

12 5X3 61 X 31 18 61 X 4 71 X 41 24 8X5 9^ X 51 30 9^ X 6 10^ X 61 36 11 X 7 121 X 71

§43. TABLE VII.

PURLINES.

Bearing. Fir. Oak.

Feet. Inches by Inches. Inches by Inches.

6 7x4 H X 31 8 8X6 7i X 41 10 9X6 8i X 51 12 10 X 7 n X 61 14 11 X 8 lOi X 7i

G 5a CARPENTRY.

§ 44. In table VI. As principal rafters are always in a state of compression, the oak scantlings are increased according to the aforesaid experiments. All ties should therefore be made of oak,

and all compressed or straining pieces of fir.

§45. TABLE VIII.

SMALL RAFTERS.

Bearing. Fir. Oak.

Feet. Inches by Inches. Inches by Inches.

8 4i X 21 4X2^ 10 6 X 2i 6^ X 2} 12 n X 2i 7 X 2^

All beams ought to be cut or forced to a camber, an inch for

every 20 feet : as all framed work will shrink, and sag after being put together.

Roofs are much stronger when the purlines run above the prin-

cipaJ, than when framed in.

In all case or tail bays, in floors or roofs, the bearings of either

joists or rafters, ought not to exceed 12 feet.

Abstract of the Building Act, as far as regards tJie Carpentery 14

Geo. III. wliich refers only to London;, and the several Parishes within the Bills of Mortality

Those timber partitions between building and building, that were CARPENTRY. 59

erected, or begun to be erected before the passing of the act, may remain till one of the adjoining houses is rebuilt, or till one of the fronts, or two thirds of such fronts, which abut on such timber partition, is taken down to the bressummer, or one pair of stairs floor and rebuilt.

Proprietor of a house or ground to give three months notice to pull down such wooden partitions when decayed, or of insufficient thickness, and to be left with the owner or occupier of such a house, and if empty, such notice to be stuck up, in and on the front door, or front of such house.

No timber hereafter to be laid in any party arch, nor in any party wall, except for bond to the same ; nor any bond timber, within 9 inches of the opening of a chimney, nor within 5 inches of the flue, nor any timber within feet 2 of any oven, stove, copper, still, boiler, or furnace.

All framed work of wood for chimney breasts, to be fastened to the said breast with iron work as hold fasts, wall hooks, spikes, nails, &c. nor driven more than 3 inches into the wall, nor nearer than inches 4 to the inside of the opening of the chimney. No timber bearer to wooden stairs let into an old party wall, must come nearer than 8 and a half inches to the flue, nor nearer than 4 inches to the internal finishing of the adjoining building. No timber to be laid under any hearth to a chimney, nearer than 18 inches to the upper surface of such hearth. No timber must be laid nearer than 18 inches to any door of communication through party walls, through warehouses or stables. Bressummers, story posts, and plates thereto, are only permitted in the ground stoiy, and may stand fair with the outside of the wall, but must go no deeper than 2 inches into a party wall, nor nearer than 7 inches to the centre of a party wall, where it i« two brrcks thick, nor nearer than 4 inches and a half, provided the party wall does not exceed one brick and half in thickness. Every cornerstory post must be of oak, at least 12 inches square, when employed for the support of two fronts. Window frames and door frames to the first, second, third, and 60 CARPENTRY.

inches at fourth rate classes, are to be recessed in reveals, 4 least. Doorcases and doors to warehouses only of the first, second, face of third or fourth rate classes may stand fair with the outward the wall. No external decoration to be of wood, except cornices or dres- sings to shop windows, frontispieces to door-ways of the second, build- third, and fourth rate classes, covered ways or porticos to beyond the original line of the house in ings ; but not to project or portico not to be covered any street or way ; such covered way with wood. Nor such cornice, covered way, or the roof of portico to be higher than the under side of the cill to the windows of the one

pair of stairs floor. lanthorn light, No flat gutter or roof, nor any turret dormer, or the or other erection placed on the flat of the roof belonging to classes to be of wood or first, second, third, fourth, and fifth rate timber No wooden water trunks must be higher from the ground, than story. the tops of the windows of the ground

PLATE VII.

by a reciprocal circu- Fig. 1 the axe used in chopping timber plane, and with the cutting edge lar motion, generally in a vertical

in that plane. by a reciprocal Fig. 2 the adze used also in chopping timber but with the cutting edge motion, generally in a vertical plane, a horizontal perpendicular to the plane, and thereby forming

surface.

it must be observed, Fig. 3 the socket chisel used in mortising ; breadth of the mortise, bu* that the socket chisel is not always the very wide. generally less, particularly when the mortise is Fig. 4 mortise and tenon guage. .

CARPENTRY. 61

Fig. 5 the carpenters' square. Fig. 6 the plumb rule.

Fig. 7 the level. Fig. 8 the auger. Fig. 9 a hook pin for drawboring. Fig. 10 the crow.

PLATE VIII.

Fig. 1 the manner of cocking tie beams with the wall plates fitted together. See § 25. Fig. 2 shows the manner by which the cocking joint is fitted together, No. 1 part of the end of the tie beam, with the notch to receive the part between the notches in No. 2, which is a part of the wall plate. See § 25. Fig. 3 dove-tail cocking; No. 1 the male or exterior dove-tail cut out on the end of the tie beam : No. 2 the female or interior dove-tail cut out of the wall plate, to receive the male dove-tail. See § 24. Fig. 4 the manner of joining two pieces together to form a right angle, so that each piece will only be extended on one side of the other, by halving the pieces together, or taking a notch out of each, half the thickness. See § 26. Fig. 5 two pieces joined together, forming four right angles, when one piece only exceeds the breadth of the other by a very receives the short distance : No. 2 the socket of one piece, which neck or substance of the other. This and the preceding are both but the latter is pre- employed in joining wall plates at the angle ;

ferable, when the thickness of walls will admit of it. angle Fig. 6 the method of fixing angle ties : No. 1 part of

tie, with part of the wall plate : No. 2 the wall plate, showing the socket or female dove-tail. Though the angle tie is here shown

flush with the wall, in order to show the manner of connecting the

let two pieces together ; the angle tie Is seldom, or never down

flush, as this would not only weaken the angle tie, but also the

plate into which it is framed. See § 27 02 CARPENTRY.

PLATE IX.

Fig. plan of a floor 1 where the joists would have too great a bearing without a girder, and where the walls in the middle of the apartment are perforated with windows below. If there were no windows, the place of the girder would be obviously in the middle of the wall, in order to make the strongest floor out of timber of given scantlings, or to make it equally strong with the least quantity of timber ; but as there is an opening, and if the end of the girder were to be laid over that opening, it would render the walls

iiabie to fracture, which would be still a greater error than the former to avoid ; this evil, the girder must then lie upon a solid pier, and to make the best of this circumstance, so as to be at the least expense in timber, or to make the strongest floor out of given timbers, the end of the girder must be placed as near to the aperture as possible, so as to have solid a bearing, and the other end ns far distant from the middle line, upon the alternate side of thi.; line : and thus the middle of the girder would still be in the middle of the length. Some objections may be raised against this method of placing the girder, as it only divides the centre joists equally; but the answer to this is, that the greatest stress upon the floor' is always in the middle: and therefore, as the joists are equally divided in the middle, there is the greatest strength where there is most occasion for it; and likewise, taking all circumstances together, the middle is not capable of sustaining the same weight as other parts of the floor nearer to the extremes are : however, it still remains as a question, whether a girder placed in this position, or stronger joists running the other way, would make the cheapest floor this I shall : leave, as circumstances in practice may determine.

Fig. 1. Explanation of the Timbers in a single Floor.

A, A, A, &c. plan of walls. B, B, B. the flues of chimnies. CARPENTRY. 63

C, C, C, the upper side of wall plates. D, D, girder.

E, E, fire-places.

ef, e f, ef, &c. tail bays of joists framed into girder.

gh, gh, gh, tail trimmers framed into trimming joists, in order to prevent the ends of the timbers as much as possible from going into the wall, according to the Building Act.

i k, i k, hearth trimmers. m o a quarter partition between rooms.

n op a. nine inch wall, inclosing stairs.

Fig. 2. Explanation of the Timbers in a double Floor.

In this, the plans of the walls, flues of chimnies, and upper side

of wall plates are denoted by the same letters as the same things

in the preceding explanation are. The other parts are as follow :

ab,ab, ab, binding joists.

cd, c d, cd, dec. bridging joists.

ef, stair trimmer. g h, single joists framed into stair trimmer. It may be proper here to observe, in this explanation, that any yow or compartment or joisting to which the flooring boards are attached, whether in a double or single floor, between any two adjacent supports, is called a bay of joisting ; a bay of joisting aext to the wall, is called a tail bay : and those between two girders, or between two binding joists, are called case bays : thus in fig. 1 the joisting on either side of the girder is called a tail bay: and in fig. 2 there are two case bays, and two tail bays.

In the framing of floors, some persons leave the stair trimmer out until the stairs are put up, and then the trimmer is put up by the stair case hand, or joiner. C4 CARPENTRY.

PLATE X.

Fig. 1 section of a double floor, with a girder, taken trans

versely to the bridging joists A section of girder. B C, B C binding joists.

d, d, d, &:c. ends of bridging joists.

e, e, e, &c. ends of ceiling joists, chace mortised into binding joists.

Fig. 2 section of a double floor, taken transversely to the bind-

ing joist.

A, A sections of the binding joists. B C part of a bridging joist. D E ceiling joists. E F, E F parts of ceiling joists.

Figures 3, 4, 5, 6, show the manner of scarfing or lengthening of beams. Fig. 3 an oblique plain scarf. Fig. 4 a single oblique tabled scarf. Fig. 5 a parallel scarf keyed together. Fig. 6 the method of building beams with small pieces.

The third, fourth, and fifth figures must be firmly bolted with at

least two bolts. Fig. 4 and 5 have each an opening for a key to be driven through, which must be done previously to the bolting. These beams would be much stronger at the scarfing, if an iron

strap were placed on each side of it, in order to resist the heads and nuts of the screws more effectually than the wood. Fig. 7 a truss for a span roof. A, A wall plates. B C tie beam. C D king post, crown post, or middle post. E F, E F struts. g h, g h puncheons. I G, I G principal rafters. K, K pole plate. CARPENTRY. 65

L, L sections of purlines, K M, K M small rafters. M M ridge piece section

PLATE XI

The framing for a small wooden house, the lower story constructed of 9 inch brick work, being more secure against external violence, and the upper part of 4 and a half inch stud work, to be covered with lath and plaster. This house is supposed to be constructed where timber is abundant, and brick or stone expensive.

The ground story, Fig. 1, consists of a passage, front and back parlour; the one-pair story may be a drawing room, and back room, which may communicate by means of a pair of folding doors; the upper story, which is partly taken out of the roof, may be divided into bed rooms. If two adjoining houses were to be built on the present plan, placing the fire places of the contiguous back to back, so that the same wall, containing the flues, may be common to both, it would not only be a great saving, but strengthen the whole. The partition between the back rooms of the two houses is of wood, and the fire place is placed in the angle of each room, the brick work being continued from the front in order to receive it. The end or gable, is constructed entirely of stud work, to be lathed and plastered. Not only two contiguous houses may be done in this manner, but any series of houses forming a street, by constructing every alternate wall with flues, and every other intervening wall of stud work. The rear fronts will consist entirely of stud work. Wooden houses ought always to stand upon

if, instead the parlour, the fron) a stone or brick foundation ; of room were a shop, and the window extending from the door to the wall, then there would be no occasion for any brick work, and the whole would be constructed of stud work, excepting the party wall

for the flues. Houses constructed of wood are forbidden in Lon- certain don, by the Building Act : also all interior timbers, within a Nos. 5 &; 6. H f>6 CARPEiNTRY.

distance of chimnies, as the foregoing abstract which contains what belongs to the carpenter, shows : however, they are much used in country towns, where they are not bound under such re- strictions.

Fig. 1 plan.

Fig. 2 elevation.

Fig. 3 gable flank, or division between houses.

A B, B C ground plates, or ground sills.

B D, B E, C F principal posts, extending the whole height of

the building, from the ground plate to the roof plate.

A G, H I, K L story posts : all intermediate posts are also called

story posts, which extend in altitude from floor to floor. G P, I R S, T U bressummers, Q, supported by the story posts :

the bressummers R S, T U are also interstices, being framed be-

tween posts, which in this example are principal posts. M N, D O Fig. 2 the edges, E P, P F the sides of the extreme rafters.

All the oblique pieces, or those which are placed diagonally within the framing, are called braces.

The tie beam is not placed at the feet of the rafters, but higher, in order to give head room, in consequence of which a brace is extended from the foot of each story post, adjacent to liie middle, in the upper story, to each rafter foot ; and as these braces perform the office of ties in this situation, they ought to be well strapped at the ends.

Fig. 4 a longitudinal purline truss. Fig. 5 a longitudinal truss, placed vertically under the ridge for supporting the intermediate rafters, and restraining them from descending down the inclined plane, and thereby preventing all lateral pressure from the walls ; for it is evident, that if the upper ends of the rafters are held in their situation, the lower ends would describe vertical circles, and from their gravity would descend, and consequently approach nearer together, and therefore, instead of pushing out the walls, would rather have a tendency to draw them in. This principle, as well as trussing the inclined sides of CARPENTRY. 67 a roof, was discovered by the author many years ago, io consequence of a dispute, in which he was chosen arbiter on behalf of the architect ; but the principle was so bad, that he was under the disagreeable necessity of giving judgment in favour of the contractor.

LAW REGULATING BUILDLNGS IN THE CITY OF NEW YORK.

TTie fire limits include all that part of the city laying south of a line

beginning upon the North River, opposite Spring street, then run-

ning up Spring street to Broadway, up Broadway to Art street,

from Broadway along Houston street to the Bowery, down the

Bowery to Division street, from thence up Division street to Gaver.

neur streets, down. Governeur street to the East River, including

one hundred feet on the northerly and easterly sides of said line,

except that of Division street ; and the regulations of buildings extend to one hundred feet north of Fourteenth street.

An Act to amend tlie Acts heretofore passed for the prevention of Fires in the City of New York.—Passed April 20th, 1830.

The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly: Do enact as follows—

Walls—Roof.

§ 1. The outside and party walls of all dwelling houses, store

houses, and other buildings hereafter to be erected, or built within the fire limits of the City of New York, as the same now exist, or may hereafter be extended, shall be constructed of stone or brick. 2. The outside and party walls of such buildings shall not be

less than eight inches thick, except flues of chimnies, in any |-.art ;

68 CARPENTRY.

thereof ; and the party or end walls of such buildings shall rise

and be extended to the roof, and so far through the same as to meet and be joined to the slate, tile or other covering thereof, by a layer of mortar or cement.

3. The planking or sheeting of the roof of any such building shall in no case be extended across the party or end walls thereof;

and all such buildings, and the top and sides of all dormer windows

therein, shall be roofed or covered with tile, slate or other fire proof material.

4. All beams or other timbers in the party walls of such build, ings shall be separated from each other at least four inches, by

brick or mortar ; and all plate pieces in the front or rear walls

thereof shall recede from the outside of the wall at least four inches

and such wall shall be built up and extended to the slate or other fire-proof covering of the roof.

5. All discharging or arch pieces, used in the chimneys of any

such building, shall recede from any flue in any such chimney at

least four inches. No such chimney shall be started or built upon the floor of the building, or be cut off" to be supported below by wood and all hearths shall ; be supported with arches of stone or brick.

6. No timber shall be used in the front or rear of any building, within such fire limits, where stone is now commonly used. Each lintel on the inside of the front or rear wall of every such building

shall have a secure brick arch over it, and no bond timber in any wall thereof shall, in width and thickness, exceed the width and

thickness of a course of brick; and such bond timber shall be laid at least eighteen inches apart from each other on either side of any wall respectively.

7. All wooden gutters of any such building over thirty feet in

height from the level of the side-walk to the foot of the rafters, Bhali be lined or covered on the upper surface thereof with copper, zmc, or other fire proof material.

8. All scuttles on any such buildings shall be made or covered with copper, zinc, iron, or other fire nroof material ; and all wio- CARPEiNTRY. 69

dow shutters and doors in the rear of any such building, if such

building be over thirty feet in height as aforesaid, which shall be used as a warehouse, or storehouse for goods, shall be made of iron or copper.

9. All plate pieces in any such building as is described or mentioned in the first section of this Act, shall be firmly secured with iron anchors, and the cornice of every such building shall be hung in iron anchors.

10. The anchors so to be used at each end of any such cornice

shall be at least four feet long, including an angle of at least one foot, shall and be worked or built into the side or end walls of the building and such ; anchors used for supporting the centre of the cornice shall return down the front of the buildi-ng on the inner side, and shall be firmly secured to the front beam.

11. Every building of more than thirty feet in height from the level of the sidewalk to the foot of the rafters, which shall hereaf. ter be erected or built to the southward of a line distant one hundred feet north of the northerly side of Fourteenth street, shall be subject to all the provisions of this Act.

12. Every building within the fire limits, as the same now exist, or may hereafter be extended, which may hereafter be dam. aged by fire to an amount equal to two-thirds of the whole value thereof, after the lapse of at least fifteen years from the time of its first erection, shall be repaired or rebuilt according to the provisions of this Act.

13. The amount or extent of such damage may be determined by three indifferent persons residing in the said City, one of whom shall be appointed by the owner or owners of the building, another by the fire-wardens of the ward in which such building is situated, and the third by the two persons so appointed, and the decision in writing of such three persons, or of any two of them, shall be finrj and conclusive, in all cases where such mode of determining the extent of such damage shall have been agreed upon.

14. All roofs, steeples, cupolas, and spires of churches, or other public buildings, (where such public building shall stand at least o 2 70 CARPENTRY. ten feet distant from any and every other building,) may be covered with boards or shingles.

15. Public buildings, as mentioned in the last preceding section, are hereby defined to be such buildings as shall be owned and oc- cupied for public purposes, by this State, the United States, the Cor. poration of the City of New York, or the Public School Society.

16. All privies not exceeding ten feet square and fifteen feet in height, and all fire engine houses belonging to the Corporation of the said City, and all lime and ferry houses which shall be erected with the express permission of the said Corporation, may be built and covered with wood, boards, or shingles. 17. The owner or owners of any building who shall violate any of the foregoing provisions of this Act, shall, for every such offence, builder forfeit and pay the sum of five hundred dollars ; and every who shall be employed, or assist in so doing, whether he be an owner of such building or not, shall, for every such offence, forfeit and pay the additional sum of two hundred and fifty dollars. 18. The foregoing provisions of this Act shall not apply to any building heretofore erected by any lessee, or lessees, or other person possessed of a leasehold interest in any lands, tenements, or hereditaments, and which by any express exception in any law heretofore passed, relative to the prevention of fires in the City of New York, would be exempt from the provisions of such law. 19. All ash holes or ash houses within the said City shall be built of stone or brick, without the use of wood in any part thereof. 20. No wooden shed exceeding twelve feet in height, at the peak or highest part thereof, shall be erected within the fire limits of the said City, as the same now exist, or m v hereaftei be extended. 21. No wooden building shall be raised, enlarged, r built upon, or removed from one lot to any other lot, withir such fire limits as the same now exist, or may hereafter be extended. 22. The owner or owners of any ash house, or ash hole, wooden shed, or wooden building, who shall violate any of the provisions of the nineteonih, twentieth, or twenty-first sections of this Act, CARPEiVTRY. 71 and every master builder who may be employed, or assist therein, shall, for every such offence, severally forfeit and pay the sum of two hundred and fifty dollars: and such owner or owners shall forfeit and pay the additional sum of fifty dollars for every twenty four hours during which such ash house or ash hole, wooden shed or wooden building shall remain, in violation of any such nrovi.;.^' after due notice shall have been given to remove the same. 23. Every house, shed, or other building of any description whatsoever hereinbefore mentioned, which shall hereafter be erect, ed, built, roofed, repaired, altered, enlarged, built upon, or remov ed, contrary to any of the foregoing provisions of this Act, shall be deemed a common nuisance.

24. It shall not be lawful for any person or persons to have or keep any quantity of gunpowder exceeding twenty-eight pounds in weight, m anyone house, store, building, or other place in the City of New York, to the southward of a line running through the centre of Fourteenth street, from the North to the East River or to lade, receive, have or keep any greater quantity of gunpowder than as aforesaid, on board of any ship, vessel, boat, or other water craft whatever, within three hundred yards from any wharf, pier or shp in that part of the City lying southward of the said line. 25. All gunpowder which may be kept in the said City, or on board of any ship, vessel, boat, or other water craft, to the south, ward of the line mentioned in the last section, shall be ken. in stone jugs or tin canisters, which shall not contain more ri.an seven pounds each. 26. If any person or persons shall have or keep any gunpowder the City m of New York, or on board of any ship, vessel, boat, or other water craft, to the southward of the said line, in any manner contrary to the fm^oing provisions of this Act, either as toquan. tity or as to the manner of keeping the same, he, she, or they shall forfeit and pay the sum of one hundred and twenty-five dollars for every hundred pounds of gunpowder so had or kept, and in that proportion for a greater or less quantity ; and all such gunpowder Bhall be forfeited to the Fire Department of the said Citv. 72 CARPENTRY.

27. The commander, or owner or owners of every ship, or other vessel, arriving in the harbour of New York, and having more than twenty-eight pounds of gunpowder on board, shall within forty, ship or vessel shall eight hours after such arrival, and before such approach within three hundred yards of any wharf, pier, or slip, the centre of Fourteenth, to the southward of a line drawn through to be landed by street as aforesaid, cause the said gunpowder with, means of a boat, or boats, or other small craft, at any place most contiguous to any maga- out the said limits, which may be cause the said gunpowder zine for storing gunpowder, and shall on pain of forfeiting the same to to be stored in such magazine, the Fire Department of the City of New-York. proceed with any such ship or 28. It shall be lawful either to after her arrival, or to vessel to sea, within forty-eight hours another, for transship such gunpowder from one ship or vessel to without landing such gun- the purpose of immediate exportation, but in neither case shall powder as in the last section is directed ; for a longer time than forty- it be lawful to keep such gunpowder with the eight hours in the harbour of New-York, or to approach slip in same within three hundred yards of any wharf, pier, or the last the said City, to the southward of the line specified in section, on pain of forfeiture as therein mentioned. 29. All gunpowder which shall be conveyed or carried through carriage, any of the streets of the City of New-York, in any cart, wagon, wheelbarrow, or otherwise, shall be secured in tight cask, shall be put into or kegs, well headed and hooped, each of which pre. and entirely covered with a leather bag or case, sufficient to spilled or scattered and vent any of such gunpowder from being ; or carried through any of all gunpowder which shall be conveyed directed, shall the said streets, in any other manner than as above be forfeited to the Fire Department of the said City. Act, 30. In every case of a violation of any provision of this where the penalty prescribed thereby for such violation is the shall forfeiture of any gunpowder to the said Fire Department, it such be lawful for any fire warden of the said City to seize CARPENTRY. 73

gunpowder in the day time, and to cause the same to be convey. 3d to any magazine used for the purpose of storing gunpowder.

31. It shall be the duty of every person who shall have made any such seizure forthwith to inform the Mayor or Recordei and Hiiy two Aldermen of the said City thereof; and the said Mayor

or Recorder and Aldermen shall thereupon inquire into the facts

and circumstances of such alleged violation and seizure, for which

purpose they may summon any person or persons to testify before

them, and they shall have power, in their discretion, to order any gunpowder so seized to be restored.

32. Whenever any inhabitants of the said City shall make oath before the Mayor, or Recorder, or any two Aldermen, or any two of the Special Justices thereof, of any fact or circumstance which, in the opinion of the said Mayor, Recorder, Aldermen, or Special Justices, shall afford a reasonable cause of suspicion, that any gunpowder has been brought, or is kept, within the said City, or in the harbour thereof, contrary to any provision contained in this Act, it shall be lawful for the said Mayor, Recorder, Aldermen, or Special Justices, to issue his or their warrant or warrants, imder his or their hand and seal, to any sheriff, marshal, constable, or other fit person or persons, commanding him or them to search for such gunpowder in the day time, wheresoever the same may be in violation of this Act, and to seize and take possession of the same if found ; bui no person having or acting under any such search warrant shall take advantage thereof to serve any civil process whatsoever.

33. It shall be lawful for any person or persons who by virtue of any such warrant, shall have seized any gunpowder, to cause the same within twelve hours, in the day time, after such seizure, to be conveyed to any magazine used for storing gunpowder, and unless the said Mayor or Recorder and any two Aldermen of the said City, should in the manner directed by the thirty-first section of this Act, order the same to be restored, such gunpowder shall be detained in such magazine until it shall be determined by due

I 74 CARPENTRY. course of law, whether the same may have become forfeited by virtue of this Act. 34. All actions or suits for the recovery of any gunpowder which may have been seized and stored in any magazine, by virtue

of this Act, or for the value thereof, or for damages sustained by the seizure or detention thereof, shall be brought against the Fire Department of the City of New York, and shall be commenced within three calendar months next after such seizure shall have suit shall been actually made ; and in case no such action or have been commenced within such period, such gunpowder

shall be deemed absolutely forfeited to the said Fire Department, and may be immediately delivered to the proper officers thereof

for its use. No penal damages shall be recovered in any such

action or suit, and such gunpowder may at any time during the

pendency of any such action or suit, by consent of the parties thereto, be removed from any magazine where the same may have been stored, or may be sold, and the moneys arising from such

sale may be paid into the Court where such suit or action may be

pendmg, to abide the event thereof. 35. Nothing contained in this Act shall be construed to apply to any ship or vessel of war in the service of the United States, or yards of any foreign government while lying distant three hundred or upwards from the wharves, piers or slips of the said City. 36. If any gunpowder exceeding twenty-eight pounds in quan- person, by tity, shall be found in the possession or custody of any any fireman of the said City, during any fire or alarm of fire same with- therein, it shall be lawful for such fireman to seize the out any warrant, and to report such seizure without delay to the Mayor or Recorder of the said City, and it shall be determined by the said Mayor or Recorder and any two Aldermen of the said

City, in the manner directed by the thirty-first section of this Act whether such gunpowder should be restored, or the same shall be

conveyed to a magazine for storing gunpowder and there detained,

until it be decided by due course of law, whether such gunpowder

be forfeited by virtue of this Act. ;

CARPENTRY. 75

37. No greater quantity of sulphur than ten hundred weight, or

of hemp or flax, than twenty hundred weight, or of pitch, tar, tur-

pentine, rosin, spirits of turpentine, varnish, linseed oil, oil of vitriol, aquafortis, aether, or shingles, than shall be allowed by the

Common Council of the City of New York, shall be put, kept, or

stored in any one place in the said City, to the southward of a line

drawn through the centre of Fourteenth street, unless with the permission of the said Common Council.

38. Every person who shall violate either of the provisions of t^e last section, shall for every such offence forfeit and pay the sum of twenty.five dollars ; and in case any such person or persons shall neglect or refuse to remove any of the articles prohibited by the said section, within such time as may be allowed for that purpose by the Mayor or Recorder, or any two Aldermen of the said City, he, she or they shall, for every such neglect or refusal,

forfeit and pay an additional sum of twenty.five dollars. 39. Nothing hereinbefore contained shall be construed to pro- hibit any ship chandler from keeping at any time, in any enclo-

sure in the said City, any quantity of pitch, tar, rosin, or turpentine, not exceeding twenty barrels in the whole.

40. All pecuniary penalties imposed by this Act, may be sued for and recovered with costs of suit, in any court having cogni- zance thereof, by the proper officers of the Fire Department of the said City, for the use of the said Fire Department. All actions 41. for any forfeiture or penalty incurred under this Act, shall be commenced within one year next after the time of incurring such forfeiture or penalty.

42. All laws or parts of laws, heretofore passed, mconsistent with the provisions of this Act, are hereby declared to be repealed but such repeal shall not affect any suit or prosecution already commenced, or any penalty, forfeiture, or offence already incurred or committed under any such law or part of a law. 76 CARPENTRY. LIEN LAW.

An Act for the better security of Mechanics and others, erecting Buildings in the City and County of New York.—Passed April 20, 1830.

The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly: Do enact as follows—

§ 1. Every mechanic, workman, or other person, doing or performing any work towards the erection, construction, or finishing

of any building in the city of New York, erected under a contract

in writing, between the owner and builder, or other person, whe-

ther such work shall be performed as journeyman, labourer, cart-

man, sub-contractor, or otherwise, and whose demands for work and labour done and performed towards the erection of such

building, has not been paid and satisfied, may deliver to the ownei of such building an attested account of the amount and value of the

work and labour thus performed and remaining unpaid, and there-

upon such owner shall retain, out of his subsequent payments to the

contractor, the amount of such work and labour for the benefit ol the person so performing the same.

2. Whenever any account of labour performed on a building erected under a contract in writing, as aforesaid, shall be placed in the hands of the owner of such building, or his authorized

agent, it shall be the duty of such owner or agent to furnish his con-

tractor with a copy of such papers, in order that if there shall be any disagreement between such contractor and his creditor, they may, by amicable adjustment between themselves, or by arbitration,

ascertain the true sum due, and if the contractor shall not, within ten days after the receipt of such papers, give the owner written

notice that he intends to dispute the claim, or if in ten days after

giving such notice, he shall refuse or neglect to have the matter

adjusted as aforesaid, he shall be considered as assenting to the

demand, and the owner shall pay the same when it becomes due CARPENTRY. 77

3. If any such contractor shall dispute the claim of his journeyman or other person for work and labour performed as aforesaid, and if the matter cannot b© adjusted amicably between themselves, it shall be submitted, on the agreement of the parties, to the ar. bitrament of three disinterested persons, one to be chosen by each of the parties, and one by the two thus chosen, and the decision in writing, of such three persons, or any two of them, shall be final and conclusive in the case submitted.

4. Whenever the amount due shall be adjusted and ascertained, as above provided, and if the contractor shall not, within ten days after it is so adjusted and ascertained, pay the sum due to his creditor, with the costs incurred, the owner shall pay the same out of the tunds as above provided, and which amount due may be recovered from the said owner by the creditor of the said contractor, in an action for money had and received to the use of said creditor, and to the extent in value of any balance due by the owner to his contractor under the contract with him at the time of the notice first given as aforesaid, or subsequently accruing to such contractor under the same, if such amount shall be less than the sum due from the said contractor to his creditor.

5. If by collusion, or otherwise, the owner of any building erected by contract in writing, as aforesaid, shall pay to his contractor any money in advance of the sum due on said contract, and if the amount still due the contractor, after such payment has been made, shall be insufficient to satisfy the demand, made in conformity with the provisions of this act, for work and labour done and performed, the owner shall be liable to the amount that would have been due at the time of his receiving the account of such work, in the same manner as if no such payment had been made. INDEX

AND

EXPLANATION OF TERMS

USED IN CARPENTRY.

N. B. TJiis Mark § refers to the preceding Sections, according to the Number.

Adze, § 5.

Axe, § 4.

AUGEH, § 10.

Back of a Hip is the upper edge of a rafter, between the two sides of a hipped roof formed to an angle so as to range with

the rafters on each side of it.

Baulk, a piece of foreign fir, or deal, being the trunk of a tree of

that species of v/ood, generally brought to a square, for the use

of building. In London the term is only applied to small lengths,

from 18 to 25 feet, generally under 10 inches thick, having a

considerable taper, and the wains left, so that the baulk is not

brought to a square. In some parts of the country these obtain the name of Dram timber, as coming from the place of that name. In London the largest pieces of timber, such as Memel, CARPENTRY. 79

Bantzic, &c. seem to have no common appellation, being fami-

liarly called pieces of timber, and frequently by the vulgar name

of sticks ; these expressions seem to define nothing, as they ap-

ply equally to all sizes. Different names seem to obtain in

different parts of the country : in some parts of the north, large

pieces of fir wood are called logs; but in London log is restric-

ted to the largest pieces of oak or mahogany. Beam, a horizontal timber, used to resist a force, or weight, as a string, tie-beam, where it acts as a or chain, by its tension ; as

a collar beam, where it acts by compression ; as a bressummer,

where it resists a transverse insisting weight. Bearer, any thing used by way of support to another.

Bearing, the distance that a beam or rafter is suspended in the

clear : thus if a piece of timber rests upon two opposite walls,

the span of the void is called the bearing, and not the whole length of the timber.

Beetle, § 17. Board, a substance of wood contained between two parallel planes;

as when the baulk is divided into several pieces by the pit saw,

the pieces are called boards. The section of boards is some-

times, however, of a triangular, or rather atrapazoidal form, that

is with one edge very thin : these are called feather edged boards.

Bond Timber, § 33. Brace, a piece of slanting timber, used in truss partitions, or in

framed roofs, in order to form a triangle, and thereby rendering

the frame immovable ; when a brace is used by way of support

to a rafter, it is called a strut. Braces in partitions, and span

roofs, are always, or should be, disposed in pairs, and placed in

opposite directions.

Breaking down, in sawing, is dividing the baulk into boards or

planks ; but if planks are sawed longitudinally through their

thickness, the saw-way is called a ripping cut, and the former a

breaking cut. Bressummer, or Breastsummer, a beam supporting a superincum-

bent part of an exterior wall, and running longitudinally below

that part. See Summer. 80 CARPENTRY.

Bridging Joists are the smallest beams in naked flooring, for sup.

porting the boarding for walking upon. See Plate. Bring up. See Carry-up,

Camber is the convexity of a beam upon the upper edge, in order

to prevent its becoming straight or concave by its own weight,

or by the burden it may have to sustain, in course of time.

Camber Beams are those used in the flats of truncated roofs, and raised in the middle with an obtuse angle, for discharging the

rain water towards both sides of the roof.

Cantilevers are horizontal rows of timbers, projecting at right

angles from the naked part of a wall, for sustaining the eaves or other mouldings. Sometimes they are planed on the horizon.

tal and vertical sides, and sometimes the carpentry is rough and cased with joinery.

Carcass of a Building, is the naked walls, and the rough timber

work of the flooring and quarter partitions, before the building

is plastered, or the floors laid.

Carpenter's Square, § 21.

Carpentry, § 1. Carry-up, a term used in discourse among builders and workmen,

denoting that the walls, or other parts, are intended to be built

to a certain given height ; as the carpenter will say to the brick-

layer, i. Carry-up that wall ; carry-up that stack of chimnies, e. build up that wall or stack of chimnies.

Chisels, § 6, 7, and 8. Crown Post, the middle post of a trussed roof. See King Post.

Dhal Timber, the timber of the fir tree, as cut into boards, planks,

&c. for the use of building.

Discharge, is a post trimmed up under a beam, or part of a build

ing which is weak, or overcharged by weight.

Dormer, or Dormer Window, is a projecting window in the roof CARPENTRY. 81

of a house, the glass frame, or casement, being set vertically, and

not in the inclined sides ofthe roof ; thus dormers are distingushed

from sky-lightSj which have their sides inclined to the horizon.

Dovetail Notch, § 27. Dragon Beam, the piece of timber which supports the hip raiter,

and bisects the angle formed by the wall plates. Dhaw Bore Pins. See Joinery.

Enter, when the end of a tenon is put into a mortise, it is said to enter the mortise.

Entertice. See Interiie,

Feather-edged Boards. See Board. FiLLiNG-iN-piECEs, short timbers less than the full length, as the

jack rafters of a roof, the puncheons, or short quarters in parti-

tions, between braces and sills, or head-pieces.

Fir Polk, small trunks of fir trees, from 10 to 16 feet in length,

used in rustic buildings, and out-houses.

Firmer Chisel, § 7. Floor. See Naked Flooring.

Foundations, § 33. Furrings, are slips of timber nailed to joists or rafters, in order

to bring them to a level, and to range them into a straight suTu face, when the timbers are sagged, either by casting or by a set, which they have obtained by their weight in length of time.

Gain, a term now out of use. See Tusk.

Gauge, § 11.

Gimlet, § 9. Girder, the principal beam in a floor for supporting the bwid

ing joists. Nos. 6. K 82 CARPENTRY

Grooved Notch, § 29. See Plate H,

Gboxjnd Plate, or Sill, is the lowest plate of a wooden building

for supporting the principal and other posts. See Plate "V.

Hahsiee, § 15.

Hand Saw, § 3.

Hook Pins, § 20. Handspike, a lever for carrying a beam, or other body, the weight

being placed in the middle, and supported at each end by a man,

Intertie, a horizontal piece of timber, framed between two post«

in order to tie them together. Jack Timber, a timber shorter than the whole length of other pieces in the same range.

Jack Rafters are all those short rafters which meet the hips. Jack Ribs are those short ribs which meet the angle ribs, as in groins, domes, &c.

Joggle Piece is a truss post, with shoulders and sockets for abutting

and fixing the lower ends of the struts.

Joining of Timbers, §§ 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27. Joists are those beams in a floor which support, or are necessary in

the supporting of th'i boarding or ceiling, as the binding, bridg.

are, however, to be excepted, as ing, and ceiling joists ; girders

not being joists.

Jtjffers, stuff of about four or five inches square, and of several

lengths. This terra is out of use, though frequently found in old books.

Kino Post, the middle post of a stufi*ed roof, for supporting the

tie-beam at the middle, and the lower ends of the struts. Eebf, the way made by the saw in sawing timber. CARPENTRY. 83

Law regulating buildings in the City of New York, page 67, Level, an instrument used for levelling floors, § 12. Lien Law, page 76.

Lintels, short beams over the heads of doors and windows, foi supporting the inside of an exterior wall, or the superincumbent

part over doors, in brick or stone partitions. LuTHOKN windows. See Dormer.

Mallet, § 16.

Mortise and Tenon, § 81.

Naked Flooring, the timber work of a floor for supporting the boarding or ceiling, or both.

Notching, § 28, 29.

P. Pitch of a Roof, the inclination which the sloping sides make with the plane or level of the wall-plate ; or it is the proportion which arises by dividing the span by the height. Thus if it is asked, What is the pitch of such a roof? the answer is, quarter, 3 quarters, or half; when the pitch is half, thereof is a square, which is the highest now in use, or that is necessary in practice. Plank, all boards above nine inches wide, are called planks. Plate, a horizontal piece of timber in a Wall, generally flush with th§ iniide, for resting the ends of beams, joists, or rafters, and is therefore denominated floor, or roof plates, accordingly.

Plumb Rule, § 14. Posts, all upright or vertical pieces of timber, whatever, as truss posts, door posts, quarters in partitions, dec. 84 CARPENTRY.

Prick Posts, intermediate posts in a wooden building framed be.^ tween principal posts. PKiNciPAii Posts, the corner posts of a wooden building. See Plate V. PuDLAiES, pieces of timber to do the office of handspikes. PtTNCSEoNS, any short posts of timber; the small quarterings in a

stud partition above the head of a door, are called puncheons. PtJRLiNEs, the horizontal timbers in the sides of a roof, for supporting the spars or small rafters.

bond in QuAKTEBs, the timbers to be used in stud partitions,

walls, &c. QuARTEBiNG, the stud work of a partition.

as princi- Rafters, all the inclined timbers in the sides of a roof, are other- pal rafters, hip rafters, and common rafters, which wise called, in most countries, spars. which the Raising Plates, or Top Plates, are the plates on

roof is raised. Rebated Notch, § 28. Ridge, the meeting of the rafters on the vertical angle of the roof. See Plate V,

Ripping Chisei., § 3.

Ripping Saw, § 3, is used in carpen- Roof, the covering of a house ; but the word

try for the wood work which supporta the slating and other covering.

Saw, § 3. Shaken Stuff. Such timber as is rent or split by the heat of the

sun, or by the fall of the tree, is said to be shaken. CARPENTRY. 85

Shingles, thin pieces of wood used for covering, instead of

tiles, &c. Sheeadings, a term not much Rsed at present. See Furrings. Skiets of a Roof, the projecture of the eaves. Sleepees, pieces of timbers for resting the ground joists of a floor upon, or for fixing the planking to in a bad foundation. The term was formerly applied to the valley rafters of a roof.

Socket Chisel, § 6. Spars, the term by which the common rafters of a roof are best known in almost every provincial town in Great Britain, though generally called in London commoAi rafters, in order to distin- guish them from the principal rafters. Stancheons. See Puncheons, Struts, pieces of timber which support the rafters, and which are supported by the truss posts. Summer, a large beam in a building, either disposed in an outside

wall, or in the middlo of nn apartment, parallel to such wall.

When a summer ic placed under a superincumbent part of an

outside wall, it i;: called a bressummer, as it comes in a breast with the front of the buildiog. Studwork, §33.

Templets, § 33.

Tenon, § 30. Tie, a piece of timber placed in any position acting as a string or

tie, to keep two things together which have a tendency to a more remote distance from each other. Timbers, how joined, §§22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27. Trimmers are joists into which other joists are framed.

Trimming Joists, the two joists into which a trimmer is framed.

Truncated Roof, is a roof with a flat on the top. Truss, a frame constructed of several pieces of timber, and divided into two or more triangles by oblique pieces, in order to pre- H 2 86 CARPENTRY.

vent the possibility of its revolving round any of the angles of the frame.

Tkcss Post, any of the posts of a trussed roof, as king post, queen post, or side post, or posts into which the braces are formed in a trussed partition.

Tbussed Roof is one so constructed within the exterior triangu. lar frame, so as to support the principal rafters and the tie beam, at certain given points.

Tusk, the beveling upper shoulder of a tenon, in order to give strength to the tenon.

Vailey Rafter, that which is disposed to the internal angle oi a roof.

Wali. PiiAtes, are the joists' plates, and raising plates. JOINERY.

§ 1. Joinery is a branch of Civil Architecture, and consists of the art of framing or joining together wood for internal and external

finishings of houses ; as the coverings and linings of rough walls, or the coverings of rough timbers, and of the construction of doors, windows, and stairs. Hence joinery requires much more accurate and nice workmanship than carpentry, which consists only of rough timbers, in used supporting the various parts of an edifice. Joinery is used by way of decoration only, and being always near to the eye, requires that the surfaces should be smooth, and the several junctions of the wood be fitted together with the greatest exactness.

Smoothing of the wood is called planing, and the tools used for the purpose, planes.

The wood used is called stuff, and is previously formed into rectangular prisms by the saw; these prisms are denominated

battens, boards, or planks, according to their dimensions in breadth or in thickness. For the convenience of planing, and other operations, a rectangular platform is raised upon four legs, called a bench.

^2. The Bench. Pl. 12. Fig. 12.

Consists of a platform A B C D called the top, supported upon four legs, E, F, G, H. Near to the further or fore end A B is an upright rectangular prismatic pin a, made to slide stiffly in a mor- 88 JOINERY. rise through the top. This pin is called the bench hook, which ought to be so tight as to be moved up or down only by a blow of a hammer or mallet. The use of the bench hook is to keep the stuff steady, while the joiner, in the act of planing, presses it forward against the bench hook. D I a vertical board fixed to the legs, on the side of the bench next to the workman, and made flush with the legs : this is called the side board. At the farther end of the side board, and opposite to it, and to the bench hook, is a rectangular prismatic piece of wood b h, of which its two broad surfaces are parallel to the vertical face of the side board : this is made moveable in a horizontal straight surface, by a screw passing through an interior screw fixed to the inside of the side board, and is called the screw check. The screw and screw check are together called the bench screw ; and for the sake of perspicuity, we shall denominate the two adjacent vertical surfaces of the screw check, and of the side board, the checks of the bench screw.

The use ofthe bench screw is to fasten boards between the checks,

in order to plane their edges ; but as it only holds up one end of a board, the leg H of the bench and the side board are pierced with

holes, so as to admit of a pin for holding up the other end, at various heights, as occasion may require. The screw check has

also a horizontal piece mortised and fixed fast to it, and made

to slide through the side board, for preventing it turning round,

and is therefore called the guide.

Benches are of various heiglits, to accommodate the height of

the workman, but the medium is about two feet eight inches.

They are ten or twelve feet in length, and about two feet six

inches in width. Sometimes the top boards upon the farther side

are made only about ten feet long, and that next the workman

twelve feet, projecting two feet at the hinder part. In order to keep the bench and work from tottering, the legs, not less than three inches and a half square, should be well braced, particularly the two legs on the working side. The top board next to the

workman may be from one and a half to two inches thick : the side thicker, the better for the work ; the boards to the farther JOINERY. 89

may be about an inch, or an inch and a quarter thick. If the workman stands on the working side of the bench, and looks across the bench, then the end on his right hand is called the hind end, and that on his left hand the fore end. The bench hook is sometimes covered with an iron plate, the front edge of which is formed into sharp teeth for sticking fast into the end of the wood to be planed, in order to

prevent it from slipping ; or, instead of a plate, nails are driven obliquely through the edge, and filed into wedge-formed points. Each pair of end legs are generally coupled together by two rails dove- tailed into the legs. Between each pair of coupled legs, the length of the bench is generally divided into three or four equal parts, and transverse bearers fixed at the divisions to the side boards, the upper sides being flush with those of the side boards, for the purpose of supporting the top firmly, and keeping it from bending.

The screw is placed behind the two fore legs, the bench hook immediately before the bearers of the fore legs, and the guide at some distance before the bench hook. For the convenience of putting things out of the way, the rails at the ends are covered with boards ; and for farther accommodation, there is in some benches a cavity, formed by boarding the under edges of the side boards before the hind legs, and closing the ends vertically, so that this cavity is contained between the top and the boarding under the side boards ; the way to it is by an aperture made by sliding a part of the top board towards the hind end : this deposit is called a locker.

§ 3. Joiners* Tools.

The bench planes are, the jack plane, the fore plane, the trying plane, the long plane, the jointer, and the smoothing plane ; the cylindric plane, the compass and forkstaff" pla-nes ; the straight block, for straightening short edges. Rebating planes are the moving fillister, the sash fiUister, the common rebating plane, the side rebating plane. Grooving planes are the plough and dado grooving 90 JOINERY. planes. Moulding planes are sinking snipebills, side snipebills, beads, hollows and rounds, ovolos and ogees. Boring tools are,

gimlets, brad-awls, stock, and bits. Instruments for dividing the wood, are principally the ripping saw, the half ripper, the hand saw, the panel saw, the tenon saw, the carcase saw, the sash saw, the compass saw, the keyhole saw, and turning saw. Tools used

for forming the angles of two adjoining surfaces, are squares and bevels. Tools used for drawing parallel lines are guages. Edge

tools, are the firmer chisel, the mortise chisel, the socket chisel, the gouge, the hatchet, the adze, the drawing knife. Tools

for knocking upon wood and iron are, the mallet and hammer. Implements for sharpening tools are the grinding stone, the rub

stone, and the oil or whet stone.

§ 4. Definiiions.

If a plane be set with the under surface upon the wood it is in-

tended to operate upon, and placed before the workman, and if four surfaces are perpendicular to the under surface, each of these is called surfaces is said to be vertical ; the one next the workman

the hind end, and the opposite one, the fore end, and the two in surface the direction which the plane works, the sides : the under to the workman is is called the sole, the side of the plane next called the right hand side, and the opposite side to that, the left hand side of the plane. from the top to The depth of a plane is the vertical dimension is the horizontal dimen- the under surface ; the length of a plane the breadth sion in the direction in which the plane is wrought ;

or thickness of a plane is the horizontal dimension at right angles,

to the length and depth.

In order to make a distinction between the tool, the under sur.

face is called the sole of the plane.

The reason for being so particular in defining these common ;

JOINERY. 91 place terms which might be supposed to be known to every one, is from a desire of the author to prevent ambiguity; as in the term depth, which implies a distance from you in whatever direction it runs, as the depth of a well is the vertical or plumb distance but the depth of a house is the distance from tho front to the rear wall, and consequently is a horizontal distance^

^5. The Jack Plane, Pl. 12. Fm. 1.

Is used in taking off the rough and prominent parts from the

surface of the wood, and reducing it nearly to the intended form,

in coarse slices, called shavings; this plane consists of a block of wood called the stock, of about seventeen inches in length, three inches high, and three inches and a half broad. All the sides of the stock are straight surfaces at right angles to each other. Through the solid of the stock, and through two of its opposite

surfaces is cut an aperture, in which is inserted a thin metal plate

called the iron, one side of the plate consisting of iron, and the

other of steel. The side of the opening which joins the iron part, angle of is called the bed, which is a plane surface, making an

forty.five degrees with the hind part of the underside of the plane. The end of the iron next to the bottom is ground to an acute angle off the iron side, so as to bring the steel side to a sharp edge, having a small convexity. The sloping part thus formed, is fixed by means of a is called the basil of the iron. The iron

wedge, which is let into two grooves of the same form, on the sides parallel to each othei, of the opening ; two sides of the wedge are

and to the vertical side of the plane, and consequently to two of grooves, parallel the sides of the groove ; the two sides of the

to the vertical sides of the plane are called cheeks, and the two

other sides inclined to the bed of the iron are called the abutments fixed, the open- or abutment sides : the wedge and the iron being ing must be uninterrupted from the sole to the top, and must be no more on the sole side of the plane, than what is sufficient for

is dis the thickest shaving to pass with ease ; and as the shaving 92 JOINERY.

charged at the upper side of the plane, the opening through must expand or increase from the sole to the top, so as to prevent the

shavings from sticking. In conformity to analogy, the part of

the opening at the sole, which first receives the shaving, is called

the mouth. In order for the shaving to pass with still greater ease, the wedge (PI. 12. Fig. 5.) is forked to cut away in the mid-

die, leaving the prongs to fill the lower parts of the aforesaid

grooves. On the upper part of the plane, behind the iron, rises a protuberance, called the tote, so formed to the shape of the hand, and direction of the motion, as to produce the most power in pushing the plane forward.

The bringing of iron the to a sharp cutting edge is called sharpening. The cutting edge of the iron must be formed with a convexity, and regulated the stuff by to be wrought, whether it is hard or soft, cross grained or curling, so that a man may be able to perform the most work, or to reduce the substance most, in a given time. prevent To the iron from tearing the wood to cross grained stuff, a cover is used with a reversed basil, (PI. 12. Fig. 4.) and fastened by means of a screw, the thin part of which slides in a longitudinal slit in the iron, and the head is taken out by a large hole near the upper end of it. The lower edge of the cover is so formed, as to be concentric or parallel to the cutting edge of the iron, and fixed at a small distance above it, and to coincide entirely with the steel face. The basil of the cover must be rounded,

and not flat, as that of the iron is. The distance between the cutting edge of the iron, and the edge of the cover, depends altogether on the nature of the stuff. If the stuff is free, the edge of the cover may be set at a considerable distance, because the difficulty of pushing the plane forward becomes greater, as the edge of the cover is nearer the edge of the iron, and the contrary when more remote.

The convexity of the edge of the iron depends on the texture of the stuff, whether it is free, cross grained, hard or knotty. If the stuff is free, it is evident that a considerable projection may be allowed, as a thicker shaving may be taken : the extreme edges JOINERY. 93 of the iron must never enter the wood, as this not only retards the progress of working, but chokes and prevents the regular discharge of the shavings at the orifice of the plane.

§ 6. To Grind and Sharpen the Iron.

When you grind the iron, place your two thumbs under it, and the fingers of both hands above, laying the basil to the stone, and holding it to the angle you intend it shall make with the steel side of it, keeping it steady while the stone is turning, and pressing in the iron to the stone with your fingers ; and order to prevent the stone from wearing the edge of the iron into irregularities, move it alternately from edge to edge of the stone with so much pressure on the different parts, as will reduce it to the required convexity ; then lift the iron to see that it is ground to your mind* if it is not, the operation must be repeated, and the steel or basil side placed in its former position on the stone, otherwise the basi! will be doubled ; but if in the proper direction it will be hollow, which will be more as the diameter of the stone is less. The basil being brought to a proper angle, and the edge to a regular curvature, the roughness occasioned by the gritty particles of the grindstone may be taken away, by rubbing on a smooth flat wet

stone or Turkey stone, sprinkling sweet oil on the surface ; as the basil is generally ground something longer that what the iron would stand, for the quicker despatch of wetting it, you may incline the face of the iron nearer to the perpendicular, rubbing to and fro with the same inclination throughout : having done it to your mind, it may be fixed. When there is occasion to sharpen it again, it is commonly done upon aflat rub stone keeping the proper angle of position as before, then the edge may be finished on the

Turkey stone as before : and at every time the iron gets dull or blunt, the sharpening is produced by the rub stone and Turkey stone, but in repeating this often the edge gets so thick that it requires so much time to bring it up, that recourse must be had a!gain to the grindstone. ;:

94 JOINERY.

§ 7. To Fix and Unfix the Iron.

In fixing the iron in the plane, the projection of the cutting edge must be just so much beyond the sole of the plane, as the workman may be able to work it freely in the act of planing. This

projection is called iron, and the plane is said to have more or less iron as the projection varies : when there is too much iron, knock with the hammer on the fore end of the stock ; and the blows will loosen the wedge, and raise the iron in a certain degree, and the

head of the wedge must be knocked down to make all tight again:

if the iron is not sufficiently raised, proceed again in the same manner, but if too much, the iron must be knocked down gently

by hitting the head with a hammer : and thus, by trials, you will give the plane the degree of iron required. When you have

occasion to take out the iron to sharpen it, strike the fore end

smartly, which will loosen the wedge, and consequently the iron.

§ 8. To Use the Jack Plane.

In using the jack plane, lay the stuff before you parallel to the

sides of the bench, the farther end against the bench hook : then

beginning at the hind end of the stuff, by laying the forepart of

the plane upon it, lay hold of the tote with the right hand, and

pressing with the left upon the fore end, thrust the plane forward

in the direction of the fibres of the wood and length of the plane,

until you have extended the stroke the whole stretch of your arms

the shaving will be discharged at the orifice : draw back the plane,

and repeat the operation in the next adjacent rough part: proceed

in this manner until you have taken off the rough parts throughout the whole breadth, then step forward so much as you have planed,

and plane off the rough of another length in the same manner

proceed in this way by steps, until the whole length is gone over

take all the protu- and rough planed ; you may then return and berant parts or sudden risings, by similar operations. JOINERY. OS

§ 9. The Trying Plane, Pl. 12. Fig. 2.

Is constructed similar to the jack plane, except the tote of the jack plane is single, and that of the trying plane doublcj to give

greater strength ; the length of this plane is about twenty-two inches, the breadth three and a quarter, and the height three and an eighth. Its use is to reduce the ridges made by the jack plane,

and to straighten the stuff: for this purpose it is both longer and

broader, the edge of the iron is less convex, and set with less

projection : but it as takes a broader though finer shaving, it still

requires as much force to push it forward.

§ 10. The Use of the Trying Plane.

The sharpening of the iron, and the operation of planing is much the same as that of the jack plane; when the side of a piece of stuff has been planed first by the jack plane, and afterwards by the trying plane, that side of the stuff is said to be tried up, and the operation is called trying.

When the stuff is required to be very straight, particularly if the broad and narrow side of another piece is to join it, instead of stopping the plane at every arm's length, as with the jack plane, the shaving is taken the whole length, by stepping forwards, then returning, and repeating the operation throughout the breadth, as of^en as may be found necessary.

Hi. The Long Plane

Is used when a piece of stuflT is required to be tried up very straight; for this purpose it is both longer and broader than the trying plane, and set with still less iron ; the manner of using it is the same. Its length is twenty six inches, its breadth three inches and five eighths, and depth three inches and one eighth. 96 JOINERY.

§ 12. The Jointer

Is still longer than the long plane, and is used principally for planing straight edges, and the edges of boards, so as to make them join together; this operation is called shooting, and the edge

itself is said to be shot. The length of this plane is about two feet six inches, the depth three inches and a half, and the breadth three

inches and three fourths. The shaving is taken the whole lengtli in finishing the joint, or narrow surface.

§ 13. The Smoothing Plane, Fl. 12. Fig. 3.

Is the last plane used in giving the utmost degree of smoothness to the surface of the wood : it is chiefly used in cleaning off

finished work. The construction of this plane is the same with regard to the iron wedge and opening for discharging the shaving, but is much smaller in size, being in length seven inches and a half, in breadth three, and in depth two and three quarters, and

differs in form, on account of its having convex sides, and no tote.

There is also this difference in giving the iron a finer set, that

you may strike the hind end instead of the fore part.

§ 14. Bench Planes.

The jack plane, the trying plane, the long plane, the jointer and the smoothing plane, are denominated bench planes.

§ 15. The Compass Plane

is similar to the smoothing plane in size and shape, but the sole

i" convex, and the convexity is in the direction of the length of the plane. The use of the compass plane is to form a concave :

JOINERY. 97

cylindrical surface, when the wood to be wrought upon is bent

with the fibres in the direction of the curve, which is in a plane surface perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. Consequently compass planes must be of various sizes, in order to accommodate different diameters.

§16. The ForJestaff Plane

Is similar to the smoothing plane in every respect of size and

shape, except that the sole is part of a concave cylindric surface, having the axis parallel to the length of the plane. The use of the forkstaff plane is to form cylindric surfaces, by planing paral- lei to the axis of the cylinder. Planes of this description must

likewise be of various sizes, to form the surface to various radii these two last planes are more used by coach-makers than by joiners.

§ 17. The Straight Block

Is used for Shooting short joints and mitres, instead of the jointer, wh'ch in such cases would be rather unhandy ; this plane is also made without the tote, and as it is frequently used in straight, ening the ends of pieces of wood perpendicularly to the direction of the fibres, the iron is inclined more to the sole of the plane, that is, it forms a more acute angle with it : in order that it may cut clean, the inclination of the basil, and the face of the iron, is therefore less on this account : the length of the straight block is twelve inches, its breadth three and one eighth, and depth two and three quarters.

REBATE PLANES IN GENERAL.

§ 18. The Rebate Plane Is used after a piece of stuff has been previously tried on on« Nos. 7 «fe 8. M 98 JOINERY. side and shot on the other, or tried on both sides, in taking away a part next to one of the arises of a rectangular or oblong section, the whole part therefore taken away is a square prism, and the superfices formed after taken away the prism is two straight that surfaces, forming an internal right angle with each other ; so

the stuff will now have one internal angle and two external angles. The operation of this reducing the stuff is called rebating. Re-

bating is either used by way of ornament, as in the sinking of

cornices, the sunk facias of architraves, or in forming a recess for this board may the reception of another board, so that the edge of of the re- coincide with that side of the rebate, next to the edge is about nine inches bated piece. The length of rebating planes is about three and a and a half, the vertical dimension or depth quarters to half, they are of various thickness, from one and three half an inch. Rebate planes are of several kinds, some have the cutting edge of the iron upon the bottom, and some upon the side of the plane. Of these which have the cutting edge on the bottom, some are used for sinking, and some for smoothing or the cleaning the bottom of the rebate ; and these which have cutting edge upon one side are called side rebating planes, and are used afler the former in cleaning the vertical side of the rebate. Rebate planes differ from the bench planes, before mentioned, in

their having no tote ; the cavity is not open to the top, but the

wedge is made to fit completely, and the shaving is discharged on one side or other, according to the use of the plane.

§ 19. Sinking Rebating Planes

Are of two denominations, the moving fillister and sash fillister:

the moving fillister is for sinking the edge of the stuff next to you, these planea and the sash fillister the farther edge ; consequently

hare their cutting edges on the under side. JOINERY. 99

§ 20. Of ike momng Fillister, Pl. 13. Fig.

Upon the bottom of the moving fillister is a slip of wood, so regulated by two screws as one of the vertical sides of the slip may be fixed parallel to the edge of the sole ; then the breadth between this side of the slip and the edge of the sole of the plane is equal to the breadth of the rebate. This slip is called a fence, and the

vertical side of it next to the stock, the guide ; as the rebate is made upon the right edge of the stuflT, the fence is always upon i the left side of the sole. The iron between the guide and the right ; hand edge of the sole of the plane must project the whole breadth of the uncovered part the I of sole, otherwise the plane

will not sink, so long as it is kept in one position ; the right hand point of the cutting edge of the iron must stand a small degree without the vertical right hand side of the plane ; for if this point of the iron stood within, the situation of the point would also prevent the sinking of the rebate ; it is also necessary that the cutting

edge of the iron should stand equally prominent in all parts out of the sole, otherwise the plane cannot make shavings of an equal

thickness, and consequently instead of keeping the vertical position, will turn round and incline to the side on which the shavings are thickest, and thus the part cut away will not have a rectangular section, for the bottom of the rebate will not then be parallel to the upper face of the stuff ; and the side which ought to have been vertical, will be a kind of ragged curved surface, formed by as many gradations or steps as the depth consists of the number of jshavings. Observe, that whatever regulates any plane which jtakes away a portion of the stuff next to the edge, to cause the part taken away on the upper face of the stuff from the edge to be of one breadth, is called a fence : in like manner, whatever pre- |vents a plane working downwards beyond a certain distance, is called a stop. Therefore the fence regulates the horizontal breadth of what is taken away, and the stop the vertical dimension or depth, and this is to be understood, not only of rebate planes, but of moulding planes, where the moulding is regulated in its horizontal 100 JOINERY. dimension, in the breadth or thickness ol the stuff, and the veirtical on the adjacent vertical side. Returning to the moving fillister, the guide is the bottom su rface of a piece of metal which is regulated by a screw, so as to miove it to the required distance from the sole. Though the bottom ©f this piece of metal is properly the stop, yet it is altogether called a stop by plane makers and carpenters ; but to avoid a confusion of words, we shall call the bottom of the stop the vertical guide. The stop moves in a vertical groove in the side of the fillister, and has

a projection with a vertical perforation, which goes farther into

the groove, or into the solid of the stock. The stop is placed

on the right hand side of the fillister, between the iron and the fore

end of the plane, and is moved up and down by a screw, which is

inserted in a vertical perforation from the top of the plane to thft

groove, and passes through the perforation in the projecting part

of the stop, which has a female, or concave screw adapted to that

cut on the convex screw. The convex screw is always kept sta-

tionary by a plate of metal, let in flush with the upper side of the

plane ; below this plate, and on the same solid with the screw, is

a collar, asnd above, another which projects still farther upwards by way of a lever, for the ease of turning the screw. This part

which turns round, is called the thumb screw. It is evident, as

the axis of the thumb screw can neither move up or down as it

turns round its axis, the inclination of the threads will rise or fall

according to the direction of the thumb screw, and cause the stop

to move up and down in the groove on the side of the plane, and

thus the stop may be fixed at pleasure. In this plane, the opening

for discharging the shaving is upon the right side of the fillister,

and in this case the shaving is said by workmen to be thrown on

the bench, that is, upon the right side of the plane ; but when the

orifice of discharge is upon the left, and consequently the shaving

thrown upon the left, the plane is said to throw the shaving off" the

bench; and these expressions are applied to all planes whico

throw the shavings to one side.

In the moving fillister, as well as in several other planes, the JOINERY. 101

than the lower part; upper part on the sides of the stock is thinner thick part the body. In this part is called the hand-hold, and the -hold is equally the moving filhster, the reduction made for the hand are of equal upon both sides of the plane, that is, the rebates upper surface of depth. The edges of these rebates, which is the double the body, are called shoulders; this plane is therefore a shouldered. The same appellation is given to the iron, when to make the upper part part is taken from one or both sides, so as bottom equally broad, but the sides parallel to the sides of the the tang of the part. The part of the iron so diminished, is called iron, and the broad part at the bottom, which has the cutting edge, of the web are is called the web, and the upper narrow surtaces plane. called the shoulders of the iron, in analogy to those of the

The iron of the moving fillister is only single shouldered. Besides the above-mentioned parts, the moving fillister has another, which in a vertical mortise, is a small one-shouldered iron, inserted and the iron. through the body, between the fore end of the stock round basil, from the The web of this little iron is ground with a narrow side of the iron left side, so as to bring the bottom of the fastened by a wedge, to a very convex edge. This little iron is passing down the mortise upon the right side of the hand-hold, principally for cutting in the body. The use of this little iron is fibres, and by this the wood transversely when wrought across the the rebate quite smooth, means it not only cuts the vertical side of stuff. The whole but prevents the iron from ragging or tearing the the bottom part may be of this little iron is called a tooth, and must, there- distinguished by the name of the cutter. The cutter hand side of the plane fore, stand out a little farther on the right the fence than than the iron, but must never be placed nearer to plane, the steel the narrow right hand side of the iron. In this side of it, is not side of the iron, and consequently the bedding but makes oblique perpendicular to the vertical sides of the plane, cutting edge of the angles therewith, the right hand point of the plane than the left hand iron being nearer to the fore end of the the bottom of th«. point of the cutting edge. By this obliquity, i2 102 JOINERY.

rebate is cut smoother, particularly in a transverse direction to the fibres, or where the stuff is cross grained, than could otherwise be done when the steel face of the iron is perpendicular to the vertical sides of the plane. The principal use is, however, to contribute, with the form of the cavity, to throw the shaving into a cylindrical form, and thereby making it issue from one side of the plane.

§ 21. Of the Sash Fillister in general. Pl. 12. Fig. 6.

The sash fillister is a rebating plane for reducing the right hand side of the stuff to a rebate, and is mostly used in rebating the bars of sashes for the glass, and is therefore called a sash fillister. The construction of this plane differs in several particulars from the

moving fillister. The breadth of iron is something more than the whole breadth of the sole, so that the extremities of the cutting edge are, in a small degree, without the vertical sides of the stock.

In the moving fillister, the fence is upon the bottom of the plane, and always between the two vertical sides of the stock ; but in this it may be moved to a considerable distance, the limit of which will be afterwards mentioned. The fence is not moved, as in the moving fillister, by screws fixed in the bottom, but by two bars, which pass through the two vertical sides of the stock at right angles to their sides, fitting the two holes exactly through which they pass in the stock. Each of the bars which thus passes through the stock, is called a stem, and is rounded on the upper side, for the convenience of handling. That part of each stem, projecting from the left hand side of the plane, has a projection downwards, of the same thickness as the parts which fass through the stock ; the bottom sides of these projections are flat surfaces, parallel to the sole of the plane ; the other two sides of the said projections are also straight surfaces, parallel to the vertical sides of the plane, and are called the shoulders, so that each stem has three vertical straight surfaces. The left end of each stem, viz. the end on the left side JOINERY. 103

of the stock, opposite to the shoulder, may be of any fanciful

form. The end of each stem which contains the projection, is called the head of the stem. To each of the heads of the stem, and

under each of the lower flat surfaces of the projecting parts, is

fixed a piece of wood by iron pins, passing vertically through each

head, and through this piece ; one of the sides of this piece, next

to the stock of the plane, is vertical, and goes about half an inch lower than the sole. The small part of each stem, from the head

to the other extremity on the right hand of the stock, is called the

tail. The prismatic part is by workmen called the fence. The surface of the fence next to the stock of the vertical plane, and pa-

rallel to the vertical faces, is called the guide of the fence. The pins which connect the stem and fence, have their heads on the

under side of the fence ; the heads are of a conical form ; the upper ends of the pins are rivetted upon a brass plate on the round

surface of the stem. These pins fix the two stems and the fence stiffly together, but not so much as to prevent either stem from turning round upon the fence, or to make oblique angles with the guide. The upper surface of each stem is rounded, and the two ends ferruled, to prevent splitting when the ends are hit or struck with a mallet, in order to move the guide of the fence either nearer or more remote from the stock, as may be wanted. On the most remote opposite, or vertical sides of the stem, and close to these sides, are cut two small wedge-formed mortises, in which are inserted two small tapering pieces of wood called keys; so that when driven in, or towards the mortise, they will stick fast, and press against the stem, and keep it fast at all points of the tail, and thereby regulate the distance of the fence from the left vertical side of the stock. In order to prevent the keys from being drawr out, or loosing, each has a small elliptic nob at the narrow end, which is also of greater breadth than the mortise upon the left ver tical side of the stock. There are two kinds of sash fillisters, one for throwing the shaving on the bench, and the other for throwing it off: their constructicm is the same so far as has been described. J04 JOINERY.

§22. The Fillister which throws the Shavings on the Bench, Pl. 12. Fig. 6.

Has its discharging orifice in course upon the right hana vertical side of the stock, and the left extremity of the cutting edge of the iron is nearer to the fore end of the plane, than the right hand extremity of the said edge. On the left side of the stock, and from the sole, is a rebate, the depth of which is equal to the depth of the rebate made on the stuff. The upper side of the fence ranges exactly with the side of the rebate which is parallel to the sole of the plane ; and by this means, the guide of the fence may be brought quite close to the vertical side of the rebate, or as far upon the side of the rebate, parallel to the sole of the plane, as may be found necessary. The depth of the rebate to be made in the stuff, is regulated by a stop, which coincides vertically with the

vertical side of the rebate ; the guide of the stop is parallel to the sole of the plane, and the stop is moved up and down by a thumb screw, in the same manner as that of the moving fillister, but not in a groove on the side of the plane, but in a mortise : the side of the rebate parallel to the sole of the plane, is mortised upwards, that the guide may be screwed up so as to be flush with that side of the rebate. The iron of this plane is single shouldered, and the projection of the web at the bottom, beyond the tang, is on the right hand side of the plane, and consequently the narrow side of the tang and web parts of the iron are in the same straight line.

§ 28. Of the Sash Fillister for throwing the Shavings

off the Bench.

The sash fillister wnich throws the shavings off the bench, differs only from the last, in having no rebate on the left hand side of the plane ; the stop slides in a vertical groove on the left hand verticle side of the stock, in the same manner as the stop of the moving fillister, and not in a vertical mortise cut in the vertical JOINERY- 105

side of the body of the plane : it has also a cutter on the left side, in order to cut the vertical side of the rebate clean. One extremity of the cutting edge of the iron, on the right hand side of the plane, is to the fore end than the nearer other ; consequently the steel face of the iron makes angles with the vertical sides of the plane the contrary way to the sash fillister, which throws the shavings on the bench.

§ 24. Rebating Planes without a Fence.

Rebating planes which have no fence, are of two kinds ; in both, the cutting edge of the iron extends the whole breadth of the

sole ; and the upper part of the stock is solid on the two vertical sides, but the lower part is open on both sides; the. opening increases from the sole regularly upwards, until it comes to a large cavity, which opens abruptly into a curved form on the side next to the fore end of the plane. The web of the iron is equally shouldered on both sides of the tang.

§ 25. Skew-mouthed Rebating Plane.

The thickest stocks, or broadest sole planes, of this description, are made with the face of the iron standing at oblique angles with the vertical sides. The right hand extremity of the cutting edge of the iron, stands nearer to the fore end of the plane than the left hand extremity of the said cutting edge, and the large cavity is greater upon the left side of the plane than upon the right. The shaving is therefore thrown ofi* the bench. The use of this plane is not for iinking the rebate, but rather for smoothing the bottom, after the moving fiUister, or after the sash fillister, next to the vertical edge of the rebate. In this manner it is used in cleaning the bottom entirely of rebates which do not exceed the brcadtli of its sole ; but where the rebate exceeds this breadth, it is only used next to the vertical side of the rebate as before, and the 106 JOINERY. remaining part of the bottom of the rebate is cleaned off with the trying and smoothing planes. When the iron is set at oblique angles to the vertical sides of the plane, the cutting edge of the sole is said to stand askew, that is, at oblique angles with the sides of the plane. This is therefore called a skew rebating plane. The thickness of this rebating plane is about one inch and five eighths.

§ 26. Square-mouthed Rebating Planes.

The common rebating planes have the steel side of the iron, or ^ the bed, perpendicular to the vertical sides of the stock, and throw

the shaving off the bench ; the cavity for the discharge of the

shaving is .much the same as the skew rebating plane ; and since

the shaving is thrown off the bench, the widest side of the cavity

is on the lefl hand side of the stock, to clean the internal angles

of fillets, and the bottoms of grooves, dec.

& 27. Side Rebating Planes]

Are those which have their cutting edge on one side of tho

plane, and discharge the shaving at the other, the lower part ol

the stock is therefore open upon both sides. The use of this piano

is to clean or plane the vertical sides of rebateSj'grooves, dzc : for

this purpose, they are made both right and left : a right hand side

rebating plane has its cutting edge on the right hand side of the plane, and consequently throws the shaving off the bench, and

the contrary of the left hand rebating plane. The side of the

plane containing the mouth, is altogether vertical ; but the opposite side is only in part so, from the top downwards to something more than half the height, then recessed and beveled with a taper to the sole; the orifice of discharge for the shaving is beveled. The iron stands askew, or at oblique angles with the mouth side, but

perpendicular with regard to the sole or top of the plane ; tie cut- :

JOINERY. ling eage stands nearer to the fore end than the opposite edge.

The mortise for the wedge of the iron is without a cavity, as in the other rebating planes, and the iron shouldered upon one side.

The web is cut sloping to answer the beveling of the stock.

§ 28. The Plough, Pi. 12. Fig. 8.

Is used in taking away a solid in the form of a rectangular prism, by sinking any where in the upper surface, but not close to the edge, and thereby leaving an excavation or hollow, consisting

<^f three straight surfaces, forming two internal right angles with each other, and the two vertical sides, two external right angles with the upper surface of the stuff. The channel cut ia called a groove, but the operation is called grooving or plowing. The plow consists of a stock, a fence, and a stop. There are two kinds of plows, one where the fence and stop is immoveable, and the other which is universal, of which, both fence and stop are moveable, and will admit of eight or ten irons of various breadths, from one eighth of an inch to three fourths. This is what I shall chiefly describe. The fence has two stems with keys and a stop, moved by a thumb screw, as in the moving fillister for throwing the shaving on the bench. The sole of this plane is the bottom narrow side of two vertical iron plates, which are something thinner than the narrowest iron. The wedge and iron are inserted in the same manner as in the rebating planes, the fore end of the hind plate forms the lower part of the bed of the iron, and has a projecting angle in the middle, and the bed side of each angle has an external angle adapted to the same. This prevents the iron from being removed by the resistance of knots or such sudden obsta-

ties : the fore iron plate is cut with a cavity similar to the common rebate planes. The stop is placed between the fence and sole this plane is in length about seven inches and three eighths, and in depth three inches and five eighths, and the length of each stem eight inches and a half. ;

108 JOINERY.

§ 29. Dado Grooving Plane,

Is a channel plane, generally about three eighths of an inch broad on the sole, whh a double cutter and stop, both placed before the edge of the iron which stands askew ; it throws the shaving off the bench. The best kind of dado grooving planes have screw

stops of brass and iron ; the common sort are made of wood, to slide stiffly in a vertical mortise, and are moved by the blow of a hammer or mallet, by striking the head, .when the groove is required to be shallow : but when required to be deep, and consequently the stop to be driven back, a wooden punch must be placed upon the bottom of the stop, and the head of the punch struck with the hammer or mallet, until the guide '^f the stop arrives at the distance from the sole of the plane that the groove is to be in depth : the use of this plane is for tongueing dado at internal angles, for keying circular dado, grooving for library shelves, or working a broad rebate across the fibres.

§ 30. Moulding Planes

Are used in forming curved surfaces of many various fanciful prismatic sections, by way of ornament; thec" surfaces have therefore this property, that all parallel sections are similar figures.

Single mouldings or different mouldings in assemblage have various names, according to their figure, combination, or situation ; mouldings are formed either by a plane reversed to the intended section, by a fence and stop on the plane, which causes them to have the same transverse section throughout, or otherwise, by several planes adapted as toarly as possible to the different degrees of curvature this is called working mouldings by hand. All new or fanciful forms are generally wrought by hand, and particularly in an assemblage of mouldings, where it would be too expensive to make planes adapted to the whole section, or to any particular member or members of that section. The length of moulding planes is nine inches and ;

JOINERY, 109 three eighths, and the depth about three inches and three eighths. Mouldings are said to be stuck when formed by planes, and the operation is called sticking. In mouldings, all internal sinkings which have one flat side, and one convex turned side, are called quirks.

§ 31. Bead Plane

Is a moulding plane of a senii-cylindric contour, and is generally used in sticking a moulding of the same name on the edge, or on the side close to the arrise : when the bead is stuck upon the edge of a piece of stuff, so as to form a semi-cylindric surface to the whole thickness, the edge is said to be beaded or rounded. When

a bead is stuck on, and from one edge on the upper surface of a piece of stuff, so tha-t the diameter may be contained in the breadth of that surface, but not to occupy the whole breadth : then the member so formed has a channel or sinking on the farther side, called a quirk, and is therefore called bead and quirk. When the quirk then edge of a piece of stuff has been stuck with bead and ; the vertical side turned upwards and stuck from the same edge in fhe same manner, another quirk will be formed u-pon this side provided the breadth of this side be equal to that of the bead then the curved surface will be three fourths of a cylinder, this is called bead and Houble quirk or return bead. The fence is of a solid piece with the plane. The guide of the fence is parallel to the sides of the plane, and tangential to the concave cylindric surface, and its lower edge comes about one fourth or three eighths of an inch below the cylindrical part, the other edge ot the cylindrical part forms one side of the quirk, and is on a level with the top of the guide of the fence. The other side of the quirk

'« a vertical straight surface, and reaches as high as the most prominent part of the cylindric surface of the bead. From the upper edge of this flat side of the quirk, and at right angles to the vertical sides of the plane, proceeds the guide of the stop, which 110 JOINERY.

prevents the bead from sinking deeper than the semi-diameter of the cyhuder, and the guide of the fence prevents the plane from taking more of the breadth than the diameter. When one, two, or more, contiguous semi-cyhnders are gunk within the surface of a piece of wood, with the prominent parts of the curved surface of each, in the same surface as that from which they were sunk, this operation is called reeding, being done in imitation of one or a bundle of a reeds, and each little cylinder is called a reed. In this case, the axis of the reed is in the same straight surface : but this is not always the case, they are sometimes disposed round a staff or rod. Bead planes are sometimes so constructed, as to have the fence taken off or on at pleasure, by screws, for the purpose of striking any series of reeds. When the fence is taken off, the two sides form quirks, and are exactly similar and equal to each other.

The least sized bead is about one eighth of an inch, the next 3^2> the regular -s_ progression stands thus : J- ^ x c. s i s a 7 the first two only differ the next three 1 3V, ,V, and from f to of an inch, they differ 1 by of an inch each, the | and 1 inch beads are torus planes as well as bead planes. The torus only differs from the bead in having a fillet upon the outer edge of the stuff: consequently the torus consists of a fillet and semi-cylinder. It may be observed, that whether there be one or two semi-cylinders stuck on the edge of a piece of stuff, that without there is a fillet upon the edge they only take the name of beads. The torus is in general much larger than the bead : but when there are two serni^ cylinders with a fillet upon the outer edge, the combination is called a double torus, and if there is no fillet, it is called a double bead, even though the one should be much larger than the other.

§ 32. A SnipesbiU

Is a moulding plane for forming a quirk : snipesbills are of two kinds, one for sinking the quirk, called a sinking snipesbill, and JOINERY. Ill

the other for cleaning the vertical flat side of the quirk, called a

side snipesbill. Each of these two kinds are right and left.

In the sinking snipesbill the cutting edge is on the sole, and the extremity of the iron comes close to the side of the plane, which

forms the vertical side of the quirk ; the sole consists of two parts

of a cylindric surface of contrary curvature : one next to the edire

which forme the quirk, is concave, and the part more remote, is convex.

The side snipesbill has its iron placed very nearly perpendicu. lar, with regard to the sole of the plane, the top of the iron leaning about five degrees forward : this plane has its cutting edge upon one side or the other, according to the side or to the hand it is made for. The iron stands askew to the vertical sides ofthe plane.

§ 33. Hollows and Rounds

Are mouldings for striking convex and concave cylindrical surfaces, or any segment or parts of these surfaces ; they have therefore their soles exactly the reverse of what is intended. Hollows and rounds are not confined to cylindric surfaces, but will also stick those of cylindrical forms, or those which have elliptic sections, perpendicular to the direction of the motion by which they are wrought. Mouldings depressed within the surface of a piece of wood, or those which form quirks, must first be sunk by the snipesbill, and formed into the intended shape by hollows and rounds. The hollow is only used in finishing a convex moulding; the rough is generally taken ofl:* with the jack plane, when there is room to apply it, if not, with the firmer chisel. In making a hollow, a rough e:xcavation is first made with a gouge, and then finished with the iround, and sometimes with two rounds, of which the sole of the on© that comes first is a little quicker, and the iron set more rank. ;

112 JOINERY.

§ 34. Stock and Bits, Pl. 13. Fio. 8.

The stock is a wooden lever, to be turned round an axis swiftly by hand, in order to give the same rotative motion round the axis, to a piece of steel fixed in the said axis, the steel being sharpened

at the extremity, so as to cut a cylindric hole, in the same direction

as the axis of the stock.

The axis is continued on both sides of the handle or winch part

one part of the axis is made with a broad head, t-o be placed against the breast while boring, even when pressing pretty hard

upon the stock, and is so constructed with a joint, as to be sta-

tionary, while all the other parts are in motion ; the lower part of the stock is brass, and is fixed to it by means of a screw passing through two ears of the brass part, and through the solid of the

wood. The brass part is called the pad, which is so contrived,

as to admit of different pieces of steel called bits, for boring and widening holes of various diameters in wood, and countersinking,

both in wood and iron ; that is, forming a cavity or hollow cone

on the outer side of a cylindric hole to receive the head of a screw, or the like. The upper part of each bit inserted in the stock, is the frustum of a square pyramid, which goes into a hollow mortise of the same form, and is secured by means of a spring fixed in the pad, and which falls into a notch at the upper end of the bit.

The construction of bits depends upon their use. Small bits are used for boring of wood, and have an interior cavity for containing the core, separated from the wood by the under edge.

The lower part of the cavity is the surface of a cylinder, and the upper part where the cavity ends is a part of a long hollow oblong

is spheroid, terminated upon the sides of the bit : the exterior side also cylindrical, as high as that of the interior, and thence diminishes for a considerable way above the hollow, that it may turn in the hole with the greater case. The section of the bit is the figure of a crescent. The cutting edge has its basil on the inside, and stands prominent in the middle ; this bit is also called a pin or gouge bit, from its being mostly used in JOINERY. 113

framing it bores : soft wood, as deal, with greater rapidity than any other tool.

1^35. The Centre Bit

Is constructed with a projecting conical point nearly in the mid. die, called the centre of the bit ; on the narrow vertical surface, the one most remote from the centre is a tooth with a cutting edge. The under edge of the bit on the other side of the centre, has a projecting edge inclined forward. The horizontal section of this bit upwards is a rectangle. The axis of the small cone in the centre is in the same straight line as that of the stock ; the cutting edge of the tooth is more prominent than the projecting edge on the other side of the centre, and the vertex of the conic centre still more prominent than the cutting edge of the tooth.

The use of the centre bit is to form a cylindric excavation, having the upper point of the axis of the intended hole, given on the surface of the wood : the centre of the bit is first fixed in this point, then placing the axis of the stock and bit in the axis of the intended hole to be bored, with the head of the stock against your breast, lay hold of the handle and turn the stock swiftly round, then the hollow cone made by the centre will cause the point of the tooth to move in the circumference of a circle, and cut the

cylindric surface progressively aa it is turned round, and the pro. jecting edge upon the other side of the centre, will cut out the core in a spiral formed shaving : centre bits are of various sizes, in order to accommodate bores of different diameters.

§ 36. Countersinks

Are bits for widening the upper part of a hole in wood or iron, for the head of a screw or pin, and have a conical head. Those for wood have one cutter in the conic surface, and have the cutting edaje more remote from the axis of the cone than any other part of No. 8. o 114 JOINERY. the surface. Countersinks for brass have eleven or twelve cutters round the conic surface, so that the horizontal section represents a circular saw. These are called rose countersinks. The conic

angle at the vertex is about ninety degrees. Countersinks for

iron have two cutting edges, forming an oGtuse angle.

§ 37. Rimers

of a Are bits for widening holes : for this purpose they are py- ramidical structure, having their vertical angle about three degrees a drill or and a half. The hole must first be pierced by means of into the stock, and the point into punch ; when the rimer is put edges will cut or the hole, and being turned swiftly round, the downwards, scrape off the interior surface of the hole as it sinks have their by pressing upon the head of the stock. Brass rimers for iron horizontal sections of a semicircular figure, and those their sections square, some hexa- polygonal : of these some have gonal, and some octagonal.

§ 38. The Taper Shell Bit

the horizontal section a Is conicai both within and without, and the exterior and in. crescent, the cutting edge is the meeting of widening holes in terior conic surface. The use of this bit is for wood. Besides the above bits, some stocks are provided with a screw greater rapidity driver for sinking small screws into wood with than could be done by hand.

§ 39. The Brad Awl, Pl. 13. Fig. 3.

of a eone Is the smallest boring tool, its handle is the frustum but tapering ta,?ering downwards. The steel part is also conical, JOINERY. 115

upwards, and the cutting edge is the meeting of two basils, ground

equally from each side. A hole is made by placing the edge

transverse to the fibres of the wood, and pushing the brad awl into

the wood, turning it to and fro by a reciprocal motion. The core

is not brought out as by the other boring instruments ; but the

wood is displaced and condensed around the hole. Brad awls are used for making a for brads, and are of several way sizes ; they are not so apt to split the wood as the gimlet.

§ 40. Chisels in general. Pt. 13. Figs. 3, 4, 5.

A chisel is an edge tool for cutting wood, either by leaning on

it, or by striking it with a mallet. The lower part of the chisel is

the frustum of a cuneus or wedge, the cutting edge is always on,

and generally at right angles to the side. The basil is ground entirely from one side. The two sides taper in a small degree upwards, but the two narrow surfaces taper downwards in a greater

degree. The upper part of the iron has a shoulder, which is a plain surface at right angles to the middle line of the chisel. From this plain surface rises a prong in the form of a square pyramid,

the middle line of which is the same as the middle line of the cuneus or wedge : the prong is inserted and fixed in a socket of a

piece of wood of the same form. This piece of wood is called the handle, and is generally the frustum of an octagonal pyramid,

the middle line of which is the same as that of the chisel ; the tapering sides of the handle diminish downwards, and terminate

upwards in an octagonal dome. The use of the shoulder is for preventing the prong from splitting the handle while being struck

with the mallet. The chisel is made stronger from the cutting edge to the shoulder, as it is sometimes used as a lever, the prop being at or near the middle, and the power at the handle, and the resistance at the cutting edge ; some chisels are made whh iron on side, one and steel on the other, and others consist entirely of steel. are There several kinds of chisels, as the paring chisel, the mortise chisel, the socket chisel, and the ripping chisel. *16 JOINERY.

§ 41. The Firmer Chisel, Pl. 13. Fig. 4.

Is used both by carpenters and joiners in cutting away the superfluous wood by thin chips. The best are made of cast steel.

When there is a great deal of superfluous wood to be cut away, sometimes a strong chisel consisting of an iron back and steel face is first used, by driving it into the wood with a mallet, and then a slighter one, consisting entirely of steel sharpened to a very fine edge, is used in the finish. The first used is called a firmer, and the last, a paring chisel, in working which, only the shoulder or hand is employed in forcing it into the wood.

§ 42. The Mortise Chisel, Pl. 13. Fig. 5.

Is made exceedingly strong, for cutting out a rectangular pris*

matic cavity across the fibres, quite through or very deep in a piece of wood, for the purpose of inserting a rectangular pin of the

same form on the end of another piece of wood, and thereby fas-

tening the two pieces of wood together. The cavity is called a

mortise, and the pin inserted a tenon : and the chisel used for

cutting out the cavity is therefore called a mortise chisel. As

the thickness of this chisel from the face to the back is great, in

order to withstand the percussive force of the mallet ; and as the

angle which the basil makes with the face is about twenty-five

degrees, the slant dimension of the basil is very great. This chisel

is only used by percussive force, given by the mallet.

§ 43. The Gouge

Is used in cutting an excavation of a concave form, and is similar

to the chisel, except that the bottom part is cylindrical both within

and without ; the basil is made on the inside ; the best are those

which are made of cast steel. JOINERY. 117

§ 44. The Drawing Knife

Is an oblique ended chisel, or old knife, for drawing in the ends of tenons, by making a deep incision with the sharp edge, by the small part is edge of the tongue of a square : for this purpose a cut out in the form of a triangular prism, and consequently the hollow will contain one interior angle and two sides, one side next the body of the wood being perpendicular, and the other inclined. The use of this excavation is to enter the saw, and keep it close to the shoulder, and to make the end of the rail quite smooth, for the saw will not only be liable to get out of its course into a new direction, but may tear and scratch the wood at the shoulder.

§ 45. Of Saws in general. Pl. 13. Fig. 6, 7, 8, 9, 13.

A saw is a thin plate of steel indented on the edge for cutting, by a reciprocal change in the direction of motion, pushing it from, and drawing it towards you. The cut which it makes, or the part taken away in a board, is a thin slice, contained between parallel planes, or a deep narrow groove of equal thickness. Saws are of several kinds, as the ripping saw, the half ripper, the hand saw, the panel saw, the tenon saw, the sash saw, the dove-tail saw, the compass saw, and the key-hole or turning saw. The teeth of these saws are all formed so as to contain an angle of sixty degrees, both external and internal angles, and incline more or less forward as the saw is made to cut transverse to, or in the direction of the according fibres : they are also of different lengths and breadths, to their use. The teeth of a saw are bent alternately to each side, that the plate may clear the wood.

§ 46. The Ripping Saw

Is used in dividing or slitting wood in the direction of the fibres;

the teeth are very large, there being eight in three inches, and k2 il8 JOINERY. the front of the teeth stand perpendicular to the line which ranges with the points : the length of the plate is about twenty eight inches.

§47. The Half Ripper

Is also used in dividing wood in the direction of the fibres : the length of the plate of this is the same as the former, but there are only three teeth in the inch.

§ 48. The Hand Saw, Pl. 13. Fig. 6.

Is both used for cutting the wood in a direction of the fibres and cross cutting : for this purpose the teeth are more reclined than the two former saws: there are fifteen teeth contained in four inches. The length of the plate is twenty six inches.

§49. The Panel Saw

Is used for cutting very thin wood, either in a direction of, or transverse to the fibres. The length of the plate is the same as that of the hand saw, but there are only about six teeth in the inch. The plates of the hand saw and panel saw are thinner than the ripping saw.

§ 50. The Tenon Saw, Pi . 13. Fig. 7.

Is generally used for cutting wood transverse to the fibres, as the shoulders of tenons. The plate of a tenon saw is from fourteen to nineteen inches in length, and the number of teeth in an inch from eight to ten. As this saw is not intended to cut through the wood its whole breadth, and as the plate would be too thin to make a straight kerf, or to keep it from buckling, there is a thick piece of iron fixed upon the other edge for this purpose, called the back. JOINERY. 119

The opening through the handle for the fingers of this and the this account is called foregoing saws is inclosed all round ; and on a double handle.

§ 51. The Sash Saw, Pl. 13. Fig. 8.

of sashes the Is used by sash makers in forming the tenons : about thirteen plate is eleven inches in length. The inch contains frequently teeth; this saw is sometimes backed with iron, but more with brass.

§ 52. I%e Dwe-tail Saw

of the plate is Is- used in dove-tailing drawers. The length This about nine inches, and the inch contains about fifteen teeth. last saws plate is also backed with brass. The handles of the two are only single.

9. § 53. The Compass Saw, Pl. 13. Fig.

surfaces for Is for cutting the surfaces of wood into curved : the cutlmg this purpose it is narrow, without a back, thicker on inch broad, edge, as the teeth have no set. The plate is about an of an inch next to the handle, and diminishes to about one quarter five teeth in the mch. at the other extremity ; here are about

The handle is single.

§ 54. The Key-hole, or Turning Sato

the handle is Is similar to the compass saw in the plate, but be long, and perforated from end to end, so that the plate may the inserted any distance within the handle. The lower part of is inserted a screw, nandle is provided with a pad, through which this saw is for the purpose of fastening the plate in the handle : 120 JOINERY.

used for turning out quick curves, as key-holes, and is therefore frequently called a key-hole saw.

§55. The Hatchet

Is a small axe, used chiefly in cutting away the superfluous wood from the edge of a piece of stuff, when the part to be cut away is too small to be sawed.

§ 56. TAe Square, Pl. 13. Fig. 11.

Consists of two rectangular prismatic pieces of wood, or one of wood, and the other which is the thinest, of steel, fixed together, each at one of their extremities, so as to form a right angle both internally and externally; the interior right angle is therefore called the inner square, and the exterior one the outer square. The side of the square which contains the mortise, or through which the end of the other piece passes, is made very thick, not

only that it may be strong enough for containing the tenon of the other piece, but that it should keep steady and flat when used; and the piece which contains the tenon is made thin, in order to observe more clearly whether the edge of the square and the wood coincide. The thick side of the square is called the stock or handle, and the narrow surface of the handle is always applied to the vertical surface of the wood. The thin side of the square IS called the blade, and the inner edge of the blade is always applied to the horizontal surface of the wood. Squares are of different dimensions according to their use : some are employed m trying.up wood, and some for setting out work ; the former is called a trying square, and the latter a selting-out square ; the blade ought to be of steel, and always ought to project beyond the end of the stock, particularly if made of wood. The stock is always made thick, that it may be used as a kind offence in keep, ing the blade at right angles to the arris. ;

JOINERY. 121

§ 57. To prove a Square.

Take a straight edged board which has been faced up, and apply the inner edge of the stock of the square to the straight edge of the board, laying the side of the tongue upon the face of the board ; with a sharp point draw a 'ine upon the surface of the board by the edge of the square : turn the square so that the other side of the blade may lie upon the face of the board ; bring the stock close to the straight edge of the board, then if the edge of the square does not lie over the line, or any part of the line, the square must be shifted until it does, then if the edge of the tongue of the square and the line coincide, the square is already true but if there is an open space between the farther side of the board and the straight edge, that is, if the farther end of the edge of the tongue of the square meets the farther end of the line from the straight edge, draw another line by the edge of the tongue of the square, and these two lines will form an acute angle with each other, the vertex of which will be at the farther side of the board, and the opening towards the straight edge : take the middle of the distance between the two lines at the arris, and draw a line from the middle point to the point of concourse of the lines : then the blade of the square must be shot or made straight, so as to coin cide with this last line. The same, or a similar operation, must be repeated, if the contrary way.

§ 58. TAe Bevd, Pl. 13. Fie. 12.

Consists of a blade and handle the same as the square, except that the tongue is made moveable on a joint that it may be set to any angle. When many pieces of stuff are to be tried up to a particular angle, an immoveable bevel ought to be made for the purpose, for unless very great care be taken in laying down the moveable bevel, it will be liable to shift. 122 JOINERY.

§ 59. The Gauge, Pl. 13, Fig. 13.

Is an instrument for drawing a line parallel to the arris of a piece of stuff, on one or both of the adjoining surfaces. It con-

sists of a thick rectangular prismatic part, with a mortise of the

same figure, cut perpendicularly through it, between two of its op-

posite sides, and this prism is called the head. In the mortise is

inserted another prism exactly made to fill its cavity, this prism is

called the stem ; at one end of the stem is a steel tooth projecting perpendicularly from the surface, so that by striking one end or

other with the mallet, the tooth is moved farther or nearer to the adjacent surface of the head, as the distance may be wanted be tween the arris of the stuff and the line to be marked out by the

tooth.

§60. The Mortise Gauge

Is constructed similar to the common gauge, but has two teeth

instead of one. One tooth is stationary at the end of the stem,

and the other is moveable in a mortise between the fixed tooth and the head, so that the distances of the teeth from each other, and of each tooth from the head, may be set in any ratio or proper-

tion to each other, that the thickness of a tenon or wood may re-

quire. The use of this gauge is, as its name implies, for gauging mortises and tenons.

§ 61. The Side Hook, Pl. 12. Fig. 11.

Is a rectangular prismatic piece of wood with two projecting knobs

upon the alternate sides of it. Every joiner ought to be provided

with at least two side'hooks of equal size. Their use is to hold a

board fast, the fibres of the board running in the direction of the

length of the bench, while the workn:>an is cutting across the fibres

with a saw or grooving plane, or in traversing the wood, which is

planing in a direction perpendicular to the fibres, or with very little

obliquity. :

JOINERY. 123

§62. The Mitre Box

Is used for cutting a piece of tried-up stuff at an angle of forty, five degrees with two of its surfaces, or at least to one of the arrises, and perpendicular to the other two sides, or at least to one of them obliquely to the fibres. The mitre box consists of three boards, two called, the sides being fixed at right angles to the third, the bottom : the bottom and top of the sides are all parallel the sides are of equal height, and cut with a saw into two directions of straight surfaces at right angles to each other and to tho bottom, forming an angle of forty-five degrees with the sides.

§ 63. The Shooting Block

Is two boards fixed together, the sides of which are lapped upon each other, so as to form a rebate for the purpose of making a short joint, either oblique to the fibres, or in their direction. By this instrument the joints of panels for framing are made, also tho joints for the mitres of architraves, or the like.

§ 64. The Straight Edge

Is a piece of stuff or board made perfectly straight on the edge, in order to make other edges straight, or to plane the face of a board straight. Straight edges are of different dimensions, as the magnitude of the work may require.

§ 65. Winding Sticks

Are two pieces of wood of equal breadth for the purpose of as- certaining whether a surface be straight or not ; if not, the surface must be brought to a straight by trial. 124 JOINERY.

§ 66. The Mitre Square

Is so called, because it bisects the right angle, or mitres the square, and is therefore an immoveable bevel, made to strike an angle of forty-five degrees with one side or edge of a piece of stuff, upon the adjoining side or edge of the said piece of stuff : it consists of a broad thin board let in, or tongued into a piece on the

edge, called the fence or handle ; the fence projects equally upon

each side of the thin piece or blade, of which one of the edges is made to contain an angle of forty-five degrees with the nearest

edge of the handle, or of that in which the blade is inserted. The

inside of the handle is called the guide ; the handle may be about an inch thick, two inches broad, the blade about a quarter of an inch, or about one eighth and a sixteenth. The blade may be about seven or eight inches broad; but mitre squares must be of

various sizes, according to the work, and consequently of different thicknesses. To use the mitre square, lay the guide of the handle upon the

arris, slide it along the stuff until the oblique edge comes to the

place required, then draw a line by this edge ; the angle of the

mitre may be struck either way, according to the direction re* quired, by turning the mitre square. JOINERY. 125

IN JOINERY. § 67. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES PLATE XII.

TOOLS.

Fig. 1 the jack plane, a the stock, h the tote or handle, being iron, e the a single tote, c the iron, d the wedge for tightening the orifice or place of discharge for the shavings.

Fig. 2 the trying plane, the parts are the same as the jack with wood, plane, except that the hollow of the tote is surrounded and is therefore called a double tote. tote, the hand-hold Fig. 3 is the smoothing plane without a being at the hind end of the plane. the shaving, Fig. 4 the iron. No. 1. the cover for breaking screwed upon the top of the iron, in order to prevent the tearing front of the iron without the of the wood, in a front view : No. 2. the cover to cover, showing the slit or the screw which fastens cover screwed together. the iron : No. 3. profile of iron and longitudinal Fig. 6 the wedge for tightening the iron: No. 1. the hollow below for section of the wedge : No. 2. front, showing the head of the screw. head of one Fig. 6 sash fillister, for throwing on the bench, a for moving stem, h tail of the other, c iron, A wedge, c thumb screw the stop up and down,// fence for regulating the distance of the rebate from the arris. on the Fig. 7 the moving fillister for throwing the shaving of the plane, a brass stop, 6 thumb bench : No. 1. right hand side outside of the screw of do. cde tooth, the upper part c d on the body with neck, and the part d e passing through the sohd of the tooth, the a small part open above, e, for the tang of the iron / / turned up, a the guide of the fence : No. 2. bottom of the plane regulating guide of the stop, //the fence, showing the screws for the guide, g g the mouth and cutting edge of the iron. Fig. 8 the plow, the same with regard to the stem fence and the stop, and also in other respects as the sash fillister, except sole, which is a narrow iron. 126 JOINERY.

Fig. 9 the mallet. Fig. 10 the hammer.

Fig. 11 the side hook for cutting the shoulders of tenons. Fig. 12 the work bench, a the bench hook, h h the screw check, c c handle screw, d end of guide.

PLATE XIIL

TOOIiS.

Fig. 1 stock, into which is fixed a centre bit.

Fig. 2 No. 1. the gimlet : No. 2. the lower part at full size.

Fig. 3 No. 1. the brad awl : No. 2. the lower end turned edge* ways : No. 3. the lower end turned side-ways.

Fig. 4 No. 1. the paring chisel: No. 2. the lower end turned edge-ways with the basil.

Fig. 5 the mortise chisel : No. 1. side of the chisel : No. 3. front : No. 3. lower end with the basil. Fig. 6 hand saw. Fig. 7 tenon saw, with back generally of iron. Fig. 8 sash saw, backed generally with brass.

Fig. 9 compass saw for cutting curved pieces of wood. Fig. 10 key hole saw, a the pad in which are inserted a spring and two screws, for fixing the saw to any length. N. B. The hand saw and tenon saw have what are called double handles, and the tenon and compass saws single handles. The position and form of the handle depends on the position of the working direction of the saw. Fig. 11 the square, o J c the outer square, d e / the inner square, ad e the stock or handle, h cf e the blade. Fig. 12 the moveable bevel, a b the stock, h c the blade. Fig. 13 the gauge, a a the stem, b b the head which moves, e the tooth which marks. ;

JOINERY. 127

PLATE XIV. MOULDINGS.

§ 68. To draw the several kinds of Mouldings made by Joiners.

An astragal is a moulding of a semi-circular profile ; its construction is so simple that it would be unnecessary to say any thing concerning it. Fig. 1.

There are two kinds of beads, one is called a cocked bead, when it projects beyond the surface to which it is attached, see

Fig. 2 ; and the other is called a sunk bead, when the sinking is depressed beneath the surface of the material to which it is attached, that is, when the most prominent part of the bead is in the same surface with that of the material. Fig. 3.

A torus in architecture is a moulding of the same profile as a bead ; the only diflference is, when the two are combined in the same piece of work, the torus is of greater magnitude, as Fig. 4 in Joinery the torus is always accompanied with a fillet. Fig. 6. single torus moulding.

The Roman ovolo or quarter round, as called by joiners, is the quadrant of a circle. Fig. 6. When the projection and height are unequal, as in Fig. 7, take the height B C, and from the point B describe an arc at C, and with the same radius from A, describe another arc cutting the former at D, with the distance A D or D B describe the profile A B. This is generally accompanied with fillets above and below, as in Fig. 7.

The cavetto is a concave moulding, the regular profile of which is the quadrant of a circle, Fig. 8 ; its description is the same as the ovolo.

A scotia is a concave moulding receding at the top, and projecting at the bottom, which in this respect is contrary both to the ovolo and cavetto ; it is also to be observed, that its profile consists of two quadrants of circles of different radii, or it may be considered as a semi-ellipse taken upon two conjugate diameters, Fig. 9. To describe the scotia, divide the height A B into three equal 128 JOINERY. parts, at the point 2 draw the line 2 C D, being one-third from the top, draw E C perpendicular to C D, with the centre C and and distance C E describe the quadrant E F ; take the height A 2 and make F D equal to it : draw D G perpendicular to F D, from D with the distance describe D F the arc F G, and E F G will be the profile of the scotia. This moulding is peculiarly applied to bases of the columns, and makes a distinguishing line of shadow between the torii.

The ogee is a moulding of contrary curvature, and is of two kinds when the profile of : the projecting part is concave, and consequently the receding part couvex, the ogee is called a cima- recta, Figs. 10 and 11 ; and when the contrary, it is then called a cima-reversa, Fig. 12.

To describe the cima-recta when the projection of the moulding is equal to its height, and when required to be of a thick curvature, Fig. 10. Join the projections ot the fillets A and B by the straight line bisect at A B ; A B C, draw E C D parallel to the fillet F A, draw and perpendicular A D B E to F B ; from the point E describe the quadrant B C, and from thg point D describe the quadrant A C, then B C A is the profile.

To describe the cima-recta when the height and projection are unequal, and when it is required to be of a flat curvature. Fig. 11.

Join A B and bisect it in C, with the distance B C or C A from the point A describe the arc C D, from C with the same radius describe the arc A D cutting the former in D, the foot of the compass still remaining in C describe the arc B E, from B with the same radius describe the arc C E, from the point D describe the arc A C, from the point E describe the arc C B, then will A C B be the profile required.

The cima-reversa, Fig. 12, is described in the same manner.

Quirk mouldings sometimes occasion confusion as to their figure particularly when removed from the eye, so as frequently to make one moulding appear as two. JOINERY. 129

PLATE XV.

§ 69. MOULDINGS.

The names of mouldings according to their situatioa and com» bination, in various pieces of joiners' work.

Fig. 1 edge said to be rounded.

Fig. 2 quirked bead or bead, and quirk. Fig. 3 bead and double quirk, or return bead.

Fig. 4 double bead, or double bead and quirk. Fig. 5 single torus.

Fig. 6 double torus. Here it is to be observed, that the dis, tinction between torus mouldings and beads in joinery is, the outer edge of the former always terminates with a fillet, whether the torus be double or single, whether in beads there is no fillet on the outer edge.

Figs. 7, 8, 9 single, double, triple and reeded mouldings ; semi- cylindric mouldings are denominated reeds, either when they are terminated by a straight surface equally protuberant on both sides, as in these figures, or disposed longitudinally round the circum ference of a shaft ; but if only terminated on one side with a flush surface, they are then either beads or torus mouldings.

Fig. 10 reeds disposed round the convex surface of a cylinder. Figs. 11, 12, 13 fluted work. When the flutes are semi-circular, as in Fig. 11, it is necessary that there should be some dis-

tance between them, as it would be impossible to bring their junction to an arris ; but in flutes, the sections of which are flat segments, the flutes generally meet each other without any inter-

mediate straight surface between them. The reason of this is, that the light and shade of the adjoining hollows are more con-

trasted, the angle of their meeting being more acute, than if a flat

space were formed between them. See Figs. 12 and 18, fluting round the convex surface of a cylinder.

Nos. 9 & 10. Q 130 JOINERY.

PLATE XVI.

§ 70. Mouldings of Doors,

The different denominations of framed doors, according to their mouldings and panels, and framed work in general. The figures in the plates to which these descriptions refer, are sections of doors, through one of the stiles taking in a small part of the panel, ©r they may be considered as a vertical section through the top rail, showing part of the panel.

Fig. 1 the framing is without mouldings, and the panel a straight surface on both sides : this is denominated doors square and flat panel on both sides.

Fig. 2 the framing has a quirked ovolo, and a fillet on one side, but without mouldings on the other, and the panel flat on both

this is sides : denominated doors quirked ovolo, fillet and flat, with square back.

Fig. 3 differs only from the last in having a bead instead of a

fillet, and is therefore denominated quirked ovolo bead and flat panel, with square back.

Fig. 4 has an additional fillet on the framing, to what there is

in Fig. 3, and is therefore denominated quirked ovolo bead, fillet

and flat panel, with square back.

Note. When the back is said to be square, as in Figs. 2, 3, 4, the meaning is, that there are no mouldings on the framing, and the panel is a straight surface on one side of the door. Fig. 5 the framing struck with quirk ogee and quirked bead on one side, and square on the other; the surface of the panel

straight on both sides : this is called quirked ogee, quirked bead,

and flat panel, with square back.

Fig. 6 differs from the last only in having the bead raised above the lower part of the ogee and a fillet. This is therefore denominated quirked ogee, cocked bead, and flat panel, with square back. JOINERY. 131

PLATE XVII.

Mouldings for Doors, S^c.

Fig. 1 is denominated cove, cocked bead, and flat panel, with square back.

Fig. 2 is denominated quirked ovolo, bead, fillet, and raised panel on front, with square back. The rising of the panel gives strength to the door, and on this account they are often employed in in street doors, though the fashion at present is discontinued the inside of building.

Fig. 3 the framing is the same as the last, but the panel is raised in front, and has an ovolo on the rising. This is therefore denominated quirked ovolo, bead, and raised panel, with ovolo on the rising on front of door, with square back.

Fig. 4 is denominated quirked ogee, raised panel, ovolo, and fillet on the rising and astragal on the flat of panel in front and square back. Note. The raised side of the panel is always turned towards the street.

Fig. 5 is denominated quirked ovolo, bead, fillet, and flat panel, on both sides ; doors of this description are used between rooms, or between passages and rooms, where the door is equally exposed on both sides. When the panels are flat on both sides, or simply chamfered on one side and flat on the other, and the framing of the door moulded on the side which has the flat panels ; such doors are employed in rooms where one side only is exposed, and the other never but when opened, being turned towards a cupboard or dark closet. 132 JOINERY.

PLATE XVIII.

Mouldings for Doors, ^c.

Fig. 1 is denominated bead, but, and square, or more fully bead and but, front and square back. In bead and but work, the bead is always struck on the outer arris of the top or flat of the pane' in the direction of the grain.

Fig. 2 is denominated bead and flush front and quirked ogee, raised panel, with ovolo on the rising, grooved on flat of panel, on back. Bead and flush, and bead and but work are always

Used where strength is required. The mouldings on the inside are made to correspond with the other passage or hall doors.

Fig. 3 is a collection or series of mouldings the same on both sides, and project in part without the framing on each side ; the

!nouldings are laid in after the door is framed square and put together. If braded through the sides of the quirks, the heads will be entirely concealed ; but observe, that the position of the brads must not be directed towards the panels, but into the solid of the framing. The mouldings of doors which thus project are termed belection mouldings; belection moulded work is chiefly employed in superior buildings. Fig. 4 another form of a belection moulding.

The following is a geometrical description of reeded mouldings, sash bars, and the manner of springing mouldings.

Fig. 5 to inscribe a circle in a given sector A B C of a circle, the angle C by G A produce the sides A B, AC, to bisect B A ; D and E, and A G to meet the arc in F, draw D E perpendicular to A F, bisect the angle D E A of the triangle A D E by E G, and G is the centre of the inscribed circle, and G F the radius.

Fig. 6 a reeded stafi", the reeds described as in Fig. 5 JOINERY 133

PLATE XIX.

Mouldings far Sashes and Cornices.

Fig. 1 simple astragal or half round bar for sashes. Fig. 2 quirked astragal bar. Fig. 3 quirked Gothic bar. Fig. 4 another form of a Gothic bar. Fig. 5 double ogee bar: this and the preceding forms are easily kept clean. Fig. 6 quirked astragal and hollow: bars of this structure have been long in use.

Fig. 7 double reeded bar. Fig. 8 triple reeded bar. Fig. 9 base moulding of a room with part of the skirting.

When the base mouldings are very large, they ought to be sprung as in this diagram. A the base moulding, B part of the plinth. In order to know what thickness it would require a board to be of, to get out a moulding upon the spring ; the best method is to draw the moulding out to the full size, then draw a line parallel to the general line of the moulding, so as to make it equally strong throughout its breadth, and also of sufficient strength for its intended purpose.

Fig. 10 a cornice. The part A forming the corona, is got out of a plank. B is a bracket, C the moulding on the front spring,

D a cover board forming the upper fillet, E a moulding sprung below the corona, F a bracket.

§71. Definitions,

A piece of stuff is said to be wrought when it is planed on one or more sides, so as to make a complete finish as far as required

it is with the jack plane, ond no by a plane ; hence if only planed farther operation of any other plane required, in this case it is 1,2 134 JOINERY.

said to be wrought ; and if the stuff requires to be made straighter with the trying plane, the stuff is still said to be wrought. The operation of planing the first side of a board or piece of stuff straight, is called facing, the side so done is called the face, and the board itself is said to be faced-up.

The operation of planing the edge of a board straight, is called shooting, and the edge is said to be shot.

When two adjoining surfaces of a piece of stuff are planed so as to form a right angle, the piece of stuff is said to be squared.

When two adjoining surfaces of a piece of stuff are planed so as to form an acute or obtuse angle by the inclination of these

surfaces, this piece of stuff is said to be bevelled ; and if one surface is narrower than the other, the narrower surface becomes the edge, the edge is then said to be bevelled ; but this is only meant in reference to the face, as the expression could have no meaning, except in the relation of the adjoining surfaces. The squared, same is also apphed to a piece of wood that has been the edge is said to be squared, instead of the adjoining surfaces said to be squared. When a line has been drawn on the face or edge of a piece of stuff parallel to the arris or line of concourse of the two surfaces that are planed, that surface is said to be gauged, and is generally done by means of the implement or tool called a gauge. four When the stuff is planed on one, two, three, or all the the sides, as may be required, then the stuff is said to be tried up ; term try-up is sometimes applied to facing, but in what follows, the term facing, is only applied to the side first wrought.

§ 72. To make a Straight Edge.

Fasten two boards together in the checks of the bench screw, at one end, and support the other end with the side pin, inserted the upper edges as in one of the holes of the side board ; plane place straight as the eye can observe : unscrew the check board, :

JOINERY. 135

one board upon the other, with the planed edges together, and the faces of the boards in a straight Hne with each other ; then if the edges coincide, they are straight, but if not, they will be ahke round or ahke hollow the ; prominent parts must be marked, and the operation repeated as often as may be found necessary. la shooting the edges, the rough is first taken off with the jack plane in convex places, stand still, drawing and pushing the plane ta and from you by the motion of the arms, until the prominent part or parts have been reduced by repeated shavings, which will be taken off the wood, every time the plane is driven forwards ; then having got the edges very nearly straight, you may take one or two shavings by going the whole length from the hind to the fore end, without drawing back the plane; then with the trying or long plane walk from end to end as before, pushing the plane continually forward, and if it take a shaving of unequal breadth, or unequal thickness, or both, repeat the operation again until this is not the case. If the edges are very long, the same operation must be performed with the jointer, viz. by pushing it forward from end to end. Then, when two edges coincide in working them together in this manner, you will have two straight edges. Straight edges are easier made when the board has been previously faced. Here the workman must keep the definition of a straight line continually in view.

73. § To face a Piece of Stuff.

Here the workman must not lose sight of the definition of a straight surface, viz. it is that which will every where coincide with a straight line apply : the edges of a pair of winding sticks, one to the farther end of the surface, and the other to the nearer ; di- recting the eye* in any straight line coinciding with the upper edges then if by keeping the : eye at the same point, and if straight

» That is, shutting one eye and observing with the other. This depends on vision being always performed in straight lines. 136 JOINERY. lines can be directed from it to all other points in the upper edge of each winding stick, then the ends of the surface are in a plane. Draw a line by the edge of each winding stick on the surface,

and if the surface will every where coincide with a straight line, then it is already straight, there will be very little to do but plane the rough away. But if on applying the edges of the winding sticks to the surface, a straight line can only be directed from the

eye to one point in the upper edge of each winding stick, then

the surface is said to wind, and is called a winding surface ; in such a case, there will always be two corners of the surface higher

than the other two : then with the jack plane, reduce the surface

at the corners, until both edges of the winding sticks are in the

same plane ; draw a line by the edge of each winding stick on

the surface as before, then with the jack plane reduce all the

prominent parts between the lines : having obtained a surface

very nearly straight by one or several trials by the jack plane,

plane off the ridges which the jack plane has left, with the trying

plane, and apply the winding sticks in the same manner, in order

to be certain whether you are keeping the surface true or not.

§74. To shoot ilw Edge of a Board,

First rough plane the side of the board with the jack plane, or

plane the rough off the side of the board next to the joint. Then

setting the sides of the board in a vertical position, and placing it in the bench screw, proceed in the same manner in the operation of

planing, as in straight making a edge ; except that there is only one

edge planed at a time in shooting. If the joint is not very long,

it is brought to a straight by the eye : but if very long, a straight

edge must be used ; in shooting the edge, the hand must be carried

regular from end to end. JOINERY. 137

§ 73. To join two Boards iogetJier.

Shoot the edge of each board first, or if they are very thin, they

may be shot together : apply each of the edges together, then if they are quite close, both face and back of the board, and the faces of the two boards straight with each other, they may be glued together ; but if not, the operation must be repeated until there is no space left on either side, and the sides quite straight with each other : when properly shot, spread the edges over with strong thin glue, of a proper consistence, made very hot, one of the boards being fixed, the faces adjoining each other, and the edges straight ; then turn the loose board upon the fixed board, applying the edges that are shot together, rub the upper board backwards and forwards until the two begin to stick fast, and the glue mostly rubbed out; the faces must be brought as nearly straight as possible.

§ 76. To join any number of Boards, edge to edge, loith glue, so as to form one Board.

First shoot the edges of two boards, so as to bring them to a joint, mark the faces of these boards next to the joint, then shoot the other edge of one of the boards, and another edge of another board, and bring these to a joint also, marking them as before, proceed in this manner until as many boards have been jointed as make the entire breadth required, always numbering the boards

in regular order. Glue the first two together ; when sufficiently dry, glue the second and third board, and so on till all the joints are glued.

If the boards or planks be very long, the edges which are to De united, will require to be warmed before a fire. And in order to keep the faces fair with each other, three men will be necessary also in helping to rub, one to guide the middle, and one to guide each end. R 138 JOINERY.

§ 77. To square and try-up a Piece of Stuff.

First face the side of the stuff, apply the edge of the stock of a square to this side, and the edge of the tongue to the other side or edge to be planed, keeping the stock of the square at right

to the arris try the square in the manner in several angles ; same places, then plane the side or edge of the stuff, until the inner edge of the tongue coincide with one side or edge of the stuff, while the inner edge of the stock coincides with the face.

§ 78. To try-up a Piece of Stuff all round.

When the two sides of the face and edge have been squared,

gauge the stuff to its thickness by the gauge, then plane the other

side to the gauge line opposite to the face, but observe that it

must be planed so as to coincide with the blade of the square,

while the stock coincides with the other side, on which the gauge

line was drawn, both handle and tongue being at the same time at

right angles to the arris. Having now finished three sides, set the gauge to the intended breadth, then apply the guide of the

head of the gauge upon the edge or side that is wrought, and which adjoins the other two wrought sides, and the stem and tooth upon the side to be gauged, draw a line upon that side, turn the

stuff over to the other side, and place the head upon the same side as before, but not upon the same edge, and the tooth end of the

stem upon the side of the wood ; draw a line upon this side. In gauging, you must press the head of the gauge pretty hard against

the surface of the stuff on which it rests, otherwise the grain of

the wood will be liable to draw the tooth of the gauge out of its

straight lined course ; then by working the wood between the gauge lines straight across, the piece of stuff will be completely

tried-up, and this last side will be planed up without the use of

the square : and, indeed, the third side might also have been done

when the rough edge, whence the gauge line was drawn, is pretty near the square. ;

JOINERY 139

§ 79. To rebate a Piece of Stuff.

First, when the rebate is to be made on the arris next to you, the stuff must be first tried-up on two sides ; if the rebate is not very large, set the guide of the fence of the moving fiUister to be within the distance of the horizontal breadth of the intended rebate ; and screw the stop, so that the guide may be something less than the vertical depth of the rebate from the sole of the plane ; set the iron so as to be sufficiently rank, and to project equally below the sole of the plane ; make the left hand point of the cutting edge flush with the left hand side of the plane : the tooth should be a small matter without the right hand side of the plane. Proceed now to gauge the horizontal and ve»tical dimensions of the rebate : begin your work at the fore end of the stuff; the plane being placed before you, lay your right hand partly on the top hind end of the plane, your fore fingers upon the left side, and your thumb upon the right, the middle part of the palm of the hand resting upon the round of the plane between the top and the end lay the ; thumb of your left hand over the top of the fore end of the plane, bending the thumb downwards upon the right hand side of the plane, while the upper division of the fore-finger, and the one next to it goes obliquely on the left side of the plane, and then bends with the same obliquity to comply with the fore end of the plane ; the two remaining fingers are turned the inwards : push plane forward without moving your feet, and a shaving will be discharged equal to the breadth of the rebate ; draw the plane towards you again to the place you pushed it from, and repeat the operation: proceed in this manner until you have gone very near the depth of the rebate ; move a step backward, and proceed as before ; go on by several successive steps, operating at each one as at first, until you get to the end then you may take a shaving or two the whole length, or take down any protuberant parts.

In holding the fillister, care must be taken to keep the sides vertical, and consequently the sole level : then clean out the hot- 140 JOINERY. torn and side of the rebate with the skew-faced rebate plane, that is, plane the bottom and side smooth, until you come close to the

gauge lines : for this purpose the iron must be set very fine, and

equally prominent throughout the breadth of the sole.

If your rebate exceeds in breadth the distance which the guide of the fence can be set from the right side of the plane, you may

make a narrow rebate on the side next to you, and set the plow to

the full breadth, and the stop of the plow to the depth : make a

groove next to the gauge line : then with the firmer chisel, cut off

the wood between the groove and the rebate, level with the bot-

tom ; or should the rebate be very wide, you may make several intermediate grooves, leaving the wood between every two adja-

cent grooves of less breadth than the firmer chisel, so as to be cut out the easily ; having rebate roughed out, you may make the

bottom a little smoother with the paring chisel ; then with a com-

mon rebate plane, about an inch broad in the sole, plane the side of the bottom next to the vertical side, and with the jack plane

take off the irregularities of the wood left by the chisel : smooth the farther side of the bottom of the rebate with the skew rebate

plane, as also the vertical side : with the trying plane smooth the

remaining part next to you until the rebate is at its full depth. If

any thing remain in the internal angle, it may be cut away with

a fine set paring chisel ; but this will hardly be necessary when

the tools are in good order.

When the breadth and depth of the rebate is not greater than

the depth which the plow can be set to work, tho most expeditious

method of making a rebate, is by grooving it within the gauge

lines on each side of the arris, and so taking the piece out without

the use of the chisel : then proceed to work the bottom and side of the groove as before. By these means you have the several

methods of rebating, when the rebate is made on the left edge of

the stuff": but if the rebate is formed from the right hand arris, it

must be planed on two sides, or on one side, and an edge as be-

fore ; place the stuff" so that the arris of the two planed sides may

be next to you. Set the sash fillister to the whole breadth of the JOINERY. 141 stuff that is to be left standing, and the stop to the depth, then you may proceed to rebate as before.

§ 80. To rebate across the Grain.

Nail a straight slip across the piece to be rebated, so that the side the straight edge may fall upon the line which the vertical of the breadth of the rebate makes upon the top of the stuff, keeping rebate then having set the stop of slip entirely to one side of the ; holding the dado grooving plane to the depth of the rebate, the plane vertically, run a groove across the wood, repeat the same operation in one or more places in the breadth of the rebate, leaving each interstice or standing-up part something less than that chisel cut away the breadth of the firmer chisel : then with these parts between every two grooves, but be careful in doing pare the bottom pretty this that you do not tear the wood up ;

smooth, or after having cut the rough away with the chisel, take a rebating plane with the iron set rather rank, and work the pro-

minent parts down to the aforesaid grooves nearly. Lastly, with to the a fine set screwed rebating plane, smooth the bottom next the may be vertical side of the rebate ; the other parts of bottom this taken completely down with a fine set smoothing plane : in manner you may make a tenon of any breadth.

§ 81. To frame two Pieces of Stuff together.

For this purpose it will be necessary to face-up, and square

each of the pieces at least on two sides ; the thickness of the

tenon or width of the mortise ought not to exceed in general one-

third of the thickness of the stuff ; but this will in some cases depend upon the work, and whether the materials that are to be

framed together be of the same kind or not, and consequently the 142 JOINERY. proportion greater or less according as the piece on which the tenon is cut, is of a stronger or weaker texture than the piece which is to receive it. If the two pieces are to be joined at a right angle, and the piece which has the mortise project only on one side of the piece which has the tenon, you must then set the mortise a little farther in than the breadth of the piece which has the tenon, in order to prevent the piece at the end of the tenon from splitting ; mark the length of your tenon a little more than of the the breadth mortised piece ; strike a square line through the mark ; then at the place where the line meets the arris, strike another square line : if the work is to be very nicely put together, this will be best done with the drawing knife : square two pencil lines on the two sides of the mortised piece opposite to, or in the straight line with, the inside same of the tenoned piece ; strike other two square pencil lines upon the sides of the mortised piece next to the end opposite to the outer edge of the tenoned piece, or in the same straight line with it, and thus the distance between each pair of square lines upon each of the sides, will be equal to

the breadth of the tenoned piece ; but this distance would be too long for the mortise, as when finished, one piece of stuff does not pass by the breadth of the other ; therefore if the mortise came close to the end, there would be nothing to resist and keep the tenon in its place : for this reason, the mortise must never be cut out to the extremity, but always at least one fourth of the whole breadth farther in ; if the insides of the pieces are intended to be entirely square, you may make the length of the mortise from the inside pencil lines equal to, or nearly two-thirds of the breadth of the tenoned piece. Set the distance of the teeth of the mortise gauge equal to the thickness of the tenon or breadth of the mortise, and the distance from, and of the nearer tooth to the head, equal to the thickness of the cheek of the mortise or shoulder of the tenon, then gauge both pieces on the inner edges from the face, and also on the outer edges from the same face, return the pencil lines upon the outer edge of the mortised piece. Lay the piece to be mortised upon the mortise stool, with the side upper- ;

JOINERY. 143

most is to which be the inside, and mortise half through : turn the

other edge uppermost, and mortise the other half : the reason of

mortising one half at a time is obvious, when it is considered, that

the holding of the mortise chisel at right angles to the surface, is

all the guess work ; mortise would therefore be liable to go not obliquely, only but uneven : the length of the mortise must be a little more on the outer edge than on the inner, as the tenon when it comes to be stationed to its place, is secured by wedges and

glue : the ends of the mortise must be quite straight, though in- clining towards each other next to the inside or shoulder of the tenon the sides ; of the cheeks of the mortise must be cut smooth with the paring chisel for : and the purpose of having the width of the mortise, when finished, the exact thickness of the tenon, the mortise chisel ought to be rather of less thickness than that of the tenon. To form the tenon : cut the shoulders in with the drawing knife

place the side hooks at right angles to the sides of the bench, the knob or catch of each against the side board ; place the tenoned piece upon the side hooks, and against the other knobs on the bench, and with the tenon saw cut the shoulders of the tenon on side, one and turn the other side up and cut the other shoulder ;• take the piece and fix it in the bench screw, and with a hand saw cut off the two outside pieces called the tenon cheeks from the of the tenon, keeping sides the stufl* entire between the gauge lines and if the saw is in ; good order, it will not be necessary to do any more to the sides but if ; the saw has been led away from the draughts, either from carelessness or from its beng in bad order, recourse must be had to the paring chisel, so as to take away superfluous the wood to the gauge lines, and lastly to the skew- faced rebate plane. Having finished the sides of the tenon, it must be reduced from the outer edge to a breadth equal to the length of the mortise, this reduction is called haunching, but it is belter to have a little piece to project beyond the shoulder, and then to cut a shallow mortise of the same depth close to the flir- :

144 JOINERY.

ther end of the mortise piece ; this little tenon is called stunip haunchings. Insert the tenon in a mortise, driving the end of the tenoned piece with a mallet, until the shoulder comes home to the face of the mortise : then if your work has been truly tried-up and set out, both shoulders will be quite close to the inner edge of the having mortised piece ; thus finished the mortise and teuon, you may take it out and glue the shoulders of the tenon and inner edge of the mortise with very hot glue ; then drive the *tenoned piece home ; if very stiff, it will be necessary to use a cramp ; however, the use of this will be better understood in making a complete frame.

§ 82. Boarding Floors.

Boarded floors are those covered with boards. The operation of boarding floors should commence as soon as the windows are in, and the plaster dry. The preparation of the boards for this purpose is as follows

They should first be planed on their best face, and set out to season till the natural sap is quite exhausted they may then ; be planed smooth, shot and squared upon one edge : the opposite

edges are brought to a breadth, by drawing a line on the face parallel to the other edge, with a flooring gauge; they are then gauged to a thickness with a common gauge, and rebated down on the back to the lines drawn by the gauge.

The next thing to be done is to try the joists, whether they be level or not : if they are found to be depressed in the middle, they must be furred up, and if found to protuberant must be reduced by the adze. The former is more generally the case.

The boards employed in flooring are either battens or deals of greater breadth. The quality of battens are divided into three kinds ; the best is that free of knots, shakes, sap-wood, or cross- grained stuff", and well matched, that is, selected with the greatest care ; the second best is that in which only small, but sound knots JOINERY. 145

are permitted, and free of shakes and sap-wood ; the most common kind is that which is left, after taking away the best and second best.

With regard to the joints of flooring boards, they are either quite square, plowed and tongued, rebated, or doweled ; in fixing

them they are nailed either upon one or both edges ; they are always necessarily nailed on both edges, when the joints are plain or square without dowels. When they are doweled, they may be nailed on one or both edges ; but in the best doweled work, the outer edge only is nailed, by driving the brad obliquely through that edge without piercing the surface of the board ; so that the surface of the floor, when cleaned ofi", appears without blemish.

In laying boarded floors, the boards are sometimes laid one

after another; or otherwise, one is first laid, then the fourth, leaving an interval somewhat less than the breadth of the second

and third together : the two intermediate boards are next laid in

their places, with one edge upon the edge of the first board, and the other upon that of the fourth board ; the two middle edges resting upon each other, and forming a ridge at the joint; to

force down these joints, two or more workmen jump upon the

ridge till they have brought the under sides of the boards close to the joints, then they are fixed in their places with brads. In this last method, the boards are said to be folded. Though two boards are here mentioned, the most common way is to fold four at a

time ; this mode is only taken when the boards are not sufficiently seasoned, or suspected not to be so. In order to make close

work, it is obvious that the two edges forming the joint of the second and third boards, must form angles with the faces, each

less than a right angle. The seventh board is fixed as the fourth,

and the fifth and sixth inserted as the second and third, and so on

till the completion. The headings are either square, splayed, or plowed and tongued. floor, When it is necessary to have a heading in the length of the

it should always be upon a joist. One heading should never meet another. Nos. 9 & 10. s 143 JOINERY.

When floors are doweled, it is better to place dowels over the

middle of the interjoist, than over the joists, in order to prevent the edge of one board from passing that of the other. When the

boards are only braded upon one edge, the brads are most frequently concealed, by driving them slanting through the outer edge of every successive board, without piercing the upper surface. In

adzing away the under sides of the boards opposite to the joists, in order to equalize their thickness, the greatest care should be

taken to chip them straight, and exactly down to the rebates, as

the soundness of the floor depends on this.

§ 83. Hanging of Shutters to be cut.

Shutters to ie cut must first be hung the whole length, and taken

down and cut : but observe that you do not cut the joint by the

range of the middle bar, but at right angles to the sides of the sash frame, for unless this be done, the ends will not all coincide when folded together. In order to hang shutters at the first trial, set off" the margin from the bead on both sides, then take half the thickness of the knuckle of the hinge, and prick it on each side from the margin, so drawn towards the middle of the window, at the places of the hinges ; put in brads at these pricks ; then putting the shut- ter to its place, screw it fast, and when opened it will turn to the place intended.

§84. Hanging of Doors,

Doors should be hung so as to rise above the carpet ; for thi& purpose, the knuckle of the bottom hinge should be made to project the whole pin beyond the surface of the door, while the centre of the upper pin comes rather within the surface. To render this still more effectual, the floor is sometimes raised immediately under the door. A door wider at the bottom than at the top, in a JOINERY. 147 trapezoidal form, will also have the effect of clearing the floor : most of the ancient doors were of this figure.

or § 85. To Scribe one Piece of Board Stuff to another.

When the edge end or side of one piece of stuff is fitted close to the superficies of another, the former is said to be scribed to the latter. Thus the skirting boards of a room should be scribed to the floor. In moulded framing, the moulding upon the rails, if not quirked, are scribed to the styles, and muntins upon rails.

To scribe the edge of a board against any uneven surface : lay

the edge of the board over its place, with the face in the position

in which it is to stand : with a pair of stiff compasses opened to the

widest part, keeping one leg close to the uneven surface, move or draw the compasses forward, so that the point of the other leg may

mark a line on the board, and that the two points may always be

in a straight line parallel to the straight line in which the two

points were at the commencement of the motion : then cut away

the wood between this line and the bottom edge, and the one will

coincide with the other.

§86. Doors,

Doors ought to be made of clean good stuff, firmly put together, the mitres or scribings brought together with the greatest exact- particu- ness, and the whole of their surfaces perfectly smooth ; larly those made for the best apartments of good houses. In order

to effect this, the whole of the work ought to be set out and tried- tools must be in good up with particulai care ; saws and all other of the order; the nnortising, tenoning, plowing, and sticking lines these bemg mouldings, oUght to be correctly to the gauge ; together, strictly a tend-ed to, the work will of necessity, when put must expect close with ceirtainty ; but if otherwise, the workman work a great deal of trouble in paring the different parts before the 148 JOINERY.

can be made to appear in any degree passable ; this will also od-

casion a want of firmness in the work, particularly if the tenons and mortises are obliged to be pared. In bead and flush doors, the best way is to mitre the work square, afterwards put in the panels, and smooth the whole off together; then, marking the panels at the parts of the framing they agree to, take the door to pieces, and work the beads on the stiles, rails, and muntins. If the doors are double margin, that is, representing a pair of folding doors, the staff stile which imitates the meeting stiles, must be centred to the top and bottom of the door, as well as the hanging and lock stiles, ; by forking the ends into notches, cut in the top and bottom rails.

§87. Stairs.

Stairs are one of the most important things to be considered in building, a not only with regard to the situation, but as to the design and execution : the convenience of the building depends on the situation ; and the elegance on the design and execution of the workmanship. A stair-caiee ought to be sufficiently lighted, and the head.way uninterrupted. The half paces and quarter paces ought to be judiciously distributed. The breadth of the steps ought never to be more than fifteen inches, nor less than ten ; the height not more than seven, nor less than five ; there are cases, however, which are exceptions to all rule. When you have the height of the story given in feet, and the height of the step in inches, you may throw the feet into inches, and divide the height of the story in inches by the height of the step ; if there be no remainder, or if the remainder be less than the half of the divisor, the quotient will show the number of steps ; but if the remainder be greater than the half of the divisor, you must take one step more than the number shown by the quotient : in the two latter cases, you must divide the height of the story by the number of steps, and the quotient will give the exact height of a step : in the first case, you JOINERY. 149

have the height of the steps at once, and this is the case whatever description the stairs are of. In order that people may pass freely, the length of the step ought never to be less than four feet, though in town houses, for want of room, the going of the stair is frequently reduced to two feet and a half.

Stairs have several varieties of structure, which depends prin« cipally on the situation and destination of the building. Geome- trical stairs are those which are supported by one end being fixed in the wall, and every step in the ascent having an auxiliary

support from that immediately below it, and the lowest step, con-

sequently from the floor.

Bracket stairs are those that have an opening or well, with strings and newels, and are supported by landings and carriages,

the brackets mitering to the ends of each riser, and fixed to the

string board, which is moulded below like an architrave.

Dog-legged stairs are those which have no opening or well-

hole, the rail and balusters of both the progressive and returning

flights fall in the same vertical planes, the steps being fixed to strings, newels and carriages, and the ends of the steps of the

inferior kind, terminating only upon the side of the string, without any housing.

§88. Of Dog-legged Stairs.

The first thing is to take the dimensions of the stair and height of the story, and lay down a plan and section upon a floor to the full size, representing all the newels, strings, and steps: by this, the situation of string boards, pitching pieces, rough strings, long bearers, cross bearers, and trimmers will become manifest : the of quantity room allowed for the stairs, the situation of apertures and passages, will determine whether there are to be quarter paces, half paces, one quarter or two quarter winders. In this description, in order to give all the variety possible, we shall suppose the flight to consist of two quarter winders. The strings, rails, and newels being framed together, they must 150 JOINERY. then be fixed, first with temporary supports, the string board will show the situation of the pitching pieces, which must be put up next in order, wedging the one end firmly into the wall, and fixing

the other end to the string board ; this being done, pitch up the rough strings, and thus finish the carriage part of the flyers. In dog-leg staircases, the steps and risers are seldom glued up, suppose except in cases of returned nosings ; we shall therefore steps: place them to be separate pieces, and proceed to put up the having fitted it down so as to be the first riser to its situation ;

close to the floor, the top being brought to a level at its proper height, and at the same time, the face in its right position, fix it

with flat headed nails, driving them obliquely through the bottom part of the riser into the floor, and then nailing the end to the

string board. Proceed then to cover the riser with the first tread, observing to notch out the farther bottom angle opposite the rough the top strings, so as to make it to fit closely down to a level on at side, while the under side beds firmly upon the rough strings nail down the back edge, and to the riser towards the front edge ; the tread to the rough strings, driving the nails from the seat or place on which the next riser stands, through that edge of the

riser into the rough strings, and then nailing the end to the string with the second riser, having brought it to a breadth, board ; begin the tread, so that the back and fitted it close to the top side of the back of the edge of the tread below it may entirely lap over position nail riser, while the front side is in its regular vertical ; that the the head to this riser, from the under side, taking care would spoil nails do not go through the face of the riser, for this the beauty of the work. riser al- Proceed in this manner as in the last, with tread and riser must ternately, until the last parallel riser. The face of this of the stand the whole projection of the nosing back from the face winding newel. Then fix the top of your first bearer for the first riser, so tha^ tread, on a level with the top of the last parallel forward the fiirther edge of this bearer may stand about an inch purpose of from the back of the next succeeding riser, for the JOINERY. 151

nailing the treads to the risers upwards, as was done in the treads and risers of the flyers, and having fitted the end of this bearer against the of the back riser, and nailed or screwed it fast thereto; this being done, fix a cross bearer, by letting it in half its thickness, into the adjacent sides of the top of the riser, and into the top of the long bearer, so as not to cut through the horizontal breadth of the long bearer, nor through the thickness of the riser, for this would weaken the long bearer, and spoil the look of the

riser. Then fix the riser to the newel, driving a nail obliquely from the top edge of the riser into the newel ; you may then proceed to put down the first winding tread, fitting it close to the newel, in the bird's-mouth form ; proceed with all the succeeding risers and heads, always fixing in the bearers previously to the laying of each successive tread, until the steps round the winding part are entirely completed. Proceed then with the upper retrogressive range of flyers, as those below. Fit the brackets into the backs of the risers and treads, so that their edges may join each other upon the sides of the rough strings to which they are fixed by nails, and thus the work is completed. There are some workmen who do not mind the close fitting to the riser ; but certainly it makes the firmest work. In the best kind of dog-leg stairs, the nosings are returned, and sometimes the risers mitred to brackets, and sometimes mitred with quaker strings in this : case, there is a hollow mitred round the internal angle of the under side of the tread, and the face of the riser. Sometimes the string is framed into the newel, and notched to receive the ends of the steps, and at the other end a corresponding notch board, then the whole flyers are put up as a step ladder.

In order to get the lower part for the turning, set on the thickness of the capping on the return string board, and where that falls on the newel below, is the place of the under limit of the turning.

To find the section of the cap of the newel for the turner, draw a circle to its intended diameter, draw a straight line from the :

152 JOINERY. centre to any point without the circumference, and set half the breadth of the rail on each side of that line, and through the point draw a line parallel to the middle straight line, then the two ex-

treme lines will contain the breadth of the rail : draw any radius of the circle, and set half the breadth of the rail from the centre toward the circumference, and through the point where this

breadth falls, draw a concentric circle from the point where this

circle cuts the middle Une of the rail ; draw two lines to the points

where the breadth of the rail intersects the outer circle, and these

lines will show the mitre. The section may then be found by the following method.

After having drawn the outline of the cap and rail as above,

take a small portion of the rail, and cut it to the mitre as drawn, then take a block of sufficient size for the cap, and cut out the

internal mitre of the cap to answer the external mitre of the rail

place the mitre of the rail into its mitre socket, and draw a line

where the surface of the piece meets the mitre ; draw the middle

line of the rail upon both sides of the block, which will bisect each circle mitre ; take the distance from the centre of the above drawn

to the mitre point, and set it on each side of the block for the cap

upon the middle line of the breadth of the rail, from the mitre point towards the centre of the block, pricking the block at the

other extremity of this distance ; then these points will be the

centres for turning. Fit a piece of wood to the internal mitre,

pare off the top part of this piece next to the mitre of the cap, so

as to correspond to the line drawn by the top of the rail, then with so fitted, send weak glue stick in this piece to its birth ; and being

it to the turner.

In order to eradicate a prevalent false idea which many workmen entertain, when the outer edge of the mitre cap is turned so

as to have the same section as that of the rail, they suppose this but from to be all that is necessary for the mitring of the above : will easily a very little investigation of the nature of the lines, they be convinced that the sides of the mitre can never be straight surfaces cr pianos, but must be curved, when this is the case. JOINERY 153

§ 89. Bracket Stairs.

The sam methods must be observed with regard to taking the dimensions, and laying down the plan and section, as in dog-legged

stairs. In all stairs whatever, after having ascertained the number of steps, take a rod the height of the story, from the surface of the lower floor to the surface of the upper floor: divide the rod into as many equal parts as there are to be risers, then if you have a level surface to work upon below the stair, try each one of the risers as you go on ; this will prevent any excess or defect, which even the smallest difference will occasion : for any error, however small, when multiplied, becomes of considerable magnitude, and even the difference of an inch in the last riser, being too high or too low, will not only have a bad effect to the eye, but will be apt to confound persons not thinking of any such irregularity. In order to try the steps properly, by the story rod, if you have not a level surface to work from, the better way will be to lay two rods or boards, and level their top surface to that of the floor, one of these rods being placed a little within the string, and the other near or close to the wall, so as to be at right angles to the starting line of the first riser, or, which is the same thing, parallel to the plan of the string; set off" the breadth of the steps upon these rods, and number

the risers ; you may set not only the breadth of the flyers, but that of the winders also. In order to try the story rod exactly to its vertical situation, mark the same distances on the backs of the risers upon the top edges, as the distances of the plaa of the string board and the rods are from each other.

As the internal angle of the steps is open to the end, and not closed by the string, as in common dog-legged stairs, and the neat- ness of workmanship is as much regarded as in geometrioal stairs; the balusters must be neatly dove-tailed into the ends of the steps, two in every step ; the face of each front baluster must be in a straight surface with the face of the riser ; and as all the balusters must be e«iually divided, the face of the middle baluster must in course stand in the middle of the face of the riser of the preceding 154 JOINERY. step, and the face of the riser of the succeeding step. The risers and treads are all glued and blocked previously together ; and when put up, the under side of the step nailed or screwed into the under edge of the riser, and then rough bracked to the rough strings, as

in the dog-legged stairs ; the pitching pieces and rough strings being

similar to those. In gluing up the steps, the best method is to make

a templet, so as to fit the external angle ofthe steps with the nosing.

§ 90. Geometrical Stairs.

The steps of geometrical stairs ought to be constructed so as to

have a very hght and clean appearance when put up : for this purpose, and to aid the principle of strength, the risers and treads

when planed up, ought not to be less than one inch and an eighth,

supposing the going of the stair or length of the step to be four

feet ; and for every six inches in length, you may add one-eighth

part more ; the risers ought to be dove-tailed into the cover, and when the steps are put up, the treads are screwed up from below,

to the under edges of the risers ; the holes for sinking the heads

of the screws ought to be bored with a centre bit, and then fitted

closely in with wood well matched, so as to conceal the screws

entirely, and to appear as one uniform surface without blemish.

Brackets are mitred to the riser, and the nosings are continued

round : in this mode, however, there is an apparent defect, for the brackets, instead of giving support, are themselves unsupported,

depending on the steps, and are of no other use in point of strength, than merely tying the risers and treads of the internal angles of the steps together; and from the internal angles being

hollowL or a re-enterant right angle, except at the ends, which terminjate by the wall at one extremity, and by the brackets at the other, jthere is a want of regular finish. The cavetto or hollow is carried all round the front of the slip returned at the end, returned again at the end of the bracket, thence along the inside of the same, and then along the internal angle of the back of the riser.

I JOINERY 155

This is a slight imitation of the ancient mode, which was to make the steps solid all the way, so as to have every where throughout its length a bracket-formed section. This, though more natural in appearance, would be expensive and troublesome to execute,, particularly when winders are used, but much stronger.

The best mode, however, of constructing geometrical stairs, is to put up the strings, and to mitre the brackets to the risers as usual, and finish the soffit with lath and plaster, which will form an inclined plane under each flight, and a winding surface under the winders. In elegant buildings, the soffit may be divided into panels. If the risers are got out of two inch stuff, it will greatly add to the solidity. The following is the method of drawing and executing the scroll and other wreathed parts of the hand rail.

PLATE XX.

To describe the scrool of a Hand Rail.

From any convenient point, o. Fig. 1, Plate 20, as a centre describe a circle, e f g h, and describe the square a b c d, of which the centre is the same, point o, and of which the sides a b, b c, c d, da, are each one third of the diameter of the circle.

Divide each side of the square into six equal parts, (see also Fig.

2, drawn at large,) and through the points of division draw lines parallel to the sides ; taking the distance 0, 1, equal to the side of one of the lesser squares ; the distance from 1 to 2, equal in lengtli to twice the side of one of the little squares ; the distance from 2 to 3, equal to three times the side of one of the little squares, and so on increasing each line by the side of one of the lesser squaiesj for the other distances, from 3 to 4, and from 4 to

5, and from 5 to 6, in such a manner, that the distance from 1 to 2, from 2 to 3, from 3 to 4, from 4 to 5, from 5 to 6, may be respectively perpendicular to the distances from 0 to 1, from 1 to ;

156 JOINERY.

2, from 2 to 3, from 3 to 4, and from 4 to 5. See the centres constructed to a larger scale, Fig. 2.

Let the distance between 1 and 0 be produced to meet the circle f. Then from the centre 1, with the radius if, describe the quadrant f i; from the centre 2, with the distance 2 i, describe the quadrant ih; from 3, with the distance 3 A;, describe the quadrant

I, h I ; from 4, with the distance 4 describe the quadrant 1 m from 5, with the distance 5 rn, describe the quadrant m n, and lastly from 6, with the radius 6 n, describe the quadrant n p. In the radius 6 p, make p q equal to the breadth of the hand-rail, say two inches then, from the centre 6, describe ; the quadrant q r,

meeting the radius 5 nin r ; from the centre 5, with the radius 5 r,

describe the arc r s, which will complete the scroll. The shank of

scroll is the drawn from the points p and q, parallel to the radius 6 n. Curtail step is the lowest step of the stair, one end being formed

into a spiral, agreeable to the scroll of the hand rail. Let the balusters be so placed, that the distances between every two nearest may be all equal, that two balusters may stand upon every step, and that the front of a baluster may be in the plane of every riser. Likewise that the middle of every baluster, may be in the middle of the breadth of the hand-rail, and that the middle

of the balusters which support the scroll, may also be in the mid. die of the breadth of the scroll, and that the outer edges of these balusters, may be all at the same distance from the curved edge of the curtail step, and lastly, that none of the distances between

those which support the scroll, be greater than those which rise

from the flyers to support the rail, and that the distances of the balusters which rise from the curtail step to support the scroll, may be less and less, as the radius of curvature for describing the plan of the scroll is less.

Hence the plan of the rail will be in the middle of the plan of the curtail step, and because the projection of the nosing from the outside the baluster, is greater than the projection of the outside of the rail, the breadth of the scroll of the hand-rail, will be less than the breadth of the scroll worked on the end of the curtail step. JOINERY. 157

To describe the Curtail Step,

Let the balusters be properly placed in the order now described, and let k be the angle of the baluster in the front of the second riser, and let n o be the breadth of a baluster in the breadth of the rail. Make o d each equal to the projection of the nosing, and through the point d describe the spiral d e r g i, to follow the nearest spiral in the place of the rail ; also through the point p describe the spiral p m l, so as to be every where equidistant from that which forms the other edge of the plan of the scroll.

These two last described spirals may be drawn from the same centres, as those from which the edges of the scroll were drawn.

To render this description evident to workmen, b c is a section of the nosing of the front of the curtail step, and c d is a plan of the nosing attached to the straight part of the curtail step. Likewise li M is the plan of the nosing which projects from the strong board.

To describe the Face Mould for the tureathed part of the Scroll.

Draw the straight line u v, parallel to the shank of the scroll, to touch the interior part nearest the centre, and let it meet the outside of the scroll in v. Make v u equal to the breadth of one of the flyers, and draw u w, perpendicular to v u, and make w w equal to the height of a step, and join v w. From the curved edge of the scroll, draw ordinates perpendicular to u v. Transfer the several distances from w, where the ordinate or ordinates produced, intersect v w, to the line v w, Fig. 5, and draw the ordinates in Fig. 5, and make them respectively equal to the ordinates both of the outside and inside curves of Fig. 5, and the ends, then the shadowed figure of Fig. 5, will be the face mould. 158 JOINERY.

To jind the Falling Moulds.

Let be that point Q in the outside spiral which separates the wreathed part of the scroll from the level next to the centre. describe In Fig. 4, the right-angled triangle a c b, identical to the right-angled triangle uv w, Fig. 1, a b being equal to the height

of a step. Produce a c to e, and make d e equal to the develope- ment of the next line, tpv no,.

Divide a b into six equal parts, and let d be the first point of

division. Draw d f parallel to a e, and e f, parallel to a d, inter,

secting b c in g. Describe a parabola b h f, to touch a f and

G B at B and f ; this may be conveniently formed by the intersec

tions of lines ; also draw another curve, i k l, under the other,

and every where 2 inches distant from it, which distance must be

the depth of the rail, and the falling mould, Fig. 4, for the convex

side will be complete. Fig. 3, inside falling mould.

PLATE XXI. explanation.

Showing the Construction of a Dog-leg Staircase.

No. 1. the plan.

No. 2. the elevation. A B, No. 2. the lower newel, the part B C being turned a No. 1. the seat of the newel on the plan. G H, No. 2. the upper newel.

g. No. 1. its seat on the plan. D E and F G, No. 2. lower and upper string boards framed mto the newels.

K L, No. 2 a joist framed into the trimmer I. kl,no,qr, &c. No. 2. the faces of the risers ; mn,pq,st, the treads of the cover boards.

m, p, s, &c. No. 2. the nosings of steps. ;

JOINERY. 159

The dotted lines on the plan, represent the faces of the risers and the continued lines, the nosings uf the steps. M O and F Q, upper and lower ramps.

The method of drawing the ramp is as follows : suppose the upper to drawn the ramp be ; produce top H M of the rail to P draw M N perpendicular to the horizon, and produce the straigh

part O N of the pitch of the rail, to meet it in N ; making N O

equal to N M : draw O P at right angle to O N : from P as a

centre, describe the arc M O, and then the other concentric circle, which will complete the ramp required. the R S story rod ; a necessary article in fixing the steps, for if put up only by a common measuring rule, will frequently occa-

sion an excess or defect in the height, so as to render the stair

extremely faulty, which cannot be the case, if the story rod is applied to every riser, and the riser regulated thereby. In the

aforesaid case, the error is liable to multiply.

PLATE XXII.

To draw the Scroll of a Hand-raU.

In Fig. A, make a circle for the eye three inches and a half diameter, divide the diameter into three equal parts, and make a square in the centre to one of those parts, and divide each side of the square into six equal parts ; this square is shown in E, at the bottom, in full size for practice, and laid in the same position as the little square above, so that the centres may be more readily found. These centres are all marked in a regular position ; the centre at 1 draws from i round to k, the centre at 2 draws from k to I, and the centre at 3 draws from I to m, &c. which will complete the outside revolution at a, with the centre c; then set the thickness of the rail from « to /, and go the reverse way to draw the inside then ; the scroll will be completed. ;

160 JOINERY.

Note. In order to prevent confusion, the letters are not naarked

in the small square, Fig. A.

To draw the Curtail Step.

Set the balusters in their proper places on each quarter of the nosing scroll in Fig. A ; the first baluster shows the return of the

round the step, the second baluster is placed at the beginning of

the twist, and the third baluster a quarter distant, and straight

with the front of the last riser : then the projection of the nosing

is set without, and drawn concentric with the scroll, which will give the form of the curtail.

To draw the Face Mould for squaring the Twist Part of the Scroll.

The reader will observe here, that the joint is made at 3, 6, across the scroll just to clear the side of the scroll ; draw ordinates the pitch board take at discretion, to cut the line d b, a b c being ; notice that lines be drawn from 3 and 6 to meet d b, so that you may have the said points exact at 3 and 6 in your face mould then take the line d b, and mark the places of the ordinates upon a rod, and transfer the divisions to d 6 in B, then trace B, from Fig. A, according to the letters.

Tofind the falling Mould C.

In C, a & c is the pitch-board ; the height is divided into six

is parts, to give the level of the scroll ; the distance ad from the

face of the riser to the beginning of the twist ; and the distance

from d to A; in C, is the stretch-out from a, the beginning of the

at discretion twist to h in Fig. A ; each being any point taken JOINERY 161

more than the first quarter ; divide the level of the scroll, and the rake of the pitch-board, into a like number of parts, and complete

the top edge of the mould by intersecting lines, and the under

edge parallel to it to the depth of the rail.

To Jind the parallel thickness of Stufffor the Troist and Scroll.

Extend the curve abode, to 6, in Fig. A, upon the base of

the pitch-board from d to g, in Fig. C ; draw g h perpendicular to

intersect with the top of the mould ; draw the dotted line h f parallel to the level of the scroll both ways; apply the distance

6 1, in Fig. A, that is, the length of the plan, for the twist part, from to e in C, and draw e f perpendicular, to cut the parallel fh', draw a dotted line through y, parallel to c h, the longest side of the pitch-board, which gives the thickness of stuff for the twist,

about three inches and a half; and the parallel line frorajT to the

base, shows the thickness of the scroll.

Note. The falling mould D, for the outside, is found in the same manner as the other falling mould C.

In order to get a true idea of the twist of the hand rail, the

section of the rail by a plane passing through the axis of the well-

hole or cylinder is every where a rectangle, that is, the plumb or

vertical section, tending to the centre of the stair. This rectangle is every where of an equal breadth, but not of an equal

vertical dimension in every part of the rail, unless that the risers

and treads were every where the same, from the top to the bottom : the height is greatest above the winders, because the tread

is of less breadth, and it is of less height above the flyers; the tread being the greatest. If you cut the rail after squaring it,

perpendicular to any of its curved sides, the section will not then be a rectangle, three of the sides will at least be curved. Hence

two falling moulds laid down in the usual way, will not square the rail, though in wide openings, they may do it sufficiently near. Nos. 11 & 12. n 162 JOINERY.

Hence in squaring the rail, the square can never be applied at right angles to any one of the four arrises, for the edge of the stock will not comply with the side of the rail, being curved ; this would be easily made to appear by making a wreathed part of a rail, of unusual dimensions, and cutting it in both directions. Therefore, to apply the square right, keep the stock to the plumb of the stair; and to guide the blade properly, the stock ought to be very thick, and made concave to the plan, so as to prevent the possibility of

its wabbling or turning from side to side ; as a little matter up or a little down, in the direction of the blade, would make a great difference in the rectangling or squaring of the rail.

All this might easily be conceived from the cylinder itself, for there is no direction in which a straight line can be drawn on the surface of a cylinder, but one, and this line is in a plane passing through the axis of the cylinder ; and as the two vertical surfaces of the rail are portions of cylinders, there can be no straight line upon such surface, but what must be vertical ; all others from this

principle are curves ; or the sections of the rail are bounded by

curves, or by a curve on that side.

In gluing a rail up in thicknesses, it will be sufficiently near to

get out a piece of wood to the twisted form by two falling moulds,

provided the well-hole be not less than one foot diameter ; the

thickness of this piece, as is there stated, must be equal to the

thickness, or rather the horizontal breadth of the rail, together

with the thickness which the number of saw kerfs will amount to; and also the amount of the substance, taken away by planing the veneers. We are now supposing the plan of the rail to be semi- circular, with two straight panSj one above and one below; a plan more frequently adop* from motives of economy, than from any propriety of elegance.

The first thing to bs done is to make a cylinder of plank to the size of the well-hole. Draw two level lines round the surface of this

cylinder, at the top and bottom ; upon each of these lines, set off the

treads of the steps, at the end next the well-hole. Draw lines JOINERY. 163

between every two corresponding points at the head and foot,

and these lines will be all parallel to the axis of the cylinder.

Upon the two lines where the cylindric part begins to commence,

and also upon a middle line between these lines, set the heights of the winders, and the height of one of the flyers above and

below, or as much as is intended to be taken off the straight of the rail. Take a pliable slip of wood, straight on one edge, and

bend it round, and keep the straight edge of it upon the three cor-

responding points at the height of the last rise of the flyer; then draw

the tread of the first winding step by the straight edge from the line

where the cylindric part commences to the first perpendicular line on the curved surface; take the next three points higher, and draw

a line between the second and third perpendicular lines ; proceed in like manner with the next three higher points, and draw a line between the next two adjoining cylindric lines, and the lines so drawn between each three points will be the section of the treads of the succeeding winding steps. Having thus gone through the cylindric part, draw a step at the top, and another at the bottom, and thus the sections of the steps

will be completed; draw the hypothenusal or pitch lines of the flyer

on the lower part, and that of the upper part, and whatever differ,

ence you make in the height of the rail between the flyers and the

winders, you must set it up from the nosings of the steps of the winders upon two of the perpendicular lines : draw a line through

the two points, by bending a straight edged slip round the cylinder,

the straight edge of the slip coinciding with these points ; this line will represent the top of the rail over the winders, and the hypothe-

nusal lines at the bottom and top that of the flyers, then curve jfi the angles at the top and bottom where the rail of the winding parts meets that of the flyers above and below, then a line being drawn parallel to this, will form the falling mould. The reason of making the vertical elevation of the rail more upon the winders than the flyers, is, that the sudden elevation of the winders diminishes the height of the rail in a direction perpendicular to the raking line, and by this means persons would be liable to fall over it. 164 JOINERY.

To lay the veneers upon the cylinder, if bed screws or wedges are used, you may try the veneers first upon the cylinder, screwing several them down without glue ; prepare pieces of wood, to lie from six to twelve inches apart, according to the diameter of the well-hole, with two holes in each, distant in the clear something more than the breadth of the rail. Then having marked the posi-

tions of the places of these pieces on the cylinder, pierce the cy-

linder with corresponding holes on each side of the depth of the will rail. If the cyhnder is made of plank two inches thick, it be will conve- sufficient for the screws : but if of thinner stuff, it be confining the nient to set it an end upon stools to get underneath, top with nuts. Unscrew one half, three men being at work, one holding up all the veneers, another gluing, and the third laying them until glued screw down successively, one after the other, all are : them down immediately. Unscrew the other half, and proceed in up. glue that is used like manner, and the rail will be glued The

as as possible : the rail for this purpose, ought to be clear, and hot ought likewise to be made hot, as otherwise the glue will be liable ready for the to set before all the veneers are put down, and therefore be done before a large screws : this operation should heated previous to the commencement, fire ; the veneers thoroughly as possible, in order that the heat may be as uniformly retained throughout the process. The glue in the joints of the rail, will take about three weeks to harden in dry weather.

that the light and shade of the adjoining hollows are more con-

trasted, the angle of their meeting being more acute, than if a flat space were formed between them. See Figs. 12 and 13, fluting round the convex surface of a cylinder. JOINERY. 165

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXII.

Showing the Construction of Geometrical Stairs.

No. 1. the plan.

No. 2. the elevation or section.

A B, No. 1. the curtail step, which must be first fixed. C, C, C, &c. flyers supported below upon rough carriages and partly from the string board D H E F, No. 2 ; sometimes the ends next to the wall are housed into a notch board, and the steps made of thick wood, and no carriages used.

G, G, G, (Sec. winders fixed to bearers, cross bearers, and pitching pieces, when the flyers are supported upon carriages: sometimes the winders are made of strong stufT, firmly wedged into the wall, the steps screwed together, and the other ends of the steps fixed to the string D E H F. The strength of the stair may be powerfully assisted by a bar of wrought iron, made to

coincide with the inside, and screwed to the string immediately below the steps ; this would make a very light stair, and if well

attended to in the workmanship, will be equal in firmness to one of stone.

H I K, the wall line of the soffit of the stair for winding the part.

L M N, part of the rail supported by two balusters upon every step.

n3 INDEX

AND EXPLANATION OF TERMS

vsED m JOINERY.

N. B. This Mark § refers to the preceding Sections, according to the Number

Arris, the line of concourse or meeting of two surfaces.

Bars for sashes, § 70. See Plate XIX. Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Basil, § 5. Batten, a scantling of stuff from two inches to seven inches in

breadth, and from half an inch to one inch and a half thick, § 82.

Beads, § 31, 68, 69. See Phte XIV. Figs. 2, 3. Plate XV.

Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4.

Beaking Joint is the joint formed by the meeting of several

heading joists in one continued line, which is sometimes the

case in folded floors.

Bench, § 2, 67. See Plate XII. Fig, 12. Bench Hook, § 2.

Bench Planes, § 14. See Plate XII. Figs. 1, 2, 3. JOINERY. 167

Bench Screw, § 2.

Bevel. One side is said to be bevelled with respect to another,

when the angle formed by these two sides, is greater or less than a right angle.

Bevel, the tool, § 58, 67. See Plate XIII. Fig, 12.

Bits, § 34. See Plate XIII. Fig. 1.

Blade is expressed of any part of a tool that is broad and thin, as the blade of an axe, of an adze, of a chisel, of a square.

The blade of a saw is more frequently called the plate.

Boarding Floors, § 82. Bottom Rail, the lowest rail of a door. Bead, a small nail without any projecting head, except on one

edge. The intention is to drive it within the surface of the

wood, by means of a hammer and punch, and fill the cavity flush to the surface with putty.

Brad Awl, § 39, 67. See Plate XIII. Fig. 3. Brace and Bits, the same as stock and bits.

Breaking Joint, is, not to allow two joints to come together.

Casting or Warping, is the bending of the surfaces of a piece of wood from their original position, either by the weight of the wood, or by an unequal exposure to the weather, or by unequal texture of the wood.

Cavetto, § 68.

Centre Bits, § 35.

Chisels, § 40. See Plate XIII. Figs. 3, 4, 5.

Cijia.Recta, § 68. See Plate XIV. Figs. 10, 11.

Cisia.Reversa, § 68. See Plate XIV. Fig. 12. Clamp, a piece of wood fixed to the end of a board, by mortise and tenon, or by groove and tongue, so that the fibres of the

one piece thus fixed, transverse those of the board, and by this

means prevents it from casting ; the piece at the end is called

a clamp, and the board is said to be clamped. 168 JOINERY.

Clear Story Windows are those that have no transom.

Countersinks, § 36.

Compass Plane, § 15.

Compass Saw, § 53. See Plate XIIL Fig. 9.

Cross-graijved Stuff, is wood having its fibres running in con-

trary positions to the surfaces, and consequently cannot be made perfectly smooth, when planed in one direction, without turning

it or turning the plane. This most frequently arises from a twisted disposition of the fibres. mmmmm mmmra

Curling Stuff, is that which is occasioned by the winding or

coiling of the fibres round the boughs of the tree, when they

begin to shoot out of the trunk. The double iron planes now

in use, are a most complete remedy against cross-grained and

curling stuff ; the plane will nearly work as smooth against the

grain as with it.

Dabo Grooving Planes, § 29. Door Frame, the surrounding case into, and out of which the door shuts and opens, consisting of two upright pieces and a head, generally fixed together by mortise and tenon, and wrought, rebated, and beaded.

Doors, § 70. See Plates XVI, XVII, XVIII.

Door Hung, § 84.

Double Torus, § 69. See Plate XV

Dove-tail Saw, § 52.

Draging in the hanging of doors, is a depression or lowering of

the door, so as to make it rub on the floor, occasioned by the loosening of the hinges, or the settling of the building. Draw Bore Pins, two iron pins with wooden handles, for the purpose of forcing the shoulders of tenons against the abutments on the cheeks of the mortises, so as make a close joint. Draw

bore pins are in joinery, what hook pins are in carpentry, and

used in a similar manner. See Carpentry, § 20.

Drawing Knife, § 44. JOINERY 169

Edge Tools, all tools made sharp so as to cut.

Fence, the guard of a plane which obliges it to work to a certain horizontal breadth from the arris. All moulding planes, except hollows and rounds, and snipesbills, have fixed fences as well as

fixed stops, but in fillisters and plows, the fences are moveable, §20,21,22,23,28,31. Fine Set, when the iron has a very small projection below the

sole of the plane, so as to take a very thin broad shaving, it is ^

said to be fine set.

Firmer Chisel, § 67. See Plate XIII. Floors, § 82. FoRKSTAFF PlANE, § 16. Framing, '§ 81. Free Stuff, that which is quite clean or without knots, and works

easily, without tearing. Frowy Stuff, the same as free stuff. %

13. Gauge, § 59, 67. See Plate XIII. Fig. Gimlet, § 67. See Plate XIII. Fig. 2. No. 1, 2.

Gouge, § 43. Grind Stone, a cylindric stone, which being turned round its

axis, edge tools are sharpened by applying the basil to the Con- vex surface.

GRINJpiNGt THE IbON, § 6. Groove, § 28. Grooving Planes, § 28. See Plate XII. Fig. 8, 9. § 2.

Hammer, See Carpentry. § 15. X 170 JOINERY.

Hand Saw, § 48, 67. See Plate XIII. Fig. 6. Hanging Doors, § 84. Hanging Shutters, § 83. Hatchet, § 55.

Hinging Doors and Shutters, § 83, 84. H01.LOWS AND Rounds, § 33.

Jack Plane, § 6, 8, 67. See Plate XII. Fig, 1. Jointer, § 12. E.

Kerf, the way which the saw makes in dividing a piece of wood into two parts.

Key-hole Saw, § 64, 67. See Plate XIII. Fig. 10.

Knot, that part of a branch of a tree where it issues out of the trunk. L

Long Plane, § 11.

Lower Rail, the rail at the foot of a door next to the floor. Lying Panel, a panel with the fibres of the wood disposed horizontally. Lying panels have their horizontal dimensions generally greater than the vertical dimension.

Mallet. See Carpentry, § 16. Joinery, § 67. and Plate XII. Fig. 9.

Margins or Marge nts, the flat part of the stiles and rails of framed work.

Middle Rail, the rail of a door which is upon a level with the hand when hanging freely and bending the joint of the wrest.

The lock of the door is generally fixed in this rail. mmm Mitre. When two pieces of wood are formed to equal angles, or

each two sides of each piece at equal inclinations, and two

sides, one of each piece, joined together at their common vertex, JOINERY. 171

so as to make an angle, or an inclination double to that of either

piece, they are said to be mitred together, and the joint is called

the mitre. The angle which is thus formed by the junction of

the two, is generally a right angle.

Mitre Square, § 66.

Mortise Chisels, § 42, 67. See Plate XIII. Fig. 5. Mortise and Tenon, § 81.

Mortise Gauge, § 60.

Moulding Planes, § 30.

Mouldings, § 68, 69,70. See Plate XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII, XIX. Moving Fillister, § 20. MuLLioN, the large bars or divisions of windows. MuNNioN, a large vertical bar of a window frame, separating two casements or glass frames from each other.

Muntins or MoNTANTs, the vertical piieces of the frame of a door

between the stiles.

Ogee, a moulding, the transverse section of which consists of two

curves of contrary flexture, § 68. See Plate XIV. Figs. 10, 11, 12. P.

Panel, a thin board, having all its edges inserted in the grooves of a surrounding frame.

Panel Saw, § 49.

Plow, § 28, 67. See Plate I. Fig. 8.

Quarter Round, § 68. See Fig. 7.

Rails, the horizontal pieces which contain the tenons in a piece of framing, in which the upper and lower edges of the panels are inserted.

Raisers. See Risers. ;

172 JOINERY.

Rank Set, is when the edge of the iron projects considerably below the sole of the plane, so as to take a thick shaving.

Rebate, § 18.

Rebating, § 79, 80.

Rebating Planes, § 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, also 67. See Plate XII. Fig. 6, 7.

Reeded Mouldings, § 69. See Plate XV. Figs. 7, 8, 9. Return. In any body with two surfaces joining each other at an

angle, one of the surfaces is said to return ir. respect of the other

or if standing before one surface, so that the eye may be in a

straight line with the other, or nearly so ; this last is said to return

Rimers, § 37.

Ripping Saw, § 46. Risers, the vertical sides of the steps of stairs.

Rub Stone, § 6.

Sash Fillisters, § 21, 22. See Plate XII. Fig. 8.

Sash Saw, § 51, 67. See Plate XIII. Fig, 8.

Saws, § 45. Scantling the transverse dimensions of a piece of timber, sometimes

also the small timbers in roofing and flooring, are called scantlings.

Scotia, § 68. See Plate XIV. Fig. 9.

Scribe, § 85. Shoot, a joint, § 74.

Shooting Block, § 63.

Shutters Hung, § 83.

Side Hook, § 61, 67. See Plate XII. Fig. 11. Side Rebating Planes, § 27.

Side Snipesbills, § 32.

Single Torus, § 69. See Plate XIV. Fig, 5. Plate XV. Fig. 5.

Smoothing Plane, § 13, 67. See Plate XII. Fig. 3. Snipesbills, § 32.

Square, § 56, 67. See Plate XIII. Fig. 11. Staff, a piece of wood fixed to the external angle of the two JOINERY. 173

upright sides of a wall for floating the plaster to, and for de- fending the angle against accidents. Stiles of a door, are the vertical parts of the framing at the edges of the door.

Stock and Bits, § 34, 67. See Plate 13. Fig. 1. Straight Block, § 17. Straight Edge, § 64.

Stuff, § 1. SuRBASE, the upper base of a room, or rather the cornice of the pedestal of the room which serves to finish the dado, and to secure the plaster against accidents, as might happen by the backs of chairs or other furniture on the same level

Tang op an Iron is the narrow part of it which passes througa the mortise in the stock. Taper, the form of a piece of wood which arises from one end of a piece being narrower than the other. 7. Tenon Saw, § 50, 67. See Plate XIII. Fig. Tooth, a small piece ofsteel with cutting edge in fillisters and gauges Figs. 5, 6. Torus, § 69. See Plate XIV. Fig. 5. Plate XV. Transom Windows, those which have horizontal muUions. Trussels, four-legged stools for ripping and cross-cutting timber upon. For this purpose there are generally two required, and middle when the timber is very long, an additional trussel in the

will be found necessary.

Try, § 78. Trying, §78. 10. Trying Plane, § 9, 10, 67. See Plate XII. Fig. 20. Turning Saw, § 54, 67. See Plate XIII, Fig. W. Warp. See Cast.

Web of an Iron is the broad part of it which comes to the sole of the plane, the upper edge or end of the web has generally one

shoulder, and sometimes two, where it joins ^he tang.

Winding Sticks. § 64. BRICKLAYING.

§1. Bricklaying is an art by which bricks are joined and cemented, so as to adhere as one body.

This art, in London, includes the business of walling, tiling, and paving, with bricks or tiles ; and sometimes the bricklayer undertakes the business of plastering also : but this is only done masters in by a small way. In the country, bricklaying and plas- taring are generally joined : and not unfrequently the art of masonry also which has a ; nearer affinity to it than that of plastering. The bricklayer is supplied with bricks and mortar at his work by a man, called a labourer, who also makes the mortar.

The materials used are mortar, bricks, tiles, laths, nails, and tile pins bricks ; and tiles are of several kinds, which, as well as other descriptions of work, are treated of under their respective heads: viz. 1. The tools. 2. Of cements. 3. Of brick-making, and the various sorts of bricks. 4. The several kinds of tiles and laths. 5. The different methods of treating foundations, according to the quality of the soil, whether of an uniform or mixed texture. 6. Walling. 7. A description of the p'ates. Lastly, An explanation of such terms as have not been defined in the course of the work, or such as may require a farther explanation ; with an index to the principal technical terms used in this art, and in connection therewith, the terms and index being placed under an alphabetical arrangement, as to the former branches of carpentry and joinery. BRICKLAYING.

BRICKLAYING TOOLS DESCRIBED.

§ 2. A List of Wdlling Tools.

1. A brick trowel, 2. a hammer; 3. a plumb rule ; 4. a level, 6. a large square G. a rod; ; 7. a jointing rule; 8. a jointer; 9. a pair of compasses ; 10. a raker 11. ; a hod ; 12. a pair of line pins; a 13. rammer ; 14. an iron crow ; 15. a pick axe ; 16. a

grinding stone ; 17. a banker; 18. a camber slip ; 19. a rubbing stone; 20. a bedding stone ; 21. a square ; 22. a bevel ; 23. a mould; 24. ascribe; 25. a saw; 26. an axe ; 27. a templet;

28. a chopping block ; 29. a float stone.

§ 3. J. List of Tools used in Tiling,

lathing 1. A hammer; 2. a laying trowel; 3. a boss; 4. a

pantile strike ; 5. a scurbage.

TOOLS FOR WALLING DESCRIBED.

§4. THE BRICK TROWEL

Is used for taking up mortar, and spreading it on the top of the walls, in order to cement together the bricks which are to be laid, and also to cut the bricks to any required lengths.

§5. THE HAMMER

Is used for cutting holes in brick-work.

§6. THE PLUMB RULE

Is about four feet long, with a line and plummet, in order to carry the faces of walls up vertically. See also Carpentry, § 14. 176 BRICKLAYING.

§7. THE LEVEL

Is about ten or twelve feet long, in order to try the level of walls at various stages of building, and particularly at window sills and wall plates. See also Carpentry, § 12, 13.

§8. THE LARGE SQUARE

Is used for setting out the sides of a building at right angles, which is also obtained by Prob. 1, 2, 3. Geometry, page 24.

§9. THE ROD

Is either five or ten feet in length, and used for measuring lengths, breadths, and heights, with more despatch than could be done by a pocket rule.

§ 10. THE JOINTING RULE

Is about eight or ten feet long, according to whether one or two bricklayers are to u-se it, and about four inches broad. By this rule, they run the joints of the brick-work.

§11. THE JOINTER

With which, and the jointing rule the horizontal and vertical joints are marked ; it is shaped like the letter S, and is of iron.

§12. THE COMPASSES

Is used for traversmg arches and vaults. ;:

BRICKLAYING. 177

§ 13. THE RAKER

Is a piece of iron with two knees or r ngles, which divide it into three parts at right angles to each other ; the two end parts are pointed and of equal lengths, and stand upon contrary sides of the middle part. Its use is to pick decayed mortar out of the joints in

old walls, for the purpose of replacing the same with new mortar.

§14. THE HOD

Is a wooden trough, shut up at one end and open at the other, the sides consisting of two boards at right angles to each other from the meeting of the two sides projects a handle at right angles

this machine is used by the labourer for carrying mortar and bricks; he strews the inner surface over with fine dry sand before he puts

in the mortar, which prevents it sticking to the wood, then placing

it upon his shoulder, carries the load to the bricklayer.

§15. THE LINE PINS

Are two iron pins for fastening and stretching the line, at proper intervals of the wall, in order to lay the course of brick-work

level on the bed; and straight along the face of the wall. The line

pins have generally a length of sixty feet of line, fastened to each

pin.

§ 16. THE RAMMER

Is used for asceftaining whether the ground be sufficiently solid

for building upon, also for beating the ground to a firm bearing,

so as to give it the utmost degree of compression ; for if ground is

built upon in a loose state, in all probability fractures in tlie walls would ensue, and endanger the whole building. See Foundations. No. 12. Y 178 BRICKLAYING.

§ 17. THE IRON CROW AND PICK AXE

Are used in conjunction for cutting or breaking through walls, or raising large and ponderous substances out of the ground, or the like.

§18. THE GRINDING STONE

Is used for sharpening axes, hammers, and other tools.

§ 19. THE BANKER

Is a bench from six to twelve feet in length, according to the

number of those who are to work at it, and from two feet six inches, to three feet in breadth, and may be an inch thick, and

raised about two feet eight inches from the ground. It is generally-

made of an t)ld ledged door, set upon three or five posts in front,

and its back edge against a wall. It is used for preparing the bricks for rubbed arches, or other gauged work upon.

§20. THE CAMBER SLIP

Is a piece of wood generally about half an inch thick, with at

least one curved edge rising about one inch in six feet, for drawing

the soffit lines of straight arches, when the other edge is curved,

it rises only about one half of the other, viz. about half an inch in six feet, for the purpose of drawing the upper side of the said arch,

so as to prevent it from becoming hollow by the settling of the arch.

The upper edge of the arch is not always cambered, some persons preferring it to be straight. The bricklayer is always provided with a camber slip ; which being sufficiently long, answers to many different widths of openings ; when he has done drawing his arch, he gives the camber shp to the carpenter, in order to form the centre to the required curre of the soffit. ;

BRICKLAYING. 179

§21. THE RUBBING STONE

Is of a cylindric form, about twenty inches diameter, but may be more or less at pleasure, fixed at one end of the banker upon a bed of mortar. By this, the bricks which have been previously headers and stretchers m re- axed, are rubbed smooth ; also the turns, which are not axed, called rubbed returns, and rubbed headers and stretchers.

§22. THE BEDDING STONE

Consists of a straight piece of marble, not less than eighteen or twenty inches in length, about eight or ten inches wide, and of any thickness. Its use is, to try the rubbed side of the brick, which you must first square, in order to prove whether the surface of the brick be straight, so as to fit it upon the leading skew back, or leading

end of the arch.

§23. THE SQUARE

Is used in trying the bedding of the bricks, and squaring the

sofiits across the breadth of the said bricks.

§24. THE BEVEL

For drawing the soffit line on the face of the bricks.

§25. THE MOULD

Is used in forming the face and back of the brick, in order to

its being reduced in thickness to its proper taper, one edge of the

mould being brought close to the bed of the brick already squared

the mould has a notch for every course of the arch. 180 BRICKLAYING.

§26. THE SCRIBE

Is a spike or large nail ground to a sharp point, to mark the

bricks on the face and back by the tapering edges of the mould, in order to cut them.

§27. THE TIN SAW

Is used for cutting the sofl5t lines about one-eighth part of an inch deep, first by the edge of the bevel on the face of the brick,

then by the edge of the square on the bed of the brick, in order

to enter the brick axe, and to keep the brick from spaltering.

The saw is also used in cutting the soffit through its breadth, in the direction of the tapering lines, drawn upon the face and back edge of the brick, but the cutting is always made deeper on the face and back of the brick than in the middle of its thickness, for said purpose the of entering the axe : the saw is likewise used for cutting the false joints of headers and stretchers.

§28. THE BRICK AXE

Is used for axing off the soffits of bricks to the saw cuttmgs, and the sides to the lines drawn by the scribes. As the bricks are always rubbed smooth after axing, the more truly they are axed, the less labour there will be in rubbing.

§29. THE TEMPLET

Is used in taking the length of the stretcher and width of the header.

Note. The last ten articles relate entirely to the cutting of gauged arches, which are now the principal things that occur in gauged work. BRICKLAYING. 181

§30. THE CHOPPING BLOCK

Is for reducing the bricks to their intended form by axing them, and is made of any chance piece of wood that can be obtained, from six to eight inches square, supported generally upon two fourteen-inch brick piers, provided only two men be to work at it but if four men, the chopping block must be lengthened and supported by three piers, and so on according to the number. It is about two feet three inches in height.

§31. THE FLOAT STONE

Is used for rubbing curved work smooth, such as the cylindrical backs and spherical heads of niches, so as to take out the axe marks entirely : but before its application, it must first be brought to the reverse form of the intended surface, so as to coincide with

it, as nearly as possible, in finishing.

§32. Of Cements.

Calcarioua cements may be classed according to the three fol-

lowing divisions : namely, simple calcaneus cement, water cement, mastichs, or maltha.

1. Simple calcarious cement includes those kinds of mortar which are employed in land building, and consists of lime, sand, and fresh water.

Calcarious earths are converted into quick lime by burning,

which being wetted with water, falls into an impalpable powder,

with great extracation heat ; and if in this state it is beat with sand

and water, the mass will concrete and become a stony substance,

which will be more or less perfect according to its treatment, or to the quality and quantities of ingredients. When carbonated

lime has been thoroughly burnt, it is deprived of its water, and ,

182 BRICKLAYING.

all or nearly all of its carbonic acid. Much of the water, during the process of calcination, being carried off in the form of steam.

Lime-stone loses about four-ninths of its weight by burning, and

when fully burnt it falls freely, and will produce something more

than double the quantity of powder or slacked lime in measure,

that the burnt lime-stone consisted of.

Quick lime, by being exposed to the air, absorbs carbonic acid

with less or greater rapidity, as its texture is more or less hard and this by continued exposure, becomes unfit for the composition of mortar: and hence it is that quick lime made of chalk, cannot bo kept for the same length of time between the burning and slacking, as that made from stone.

Marble, chalk, and lime-stone, with respect to their use in cements, may be divided into two kinds, simple lime-stone, or pure carbonate of lime, and argillo-ferruginous lime, which contains from one.twentieth to one-twelfth of clay and oxide of iron, previous to calcination : there are no external marks by which these can be distinguished from each other, but whatever may have been the colour in the crude state, the former, when calcined, becomes white, and the latter more or less of an ochery tinge. The white kinds are more abundant, and when made into mortar, will admit of a greater portion of sand than the brown ; consequently, are more generally employed in the composition of mortar ; but the brown lime is by far the best for all kinds of cement. If white* brown, and shell lime recently slacked, be separately beat up

little with a water into a stiff paste ; it will be found that the white lime, whether made from chalk, lime-stone, or marble, will not acquire any degree of hardness ; the brown lime will become considerably indurated, and the shell lime will be concreted into a firm cement, which, though it will fall to pieces in water, is well qualified for interior finishings, where it can be kept dry.

It was the opinion of the ancients, and is still received among our modern builders, that the hardest lime-stone furnishes the best lime for mortar; but the experiments of Dr. Higgins and Mr.

Smcaton, have proved this to bo a mistake ; and that the softest BRICKLAYING. 183 chalk lime, if thoroughly burnt, is equally durable with the hardest stone-lirae, or even marble : but though stone and chalk lime are equally good, under this condition, there is a very important practical difference between them, as the chalk lime absorbs carbonic acid with much greater avidity ; and if it is only partially calcined, on the application of water it will fall into a coarse powder, which stone lime will not do. For making mortar, the lime should be immediately used from the kiln, and in slacking it, no more water should be allowed than what is just sufficient : and for this purpose. Dr. Higgins recom. mends lime water.

The sand made use of should be perfectly clean ; if there is any mixture of clay or mud, it should be divested, of either or both, by washing it in running water. Mr. Smeaton has fully shown by experiment, that mortar, though of the best quality, when mixed with a small proportion of unburnt clay, never acquires that hardness, which without this addition, it speedily would have attained.

If sea sand is used, it requires to be well washed with fresh water, to dissolve the salt with which it is mixed, otherwise the cement into which it enters, never becomes thoroughly dry and hard : the sharper and coarser the sand is, the stronger is the mortar, also a less proportion of lime is necessary. It is therefore more profita- ble to use the largest proportion of sand, as this ingredient is the cheapest in the composition.

The best proportion of lime and sand in the composition of mortar, is yet a desideratum.

It may be affirmed in general, that no more lime is required to a given quantity of sand, than what is just sufficient to surround the particles, or to use the least lime so as to preserve the necessary degree of plasticity. Mortar in which sand predominates, requires less water in preparing, and therefore sets sooner ; it is harder and less liable to crack in drying, for this reason, that lime shrinks greatly in drying, while sand retains its original magnitude. We are informed by Vitruvius, lib. 2. c. 5. that the Roman builders allowed three parts of pit sand, or two of river or sea sand, to one :

184 BRICKLAYING.

of lime ; but by Pliny, (Hist. Nat. lib. xxxvi.) four parts of coarse sharp pit sand, and only one of lime. The general proportion

given by our London builders, is one hundred weight and a half, or thirty-seven bushels of lime loads and two and a half of sand ; but if proper caution were taken in the burning the lime, the quality

of the sand, and in tempering the materials, a much greater quan -

tity of sand might be admitted.

Mr. Smeaton observes, that there is scarcely any mortar, that

if the lime be well burnt, and the composition well beat in the

making, but what will require two measures of sand, to one of

unslacked lime ; and it is singular, that the more the mortar is wrought or beat, a greater proportion of sand may be admitted. He found that by good beating, the same quantity of lime would take in one measure of tarras, and three of clean sand, which seems to be the greatest useful proportion.

Dr- Higgins found that a certain proportion of coarse and fine sand, improved the composition of mortar ; the best proportion of

ingredients, according to experiment made by him, are as follow, by measure

Lime newly slacked - . . l part. Fine sand - . ... 3 parts Coarse sand ..... 4 parts. He also found that an addition of one-fourth part of the quantity of lime, of burnt bone ashes, improved the mortar by giving the

tenacity, and rendering it less liable to crack in drying. The mortar should be made under ground, and then covered up and kept there for a considerable length of time, the longer the better; and when it is used, it should be beat up afresh. This makes it set sooner, renders it less liable to crack, and more hard when dry.

The stony consistence which it acquires in dr3dng, is owing to the absorption of carbonic acid, and a combination of o\rt of the water with the lime : and hence it is that lime that has been long

kfipt after burning, is unfit for the purpose of mortar ; for in the course of keeping, so much carbonic acid has been imbibed, as to BRICKLAYING. 185

have little better effect in a composition of sand and water, than

chalk or lime-stone reduced to a powder from the cnide state

would have in place of it.

Grout is mortar containing a larger proportion of water than is

employed in common mortar, so as to make it sufficiently fluid to

penetrate the narrow irregular interstices of rough stone walls. Grout should be made of mortar that has been long kept and

thoroughly beat ; as it will then concrete in the space of a day :

whereas if this precaution is neglected, it will be a long time

before it set, and may even never set.

Mortar made of pure lime sand and water, may be employed in the linings of reservoirs, and aqueducts, provided that it has sufficient time to dry ; but if the water be put in while it is wet, it will fall to pieces in a short time, and consequently, if the circumstances of the building are such as render it impracticable to keep out the water, it should not be used ; there are, however, certain ingredients put into common mortar, by which it is made to set immediately under water, or if the quick lime contain in itself a certain portion of burnt clay, it will possess this property.

This is all that is necessary to say under this head ; what relates to mortars employed in aquatic buildings will be treated of under water cements.

From the friable and crumbHng nature of our mortar, a notion has been entertained by many persons, that the ancients possessed a process in making their mortar, which has been lost at the present day; but the experiments of Mr. Smeaton, Dr. Higgins,

and others, have shown this notion to be unfounded ; and that nothing more is wanting, than that the chalk, lime-stone, or marble, be well burnt and thoroughly slacked immediately, and to mix it up with a certain proportion of clean, large-grained, sharp sand, and as small a quantity of water as will be sufficient for working it ; to keep it a considerable time from the external air,

to it and beat over again before it is used : the cement thus made will be sufficiently hard.

The practice of our modern builders is to spare their labour, 186 BRICKLAYING. and to increase the quantity of materials they produce, without any regard to its goodness ; the badness of our modern mortar is to be attributed both to the faulty nature of the materials, and to the slovenly and hasty methods of using it. This is remarkably instanced in London, where the lime employed is chalk lime, in- differently burnt, conveyed from Essex or Kent, a distance of ten

or twenty miles, then kept many days without any precaution to

prevent the access of external air : now in the course of this time,

it has absorbed so much carbonic acid as nearly to lose its cement-

ing properties ; and though chalk lime is equally good with the

hai'dest lime-stone, when thoroughly burnt, yet by this treatment,

when it is slacked, it falls into a thin powder, and the core or

unburnt lumps are ground down, and mixed up in the mortar, and

not rejected as they ought to be.

The sand is equally defective, consisting of small globular

grains, containing a large proportion of clay, which prevents it from drying, and attaining the necessary degree of hardness. These materials being compounded in the most hasty manner,

and beat up with water in this imperfect state, cannot fail of producing a crumbling and bad mortar. To complete the hasty hash, screened rubbish, and the scraping of roads, also are used as sub- stitutes for pure sand.

How very different was the practice of the Romans ! the limo which they employed, was perfectly burnt, the sand sharp, cleaned,

and large grained : these ingredients were mixed in due proportion

with a small quantity of water, the mass was put into a wooden

mortar, and beat with a heavy wooden or iron pestle, till the composition adhered to the mortar ; being thus far prepared, they kept

it till it was at least three years old. The beating of mortar is of

the utmost consequence to its durability, and it would appear that

the effect produced by it, is owing to something more than a mere mechanical mixture.

Water cements are those which are impervious to water, generally made of common water, or of pure lime and water, with the BRICKLAYING. 187 addition of some other ingredient which gives it the property of hardening under water.

For this purpose, there are several kinds of ingredients that maybe used. That known by the name of pozzolana, which is supposed to consist of volcanic ashes thrown out of Vesuvius, has been long celebrated, from the early ages of the Romans, to the present day.

It seems to consist of a ferruginous clay, baked and calcined by of the force of volcanic fire ; it is a light, porus, friable mineral, a red colour. The cement employed by Mr. Smeaton, in the construction of the Eddystone light-house, was composed of equal

parts by measure, of slacked aberthaw lime and pozzolana ; this proportion was thought advisable, as this building was exposed to other aouatic works as the utmost violence of the sea ; but for

locks, basins, canals, &c. a composition made of lime, pozzolana,

sand, and water, in the following proportion : viz. two bushels of slacked aberthaw lime, one bushel of pozzolana, and three of clean sand, has been found very effectual.

§ 33. Description of Bricks.

Bricks are a kind of factitious stone, composed of argillaceous

earth, and frequently a certain portion of sand, and cinders of

sea-coal, tempered together with water, dried in the sun, and

burnt in a kiln, or in a heap or stack called a clamp.

Bricks are first formed from the clay into rectangular prisms,

in a mould often inches in length, and five in breadth ; and when burnt, usually measure nine inches long, four and a half broad,

and two and a half thick : so that a brick generally shrinks one

inch in ten ; but the degree of shrinking is not always the same,

it depends upon the purity and tempering of the clay, and also upon the burnmg. For brick-making, the earth should be of the purest kind, dug 188 BRICKLAYING. in autumn, and exposed during the winter's frost; this allows the air to penetrate, and divide the earthly particles, and facilitates the subsequent operations of mixing and tempering.

To make real good bricks, the earth should be dug two or three years before it is used, in order to pulverize it ; and should be mixed with a due proportion of clay and sand, as too much argillaceous matter causes the bricks to shrink, and too much sand renders them heavy and brittle. The London practice of mixing sea-coal ashes, and in the country light sandy earth, not only makes them work easy and with greater despatch, but tends also to save coals or wood in burning them. The earth should be entirely divested of stony particles, and should be often beat or turned over, with as little water as possible, in order to incorporate the soil with the ashes or sand, until the whole be converted into an uniform paste ; and note, that too much water prevents the adhering of the parts ; before the bricks are burnt, they should be thoroughly dry, or they will crack and crumble in the burning.

Bricks made of good earth, well tempered, become solid, smooth, hard, durable, and ponderous ; but require half as much more earth, also a longer time in drying and burning them, than common bricks, which are light, spongy, and full of cracks.

Bricks are either burnt in clamps or kilns ; the former is the practice about London, and the latter in the country; bricks burnt in kilns, are less liable to waste, require less fuel, and are sooner burnt than in clamps. It must be observed, that steeping of bricks in water, after once burning, and then burning them afresh, makes them more than doubly strong.

There are several kinds of bricks, as marls, stocks, and place brick. The only difference in making them is, that marls are prepared and tempered with the greater care ; the construction of the clamp is the same for each, but for marls, greater care is taken not to over-heat the kiln, but that it burn equally and moderately, and as diffusively as possible. The finest kind of marls called firsts, are selected, and used as cutting bricks, for arches, over doors, windows, and quoins, for whict they are gauged BRICKLAYING. 189

The next best called seconds, are rubbed to their proper forms. are selected and used for principal fronts. only in co- Marls are every way superior to stock bricks, not also in point of smooth, lour, which is a pleasant pale yellow, but kind. ness and durability. Hence the gray stocks are an inferior and The place bricks, or as they are otherwise called peckings, sometimes sandal or semel bricks, are those that are left of the inferior clamp after taking away the rubbers and marls; their quality is occasioned by not being sufficiently and uniformly being of a redder burnt : they also differ from stock bricks in colour, and of a more uneven texture. Burrs are over-burnt together. brick, sometimes two or three are quite vitrified and run in the country, and There are also red stocks ; these are made used as cutting bricks, and are burnt in kilns ; the best kind are called red rubbers. Fine bricks are made at Hedgerly, a village near Windsor, and are therefore also called Windsor bricks. These are very hard, of a red colour, and will stand the utmost are the same as stock fury of the fire ; their length and breadth bricks, but their thickness is only about one inch and a half. Bricks are sold by the thousand. Stock and place bricks made

for sale, shall not be less than eight inches and a half long, four inches wide, and two inches and a half thick, when burnt, by 17

Geo. III. cap. 69. Besides the bricks of our own manufacture, Dutch clinkers are

also imported for the purpose of paving yards and stables. These are very hard, of a brimstone colour, and almost vitrified in burn-

ing. They are about six inches long, three broad, and one thick., and look extremely well when laid herring-bone ways. As a building material, bricks have several advantages over

stone, being lighter, and from their porus structure they unite

better with the mortar, and are not so liable to attract damp. Bricks for paving floors, also called paving tiles, are of several magnhudes, and are made of a stronger clay. The largest are the about twelve inch'^s square, and one and a half in thickness ; second are about nine inches square, though called ten, being :

190 BRICKLAYING.

formerly so, and one and a quarter thick ; these may be rubbed

smooth, and when laid diagonally, have a very pleasing effect. Bricks for paving are about nine inches long, four and a half broad, and one and a half thick.

The chief covering for roofs in and about London is slate:

however, in the interior of the country, tiles are almost uniformly used for the roofs of houses, and in some instances on barns ; tiles

for roofs are of several kinds, as pan tiles, plain tiles, ridge tiles, and hip tiles. Pan tiles are about 13 inches long, 8 inches broad, about and half an inch thick ; their transverse section is a figure of

contrary curvature, the form of the tile being two portions of cylin-

dric surfaces on both sides ; the part which is of the greatest

radius serves as a channel for discharging the rain water, and the other part, which is of much less radius, serves to lap over the edge the adjoining of tile : at the upper end of the tile projects a knob from the under and convex side, for the purpose of hanging

it to the laths. The laths used for pan tiles are about three quarters

of an inch thick, and one and a quarter broad, made of deal. Fie-

mish tiles are sometimes imported from Holland ; they are very hard and durable, and are glazed of a leaden colour.

§ 34. Foundations.

Having dug the trenches for the foundations, the ground must

be tried with an iron crow, or with a rammer, and if found to shake

it must be pierced with a borer, such as is used by well diggers

then if the ground proves to be generally firm, the loose or soft parts if not very deep, must be excavated until a solid bed appears; but observe in building up these parts that the bottom ofthe excavation must widen upwards in a gradual slope, in the direction of the trenchers, in form of a series of steps, whch will admit of a firmer bed for the stones, so that they will have no tendency to slide, as would be the case if built upon inclined planes : and thus in wet seasons, the moisture in the foundations would induce the inclined BRICKLAYING. 191 parts to slide, and descend by their gravity towards the lowest parts, and in all probability would fracture the walls, and endanger the whole fabric.

If the ground proves soft in several places to a great depth under apertures, and firm upon the sides on which the piers between the windows of the superstructure are to be erected, the better way is to turn inverted arches under the apertures, {see Plate XXVI.) and indeed at all times where there is sufficient height of wall below the apertures to admit of them, it is a necessary precaution.

For the small base of the piers will more easily penetrate the ground than one continued base : and as the piers are permitted to descend in a certain degree, and so long as they can be kept from spreading, will carry the arch along with them, and compress the ground, which will therefore re-act against the under sides of the inverted arch, which, if closely jointed will not yield, but act with the abutting piers as one solid body. On the contrary, if no inverted arches were used, the low piece of walling under the apertures not having a sufficient vertical dimension would give way from the resistance of the ground upon its base, and thereby, not only fracture the spaces of brick-work which lie vertical between the apertures, but breaks the sills of the windows. Where the precaution of inverted arches is omitted, and the building is weighty, the probability of the event of fracturing the walls is almost certain ; the author, who has had great practice in conducting buildings, never experienced any instance to the contrary, in the numerous buildings in which he has been concerned. It is therefore of the utmost consequence to throw these arches with

greatest not to be less in height than half the care ; they ought their width, and as a parabolic curve is very easily described, it would be still more effectual in resisting the re-action of the ground than one of uniform curvature, as the arc of a circle ; the parabolic arch or vault being the form adapted more nearly to the laws of uniform pressure. From the equality of the curvature of the circle; it is only capable of resisting a uniform pressure upon sur- all points directed to the centre, and thus a cylindric vessel 192 BRICKLAYING.

rounded with water is a proper form of a hollow body to be con-

structed of the least quantity of materials, or at the least expense. The bed of the piers ought to be as uniform as possible, for

though all the parts of the bottom of the trenches may be very

firm, if there be any difference, as they will all sink, the quantity

which they will give will be according to the softness of the

ground, therefore the piers erected upon the softer, will descend

ihore than those on the firmer ground, and occasion a vertical

fracture in the building.

If the hard parts of the foundation are only to be found under apertures, then build piers in these places, and instead of inverted arches suspend arches between the piers. In the construction of

the arches some attention must be paid to the breadth of the in-

sisting pier, whether it will cover the arch or not : for suppose the

middle of the piers to rest over the middle of the summit of the

arches, then the narrower the piers, the more curvature the sup. porting arch ought to have at the apex. When arches of suspen- sion are used, the intrados ought to be clear, so that the arch may

have the full effect ; but as observed before, it will also be requi-

site here, that the ground be uniformly hard on which the piers

are erected, for the reasons already given ; but it might be farther

observed, that even where the ground is not very hard under the

piers, if it is but uniform, the parts will descend equally, and the

building will remain uninjured.

If the foundation be not very insufficient, it may be made good by ramming large stones closely laid with a heavy rammer, of a breadth at the bottom proportioned to the insisting weight, and this breadth in ordinary cases may project a foot on each side of the wall, then another course may be laid upon this so as to bring the upper bed of the stones upon a general level with the trenches, and to project about eight inches on each side of the wall, or to recede four inches on each side within the lower course. In laying of these courses, care should be taken to chop or hammer- dress the stones, so as to have as little taper as possible, and to make the joints of the one course fall as nearly to the middle of ;

BRICKLAYING. 193

the stones in the adjoining course as possible ; and this principle must be strictly adhered to in all walling whatever; and though there are various modes of disposing stones or bricks, the end is to obtain the greatest uniform lap upon each other, throughout the whole.

If the foundation is very bad, the whole must be piled as already described in the department of Carpentry.

§35. Walls.

We shall now suppose that the ground is either naturally suf. ficient for building upon, or is prepared for the purpose by means similar to what have already been described : and the different qualities of mortar and bricks being also described: such materials must be employed in the construction of the whole, or in the different parts, as are sufficient for the end proposed ; thus, in

places exposed to the weather, more durable materials must be employed than in those which are covered; but in this, some regard must also be had to the importance of the fabric, or whether long duration may be required or not. water as is When you slack the lime, wet it only with so much at a sufficient to reduce it to^ a powder, and only about a bushel

time, covering it over with a layer of sand, in order to prevent the

gas, which is the virtue of the lim§, from escaping. The best proportion of the ingredients^lime and sand for mortar has been

fully specified, but in ordinary cases, where time will not permit

to prepare the materials to the best advantage, or where the end proposed would not be a compensation for the expense, about two or two and a half measures of sand to one of lime may be used

but even this proportion will not always hold, for some lime will

require more and some less sand ; this being understood, slack the same quantity of lime alternately, until the whole is made up:

this is a better mode than to slack the whole at once, as the ex-

posure is less in the former, than in the latter case. Nos. 13 & 14. 2 A 194 BRICKLAYING.

Beat your mortar with the beater three or four times over before it is used, so as to incorporate the hme and sand, and to break the knots that pass through the sieve ; this will not only render the texture uniform, but will make the mortar much stronger by permitting the air to enter the pores : and observe here also, as we have before stated, to use as little water in the beating as possible. Should the mortar stand any time after beating, it should be beat again immediately before it is used, so as to give tenacity and to prevent labour to the bricklayer. In summer dry hot weather use your mortar pretty soft, but in winter rather stift".

If you lay your bricks in dry weather, and if you require firm work, you must use mortar prepared in the best way, and before using the bricks, they must be wetted or dipped in water as they

are laid on the wall, but in moist weather this will be unnecessary'. The wetting of the bricks causes them to adhere to the mortar,

whereas, if laid dry, and covered with sand or dust, they will

never stick, but may be taken off without the adhesion of a single

particle of mortar. In winter, as soon as the frost or stormy season begins to set

in, the walls must be covered ; for this purpose straw is usually employed, and sometimes in particular buildings a capping of weather boarding, in form of a stone coping, for throwing the

water equally to both sides, is used; but even in this case, it would

be better to have straw uhder the wood, which would be still a

farther proof against frost. There is nothing so prejudicial to a

building as alternate rain and frost, if exposed ; for the rain makes way through the pores into the heart of the stone and mortar, and when the freezing comes on, the water is converted into ice, which expands beyond the original bulk with such power, that no

known force of compression is capable of preventing it from ex- pansion. In consequence of this, the heaviest stones and even

the largest rocks have been burst. Though this is the cause why

buildings decay in lapse of time, yet the vertical surfaces exposed

to the weather suffer but in an incomparably small degree to horizontal surfaces thus exposed. BRICKLAYING. 195

to work more In working up the wall it would be proper not immediately than four or five feet at a time, for as all walls up will remain after building shrink, the part which is first brought

it will stationary, and when the adjacent part is also brought up, separate from shrink in altitude by itself, and consequently will In carrying up any the other which has already become fixed. sloped off* so as to particular part, the ends should be regularly receive the bond of the adjoining parts on the right and left. a wall being carried There is nothing that will justify one part of carpenter in higher than one scaffold, except it be to forward the some particular part, or the like. a row In brick work there are two kinds of bond, one in which crossed by of bricks laid lengthways in the length of the wall, is thus another row kid with their breadth in the said length, and rows, which is proceeding to work up the courses in alternate the length of the called English bond. The courses in which called stretching bricks are disposed in the length of the wall are stretchers. The courses, and the bricks themselves are called in the thickness courses in which the length of the bricks run bricks thus dis- of the wall are called heading courses, and the work is the posed are called headers. The other kind of brick the same course placing of header and stretcher alternately in ; bond. This latter this disposition of the bricks is called Flemish with great mode, though esteemed the most beautiful, is attended incapable inconveniences in the execution, and in most cases is firmness as of uniting the parts of a wall with the same degree of the English bond of bond lo enter laio me particular merits of these two species limits the reader would carry this department beyond its allowed ; explanation of the who wishes farther satisfaction will consult the Saun- Plates, and an ingenious tract on Brick Bond, by Mr.^G. and the superiority of ders, where the defects of Flemish bond, most satisfactory the old English bond, are pointed out in the in general, that manner. However, it may be proper to observe placmg the whatever advantages are gained by any disposition of 196 BRICKLAYING. bricks m Flominh bond in the particular direction, is lost in another : thus, if an advantage is gained in tying a wall together in its thickness, it is lost in the longitudinal bond, and the contrary.

In order to remedy this inconvenience in thick walls, some place the bricks in the core at an angle of forty-five degrees, and parallel to each other throughout the length of each course, so as to cross each other at right angles in the succeeding course : but even the advantages obtained by this disposition are not satisfactory, for though those bricks in the middle of the core have sufficient bond, yet where they join to the Bricks on the sides of the wall, they form triangular interstices, and therefore the sides must be very imperfectly tied to the core.

§ 36. Vaulting and Groining,

DEFKVITIONS.

A simple vault is an interior concavity extended over two parallel opposite walls, or over all diametrically opposite sides of one circular wall.

The concavity or interior surface ofthe vault is called the intrados.

The intrados of a simple vault is generally formed of the portion of the surface of a cylinder, cylindroid, or sphere, never greater than that of half the solid, and the springing lines which terminate the walls that the vault rises from, are generally straight lines, parallel to the axis of the cylinder or cylindroid.

When the vault is spherical, the circular wall terminates in a level plane at top from which the vault springs, and forms either a complete hemisphere, or a portion of the sphere less than the hemisphere.

Conic surfaces are seldom employed in vaulting, but when a conic surface is employed for the intrados of a vault, it should be semi-conic with a horizontal axis, or the surface of the whole cone with its axis vertical. BRICKLAYING. 197

All vaults which have a horizontal straight axis, are called straight vaults.

All vaults which have their axis horizontal, are called horizontal vaults.

A groin is the excavation or hollow formed by one simple vault piercing another, or a groin is that in which two geometrical solids may be transversely applied one after the other, so that a portion of the groin will have been in contact with the first solid, and the remaining part in contact with the second solid, when the first is removed. The most usual kind of groining is one cylinder piercing another, or a cylinder and cylindroid piercing each other,

having their axis at right angles.

The axis of each simple vault forming the intrados of a groin is the same with the axis of the geometrical solids, of which the in-

trades of the groin is composed. When the breadths of the cross pages or openings of a groined

vault are equal, the groin is said to be equilateral. When the altitudes of the cross vaults are equal, the groin is said

to be equi-altitudinal. Groins have various names, according to the surfaces of the geometrical bodies, which form the simple vault.

A cylindric groin is that which id formed by the intersection of one portion of a cylinder with another.

A cylindroidic groin is that which is formed by the intersection of one portion of a sphere with another.

A spheric groin is that which is formed by the intersection of one portion of the sphere with another.

A conic groin is that which is formed by the intersection of one portion of a cone with another.

The species of every groin formed by the intersection of two

vaults of unequal heights, is denoted by two preceding words, the

former of which ending in o, indicates the simple vault which has the greater height, and the latter ending in i c indicates the sim-

ple vault of the less height.

When a groin is formed by the intersection of two unequal cy p 2 198 BRICKLAYING.

lindric vaults, it is called a cylindro-cylindric groin, and each arch

5S0 formed is called a cylindro-cylindric arch.

When a groin is formed by the intersection of a cylindric vault with a spheric vault, and the spheric portion being of greater

height than the cylindric portion, the groin is called a sphero-

cylindric groin, and each arch forming the groin is called a sphe-

ro-cylindric arch.

When a groin is formed by the intersection of a cylindric vault, with a spheric vault, and the spheric portion of less altitude than

the cyHndric portion, it is called a cylindro-spheric groin ; and

each arch forming the groin is called a cylindro-spheric arch. When one conic vault pierces another of greater altitude, the

groin formed by the intersection is called a cono-conic groin ; and each arch forming the groin, a cono-conic arch.

A rectangular groin is that which has the axis of the simple

vault in two vertical planes, at right angles to each other.

A multangular groin is that which is formed by three or more simple vaults piercing each other, so that if the several solids which form each simple vault be respectively applied, only one

at a time to succeeding portions of the groined surface, every

portion of the groined surface will have formed successive contact with certain corresponding portions of each of the solids.

An equi-angular groin is that in which the several axes of the simple vaults form equal angles, around the same point, in the same horizontal plane BRICKLAIING. 199

§37. EXPLANATIONS OF THE PLATES IN BRICKLAYING.

PLATE XXIII.

Fig. 1 the brick trowel. Fig. 2 the brick axe. Fig. 3 the square. Fig. 4 the bevel.

Fig. 5 the jointing rule.

Fig. 6 the jointer. Fig. 7 the hammer. Fig. 8 the raker.

Fig. 9 the Une pins. Fig. 10 the rammer. Fig. 11 the pick axe. Fig. 12 the camber sHp.

Fig. 13 the banker, with the rubbing stone placed at one end

PLATE XXIV.

Various specimens of English bond according to the different; thicknesses of walls ; in these the heading and stretching courses mutually cross each other in the core of the wall, and therefore produce an equality of strength. Fig. 1 shows the bond of a nine inch wall : here as well as in the following it must bo observed, that as the longitudinal extent of a brick is nine inches, and the breadth four and a half inches, in order to prevent two vertical joints from running over each other at the end of the first stretcher from the corner, after placing the return corner stretcher, which becomes a header in the face that the stretcher is in below, and occupies half the length of this stretcher ; a quarter brick is placed upon the side, so that the 200 BRICKLAYING. two together extend six inches and three quarters, and leave a lap

of two inches and a half for the next header, which being laid, lies with its middle upon the middle of the header below, and in this manner the bond is continued. The brick-bat thus introduced

next to the corner header is called a closer. The same effect

might be obtained by introducing a three-quarter bat at the corner in the stretching course, for then when the corner header comes

laid it, to be over a lap of two inches and a quarter will be left at the end of the stretchers below for the next header, which being

laid, the joint below the stretchers will coincide with its middle,

and in this manner the bond may be continued as before.

Fig. 2 a fourteen inch, or brick and half wall. In this the stretching course upon the one side is so laid, that the middle of the breadth of the bricks in the heading course upon the opposite side falls alternately upon the middle of the stretchers, and upon the joints between the stretchers.

Fig. 3 a two brick wall. In the heading course, every alter-

nate header is only half a brick thick on both sides in order to break the joints in the core of the wall.

Fig. 4 a two brick and a half wall, bricks laid as in Fig. 3.

PLATE XXV.

Contains various specimens of Flemish bond according to the

different thicknesses of walls. The dotted lines show the disposition of the bricks in the courses above.

Fig. 1 a nine inch wall where two stretchers lio between two headers, the length of the headers and the breadth of the stretchers extending the whole thickness of the wall. Fig. 2 a brick and a half wall, one side being laid as in Fig. I, and the opposite side, with a half header opposite to the middle of the stretcher, and the middle of the stretcher opposite the middle of the end of the header.

Fig. 3 another disposition of Flemish bond whero the bncks BRICKLAYING. 201 are similarly disposed on both sides ot the wall, the tail of the headers being placed contiguous to each other, so as to form square spaces in the comer of the wall for half bricks.

Fig. 4 a reversed arch supposed to come under a window, in order to prevent the fracturing of the wall under the lowest window. Arching under the apertures should never be omitted in

any building whatever, provided there be room ; if not, pieces of timbers ought to be laid, so as to present the most inflexibility to the ground, and make the wall act longitudinally as one solid body.

Fig. 5 supposed to be the case where the ground siands firm under the apertures, the weight of the pier is therefore discharged from the soft part under the piers. In this case if the bond of the pier is good, there will be very little danger of the wall fracturing unde- the apertures.

PLATE XXVI.

Fig. 1 part of the upright of a wall, at the return, laid with Flemish bond.

Fig. 2 a scheme arch, being two bricks high. Fig. 3 a semi-circular arch two bricks high.

Fig. 4 a straight arch, which is usually the height of four courses of brick work : the manner of describing it will be shown in the following figure.

Fig. 5. To draw the joints of a straight arch, let A B be the width of the aperture ; describe an equilateral triangle ABC upon this width ; describe a circle around the point C equal to the thickness of the brick. Draw D E parallel to A B at a distance equal to the height of four courses, and produce C A and C B to D and E. Lay the straight edge of a rule from C to D, and with a pair of compasses, opened to a distance equal to the thickness of a brick, cro5!S the line D E at F, removing the rule from the points 2 B 202 BRICKLAYING.

C and D. Place the straight edge against the points C and F» and with the same extent, between the points of the compass, cross the Une D E at G : proceed in this manner until you come to the middle, and as it is usual to have a brick in the centre to key the arch in, if the last distance which we will suppose to be

H I is not equally divided by the middle point K of D E, the pro.

cess must be repeated till it is found to be so.

Though the middle brick tapers more in the same length than

the extreme bricks, it is convenient to draw all the bricks with the

same mould, which is a great saving of time, and though this is

not correctly true, the difference is so trifling as not to affect the

practice. It may however be proper to observe, that the real

taper of the mould is less than in the middle, but greater than ei-

ther extreme distance : but even the difference between this is so

small, that either may be used, or taking half their difference w*ll

come very near the truth. This difference might easily be shown

by a trigonometrical calculation, the middle being an isosceles triangle, of which the base and perpendicular are given, the base

being a certain part of the top line. In the triangle upon the sides

you have one angle equal to 60 degrees, and the side D F is

given, and D C = (D K^XK C^) one half, can easily be found, so that in this triangle the two sides and the contained angle are given.

Fig. 6 an elliptic arch, the top is divided into equal parts, and not the underside. BRICKLAYING 203

PLATE XXVII.

Contains piers of various substances according to the Flemish bond disposition of bricks, with designs of brick cornices.

Fig. 1 a pier, two brick square: No. 1. the bottom course,

No. 2. the upper course. Fig. 2 a two and a half brick pier: No. 1. the bottom course, No. 2. the upper course.

Fig. 3 a three brick pier : No. 1. the bottom course, No. 2. the upper course.

Fig. 4 a three and half brick pier : No. 1. the bottom course.

No. 2. the upper course.

Omament(d Brick Cornices.

In the construction of any thing destined to answer a particular end, it frequently happens that different kinds of materials may be species employed for the purpose : it is evident that every distinct of material will require its own peculiar manner of treatment, and the sizes of the parts which are to compose the thing required, must depend upon what the material will most conveniently admit of: thus brick, wood, stone, or iron, may be employed to con- these struct a body for any proposed end : the manner of working will not only differ, but the sizes of the things which are to compose the whole, and not only so, but sometimes a change in the general form also. In brick cornices, from the various kinds of bricks and tiles, a variety of pleasing symmetry may be formed by various disposi- tions of the bricks, and frequently without cutting, or if cut, chamfering only may be used.

Fig. 5 a cornice in imitation of the Grecian Doric.

is cham- Fig. 6 a dentil cornice , in this last the upper member fered to give it the appearance of a moulding. 204 BRICKLAYING.

PLATE XXVm.

Contains groins of various kinds. Fig. 1 a semi-cylindric equi-angular groin, the centre of one vault being generally boarded in without any regard to the other, and the other boarded in afterwards.

Fig. 2 a cylindroidic-cylindric groin, being the intersection of a cylinder with a cylindroid.

Fig. 3 a cylindro-cylindric groin, being the intersection of one cylinder with another, and the cylindro vault being the highest. Fig. 4 an improvement to the common four-sided groin, by Mr.

Tappen, Architect, by raising the angles from an octagonal pier,

instead of a square one ; by this means, the pier may be made equally strong, by giving it more substance, and cutting away the angles will be more commodious for the turning any kind of goods round the corner ; this may therefore be looked upon as a very considerable improvement in the vaultings of cellars of warehouses.

This convenience is not the only improvement which this construction admits of, but the angles of the groin are strengthened by carrying the band round the diagonals of equal breadth, which affords better bond to the bricks, M'hich are usually so much cut away, that instead of giving support, are themselves supported by the adjacent filHng-in arches. Fig. 5 the centreing for an hexagonal Gothic groin, such as are frequently seen in chapter houses. Fig. 6 the piers of an hexagonal groin, and the angles obtunded according to the plan of Mr. Tappen. This construction is purely Gothic, the springers would cover the obtunded parts of the groined angles, and columnar mouldings those of the piers. :;

BRICKLAYING. 205

PLATE XXIX.

The method of cutting the bricks for a cylindro-cylindric arch, and two different methods for the joints of the heads of niches.

Fig. 1 the cylindro-cylindric arch, with a frame of wood so constructed, that the two horizontal pieces have their outer edges in circles concentric with the circle of the wall : this is shown by the plan of the wall No. 2. The edges of the circular pieces are graduated with divisions perpendicularly- over each other, A B

No. 2. is a rule to be moved vertically along the said concentric edges, which vertical position is always known by the correspond, ing divisions ; on the front edge of the rule is a hook projecting so as to come to the cylindric surface of the wall : the hook is shown at No. 3, with a part of the rule. The use of this machine is for drawing the edges of the bricks in order to cut them to the circle.

Fig. 2 two different methods of forming the joints for the heads of spherical niches. In the right hand half the joints run hori« zontally, but this is a very bad method ; as all the beds are conical, the bricks at the summit have little or no hold. In the other half the joints run radially in planes from the face to the centre.

The work is not only more firm when executed by this last method, as bedding the courses on planes, but much more easily

is difficult to conical surfaces executed ; nothing more form than and in this both conical and spherical surfaces occur ; whereas when the joints run radially, only the spheric surface occurs, which may be formed by one bevel, only one side being straight and the other circular. 206 BRICKLAYING.

PLATE XXX.

Shows the method of steening wells.

The first thing is to make a centre, which consists of a boarding of inch or inch and a half stuff, ledged within with three circular rings. The bricks are laid between these rings, and all headers.

The wide joints next to the boarding are filled in with tile or broken bricks. Where the soil is firm, centreings are not necessary, but they are requisite in sandy ground. The centreing remains permanently with the brick work ; as the well digger ex- cavates the soil, the first centre sinks, then a second centre is made, and put above the first, and built in with brick work in tho same manner : and thus the number of centreings depend on the depth of the well. This method is that used in London : but in the country other methods are used. One is with several rings of timber without the boarding : they first build upon the first ring, four or five feet, then a second ring, and build again, and so on to the depth of the well. This however is not so good a method as the foregoing, as the sides of the brick work are very apt to bulge, particularly if great care be not taken in filling and ram. ming the sides in uniformly, so as to press equally at the same time.

Abstract of the Building Act, as far as regards the Bricklayer, 14 Geo. III. which refers only to London, and the several Parishes within the Bills of Mortality.

Every master bricklayer to give twenty.four hours notice to the Surveyor of the district from the first to the seventh rate, concerning the building to be altered or erected ; but if the build, ing is to be piled or planked, or begun with wood, it becomes the business of the carpenter to give such notice. The footings of the walls are to have equal projections on each side : but where any adjoining building will not admit of such :

BRICKLAYING. 207 projection to be made on the side adjoining to such building, to be done as near as the case will admit according to each of the four rates.

The act calls every front, side, or end wall, &c. (not being a party-wall) an external wall. The timbers in each rate may be supposed to be girders, beams, or trimming joists, &c. and their bearing in all cases, and in all the above four rates, may be as much as the nature of the wall will admit, provided there is left four inches between the ends of such timber and the external surface of the wall. The joints of the brick work may also be shown, and may answer to the express number of bricks of which such wall is to be composed. relative It may now be necessary here to say something farther to external walls.

Eoctemal WaUs,

And other external enclosures, to the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth rate of building, must be of brick, stone, artificial stone, lead, copper, tin, slate, tile, or iron ; or of brick, stone, artificial stone, lead, copper, tin, slate, tile, and iron together, except the planking, piling, dec. for the foundation, which may be of wood of any sort.

If any part to an external wall of the first and second rate, is built wholly of stone, it is not to be less in thickness than as follows

First rate, fourteen inches below the ground floor, nine inches above the ground floor ; second rate nine inches above the ground floor.

Where a recess is meant to be made in an external wall, it must be arched over, and in such a manner, as that the arch and the back of such recess shall respectively be of the thickness of one brick in length : it is therefore plain, that where a wall is not more than one brick thick, it cannot have any recess.

No external wall to the first, second, third, and fourth rate, is 208 BRICKLAYING. ever to become a party wall, unless the same shall be of the height and thickness above the footing, as is required for each party.wall to its respective rate.

Of Party WaUs.

Buildings of the first, second, third, and fourth rate, which are not yet designed by the owner thereof to have separate and distinct side walls, on such parts as may be contiguous to other buildings, must have party-walls ; and they are to be placed half and half on the ground of each owner, or of each building respectively, and may be built thereon, without any notice being given to the owner of the other part ; that is to say, the first builder has a right so to do, where he is building against vacant ground.

Party-walls, chimnies, and chimney shafts hereafter to be built, must be of good sound bricks or stone, or of sound bricks and stone together, and must be coped with stone, tile, or brick. Party-walls or additions thereto, must be carried up thirteen inches above the roof, measuring at right angles with the back of the rafter, and twelve inches above the gutter of the highest building which gables against it ; but where the height of a party- wall so carried up, exceeds the height of the blocking course or parapet, it may be made less than one foot above the gutter, for the distance of two feet six inches from the front of the blocking course or parapet.

Where dormers or other erections are fixed in any flat or ro»f, within four feet of any party-wall, such party-wall is to be carried up against such dormer, and must extend at least two feet wider, and to the full height of every such dormer or erection.

No recess is to be hereafter made in any party-wall of the first, second, third, and fourth rate, except for chimney-flues, girders,

<&c. and for the ends of walls or piers, so as to reduce such wall in any part of it to a less thickness than is required by the act, for the highest rate of building to which such wall belongs.

No openmg is to be made in any party-vall except for communication from one stack of warehouses to anotlUer, and from one BRICKLAYING. 209 staple building to another, all which communications must have wrought-iron doors, and the panels thereof are not to be less than a quarter of an inch thick, and to be fixed in stone door-cases and sills. But there may be openings for passages or ways on the ground, for foot passengers, cattle, or carriages, which must be arched over throughout with brick or stone, or brick and stone together, of the thickness of a brick and a half at the least, to the first and second rate, and one brick to the third and fourth rate.

And if there is any cellar or vacuity under such passage, it is to be arched over throughout in the same manner as the passage over it. No party wall or party arch, or shaft of any chimney, new or old, must be cut into, other than for the purposes as follows : If the fronts of buildings are in a line with each other, a recess may be cut, both in the fore and back fronts of such buildings, (as may be already erected) for the purpose of insertmg the end of such other external wall, which is to adjoin thereto, this recess must not be more than nine inches deep from the outward faces of such external walls, and to be cut beyond the centre of the party-wall thereto belonging. And further, for the use of inserting bressummers and story posts, that are to be fixed on the ground floor, either in the front or back wall, the recess may be cut from the foundation of such new wall to the top of such bressummer, fourteen inches deep from the outward face of such wall, and four inches wide in the

cellar story, and two inches wide on the ground story.

And flirther, for the purpose of tailing-in stone steps, or stone landings, as for bearers to wood stairs, or for laying-in stone corbels for the support of chimney jambs, girders, beams, pur- lins, binding or trimming joists, or other principal timbers. Perpendicular recesses may also be cut in any party-wall, whose thickness is not less than thirteen inches, for the purpose of inserting walls and piers thereini, but they must not be wider than fifteen inches, or more than four inches' deep, and no such recess is to be nearer than ten feet to any other recess. No. 14. 2 c 210 BRICKLAYING.

All such cuttings and recesses must be immediately made good, and effectually pinned up, with brick, stone, slate, tile, shell, or iron, bedded in mortar.

No party-wall to be cut for any of the above purposes, if the same will injure, displace, or endanger the timbers, chimnies, flues, or internal finishings of the adjoining buildings.

The act also allows the footing to be cut off on the side of any party-wall, where an independent side-wall is intended to be built against such party -wall.

When any buildings (inns of court excepted) that are erected over gate^ways or public passages, or have different rooms and floors, the property of different owners, come to be rebuilt, they must have a party-wall, with a party arch or arches of the thickness of a brick and a half at least, to the first and second rate, and of one brick to the third and fourth rate, between building and building, or between the different rooms and floors, that are the property of different owners.

All inns of court are excepted from the regulation as above, and are only necessitated to have party-walls, where any room or chamber communicates to each separate and distinct stair-case, and which are also subject to the same regulations as respect other party-walls.

If a building of a lower rate is situated adjoining to a building of a higher rate, and any addition is intended to be made thereto, the party-wall must be built in a such a manner, as is required for the rate of such higher rate of building as adjoinmg.

When any party-wall is raised, it is to be made the same thickness as the wall is of, in the story next below the roof of the highest building adjoining, but it must not be raised at all, unless it can be done with safety to such wall, and the building adjoining tnereto.

Every dwelling house to be built, which contains four stories m height from the foundation, exclusive of rooms in the roof, must have its party-wall built according to the third rate, although

Buch dwelhng-house may be of the fourth rate. :

BRICKLAYING. 211

And every dwelling-house to be built in future which exceeds exclusive of the four stories in height, from the foundations, to the rooms in the roof, must have its party-wall built according the first rate. first rate, although such house may not be of

Chimnies, 4*c.

the piling, No chimney is to be erected on timber, except on planking, &c. of the foundations of building.

Chimnies may be built back to back in party-walls ; but in that case, they must not be less in thickness from the centre of such party-wall than as follows

First rate, or adjoining thereto, must be one brick thick in the

cellar story, and half a brick in all the other stories.

Second, third, and fourth rate, or adjoining thereto, must be three-quarters of a brick thick in the cellar story, and half a brick

in all the upper stories. Such chimnies in party-walls as do not stand back to back, may

be built in any of the four rates as follows : From the external face of the party-wall to the inward face of the back of the chimney in the cellar story, one brick and a half

thick, and in the upper stories, one brick thick from the hearth

to twelve inches above the mantel. Those backs of chimnies which are not in party-walls to the

first rate, must not be less than a brick and a half thick in the

cellar story, and one brick thick in every other story, and to be from the hearth to twelve inches above the mantel.

If such chimney is built against any other wall, the back may bo half a brick thinner than that which is above described. Those backs of chimnies which are not in party-walls of the

second, third, and fourth rate, must be in every story one brick

thick at least, from the hearth to twelve inches above the mantel. These backs may be also half a brick thinner, if such chimney

is built against any other wall.

All breasts of chimnies, whether they are in party-walls or not, 212 BRICKLAYINGS. are not to be less than one brick thick in the cellar story, and half a brick thick in every other story.

All withs between flues must not be less than half a brick thick. Flues may be built opposite to each other in party-walls, but they must not approach to the centre of siuch wall nearer than two mches. All chimney breasts next to the roo)ms, and chimney backs

also, and all flues, are to be rendered or pargetted.

Backs of chimnies and flues in party-walls against vacant ground, must be lime whited, or marked in some durable manner,

but must be rendered or pargetted as soon as any other building is erected to such wall.

No timber must be over the opening of any chimney for supporting the breast thereof, but must have a brick or stone arch, or iron bar or bars.

All chimnies must have slabs or foot paces of stone, marble, tile, or iron, at least eighteen inches broad, and at least one foot longer than the opening of the chimney when finished, and such slabs or foot paces must be laid on brick or stone trimmers at least eighteen inches broad from the face of the chimney breast, except there is no room or vacuity beneath, then they may be bedded on the ground.

Brick funnels must not be made on the outside of the first, second, third, or fourth rate, next to any street, square, court, road, or way, so as to extend beyond the general line of the buildings therein.

No funnel of tin, copper, iron, or other pipe for conveying fimoke or steam, must hereafter be fixed near any public street, square, court, or way, to the first, second, third, or fourth rate, and no such pipe is to be fixed on the inside of any building nearer than fourteen inches to any timber, or other combustible material whatever. INDEX AND EXPLANATION OF TERMS

USED IN BRICKLAYING.

'preceding Sections^ according to N. B, This Mark § refers to the the Number*

Act, BuHiDiNO, page 206.

Arches, § 37. See Plate XXV. Arris Ways, tiles laid diagonally. Axis of a Vault, § 36.

Banker, § 19, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig. 13. Bed of a Brick, the horizontal surfaces as disposed in a wall. Bedding Stone, 22. § I .

Bevel, § 24, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig. 4. Bond, § 35.

Bone Ashes, § 32.

Borer, § 34. Boss, a short trough for holding water, when tiling the roof; it is

hung to the lath. Fig. 2. Brick Axe, § 28, 37. Se". Plate XXIII. a2 214 BRICKLAYING.

Brick Trimmer, a brick arch abutting upon the wooden trimmer under the slab of the fire place, to prevent the communication of fire.

Brick Trowel, § 4, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig. 1. Bricklaying, § 1, Bricks, § 33. Building Act, § 38.

Camber Slip, § 20, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig. 12. Cements, § 32. Centering to Groins. See Plate XXVIII.

Chopping Block, § 30. Clamp, § 33.

Clinkers, hard bricks imported from Holland, § 33. Closer, a brick-bat inserted where the distance will not permit of a brick in length. See Plate XXIV.

Compass, § 12.

Conic Surfaces, § 36. CoNo-coNic Arch, § 36.

CoNO-coNic Groin, § 36.

Course, a horizontal row of bricks stretching the length of a wall. Cross Passages, § 36.

Cutting Bricks, § 33. Cylindric Groin, § 36. Cylinoro-oylindric Arch, § 36. Cylindro-cylindric Groin, § 36. Cylindro. spheric Arch, § 36. Cylindro-spheric Groin, § 36.

Cylindroid, § 36. Cylindroid Groin, § 36

Dutch Clinkers, § 33. BRICKLAYING. 215

English Bond, § 35.

Equi-altititdinal Groin, § 36.

EaUI-ANGULAE GbOIN, § 36.

Flemish Bond, § 35. See Plate XXV,

F1.EMISH Tiles, § 33.

Float Stone, § 31.

Foundations, § 34.

Geometrical Solid, § 36.

Grinding Stone, § 18.

Groins, § 36. Grout, § 32.

Hammer, § 5 and 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig. 7.

Headers, § 35. Heading Courses, § 35. See Plate XXIV.

Hemisphere, § 36. Hexagonal Groin. See Plate XXVIII.

Hod, § 14.

Horizontal Vault, § 36.

Intrados, § 36. Inverted Arches, § 34. Iron Crow, § 17. 216 BRICKLAYING.

Jointer, § 11, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig. 6. Jointing Rule, § 10, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig, 5

Kilns, § 33

Labge Square, § 8.

Lath, small slips of wood nailed to rafters for hanging the tiles or

slates upon.

Lathing Hammer, § 3.

Laying Trowel, § 3.

Level, § 7.

Lime, § 32.

Lime Water, § 32.

Line Pins, § 15, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig. 9.

Marls, § 33.

Mortar, § 32. Mould, § 25. MULT-ANGULAR GrOIN, § 36.

Ornamental Cornices. See Plate XXVII.

Pantile, § 33.

Pantile Strike, § 33.

Paving Tiles, § 33. BRICKLAYING. 217

Place Bricks, § 33.

Plumb Rule, § 6. pozzolona, § 32.

Raker, § 13, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig. 8.

Rammer, § 16, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig. 10.

Rectangular Groin, § 36.

Rod, § 9. Rubbing Stone, § 21, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig. 13.

Sail-over, is the overhanging of one or more courses beyond the naked of the wall.

Saw, § 27.

Scribe, § 26. Scurbage, § 3. Simple Vault, § 36. Skew Back, the sloping abutment for the arched head of a window. SoMMERiNG, the continuation of the joints of arches towards a centre or meeting point.

Spheric Groin, § 36. Spheric Vault, § 36. Sphericcylindric Arch, § 36. Sphero-cylindric Groin, § 36.

Springing Lines, § 36.

Square, § 23, 37. See Plate XXIII. Fig. 3. Steening Wells. See Plate XXX. Straight Arches, heads of apertures, which have a straight in.

trades in several pieces, with radiating joints or bricks tapering downwards.

Straight Vaults, § 36. Stretchers, § 35. Stretching Courses, § 35. 2 D 218 BRICKLAYING.

Templet, § 29.

Tin Saw, § 27. Toothing, bricks projecting at the end of a part of a wall

order to bond a part of the said wall not yet carried up. Tbimmeb, See Brick Trimmer,

Vaulting, § 36. Walls, § 35. Water Cements, § 32. Wateb Table, bricks projecting below the naked of a wall order to rest the upper part firmly. MASONRY.

preparing and combining stones by § 1. Masonry is the art of such a disposition as to tooth or indent them into each other, and and defence, as form regular surfaces for shelter, convenience, goods, fortifications, bridges, se- the habitation of men, animals, consist either of paration of property, &c. and may be said to walling or arching.

§2. MASONS' TOOLS

The tools employed by the mason, are different in different in counties, according to the quality of the stone employed: some counties of England the stone is soft, with so little grit as to work the be wrought by planes into mouldings, as in joinery ; naked surfaces of a building are generally finished with an instru- stone is of this de- ment called a drag : the Bath and Oxfordshire

scription. In other parts, the stone is so hard as only to be wrought by a mallet and chisel. In London, the value of stone the ope- occasions it to be cut into- slips and scantlings by a saw ; stone ration is done by a labourer. In those countries were

abounds, it is divided into smaller scantlings, by means of wedges. In most descriptions of stone, whether hard or soft, a hammer is employed in knocking and axing off the prominent parts. Hard stone and marble are reduced to a surface by means of a mallet and chisel. In rough stone from the quarry, where the saw has not been employed, a narrow chisel, called a point, about a

quarter of an inch at the entering part, is first used ; but the in-

equalities of sawn stone, if not very prominent, are reduced by 220 MASONRY.

means of an inch chisel, and sometimes more or less, according to the quantity to be wrought off. Chisels are from a quarter of an inch to three inches in breadth, at the cutting part : those of the greatest breadth are called tools, and employed finally on the surface, which is more regular after having gone over it, than that left after the operation of a narrow chisel. When the surface is

wrought into narrow furrows or channels at regular distances, like small flutings which completes the finish of the face, the operation is called tooling, and the surface itself is said to be tooled. When

is the surface required to be smoothed, it is done by rubbing it with a flat stone of the same kind with sand and water, and the larger the stone the more regular will the surface be.

The form of masons' chisels is like that of a wedge, the cutting edge is the vertical angle they ; are wholly constructed of iron, except the steel end, which enters the stone. The end which is struck by the mallet, is a flat portion of a spheric surface, and projects on all sides beyond the handling part, which tapers upwards with an equal concavity on each side. The other tools used by the mason are a level, a plumb rule, a square, a bevel, a trowel, a mallet, a hammer, and sometimes a pair of compasses. These have been sufficiently treated under the former departments of Carpentry and Bricklaying, to which the reader is referred. The saw, as has been observed, though an appendage of Ma sonry, is used by the labourer.

§ 3. Of Marbles and Stones.

Marble is polished by being first rubbed with grit stone, afterwards with pumice stone, and lastly with emery or calcined tin. Marbles with regard to their contexture and variegation of colour, are almost infinite some ; are black, some white, and some of a dove colour the best kind ; of white marble is called statuary, which when cut into thin slices, becomes almost transparent^ which property the other kinds do not possess. Other species of MASONRY. 221 marble are streaked with clouds and veins. The texture of marble is not altogether understood, even by the best workmen, but they generally know upon sight, whether it will receive a polish or not. Some marbles are easily wrought, some are very hard, other kinds resist the tools altogether. Artificial marble or scag. is liola, is real marble, pulverized and mixed with plaster, and used for columns, baso relievos, and other ornaments. The chief kind of stone used in London, is Portland stone, which comes from the island of Portland in Dorsetshire ; it is used for buildings in general, as strings, window sills, balusters,

pressure, it is steps, copings, &c. ; but under great weight or apt to splinter, or flush at the joints. When it is recently quarried, it is soft and works easily, but acquires great hardness in length of time. St. Paul's Cathedral and Westminster Bridge, are constructed of Portland stone. Purbeck stone comes from an island of the same name, also in

Dorsetshire, and is mostly employed in rough work, as steps and paving.

Yorkshire stone is also used where strength and durability are requisites, as in paving and coping.

Ryegate stone is used for hearths, slabs, and covings.

Mortar is used by masons in cementing their works. This haa already been fully handled under the bricklaying department, which the reader may consult. In setting marble or fine work,

tarras is employed. they use plaster of Paris ; and in water works,

Tarras is a coarse mortar, durable in water, and in most situations. Dutch tarras is made of a soft rock stone, found near Co- logne on the Rhine. It is burnt like lime, and reduced to powder by mills, from thence carried to Holland, whence it has acquired the name of Dutch tarras. It is very dear, on account of the great demand there is for it in aquatic works. of An artificial tarras is formed of two parts of lime, and one part of lime, and two plaster of Paris ; another sort consists of one parts of well-sifted coal ashes. ;

^222 BRICKLAYING.

§ 4. Stone Watts

Are those built of stone, with or without cement in their joints

the beading joints have most commonly a horizontal position in the face of the work, and this ought always to be the case when

the top of the wall terminates in a horizontal plane or line : in bridge buildings, and in the masonry of fenced walls upon inclined

surfaces, the beading joints on the face sometimes foHov/ the direction of the top or terminating surface.

The footings of atone walls ought to be constructed of large

stones, which if not naturally nearly square from the quarry,

should be reduced by the hammer to that form, and to an equal

thickness in the same course, for if the beds of the stones of the

foundation taper, the superstructure will be apt to give way, by

resting upon mere angles or points, or upon inclined surfaces :

the courses of the footing ought to be well bedded upon each other

with mortar ; and all the upright joints of an upper course should

break joint, that is, they should fall upon the solid part of the

stones in the lower course, and not upon the joints. The following are methods practised in laying the footings of a

stone foundation : when the walls are thin, and stones can be got conveniently, that their length may reach across each course,

from one side of the wall to the other, the setting of each course

with whole stones in the thickness of the wall, is to be preferred.

But when the walls are thicker, and bond stones in part can only be conveniently procured, then every other succeeding stone in

the course, may be a whole stone in the thickness of the wall

and every other interval may consist of two stones in the breadth,

that is, placing the header and stretcher alternately, like Flemish bond in nine inch brick work. But when bond stones cannot be

had conveniently, every alternate stone should be in length two- thirds of the breadth of the footing upon the same ^ide of the wall then upon the other side of the wall a stone of one-third of the

breadth of the footing, should be placed opposite to one of two-

thirds, and one of two-thirds opposite to one of one-third : so that BRICKLAYING. 223

the stones may be placed in the same manner as those of the

other side.

In broad foundations where the stones cannot be procured for a

length equal to two-thirds of the foundation, then build them alter-

nately, with the joints on the upper bed of each footing, so that the

joint of every two stones may fall as nearly as possible in the middle of the length of one or of each adjoining stone, observing to

dispose the stones on each side of every footing.

A wall which is built of unhewn stone, laid with or without

mortar, is called a rubble wall : they are of two kinds, coursed

and uncoursed; the most kind of rubble is the uncoursed, of which the greater part of the stones are crude as they came out of

the quarry, and a little hammer dressed. This kind of walling is

very inconvenient for the building of bond timbers, but if they are ta

be preserved to plugging, the backing must be levelled at every height in which the bond timbers are disposed.

The best kind of rubble is the coursed ; the courses are all of accidental thicknesses, adjusted by a sizing rule, the stones are either hammer dressed or axed : this kind of work is favourable for the disposition of bond timbers ; but as all buildings constructed

either in whole or in part of timber are liable to be burnt, strong well built walls should never be bonded with timber, but should rather be plugged, for if such accident takes place, the walls will be less liable to warp.

Walls faced with squared stones, hewn or rubbed, and backed with rubble, stone, or brick, are called ashlar : the medium size

of each ashlar measures horizontally in the face of the wall about twenty-eight or thirty inches, in the altitude twelve inches, and in

the thickness eight or nine inches. The best figure of stones for

an ashlar facing are formed like truncated wedges, that is to say,, they are thinner at one end than at the other in the thickness of the wall, though level on the beds; so that when the stones of one course, or part of a course, are shaped in this manner, and alike situated to each other, the backs of the course will form an indenta<

the teeth of a joiner's saw, but more shallow in proportion 224 MASONRY.

to the length of a tooth : the next course has its indentations found in the same way, and the stones so selected that the upright joints break upon the solid of the stones below. By these means the facing and backing are toothed together, and unquestionably stronger than if the back of each ashlar had been parallel to the front surface of the wall ; as the stones are mostly raised in the quarries of various thicknesses, in an ashlar facing it would contribute greatly to the strength of the work, to select the stones in each course, so that every alternate ashlar may have broader beds than those of every ashlar placed in each alternate interval. In every course of ashlar facing, bond stones should be introduced, and their number should be proportional to the length strictly attended to in long ranges of the course ; ,this should be of stones, both in walls without apertures, and in the courses that course form wide piers ; when they are wide, every bond stone of one should fall in the middle of every two bond stones in the course below. In every pier where the jambs are coursed with the other ashlar in front, and also in every pier where the jambs are one entire height, every alternate stone next to the aperture in the former case, and every alternate stone next to the jambs in the latter case, should bond through the wall, and also every other stone should be placed lengthways in each return of each angle, not less than the average length of an ashlar. Bond stones should have no taper in their beds, the end of every bond stone, as well as the end of every return stone, should never be less than a foot, there should be no such thing as a closer permitted, unless it bond

through the wall. All the uprights or joints should be square, or

at right angles to the front of the wall, and may recede about three-fourths of an inch from the face with a close joint from the

face, with a close joint from thence, gradually widening to the back, and thereby make hollow wedge-formed figures, which will

give sufficient cavities for the reception of packing and mortar. Both the upper and lower beds of every stone should be quite

level, and not form acute angles as is often the case ; the joints from the face to about three-fourths of an inch within the wall, MASONRY. 225

of should either be cemented with fine mortar, or with a mixture

is practice both in Lon- oil, putty, and white lead : the former the cement don and Edinburgh, and the latter in Glasgow. The putty remain prominent will stand longer than most stones, and will with age. The when the face of the stones has been corroded towards whole of the ashlar, except that mentioned of the joints and the core should be set the face of the wall, the rubble work stone should be laid on its and laid in the best mortar, and every of natural bed. All wall-plates should be placed upon a number there are no bond stones, and particularly those of the roof where upon the tie-beams, by which means they may either be joggled bonds, or fastened to them by iron and lead. short horizontal In building walls or insulated pillars of very easily dimensions not exceeding the length of stones that can be bed, without procured, every stotie should be quite level on the between any degree of concavity, and should be one entire piece, every two horizontal joints. This should be particularly attended stones to in piers, where the insisting weight is great, otherwise the pieces, and per- will be in danger of splintering, and crushing to haps occasion a total demolition of the fabric.

Vitruvius has left us an account of the manner of constructing the walls of the ancients, which was as follows: the Riticulated,

is that wherein the joints run in parallel lines, making angles of

forty degrees each, with the horizon in contrary ways, and con-

sequently the faces of the stones form squares, of which one wall diagonal is hori-zontal, and the other vertical. This kind of was much used by the Romans in his time. The Incertain wall was formed of stones of which one direction of tho joints was

horizontal, and the other vertical : but the vertical joints of the

alternate courses were not always arranged in the same straight this line, all that they regarded was, to make them break joint : manner of walling was used by the Romans antecedent to the time of Vitruvius, who directs that in both the reticulated and incertain

walls, instead of filling the space between the sides with rubble promiscuously, they should be strengthened with abutments of Nos. 15 & 16. 2 E 226 MASONRY.

hewn stone or brick, or common flints, built in cross walls two feet thick, and bound to the facing and backing with

cramps of iron. The Emplection consisted of two sides or shells

of squared stone, with alternate joints, and rubble core in the middle.

The walls of the Greeks were of three kinds, named Isodomum, Pseudisodomum and Emplection. The Isodomum had the courses all of an equal thickness, and the other called Pseudisodomum had the courses unequally thick; in both these walls, whenever the squared work was continued, the interval or core was filled up with common hard stones laid in the manner of bricks with alternate joints. The Emplection was constructed wholly of squared stones, in these bond stones were placed at regular intervals, and the stones in the intermediate distance were laid with alternate joints in the same manner as those of the face so that this manner of walling must have been much stronger than the emplection of the Roman villages. This is a most strong and durable manner of walling, and in modern times it may be practised with the utmost success, but in the common run of buildings it would be too expensive.

§ 5. Stairs.

When stairs are supported by a wall at both ends, nothing difficult can occur in the construction, in these the inner ends of the steps may either terminate in a solid newel, or to be tailed into a wall surrounding an open newel ; v»'here elegance is not required, and where the newel does not exceed two feet six inches. The ends of the steps may be conveniently supported by a solid pillar, but when the newel is thicker, a thin wall sorrounding the newel would be cheaper. In the stairs of a basement story, where there are geometrical stairs above, the steps next to the newel ure generally supported uuon a dwarf wall. MASONRY. 227

§ 6. Geometrical Stairs.

Have the outer end fixed in the wall, and one of the edges of every step supported by the edge of the step below, and con-

structed with joggled joints, so that they cannot descend in the

inclined direction of the plane, nor yet in a vertical direction, the sally of every joint forms an exterior obtuse angle, on the lower part of the upper step, called a back rebate, and that on the

upper part of the lower step of course an interior one, and the joint

formed of these sallies is called a joggle, which may be level from

the face of the risers, to about one inch within the joint. Thus is the plane of the tread of each step continued one inch within

the surface of each riser, the lower part of the joint is a narrow

surface, perpendicular to the inclined direction or soffit of the stair at the end next to the newel.

In stairs constructed of most kinds of stone, the thickness of

every step at the thinnest place of the end next to the newel, has

no occasion to exceed two inches, for steps of four feet in length,

that is, by measuring from the interior angle of every step per-

pendicular to the rake. The thickness of steps at the interior

angle, should be proportioned to the length of the step; but allow-

ing that the thickness of the steps at each interior angle is suffi.

cient at two inches, then will the thickness of steps at the interior

angles be half the number of inches that the length of the steps

has in feet : thus a step five feet long, would be two inches and a half at that place.

The stone platforms of geometrical stairs, viz. the landings, half paces and quarter paces, are constructed of one, two, or several stones, according as they can be procured. When the platform consists of two or more stones, the first platform stone is laid upon the last step that is set, and one end tailed in and wedged into the wall ; the next platform stone is joggled or rebated into one set, and the end also fixed into the wall, as that and the preceding steps are, and every stone in succession, till the platform

IS completed. If there is occasion for another flight of steps, the 228 MASONRY. last platform becomes a spring stone for the next step, the joint is to be joggled as well as all the succeeding steps, in the same manner as the first flight.

Geometrical stairs executed in stone depend upon the following principle : that every body must at least be supported by three

points, placed out of a straight line ; and consequently, if two

edges of a body in different directions be secured to another body, the two bodies will be immoveable in respect to each other. This

last is the case in a geometrical stair, one end of a stair stone is

always tailed into the wall, and one edge either rests on the ground

itself, or on the edge of the preceding stair stone, whether the stair stone be a plat or step. The stones forming a platform, are

generally of the same thickness as those forming the steps.

§ 7. A short Account of the Origin of the Arch, and Authors who may be consulted.

The arch is perhaps one of the most useful inventions that ever

took place in the art building it of ; by we are enabled to cross the deepest rivers and valleys, and places which are rendered impassable by rocks or precipitous banks. In such situations,

without its aid, goods conveyed by inland navigation, or by any

other means, could never obtain the same celerity of transportation,

nor have been conducted at so easy a rate of expense. By the

use of the arch we are enabled to build apartments secure from

fire, to cover apertures where it would be impossible to lintle

them with stone, and to support walls or their tops almost to any height.

The theory of the equilibrium of arches depends on the deepest principles of mathematical science. Those \yho are desirous of

obtaining the fundamental part of the art of building arches, will

do well to consult the fifth article of EmersmCs Miscellanies, and Hutton's and GwiWs Principles of Arches, and for a knowledge of

the practice, it will be well to peruse a work in French, by Per- MASONRY. 229

containing the ronet, which has gained him great reputation, as whole result of his experience in the practice of building bridges excellent and arches : also a work by Semple, containing many practical remarks; there are other authors, but those here spoken of, have acquired the most celebrity. Arches are to be found in the Greek theatres, Stadia and Gymnasia, some of them erected probably 400 years before the Christian era. The most ancient arches of which we have any Tarquinius thing like dates, are the Cloaca at Rome, begun by Cephisus Priscus. The emperor Adrian threw a bridge over the frequented between the territories of Attica and Elusis, on the most eight in road of Greece. The ancient bridges at Rome were of which was the Pons ^lius, now number : the most considerable the bridge of Santo Angelo. There are several other Roman bridges in and out of Italy, but the most celebrated was that erected over the Danube by the emperor Trajan, the span of the even this is arches is supposed to have been 170 feet each : but considerably surpassed in horizontal extent by the ancient bridge span. of Brioude in France, consisting only of one arch of 181 feet Several of the French bridges are remarkable for the great extent over of the arches. The bridge of Neuilly, built by M. Perronet the Seine, consists of five elliptic arches, each 128 feet span, composed of eleven arcs of circles, of different radii. The most considerable arch in Great Britain, is that over the river Taff, near Llantrissent in Glamorganshire, consisting of one arch of circle 175 feet diame- 140 feet span : the curve is the arc of a of

ter. Sarah, or Island bridge over the Liffey, above Dublin, consists of one arch of 106 feet span. The bridges at Westmin-

stcr, and Blackfriars, London, though among the boldest and finest undertakings of modern times, have their arches of less horizontal the former extension than those above mentioned ; the arches of are semi-circular, the central one is seventy-six feet diameter or span. The arches of the latter are nearly elliptic, nine in number, side and the central one is 100 feet wide, and the arches on each decrease regularly to the land piers. r2 230 MASONRY.

PLATE XXXI.

Observations on the customary Problems in Masmry respecting Arches, and Methods of describing Elliptic Arches.

The operation of describing an ellipse with a string, though true in principle, is useless in practice, as the string stretches in s'jch a degree as not to be depended on, and the degree of t.en. sion is in proportion to the length of the string, which is therefore unfit to be used for describing the curve of an arch of large extent. The trammel or elliptic compass is a very accurate inst ru- ment, but it can only be used for works upon a small scale : t his method of description will be found in Problem V. Geometry. The description of an ellipse with a beam compass may be put in execution in arches of any extent, as has been fully verified in the practice of that distinguished French engineer, M. Perronet. But the common method with three centres only is extremely lame, owing to the sudden variation of curvature, which takes place at the junction of two very different radii.

Pkob. I. To render the Compass Method useful, not only in describing the Curve, hut in finding the Joints perpendicular thereto, so as to form an Arch which shall not have any sensible variation in Practice from tiie true Elliptic Curve, nor in the Perpendicularity of the Joints,

Find a number of points in the curve equidistant on each side of the extremity of the conjugate axis : find the centre of a circle passing the middle point, and the other two points one on each side of it join the : centre with the last two points of the curve, and describe an arc through the three points; then to complete the half curve, join one of the next points of the curve and the end of the arc by a straight line or ; suppose these two points to be joined, aad MASONRY. 231

bisect this line by a perpendicular, which produce until it meet

the first of the radii : join the last point of the curve, and the con-

course of the two last radii : from the point of concourse describe

an arc from the end of the arc last described to the next point in

in like the curve ; proceed manner with the next succeeding arcs,

if more than two, until the last arc but one, is described : continue

the last arc until it meet a diameter parallel to the transverse axis : draw a line from the meeting of the arc and diameter

through the extremity of the transverse axis, and produce this line

till it meets the arc ; from the point where the line meets the

arc draw a line to the centre of the arc ; from the point where the line so drawn cuts the transverse axis as a centre, describe an

arc from the end of the arc last described to the extremity of the transverse axis.

Example, Fig. 1. Let A B be the transverse axis, and C D the semi-conjugate.

Draw E D parallel to A C and A E parallel to C D. Divide C A and A E each into three equal parts at the points /, g, h, i. Produce D C to X making C equal to X C D. Draw X / Z and also xgk, hkd&ndild, then the points k and I will be in the curve, bisect the distance Z D at right angles by mn meeting D X produced at n. Join I n cutting A C at y. The points t and u being on the line or semi-transverse C B, make t C equal to C y, and draw n t v. From n with the distance n D or n Z, describe the arc I D v. Bisect the distance A; Z by a perpendicular o p meeting IneXp. From p with the distance p I describe the arc I h Draw q. p q parallel to A B. Join q A which produce to meet the arc Z ft in r also y ; join r p cutting A B in ^. From g with the distance g r describe an arc r A, and the half A D and part of the other half D w of the arch will be completed. Make t equal u tofg,ns equal to n p. Draw suio. From < describe the arc v w, and from u describe the arc w B which will complete the other half of the arch. :

232 MASONRY.

Prob. II. To find the Joints of an Elliptic Arch iit right Angles to the Curve.

Fig. 2. Find the centres n, p, s, g, y, t, u as in Problem 1., then radiate the joints between D and v by the centre n, the joints between v and w by the centre s, and the joints between w and B by the centre m, and the other half of the arch A D in the same manner, or thus semi- If the arch A D B is described with a trammel, Take the transverse A C, and from D describe an arc cutting C A at F, and another cutting C B at F, then the points F, F are called the

focii. Now to draw a line at right angles to the curve from any point H. Draw H K F and H L F, making H K equal to H L. From K and L as centres, describe arcs of equal radii cutting required each other at I, and draw I H, which will be a joint at the

point H. In the same manner may any other joint i A or as many as required be obtained.

Pbob. m. To describe the Parabolic Arch, and thence to draw the Joints at right Angles to the Curve.

First, p draw the Curve.

the curve, and Fig. 3. Let C D be the abscissa or height of parallel to C D E B the base or a double ordinate. Draw A E the and E D parallel to A B. Divide C A and A E each into to like number of equal parts. Draw » a, 2 ft, 3 c, &;c. parallel C D; also draw 1 D, 2 D, 3 D, &c. cutting the parallels at a, h,

c, dsG. which are points in the curve, then the curve may be drawn with a bent rule through the points, a, h, c, &c. and the other half B D being drawn in like manner will complete the whole curve. MASONRY. 233

Secondly, to find the Joints.

Let it be required to find a joint to any point E. Join E B.

which bisect at^; draw g h i perpendicular to A B cutting the

curve at h : make h i equal to h g, and join E i : draw E F at a right angle with E i and E F will be a joint at right angles to the

curve. In the same manner all other joints may be obtained.

PLATE XXXII.

With respect to the power which arches have of supporting

themselves, it depends upon the load insisting on all points of the

arch, it is evident that there may be such a relation between the

curve and the weight on every point of it, so as the weight may

have on more tendency to break or spring the arch in one point

than another ; and it is evident, that if the materials are of the

eame specific gravity, that the wall erected at a given height upon

the arch will obtain a certain form, so as to keep the arch in

equilibrio, and that the form of the terminating line of the wall will depend on the curve of the supporting arch.

Fig. 1. If the intrados of the arch be a sGmi-circle, or semi-

elliptic, the extrados or terminating line of the wall will be a curve

running upwards at the ends, so as to make the two vertical lines which are tangents at the extremes of the arch asmytotes of the curve, and consequently, neither the semi-circular nor semi-ellip-

tic arch are adapted to bridge building ; and it may be pronounced with safety, that though these curves are frequently employed in

bridge building, were the materials only placed in contact without

cohesion or friction, the mass supported could not stand when

the road way is straight, or a convex curve throughout the length

of the arch, and that it is only in consequence of friction or the

cementing quality of the mortar in connecting the whole of the

materials in one mass, that such arches stand for so many centu-

tries as they are found to do. However, by employing only the 2 F 234 MASONRY. middle portions of these curves, a road way or extrados of tolera- ble convenient form may be obtained.

Fig. 3. Is an arch of equilibration, the intrados of which is parabolic, which requires an extrados of the same form and curvature, both being similar and equal. The vertical heights between the two are everywhere equal.

Fig. 4 is another equilibrated arch, the intrados is an hyperbolio curve, and the extrados requires a curve, such that the vertical lines between the two curves are continually less from the crown towards the feet of the arches.

Fig. 5 is another equilibrated arch, the intrados being a cate- narian, or such as would be formed with a heavy chain suspended

at its extremities from two points at less distance from each oiher

than the length of the chain ; the extrados to this curve may admit

of different forms, it may either be a convex curve, as when the

wall erected upon it is low, or a straight surface or plane, as when

the wall erected on it is enormously high, or a concave curve,

as when the wall is still higher : neither of the three last curves

are at all adapted to bridge building, the extrados line at a mode-

rate height of wall being too rapid in its acclivity and declivity.

Fig. 6 is an arch of equilibration, where the top is a straight

line : the intrados at a given height of wail is calculated to answer thereto, this arch is therefore well adapted in most situations for the arch of a bridge. INDEX

Axm EXPLANATION OF TERMS

USED IN MASONRY.

to the preceding Sections, according to N. B. This Mark § refers the Number.

Abutments of a Bridge, the walls adjoining to the land, which support the ends of the extreme arches or road way.

Arch, in masonry, is a part of a building suspended over a hollow

and concave towards the area of the hollow ; the top of the wall

or walls which receives the first area stones is called the abut-

ment or springing, § 7. \RcravoLT or the Arch of a Bridge, is the curve line formed by the upper sides of tho arch stones in the face of the work,

or the archivolt is sometimes understood to be the whole set of

arch stones that appear in the face of the work.

ASHIiAR, § 4.

Banquet, the raised footways adioi.ning to the parapet on the

sides of a bridge. 236 MASONRY.

Bath Stone, § 3.

Batter, the leaning back of the upper part of the face of a wall,

so as to make the plumb line fall within the base.

BATTARDEAr, OR CopFERDAM, a case of piling without a bottom, for building the piers of a bridge.

Beds of a Stone, are the parallel surfaces which intersect the

face of the work in lines parallel to the horizon, § 4.

Bond, is that connection of lapping the stones upon one another

in the carrying up of the work, so as to form an inseparable mass of building.

Bond Stones, stones running through the thickness of the wall

in order to bind it.

Bond Timbers, § 4.

Bridge Buildings, § 4. Bridge, in masonry, is an edifice or structure, consisting of one

or a series of arches, in order to form a road way over a river,

canal,

Caisson, a chest or box in which the piers of a bridge are built

by sinking it as the work advances till it comes in contact with the bed of the river, and then the sides are disengaged, being constructed for the purpose.

Centres, the frames of timber work for supporting arches during their erection. Chest, the same as Caisson.

Chisels, § 2. Cofferdam, the same as Battardeau

Drag, a thin plate of steel indented on the edge, like the teeth of

a saw, used in soft stone which has no grit, for finishing the

surface. A piece of a joiner's hand-saw makes a good drag, § 2. MASONRY. 237

Dkift, the horizontal forc-e of an arch, by which it endeavours to overset the piers.

Dutch Takeas, § 3.

Emplection, § 4. Entrados of an Arch, the exterior or convex curve or the top con- of the arch stones : the term is opposed to the intrados or

cave side. ExTRADOS OF A Bridge, the curve of the road way.

Fence Walls, those used to prevent the encroachments of men or animals.

Figures of Stones, § 4. Footings, projecting courses of stone without the naked of the

superincumbent part, in order to rest the wall firmly on its

base, § 4.

Geometrical Stairs, § 6.

Headers, stones disposed with their length horizontally in the thickness of the wall.

Impost or Springing, the upper part or parts of a wall in order to spring an arch.

Incertain, § 4. Insulated Pillars, § 4. isodomum, § 4. 238 MASONRY.

Jette, the border made round the stilts under a pier.

Joggled Joints, the method of indenting the stones, so as to prevent the one from being pushed away from the other by

lateral force, § 6.

Key Stone of an Aech, the stone at the summit of the arch, put

in last of all, for wedging and closing the arch.

Kev-Stone, the middle voussoir of an arch over the centre.

Key-Stones, used in some places for bond stones.

Level, horizontal or parallel to the horizon. Level, an instrument, the same as that used in bricklaying and carpentry.

Mallet, the implement or tool which gives percussive force to

the chisel ; in figure it approaches to a hemisphere, with a

handle projecting from the middle or pole of the convex side, § 2.

Maeble, § 3. Masonry, § 1.

Moktar. See Bricklaying, § 32. and in Masonry, § 3.

Naked of a Wall, is the vertical or battering surface, whence all projectures arise.

Off Skt, the upper surface of a lower part of a wall left by re-

ducing the thickness of the superincumbent part upon one side or the other, or both.

Oxfordshire Stoive, § 2. MASONRY. 239

Parapets, the breast walls erected on the sides of the extrados

of the bridge for preventing passengers from falling over.

Paving, a floor or surface of stone for walking upon. Piers, the insulated parts of a bridge between the apertures, or arches for supporting the arches and road way. Piers in Houses, the walls between apertures, or between an aperture and the corner.

Pix.Es, timbers driven into the bed of a river, or the foundation of a building for supporting a structure.

Plaster op Paris, § 3. Pitch op an Arch, the height from the springing to the summit of the arch.

Point, the narrowest of all the chisels, and used in reducing the

rough prominent parts of stone, § 2.

Portland Stone, § 3.

psetjdisodomum, § 4.

PuRBECK Stone, § 3. Push of an Arch, the same as Drift, which see.

Quarry, the place whence stones are raised.

Randoiu: Courses in Paving, unequal courses without any reg^til

to equi-distant joints.

Reticulated Wall, § 4. Rubble Wall, § 4. Ryegate Stone, § 3.

Saw, a thin plate of iron of considerable lengtn, regulated by a 240 MASONRY.

frame of wood and cording : the operation is performed by the

labourer, § 2. Shoot of an Arch, the same as Drift or Push. See Drift.

STiTTJARY, § 3.

Sterlings, a case made about a pier of stilts in order to secure it. Stilts, a set of piles driven into the bed of a river, at a small distance from each other, with a surrounding case pf piling

driven closely together ; the tops of the piles being levelled to low water mark, and the interstices filled with stones, forms a foundation for building the pier uoon.

Stone Stairs, § 5.

Stone Walls, § 4. Stretchers, those ctones which have their length disposed horizontally in the length of the wall.

Tarras, § 3. Through Stones, the term used in some counties for bond stones, which see. Thrust, the same as Push, Shoot, or Drift. See Drift.

Tooling, § 2.

Tools, § 2.

Under Bed of a Stone, the lower surface generally horizontally

posited. Upper Bed of a Stone, the upper surface generally horizontally

posited.

Vault, a mass of stones so combined as to support each other over a hollow. MASONRY. 241

VoussoKs the arch stone in the face or faces of an arch, the mid

die one is called the key-stone.

Wali, an erection of stone generally perpendicular to the horizon

and sometimes battering, in order to give stability.

Y Yorkshire Stone, § 3.

No. 16. 2 G SLATING.

§ 1. Slating is the operation of covering the top or other in. clined parts of a building with slate.

SLATERS' TOOLS

Are a scantle, a trowel, a hammer, a zax, a small hand pick, a hod, a board for mortar. See the following explanation of terms. EXPLANATION OF TERMS

IN SLATING.

Back of a Slatb, is the upper side of it. square- slate put on the back of a broad Backer, is a narrow begin to get narrow. headed slate, when the slates Bed of a Si,atb, is the lower side. between the nail of Bond or Lap of a Si.ate, is the distance end of the upper slate. the under slate, and the lower

lower ends of which are hori- Course, is any row of slating, the

zontally posited.

E. hanging over the naked Eave, the skirt or lower part of the slating of the wall.

HoLiNo, the piercing of the slates for nails. 244 SLATING.

Lap. See Bond.

Margin of a Course, Uiose parts of the backs of the slates ex. posed to the weather.

Nails, painted iron or copper of a pyramidal form for fastening the slates to the lath or boarding

Patent Slating, large slates used without boarding, and screwed

to the rafters with slips of slates bedded in putty to cover the

joints.

ScANTLE, is a gauge by which slates are regulated to their proper length. Slates used in London are of several kinds, as Westmoreland,

rags, imperial, dutchess, countess, ladies, doubles. The West-

moreland are the best ; they are from three feet six inches, to

one foot in length, and from two feet six inches to one foot broad. Rags are the second best, and run nearly of the same

size. The third in order, of inferior quality, are the imperials,

they run from two feet six inches long, to one foot long. The other kinds will be understood by the order under which they are named, being inferior in size accordingly.

Sorting is the regulating of slates to their proper length by means of the scantle.

Squaring, the cutting of the sides and bottom of the slates. SLATING. 245

Tail, the bottom or lower end of the slate.

Trimming, the cutting or paring of the side and bottom edges, the head of the slate never being cut.

Zax, the tool for cutting the slate. PLASTERING.

§ 1. Plastering is the art of covering walls or ceilings with one, two, or three layers of any plastic or tenacious paste, so as to admit of a smooth and hard surface when the material is dry, and also of ornamentmg walls and ceilings, either by being run or cast into moulds.

§ 2. PLASTERERS' TOOLS.

Tools used by the plasterer, are plastering trowels of several descriptions, joint trowels, and jointing rules, a hawke, a hand float, a quirk float, and a derby. A scratcher, and wooden skreeds for running mouldings.

§3. MATERIALS

Generally employed are lime, hair, sand, plaster of Paris ; and those are variously compounded, as the following alphabetical arrangement of terms will show, which also explains the tools and their uses.

Walls consisting of brick or stone in the best houses, are always lathed by the plasterer, previous to the operation of plastering, PLASTERING. 247

particularly interior walls ; and it is more requisite to lath walls constructed of stone, than those constructed of brick, which is a dry substance, and not liable to attract damps.

Ceilings are generally plastered upon laths, particularly in London. In some parts of the country, reeds are employed in their stead : the reeds are spread out on the ceiling, so as to form a regular surface, and are confined to their situation by nailing laths to the joists, the reeds running transversely between them and the joists. The reeds are cheaper than laths, but require more material of plaster and labour : so that when finished, the difference of cost is very trifling. Other matters in plastering will be seen in the following explanation of terma ' ;

EXPLANATION OF TERMS

PLASTERING.

Ajrox£ Fu>AT» is a float made to any internal angle to the planes of both sides of the room.

Bastabd Stucco, is three coat plaster, the first generally rough-

ing-in or rendering, the second doating is in troweled stucco,

but the finishing, coat contains a little hair besides the sand

it is not hai^d floated, and the troweling is done with less

labour than what is denominated troweled stucco.

Bay, a strip or rib of plaster between skreeds for regulating the

floating rule.

Cbiuw6, the upper side of an apartment opposite to the floor, generally finished with plastered work. Ceilings are set in two

difierent ways, the best is where the setting coat is composed of

plaster and putty, commonly called gauge. Conumon ceilings

have plaster but no hair, this last is the same as the finishing

coat in walls set for paper :

PLASTERING. 249

CoARSB Stuff. See Lime and Hair.

Coat, a stratum or thickness of plaster work, done at one time

Derby, a two-handed float.

Die, is when plaster loses its strength.

Dots, patches of plaster put on to regulate the floating rule in making skreeds and bays.

Double Fir Laths, are laths three-eighths of an inch thick,

single fir laths being bare by a quarter. All the ceilings on

the entrance and drawing-room floors and best stair-cases should

be lathed with double fir laths.

Fine Stuff is made of lime slacked and sifted through a fine sieve, and mixed with a due quantity of hair, and sometimes a

small quantity of fine sand. Fine stuff" is used in common

ceilings and walls, set for paper or colour.

Finishing, is the best coat of three coat work, when done for

stucco. The term setting is commonly used, when the third

coat is made of fine stuff" for paper.

First Coat of two coat work is denominated laying, when on

lath, and rendering on brick, in three coat work upon lath it is denominated pricking-up, and upon brick, roughing-in. Float, an implement for forming the second coat of thref coat work to a given form of surface. Floats are of three kinds

namely, the hand float, the quirk float, and the derby. Floated Lath and Plaster set fair for paper, is three coat

work, the first pricking-up, the second floating, and the third or

setting coat of fine stuff", understood to be pricked-up, as there

is no floated work without pricking-up.

Floated, rendered and set, this is the common term.

Floated Work, is that which is pricked-up, floated and set. or

roughed-in. . ^ 250 PLASTERING.

Floating, is the second coat of three coat work. There is no

floating without pricking-up or roughing.in first, and then the

finishing or setting. Floating consists of the same stuff as pricking.up, but more hair is used in the former than in the latter. The floating should be brushed with a birch broom, in order to rough the surface, for stucco or setting for paper.

Floating is always used in stuccoed work, walls prepared for paper, and in the best ceilings.

Floating Skreeds differ from cornice skreeds in this, that the

former is a strip of plaster, and the latter wooden rules for running the cornice.

Floating Rules are of every size and length.

Gauge, a mixture of fine stuflf and plaster, or putty and plaster,

or coarse stuff and plaster, used in finishing the best ceiling?

and for mouldings, and sometimes for setting walls.

Hair used in plastering, ought to be long fresh hciir.

Hawke, a board with a handle projecting perpendicularly frona

the under side for holding the plaster.

JoiNT.RuLEs AND TooLs are narrow trowels and rules of wood for making good mitres.

Lath Floated and Set Fair. These words bear the sama

meaning as lath pricked-up and floated and set, which see.

Lath Layed and Set, is two coat work, only the first coat called

laying, is put on without scratching, except it is swept with a PLASTERING. 251

broom. This is generally coloured on walls, and whited on ceiKngs.

Lath Plastered Set and Coi.oubed, is the same with lath layed set and coloured, which see.

Lath Pricked-up Floated and Set for Paper, is three coat

work, the first is pricking-up, the second floating, and the finish-

ing is fine stuff'.

Laying, is the first coat on lath of two coat plaster or set work

it is not scratched with the scratcher, but its surface is roughed

by sweeping it with a broom. It differs only from rendering on

its application. Rendering is applied to the first coat work upon

brick, whereas laying is the first of two coat work upon lath.

La¥ING-on Trowels, the trowels used for laying on the plaster.

Lime and Hair, is a mixture of lime and hair used in first coating

and floating. It is otherwise denominated coarse stuff: in

floating more hair is used than in first coating.

Materials in plastering are, coarse stuff, fine stuff, stufl', putty, plaster, gauge, and stucco. MiTERiNQ Angles, in making good internal and external angles of mouldings.

Mouldings, when not very large, are first run with coarse gauge

to the mould, then with fine stuff, then with putty and plaster, and la»stly, run off or finished with raw putty. When mouldings

are large, coarse stuff is first put on, then it is filled with tile heads or brick bats, and run off successively, with coarse gauge,

fine stuflf gauge, putty gauge, and finished with raw putty : in

funning cornices there must always be skreeds upon the ceiling,

whether the ceiling is floated or not.

Pail, a vessel for holding water to moisten the plaster. 252 PLASTERING.

PiASTKR, is the material with which ornaments are cast, and with which the fine stuff of gauge for mouldings and other parts are mixed.

Pkicking-up is the first coating of three coat work upon laths.

The material used is coarse stuff, and sometimes mixed up in London with road dirt or Thames sand, and its surface is always scratched with the scratcher.

Pugging, the stuff laid upon sound boarding, in order to prevent the transmission of, or deaden the sound in its passage from one story to another.

PcTTY, is a very fine cement made of lime only. It is thus prepared dissolve in : a small quantity of water, as two or three gallons, so much fresh lime, (constantly stirred with a stick,) until the lime be entirely slacked, and the whole becomes of the consistency of mud ; so that when the stick is taken out

of it, it will but just drop ; then being sifted or run through a hair sieve, to take out the gross parts of the lime, it is fit for use. Putty differs from fine stuff in the manner of preparing it, and in its being used without hair.

Quirk Float. See Angle Float.

Rendered and Floated, is three coat work, more commonly called floated, rendered and set.

Rendered Floated and Set, for paper, should be termed roughed-in floated ; and set for paper is three coat work, the

first lime and hair upon brick work, the second the same stuflf

with a little more hair floated with a long rule, the last fine stuff mixed with white hair.

Rendered and Set, the same as set work, see Set Work. Ren- dering is the first of two coat work upon naked brick or stone

work whited on walls or vaults: roughing-in being the first PLASTERING. 253

coat of three work on naked brick, but the compound term

pricking-up, is used for the first of three coat work upon lath, or on brick work, which has been previously rendered. Though

the term rendering is sometimes used in three coat work, it is improper. The material for rendering is the same as that for pricking-up.

Rough Cast, is the overlaying of walls with mortar, without

smoothing it with any tool whatever. RoiTGH Rendering, is one coat rough. Rough Stucco, is that which is finished with stucco floated and brushed in a small degree with water, much used at present.

RouGHiNG-iN, is the first coat of three coat work. Running Mouldings. See Mouldings.

ScRATCHER, is the instrument for scratching the plaster, as its name implies.

Second Coat, is either the finishing coat, as in layed and set, or

in rendered and set ; or it is the flon ting, when the plaster ia

roughed-in floated and set for paper.

Set Fais, is used after roughing-in and floated, or pricked up

and floated : it should be well troweled, as it does not answer for colour without.

Set Work, two coat work upon lath : the plasterers denominate

set work by the compound term of layed and set.

Setting Coat, on ceilings or walls in the best work, is gauge, or

a mixture of putty and plaster ; but in common work it consists

of fine stufi^, and when the work is very dry, a little sand is used. The setting coat may either be a second coat upon laying or

rendering, or a third coat upon floating ; the term finishing is

applied to the third coat when of stucco, but setting for paper.

Setting, is also the quality that any kind of stufi* has to harden in a short time. 254 PLASTERING.

Single Fir Laths are something less than one fourth of an inch in thickness.

Skkeeds are wooden rules for running mouldings. Skreeds are also the extreme guides upon the margins of walls and ceilings for floating, to the intermediate ones being called bays. In running cornices, where the ceiUngs are not floated, there must always be skreeds. Stopping, making good holes in the plaster.

Stucco, or Finishing, is the third coat of three coat plaster, con. sisting ot" fine lime and sand; the best is twice hand floated and well troweled bastard succo ; has a little hair. See Finish, ing. Rough is only stucco floated and brushed in a small degree with water: stucco is troweled accounted the best.

Traversing the skreed for cornices, is putting on gauge stufl' on the ceiling sk.eeds, for regulating the running mould of the cornice above.

Three Coat Work, is that which consists of pricking-up or roughing-in, floating, and a finishing coat. Troweled Stucco for paint, the same as roughed-in on brick work, and set or pricked-up, floated and twice hand floated. Third Coat, is the stucco for paint or setting for paper. Two Coat Work, is either layed and set, or rendered and set. See these articles.

W. t Wall, is the coating of plaster layed and set, and applied to brick work only where there are two coats. PAINTING m OIL.

Painting is the art of covering the surfaces of wood, iron, dec. with a mucilaginous substance, which shall acquire hardness on

the surface, and thereby protect from the weather, and produce

any colour proposed. It is intended here to treat only of common painting in oil, which comprehends the mechanical process for preserving and ornamenting stuccoed walls and wood work of houses ; also iron and wooden rails, &c.

In this branch, the requisite tools are brushes of hogs' bristles of various sizes, suitable to the work, a scraping or pallet knife, earthen pots to hold the colours, a tin can for turpentine, a grind ing stone and muUer, &c. ; the stone should be hard and close grained, about eighteen inches diameter, and sufficiently heavy to keep it steady.

The Process for Painting on new Wood Work.

As the knots in wood (particularly deal) are a great annoyance in painting, great care is required in what the painters term killing them, and the most sure way of doing this has been found to be, by laying upon those knots which retain any turpentine, a groat substance of limOj immediately on its being slacked, with a stop- pmg knife, (this process dries or burns up the turpentine which the knots contain,) and when the lime has remained on about twenty.four hours, scrape it off, then do them twice over with size 256 PAINTING. knotting, which is made with red and white lead ground very fine with water on a stone, and mixed with strong double glue-size to be used warm, after which, if you have any doubts of their not being sufficiently covered, do them over with red and white lead ground very fine in linseed oil, and mixed with a proportion of that oil, taking care to rub them down with fine sand paper, each time you do them over, to prevent their appearing more raised than the other parts, by the repetition of a greater number of coats than the other parts of the work will have ; when this is quite dry, lay on your priming colour, which is made with white and a little red lead mixed thin with linseed oil. When the priming is quite dry, and if the work is intended to be finished M'hite, mix white lead, and a very small portion of red with linseed oil, adding a very little spirits turpentine, of and second colour your work ; it is well to let the work remain in this state for some days to harden : then your care must be (before you lay on your third coat) to rub it down with fine sand paper, and stop with oil putty wherever it may be necessary, observing particularly if any of the knots show through your work, in which case take silver leaf, and lay it upon them with japan gold size ; the third coat is white lead mixed with linseed oil and turpentine in equal portions, and if the work is intended to be finished with four coats, let your finishing coat be made of good old white lead and thinned with bleached linseed oil and spirits of turpentine, of the portion of one of oil and two of turpentine ; a very small quantity of blue black may be used in the two last coats ; and if the work is to be flatted dead white, the above process is prepared to receive. Dead white is fine old

Nottingham lead, and thinned entirely with spirits of turpentine.

In painting on stucco, it is necessaiy to give it one coat more ttian wood work, therefore the fourth coat should be mixed with half spirits of turpentine and half oil, and this will receive the finishing coat of all turpentine or flatting. But if not to be flatted, then the finishing coat should be done with one part oil and two of turpentine. As the colours used on stucco walls are very nume- reus, it would far exceed my limits to treat of them distinctly: let PAINTING. 257

it therefore suffice to say, that the same process must be observed in using them as in white, only that each coat should ineUne t;) the colour they are intended to be finished.

The Process for Painting on old Work.

Let all the work you intend to paint be well rubbed down with dry pumice stone, and carefully dusted off, and where the work may require, let any cracks or openings be well stopped with oil putty, after which mix white lead, adding a very small portion of red lead, and with turpentine and oil of equal parts, paint your work (this coat is technically called by painters second colouring old work) after this is done and the work dry, mix good old white lead with half bleached oil and half turpentine, adding a very small portion black, of blue and finish your work : or if it is intended to be flatted, the former process is a proper preparation to receive the dead white; the same process is to be observed for stuccoed walls, observing, (hat if they require a great number of coats, the mixture of half oil and half turpentine is proper. The more you nix your colours with oil, and the less with turpentine for outside work the better, as turpentine is more adherent to water than oil, and consequently, not so well calculated to preserve work exposed to the weather; yet as oil will discolour white, it is necessary to finish that with a portion of half oil and half turpentine : but in dark colours, such as chocolate, greens, lead colour, dsc. dec. boiled linseed oil and a little turpentine is the best, or boiled oil only. White lead is used in all stone colours ; white painting is entirely white lead ; lead colours are white lead and lamp black ; pmks aad all fancy colours have a portion of white lead in their composition : but chocolates, black, brown, and wainscoats have no portion whatever. Clear coaling is made of white lead ground in water and mixed Nos. 17 & 18. 2 I 258 PAINTING.

with size ; it is used instead of a coat of paint, but by no means answers the end, as not possessing a sufficient body, and will scale off in time, and change the colour in damp situations. Clear coaling is most useful where the work is greasy and smoky, as it prepares it better to receive a coat of paint : but when used for joiners' work where mouldings are concerned, it destroys the accuracy of the workmanship by filling up the quirks and mitres

of the mouldings. Clear coaling is not much used at present.

Some colours dry badly, and in damp weather all colours re-

quire something to expedite their drying ; a good dryer may be

prepared of equal parts of copperas and litharge ground very fine,

to be added as wanted.

Putty is made of whiting and linseed oil, well beaten together.

The brushes when done with should be put into a pan with

water, which prevents their drying and becoming hard ; also if

any colour is left, water should be put upon it to prevent its drying.

Drying oil is made thus : to every gallon of linseed oil put one

pound of red lead, one pound of umber, and one pound of litharge. The oil and the materials to be boiled for two or three hours.

Nate. If the pot in which the oil is boiled will contain fifteen

gallons, it is not prudent to boil more than five gallons at a time

as the oil and material will swell so much as to endanger boiling

over and setting the place on fire. After having boiled a sufficient

time, the pot may then be filled up with oil, and made to simmer

gently, and then it is finished.

A List of useful Colours for House Painting.

Black—^lamp black. White—white lead. Yellow—ochers, also patent yellow. Blue—^Prussian blue, and blue black.

Bedr—XQd lead, vermilion and purple brown, or India red. PAINTING. 259

Red—crimson, lakes, to which add vermilion or white according to the tone.

Green—^grass, verdigrise.

invisible, dark ocher, blue, and a little black.

a good, patent yellow and Prussian blue. pea, mineral green. Chocolate—India red and black. Lead Colour—black and white. Brown—umber raw and burnt. mix black, red, and dark ocher. Purple—mix lake blue, and white. Yellow and red lead, make an orange colour.

Red and blue make a purple and violet colour. Blue and yellow make a green colour.

Black, blue, white, and a little India red make a pearl colour.

Light ocher, Prussian blue, and a little black make an olive colour. India red and white, make difiesh colour White and umber, make a shme colour. 8MITHIIVG.

Smithing is the art of uniting several lumps of iron into one mass, and of forming any lump or mass of iron into any intended

§ 1. Description of the Forge. Pl. 33.

The forge consists of a brick hearth raised about two feet six inches, or sometimes two feet nine inches from the floor ; heavier work requires forge a lower than lighter work : its breadth must also depend upon the nature of the work ; the brick-work may be built hollow below for the purpose of putting things out of the way.

The back of the forge is carried up to the top of the roof, and is

enclosed over the fire in the form of a funnel to collect and dis-

charge the smoke into the flue, the funnel is very wide at its

commencement, but decreases rapidly to the flue, whence it is

carried up of a proper size to take off" the smoke. The wide part

is called the hood or hovel, which in modern forges, particularly

in London, is constructed of iron. The air drawn in by the bel-

lows is communicated to the fire by means of a taper pipe, the

small end of which passes through the back of the forge, and is

fixed into a strong iron plate, called a tue-iron or patent back, in order to preserve the bellows and the back of the forge from the

injuries of the fire. A trough for coals and another for water are placed on One side of the forge, generally extending the whole breadth. See the Plate. SMITHING. 261

The best position of the bellows is on a level with the fire-place, but they are frequently placed higher for the purpose of getting room below. The Tools are as follow.

§ 2. THE ANVIL, Pi. 33. Fig. G.

Is formed of a large block or mass of iron with a smooth horizontal face on the top, generally hollowed upon three sides, and on the fourth has a projecting part of a conic figure called a pike, or beckern, or beak iron. The face must be made of steel, so hard as to be incapable of being filed. The anvil is fixed upon a wooden block in order to keep it steady.

§ 3. THE TONGS, Pr. 33.

Are of several forms, ^raight and crooked nosed : the former are used in short flat work, and the crooked nosed in the forging of bars. The chaps, or parts which hold the iron, are placed near the joint, and in order to keep it with greater firmness, a ring is slipped over the ends of the handles of the tongs.

§4. HAMMERS

Are of several kinds, as hand-hammers, which are of different sizes, according to the weight of the work ; the up-hand sledge is used by under workmen, when the work is not of the largest kind in battering, in order to draw it out to its required dimensions, and for this purpose both hands are used. The about-sledge is the biggest of all the hammers, also used by under workmen in bat.

tering the largest work : the former hammer is only lifted up and T 2 262 SMITHING.

down, but this is slung entirely round with both hands nearly at the extremity. The riveting hammer is the smallest of all ; it is not used at the forge, but in riveting, as its name implies.

§ 5. THE VICE, Pl. 34. Fig. B.

Is used to hold any piece of iron or work for the purpose of bending, riveting, filing, polishing, &c. It must be placed firmly and vertically on the side of the work bench, with its chaps parallel to the edge of the said bench. The inner surface of the chaps is roughed with teeth, and well tempered ; there is a spring which acts against the screw pin and opens the chaps ; the screw pin is cut with a square thread, as also the screw, which is brazed into the nut box.

§ 6. THE HAND.VICE

Is of two kinds, viz. the broad-chapt band-vice, and the square nosed hand-vice. The office of the former is to hold small work in the act of filing it is held ; in the left hand, and the parts of the iron turned successively to the file which is used by the right.

The square nosed hand-vice is seldom used, but in filing small globulous work.

§7. THE PLYERS

Are of two kinds, flat nosed and round nosed: the former is used to hold small work while it is fitting to its place, and the latter for turning or bending wire, or small plates. SMITHING. 263

§ 8. DRILLS, Pi. 34. Fig. E.

Are used in boring holes which cannot be punched, owing to the thickness of the iron, or which require more exactness than can be performed by the punch, which is very apt to set the work out of order and shape. Drills are required of various sizes, and to be made of the best steel. The drill consists of a cutting point, a shank, and drill barrel, which must be of a diameter sufficient to turn the drill with the required velocity. The drill is turned by a bow and string, the string is coiled round the barrel, the bow goes with a reciprocating motion, and causes the drill to perform several revolutions in each progressive and retrogressive motion of the bow, and different kinds of work will require different bows, according to the force required to turn the drill, for lighter or stronger work : there is also a drill plate or breast plate, in which the blunt end of the shank of the drill is inserted, and by which the drill is pressed to the work. To make large holes, more force is required than can be given by the bow and string, instead of which a brace similar to that used by joiners is employed, and the drill itself is fitted in as a bit, instead of the end of the stock, which remains stationary while the other part is turning; there is a long tapering spindle of iron, which is carried round with the brace ; the upper end of this spindle is inserted in the lower horizontal side of an iron plate, which is fixed to the under side of a beam, called the drill beam.

The drill beam turns upon a transverse pin horizontally posited at one end, and is drawn down by a weight at the other, and thus presses the brace downwards by the ponderosity of the beam and that of the weight, while the brace is revolved by hand. A piece of iron being laid under the drill bit, where the hole is intended, and the drill turned swiftly round will be bored through, or to any required depth. See Plate 34, Fig. E. ;

264 SMITHING.

§ 9. SCREW PLATES

Are plates of well tempered steel with several cylindric lioles of different diameters, with screw threads wrought into square grooves from the surface of the interior concavity; to these plates belong as many pins, tapering to their ends, called taps, which are the frustrums of cones, not differing materially from cylinders the convex surface is threaded in the same manner, and made to fit their respective holes.

§10. SHEARS,

An instrument for cutting iron, consisting of two equal and similar pieces moveable round a joint, near to two of the ends, and may be considered as a double lever, so that when two of the ends

are opened or shut, the other ends will be opened or shut also. The cutting edges which meet each other are brought to an acute angle, and the surfaces of the inner faces gradually come more and more in contact in the same plane, as the longer ends which are employed as handles are brought nearer together. Shears are used in cutting iron plates, and even bars, and are consequently of various sizes, according to the stiffness or strength of

the iron to be cut. When the shears are used, one handle is fast screwed in the vice, and the other only is moveable ; the iron

to be cut is laid between the edges which close together.

§11. SAWS

In general oave been sufficiently defined in § 45 Joinery. They

are used by smiths to cut pieces of iron or bars of all dimensions, and for cutting grooves and notches to any required depth. Shears have an advantage over saws in cutting with more rapidity, but saws cut with more exactness, and save the whole or much' labor SMITHLNG. 265

in filing ; and may be also used in cutting bars or pieces of the greatest dimensions, where shears cannot be used. Smiths' saws must be very narrow and stiff, with a bow of iron, by which the ends are made fast, and the plate stretched by a screw at one end ; the bow has a projecting part in a straight line with the saw, which forms the handle.

§ 12. Of Forging.

In forging, the fire must be regulated by the size of the work, and in heating the iron, beat the coals round the outside of the fire close together with the slice, in order to prevent the heat from escaping as often as the flame begins to break out, and in order to save fuel, wet or damp the outside of the coals : to know whether the work takes the heat, draw it a small degree out of the fire, and thrust it quickly in again if not hot enough : if the ipon be too cold the hammer will make no impression upon it, or in the language of smiths, it will not batter ; if too hot it will break or crack.

§13. Of Heats.

Heats are of several kinds, depending on the destination of the work, as blood-red heat, white-flame heat, and sparkling or welding heat. The blood-red heat is used when the shape of the iron is not required to be altered, and when the surface is onlj' required to be smooth hammered : this operation is performed by the hand-hammer with light flat blows until the protuberances and hollows are brought to the required surface, whether planed or curved, the work is then prepared for the file. The hammering of the work to a true surface, will save much trouble in filing.

The white-flame heat is used in forming the iron from one shape to another ; in the execution of this, one, two, or more men must be employed to batter the work with sledges, until it acquires 2 K S66 SMITHING.

nearly its proposed form and size ; afterwards smooth it with the hand hammer.

A sparkhng or welding heat is used when the iron is required to be dbubled, or two or more pieces consolidated, in order to make the piece of the required dimensions. In joining two or more bars together, heat them to that degree as to be nearly in a state of fusion they must then ; be taken out of the fire with the utmost despatch, and the scales or dirt which will hinder their incorporation being scraped off, put the pieces in contact at the heated part, and hammer them together until there is no seam or fissure left this operation : will require two or more men, accord, ing to the magnitude of the bars. If the particles of the iron have not been sufl^ciently incorporated by the first heat, more heats and the operations of hammering must be repeated until the work is perfectly sound after ; which it is formed into the shape proposed, and finished by smoothing, &c. To make the iron come sooner to a welding heat, stir the fire with the hearth stafl^ and throw out the cinders the iron may have run upon, as they will prevent the coals from burning ; to prevent the iron melting, throw some sand over it while in the fire. In this operation care must be taken to prevent the iron from running, which will make it so brittle as to prevent its forging, and so hard as to resist the action of the file. In welding, some smiths strew a little sand upon the face of the anvil, as they conceive it makes the iron incorporate better. If by ill management the iron be wrought too thin or too narrow, and should there be substance enough to make it thicker, give it a flame heat, and set the heated end upright upon the anvil, and hammer upon the cold end until the heated end be beat to the size or turned into the body of the work; the part so beat is said to up-set, and the operation is called up-setting. When your work is forged, let it cool gradually, and do not by any means quench it in water, which will harden it too much. SMITHING. 267

§14. To punch a Hole.

Take a punch of the size and shape of the hole required, the

point or narrow end of it must be hardened without tempering, as

the heat of the iron will soften it sufficiently, and sometimes too

much, and then it must be re-hardened : if the work is not very

large, bring the iron to a blood heat, but if very large, bring it

almost to a flame heat, and lay it upon the anvil : and place the

point of the punch at the spot where the hole is to be made, then

with the hammer punch the hole. If the work is very heavy, fix

the punch in a wooden rod, and place it on the intended situation

of the hole ; let another person strike till the punch is forced about half way through, then reverse the iron and punch through

on the contrary side ; the hole is afterwards smoothed, and per.

fected by a mandrill being driven through. But in punching take

care to plunge the punch into water as often as it is heated, or as

often as it changes colour, in order to re-harden it otherwise it

will spoil both the work and the punch.

§ 15. Filing and Polishing.

Fihng is the operation of cutting or tearing iron in particles or

very small parts, called filings, by means of an instrument toothed

all over its surface ; the instrument itself is called a file. Files

aro differently formed, and of various sizes for different purposes,

their sections being either square, oblong, triangular, or seg- mental ; the files of these sections are respectively denominated

differ square, flat, three square, and half round ; they also in the

magnitude of their teeth, as the iron may be required to be more

or less reduced in a given time : it is evident that in the operation

of filmg, the surface of the iron will be full of scratches, and these

scratches will be larger or smaller according as the teeth of the fi\es are coarser or finer : files have therefore obtained the follow, mg names, according to the number of teeth cut on the same 268 SxMITHING.

area : the largest rough tool file is called a rubber, and is used after the hammer in taking away the prominent parts on the sur- of the iron the face ; bastard tooth file is employed to take out the marks made by the rubber, the fine-toothed file is employed in taking out the scratches made by the bastard-toothed file ; and lastly, the smooth-toothed file is employed in taking out the scratches of the last the surface : is at last made perfectly smooth by means of emery and tripoli. And whatever be the surface the of work, whether flat, cylindrical, or conical, the file must always be made to describe that surface as near as the hand and judgment can direct : these matters, by keeping the principle of motion in view, are soon obtained by practice.

After the surface of the iron has been smoothed by the emery and tripoli, it is then polished by a piece of very hard and highly polished steel, called a burnisher, with a handle at one or both ends, according to the pressure required, which will depend on the magnitude of the surface. The sides of the burnisher are either flat or convex, according to the surface to be polished.

§ 16. To cut thick Iron Plate to any required Figure.

Having drawn or scratched the figure upon the surface of an iron plate, place it on the anvil, if large ; if small, upon the stake : a chisel being in your left hand, with its edge set upon the mark, strike it with the hammer till the substance is nearly cut through, so as to leave a very thin portion of the thickness below it: observe, if the iron were cut through, the face of the anvil being steel, it will batter or break the edge of the chisel, and for this reason when the edge comes very near the under side of the plate, strike only with light blows : repeat this operation till the whole of the figure is gone over ; the part intended to be taken away, may be broken off" with the fingers or with a pair of plyers, or by pinching the plate in the vice, with the cut part close to the chaps, and then wriggle it, till it comes asunder. ;

SMITHING. 2G9

§ 17. Riveting

pin into a hole, by battering or Is the art of fixing the end of a through the hole, so as not spreading the end which has passed to increase its diameter on the opposite only to fill the hole, but being drawn out again. Bide, and thereby prevent its

Pin to a Plate or Piece of Iron. § 18. To rivet a

Having formed the shank to the size of the hole, with a shoulder, the end and something longer than the thickness of the plate, file batter more easily slip the shank of the shank flat, so that it may ; contact with the surface into the hole, and keeping the shoulder in the pin abutting upon the stake, and the of the plate ; the end of the end of the pin standing perpendicular, strike the edge of all round, then lay heavier shank with light blows, until it is spread with the pen of blows, sometimes with the face, and sometimes sufficiently battered over the hammer, till the end of the shank is this operation, care must be taken to the plate : in performing shoulder ck)se. keep the pin at right angles to the plate, and the

and Nuts. § 19. To make small Screw-Bolts

square Supposing the shank of the screw-bolt to be let into a turning of the nut hole, in order to keep it from twisting by the head of the take a square bar or rod of iron near the size of the as much of the length screw-pin, and bring it to a flame heat ; take one side of the bar as is equal to the length of the shank, and lay to the flat upon the nearer side of thd anvil, and hammer it down sides at once, intended thickness ; this will forge two of the

the under side being forged by the anvil, and the upper beat flat 270 SIVIITIIING.

with the hammer ; but if the iron get cold before the forging is

finished, it must have another heat. Then lay one of the un- wrought sides upon the nearer side of the anvil, and hammer this side straight as before, so that the two other sides will also be made then beat in the ; angles so as to make it nearly round, and

of such length as is equal to the intended length of the screw pin.

Having forged the shank square, and formed the head either square or round as may be intended ; file also the screw pin so

as to make it taper in a small degree, and to take out the irregu- larilies of the forge ; the conic form makes it enter more easily, and the irregularities being taken away, makes the screw more exact in distances the of the threads : the quantity of taper may

be something more than twice the depth of the threads. Then fix the bolt with the head downwards into the vice, and with a screw

plate equaljo the interior diameter of the cylinder from which the

screw is to project, lay the hole upon the end of the screw pin,

and press it hard downwards. Then turn the screw plate parallel to the horizon from right to left with a uniform pressure round

about the pin, both progressively and retrogressively, and the plate

will begin to groove out the channel between the thread of the

screw : proceed with this process until as much of the screw be formed as is required.

To make the nut, the hole must be equal to the diameter of the

cylinder from which the thread is made in the shank of the screw,

and the tap must be made tapering, in order to enter the hole.

Proceed and screw the nut in the vice, with the axis of the cylindric bole vertical, and enter the screw tap, which turn by the handle as before, and it will begin to cut the interior groove of

the nut ; proceed working until the groove between the thread be

its full of depth : the thread and groove in the nut will thus be made to fit the groove and thread of the screw pin. SMITHING. 271

§20. Of Iron.

Iron is a metal of a bluish white colour, of considerable hardness, but easily formed into any shape, and is susceptible of a very fine polish. It is the most elastic of all the metals, and next to platina, is the most difficult of fusion. Its hardness in some states is superior to that of any other metal, and it has the addi-

tional advantage of sufiering this hardness to be increased or diminished at pleasure, by certain chymical processes, without altering its form. Its tenacity is also greater than that of any other metal, except gold ; an iron wire, the tenth part of an inch in diameter, has been found capable of sustaining more than 5001b. weight without breaking. Its ductility is such as to allow it to be drawn into wire as fine as a hair.

Iron ore is found mixed with sand, clay, chalk, and in m&ny kinds of stones and earths. It is also found in the ashes of vegetables, and the blood of animals in great abundance. Iron ores are therefore extremely numerous. Iron is obtained from the ore by an operation called smelting, and in this state it is called crude iron, cast iron, or pig iron, but it is very impure. Cast iron is scarcely malleable at any temperature, it is generally so hard as to resist the file, and is extremely brittle however, ; it is equally permanent in many applications with wrought iron, and is less liable to rust ; and being easily cast into various forms by melting, is much cheaper. Indeed the labour to wrought iron if applied to many of the purposes to which cast iron IS used would be incredible, and in some cases insurmountable. The use of cast iron is sufficiently obvious in the wheel work of every department of machinery, in crane work, in iron bridges, in beams and pillars for large buildings, arvd in numerous articles of manu. facture.

Cast iron is reduced into wrought or bar iron, or forged iron, by divesting it of several foreign mixtures with which it is incorporated. The varieties of wrought iron are the following : hot-short :

272 SMITHING. iron is so brittle when heated that it will not bear the weight of a small hammer without breaking to atoms, but is malleable when cold, and very fusible in a high temperature ; cold-short iron possesses the opposite qualities, and is with difficulty fusible in a strong heat, and though capable while hot of being beaten into

any shape, is when cold very brittle, and but slightly tenacious. The iron in general use, which though in a chymical point of view

is not entirely pure, is so far perfect that it possesses none of these

defects ; its principal properties are the following : 1st. When

applied to the tongue it has a styptic taste, and emits a peculiar

smell when rubbed : 2d. Its specific gravity varies from 7*6 to

7*8 ; a cubic foot of it weighs about 5801b. avoirdupoise : 3d. It

IS attracted by the magnet or loadstone, and is itself one of its

ores, the substance which constitutes the loadstone. It is also

capable of acquiring itself the attraction and polarity of the mag-

is net in various ways ; iron, however, that perfectly pure, retains

the magnetic virtue only a very short time ; 4th. It is malleable

in every temperature, which as it rises, increases the malleability.

It cannot, however, be hammered out so thin as gold or silver, or

even copper. Its ductility is very great, and its tenacity is such,

than an iron wire something less than the twelfth of an inch in

diameter, is capable of supporting without breaking 549jlb. avoir-

dupoise : 5th. it melts at about 158° of Wedgewood : 6th. it com-

bines very readily with oxygen ; when exposed to the air its

surface is soon tarnished, and is gradually changed into a brown

or yellow colour, usually called rust: this change takes place

more rapidly, as it is more exposed to moisture.

To preserve iron from rust, particularly when polished, various

methods have been tried with more or less success : among

others, the partial oxidation, known by the term bluing, has beec

adopted ; the slightest coat of grease is sufficient to prevent rust.

Iron is the most useful and the most plentiful of all metals. It

requires a very intejise heat to fuse it, on which account it can only be brought into s-hape of tools and utensils by hammering

this high degree of infusibility would prevent the uniting of several SMITHING. 273 masses into one, were it not from its being capable of welding, a property which is found in no other metal except platina. In a white heat, iron appears as if covered with a kind of varnish, and in this state, if two pieces be applied together, they will adhere, and may be perfectly united by forging.

Steel is made of the purest malleable iron by an operation called cementation, by which it acquires a small addition to its weight,

amounting to about the hundred and fiftieth or two hundredth part. In this state it is much more brittle and fusible than before.

It may be welded like bar iron, if it has not been fused or over

cemented ; but its most useful and advantageous property is, that of becoming extremely hard when heated and plunged into cold water ; the hardness which it thus acquires is greater, as the steel is hotter and the water colder. The sign which directs the me-

chanic in the tempering of steel, is the variation of colour which

appears on its surface. If the steel be slowly heated the colours which it exhibits are a yellowish white, yellow, gold colour, pur- pie, violet, deep blue. If the steel is too hard, it will not be proper for tools which are intended to have a fine edge, as it will be so brittle that the edge will soon become notched : and if it is too soft, the edge will soon turn aside, even by very slight usage.

Some artists heat their tools and plunge them into cold water, after which they brighten the surface of the steel upon a stone ; the steel being then laid upon hot charcoal, or upon th& surface of melted lead, or placed on a bar or piece of hot iron, gradually acquires the desired colour, and at this instant it must be plunged into water. If a hard temper is required, as soon as a yellow tinge appears, the piece is dipped again and stirred about in the cold water. In tempering of tools for working upon metals, it will be proper to bring it to a purple tinge before the dipp^ing.

Springs are tempered by bringing the surface to a blue tinge.

This temperature is also desirable for tools employed in cutting soft substances, such as cork, leather, and the like ; but if the steel be plunged into water when its surface has acquired a deep blue, its hardness will scarcely exceed the temperature of iron. No. 18 2 L 274 SMITHING.

When soft steel is heated to any one of these, and then plunged into water, it does not acquire so great a degree of hardness as if previously made quite hard. The degree of heat required to harden steel, is different in the different kinds. The best kinds only a low require red heat ; the harder the steel, the more coarse and granulated its fracture will be. Steel, when hardened, has specific gravity than less when soft ; the texture of steel is rendered more uniform by fusing it before it is made into bars, and in this state it is called cast steel, which is wrought with more difficulty than common steel, because it is more fusible, and will disperse under the hammer if heated to a white heat. Every species of iron is convertible into steel by cementation ; but the best steel can onl^jr be made from iron of the best quality which possesses stiffness and hardness as well as malleabihty. Swedish iron has been long remarked as the best for this purpose.

The Cast Steel of England is made as follows : a crucible about ten inches high, and seven inches in diameter, is filled with ends and fragments of the crude steel of the manufactories, and the filings and fragments of steel works ; they add a flux, the compo- nent parts of which are usually concealed. It is probable, however, that the success does not much depend upon the flux. This crucible is placed in a wind furnace, like that of the founders, but smaller, because intended to contain but one pot only. It is likewise surmounted by a cover and chimney, to increase the draught of air ; the furnace is entirely filled with coke, or charred pit-coal. Five hours are required for the perfect fusion of the steel. It is then poured into long, square, or octagonal moulds, each composed of two pieces of cast iron fitted together. The ingots when taken out of the mould, have the appearance of cast iron. It is then forged in the same manner as other steel, but with less heat and more precaution. Cast steel is almost twice as dear as other good steel ; it is excellent for razors, knives, joiners' chisels, and for all kinds of small work that require an exquisite polish : its texture is more uniform than common steel, which is an invaluable advantage. It is daily more and more used in Eng. SMITHING. 275 land, but it cannot be employed in works of great magnitude, on account of the facility with which it is degraded in the fire, and the difficulty of welding it.

To conclude : British cast iron is excellent for all kinds of castings ; our wrought iron also of late has been much improved in the manufacture, and by many persons is thought not to be inferior to that of Sweden, which till lately had a decided preference, and is to be attributed to the use of charcoal in the process of smelting, which cannot be procured in sufficient quantity in Eng- land, where pit coal has of necessity been substituted. The Navy

Board and East India Company, however, now contract for British iron only.

PLATE XXXIII.

Perspective View of a Smith's Work Shop, shemng a double Forge with its Apparatus, and some Tools in general Use.

A back of the forge. B the hood.

C Bradley's patent back, showing the nozel or the iron of the bellows.

D end of the forge.

E bellows with the rock staff. F troughs for coals and water. anvil, G shewing the beak iron, and a hole for holding the tools on the top. The anvil being supported upon a wooden block.

H a strong stool for supporting the chasing tool I.

I the chasing tool for rounding bolts, and punching holes in iron the holes are ; called bolsters, and those upon the sides are called rounding tools ; the whole is called generally a bolster. K a sledge hammer.

Near D is a horse to hold up long pieces of iron at the end of the forge, when found necessary. -

276 SMITHING.

The square hole near A is used for discharging the ashes, which slide down a hollow, and come out at the bottom of the front. The coal trough is placed next to the forge, and the water trough next to the front. The tongs are shewn in the water trough, and a pair of hp and straight tongs are shewn on it. In smiths' shops, where heavy articles are manufactured, cranes are employed for taking the work out of the fire.

PLATE XXXIV.

View of another Pari of a Smiths Work Shop, shewing the Work Benches with the Vices, the Drill in the act of Boring, and a Turn- ing Machine, as wrought by a Winch and Wheel, as also by the Foot.

A, A work benches. B, B, B vices. — C the bench anvil.

D, E, F, G various parts of a drill machine.

• D the drill block.

E the drill and brace.

F the drill beam, shewing the lever to pull it up. G a rod to hang a larger or smaller weight, for giving more or less power to the drill, as may be required in boring a greater or less hole.

H, I, K, L parts of the turning lathe. H handle to turn the large wheel.

I the large whoel.

Pulleys for the cord. L puppets, rest, collar, and mandril. N wheel and crank* for revolving the mandril by the foot, &c. INDEX

AND EXPLANATION OF TERMS

USED IN SMITHING.

according to N. B. This Mark 6 refers to the preceding Sections, the Number*

A. slung About Sledge, the largest hammer used by smiths; it is used by under round near the extremity of the handle, generally

workmen, § 4. hard smooth Anvil, a large block or mass of iron with a very at end of the hx)rizontal surface on the top, and a hole one various tools, and a strong surface, for the purpose of inserting laid and cut into steel chisel, on which a piece of iron may be but the best are two. Anvils are sometimes made of cast iron, made of steel. those which are forged, with the upper face parts of the business, Small anvils are also used in more delicate Plate 34. Fig. C. § 2. See Plate 33. Fig. G.

Bar Iron, long prismatic pieces of iron, being rectangular paral- the lopipeds, prepared from pig iron, so as to be malleable for see 13 use of blacksmiths. For the method of joining bars, § 278 SMITHING.

Bastard Cut, § 15.

Bastakd-toothed File, that employed after the rubber, § 15. Batter, to displace a portion of the iron of any bar or other piece by the blow of a hammer so as to flatten or compress it inwardly, and spread it outwardly on all sides around the place of impact. Beak Iron, the conic part of the anvil, with its base attached to the side, and its axis horizontal, § 2. See Plate 33. Fig. G. Bellows, the instrument for blowing the fire, with an internal cavity, so contrived as to be of greater or less capacity by reciprocating motion, and to draw in air at one place while the capacity is open upon the increase, and discharge it by another while upon the decrease. The bellows are placed behind the forge, with a pipe of communication through the back to the fire, and are worked by means of a lever, called a rocker. See Plate 33. Fig. E. Bench, an immoveable table, to which one or more vices are fixed, for filing, drilling, and putting work together. See Plate 34.

Blood-red Heat, the degree of heat which is only necessary to reduce the protuberances of the iron by the hammer, in order to prepare it for the file, the iron being previously brought to its shape. This heat is also used in punching small pieces of iron, § 13. Bolster, a tool used for punching holes, and for making bolts. See Plate 33. Fig. 1. Brace, an instrument into which a rimer is fixed, also part of the press drill.

Breast Plate, that in which the end of the drill opposite the boring end is fnserted,-§ 8.

Brittleness in iron is a want of tenacity or strength, so as to be easily broken by pressure or impact. When iron is made too hot, so as to be nearly in a state of fusion, it becomes so brittle as to prevent forging, and so hard as to resist the action of the file. This is also the disposition of cast iron.

Broad Chapt Hand-vice, § 6. SMITHING. 279

Burnisher, an instrument used in polishing, § 15.

Callipers, a species of compasses, with legs of a circular form,

used to take the thickness or diameter of work, either circular

or flat ; used also to take the interior size of holes.

Cast Iron, § 20.

Cast Steel, § 20.

Cementation, is the process of converting iron into steel, which

is done by stratifying bars of iron in charcoal, igniting it, and

letting it continue in a kiln in that state for five or six days, by

which the carbon of the charcoal is absorbed by the iron, and

causes it to become steel.

Chaps, the two planes o? flat parts of a vice or pair of tongs or plyers, for holding any thing fast, which are generally roughed with teeth.

Chisel, a tool with the lower part in the form of a wedge, for cutting iron plate or bar, and with the upper part flat, to receive the blows of a hammer, in order to force the cutting edge through

the substance of the iron. For its use, see § 15. Cold Short Iron, iron in an impure state, § 20. Compasses, an instrument with two long legs, working on a centre pin at one extremity ; used for drawing circles, measuring dis-

tances, setting out work, dec.

Counter-sink, a tool used to make the necessary bevel, to admit

the bead of a screw, rivet, dec. See Joinery, § 36.

Crooked Nosed Tongs, § 3.

Draw, to draw is the act of lengthening a bar of iron by hammer-

ing, also wire reduced from any size to a smaller, is said to be drawn.

Drill, a boring tool which forms a cylindric hole with the greatest 280 SMITHING.

exactness. Drills are particularly used where the substance is too great for the operation of the punch, or where very exact

cylindric holes are required, § 8.

Drill Bow, § 8.

Emery, a very fine powder, prepared from iron, used in polishing, § 16.

File, § 15.

Filing, § 15.

FlNE-TOOTHED FiLE, § 15. Flame Heat, is that which is required in forming the iron from

its original shape. This degree of heat is also required in up- setting, § 13.

Flux, any substance, which, mingled with a body, accelerates its

melting. Fluxes are salt, bone-ash, charcoal, lime-stone, borax, &c.

FoKGE, to form a piece of iron into any required figure or shape,

by means of heat and the hammer, or to weld several pieces of iron, § 13.

Forge, the furnace for heating the iron so as to become mallea-

ble, and thence prepare it for forging, § 1.

Gauge, an instrjiment for taking the size of any bar, &c. made from one-eighth of an inch to any size, is a piece of iron with regular notches of the sizes required.

Grind-stone, used for sharpening tools, &c. used also previous to the file in many cases.

Hammers used by smiths are of four kinds, viz. the hand-hammer, SMITHING. 281

the up.hand sledge, the about sledge, and the riveting ham-

mer, § 4. Hand HAJttMEE, that which is held by one hand while the iron is held by the other, for smoothing work. Hand hammers are of

different sizes, § 4. Haivd Vice, used for turning about small pieces of iron, while

filing on the large vice, which would otherwise be too small for

the hand to command with sufficient power, § 6 Hearth Staff, a bar or poker of iron for stirring the fire. Heats, the several degrees or intensities of heat necessary for performing certain operations of forging. Heats are of three

kinds, viz. blood-red heat, white-flame heat, sparkling or weld-

ing heat, § 13. Hood, the lower part of the chimney, expanding in its horizontal

dimension downwards from the flue to its mouth, which is con-

siderably above the hearth of the forge. See Plate 33. Fig, B-

HoT Short Iron, iron in an impure state, § 20. Hovei., the same as Hood.

Ingot, a mass of metal.

Iron, the material used by smiths, § 20. Ornamental work, such

as brackets and lamp irons, is charged at least one third more

than plain hammered work, such as rails, window bars, &c.

and sometimes more than twice the sum, according to the quan-

tity of ornament.

Lathe, an instrument used in turning rounds, ovals, &c. See Plate 34. Fig. H.

Mandrii., a cylindric pin of iron, used to perfect a hole after the 2 M 282 SMITHING.

punch also a conical tool of iron ; three or four feet high, used for making rings, or other circular work ; also a part of the turning lathe.

Nippers, an instrument like a pair of pinchers, with sharp edges, used to cut iron wire, dec.

Nut of a Screw, a piece of iron pierced with a cylindric hole, the circumference oC which contains a spiral groove. The internal spiral of the nut is adapted to an external cylindric spiral the on end of a bolt. The use of the bolt and nut is to screw two bodies together, a head being wrought on one end of the bolt, in order to counteract the action of the nut. By this the means two bodies are held together by compression, and the bolt between the head and the nut becomes a tie, § 19,

Pig Iron, short thick bars of iron, in the state in which it comes from the smelting furnace.

Plate or Sheet Iron, plates of iron flattened by a roller, of various sizes and thickness, m

Plyers, small tongs for holding small pieces of iron, § 7. Punch, a kind of chisel with two flat ends for piercing iron by a hammer, one end which has the greater area receives the blows

of the hammer, and the other, which has the less, makes its

way through the iron, and forms a hole, § 14.

Red Seak, is when the iron is made so hot as to crack by the hammer.

Rimer, a tapering instrument, square, triangular, dec. used to

enlarge holes. See Joinery, § 37. Rivet, to fasten the end of a pin or bolt by battering the end of it. SMITHING. 283

Rock Staff, or Rocker, the lever which gives motion to the bellows. Rod Iron, small bars of iron, square, round, or flat. RoTJNDiNG Tool, a tool used for rounding a bar of iron, of two pieces, each with a semi-circular cavity, according to the size

wanted; one piece is fixed into the anvil, while the other, held

by a rod or handle, is applied over the iron, and is struck with a hammer.

Rubber, the file which is first u&ed upon the iron in reducing the

protuberant parts left by the hammer ; it has fewer teeth on the

same area than any other file, § 15.

Saws, § 11. Scales, the laminated parts accumulated on the surface of the iron

by heat. Screw, a pin with a spiral groove cut within the surface of a cylinder, and with a nut having a hole adapted thereto,

§ 19. Screw Driver, a tool used to turn screws into their places. Screw Plate, that which cuts the spiral groove within the cylin-

dric surface of the pin, § 9. Screw Threads, the parts which are left standing between the

spiral grooves of the screw.

Shears, § 10. S&TTT, the same as weld, which see. Side Set, a hammer used to set shoulders of rivets to a true square or bevel, as required. Slice, the instrument for beating the fire close. Smooth-toothed File, the finest of all the files, and the last used

in polishing the surface, § 15. Sparkling Heat, the intensity necessary in welding two or more

pieces of iron together, § 13. Square, an instrument used to examine if the work be done to a 284 SMIIHING.

right angle for a particular ; description, See Joinery, § 36. The smith's square is all iron.

Squake-nosed Hand Vice, § 6.

Steel, § 20. Swages, all instruments used to give the form or centour of any

moulding, &c. used in the same manner as the rounding tool.

Tap, a tapering pin of the form of a conic frustum, approaching very nearly to a cylinder, with a spiral groove cut on its sur-

face, for making the interior or female spirals of a screw nut, §9.

Tap- Wrench, an instrument used to turn the tap in making screws.

Tongs, an instrument with long handles, used for holding pieces

of hot iron in the operation of forging. Some are straight nosed, others crooked nosed.

Tripoli, a species of argillaceous earth, reduced to a very fine

powder, and used in polishing the finest works, is also used in polishing marbles, minerals, &c.

TuE Iron, the plate on the back of the forge, which receives the

small end of the taper pipe, which comes from the bellows for

conveying the stream of air to the fire.

Up-hand Sledge, § 4.

Up-settino, § 13.

Vice, an instrument for holding any thing fast, § 5.

Washer, the instrument for damping the fire. SMITHING. 285

IVasher, a piece of flat iron with a hole placed between the nuc of a screw and the wood, to prevent the wood being gulled. between the surfaces of Welding, is that intimate union produced and two pieces of malleable metal when heated almost to fusion of hammered. This union is so strong, that when two bars joined are relatively metal are properly welded, the parts thus two of the old metals were as strong as any other part. Only platina and iron, capable of a firm union by welding, namely, discovered metals, po- the same property belongs to the newly tassium and sodium. Welding Heat, the same as sparkling heat, § 13. White-flame Heat, the intensity necessary in forming a piece of iron into another shape, § 13. Wrench, a forked instrument used in screwing up of nuts. ;

TURNING

§ 1. Turning in general is the art of reducing any material to a certain required form, by revolving the material according to a given law, in a machine called a lathe, and cutting away the superfluous substance with a gouge or chisel, which is held steady upon a rest, until the surface be sufficiently reduced : sometimes pressing the cutting edge gently forwards, and sometimes sidewise, according to the design, until it has obtained the figure and dimen' sions required.

The art of turning is of very remote date. The invention is

ascribed by Diodorus Siculus to Talus, a grandson of Daedalus ; but Pliny says it was invented by Theodore of Samos, and men- tions one Thericles as being famed for his dexterity in this art. By means of the lathe, the ancients formed vases, which they enriched with figures and ornaments in basso relievo. The Greek and Latin authors make frequent mention of the

lathe ; and it was a proverb among them to say a thing was formed by it when the parts were delicate, and their proportions correct.

Turning is performed either by the body being continually revolved, or by the rotation being made backwards and forwards but the latter mode is attended with a loss of time.

The materials employed in turning, are wood, ivory, brass, iron, stone, &c.

Turning is also of different kinds, as circular turning, elliptic turnings and swash turning ; these may be said to be the simple movements of the machine, according to geometrical principles, but by means of moulds, an indefinite number of things may be formed in this way ; but in all of them, suppose for a single revo- TURNING. 287

lution of the machine, the cutting edge of the instrument is held

immoveable to the same point of space, and the machine is so regulated, as to bring the different parts of the intended surface to the cutting edge in its revolution. In practice, instead of the cutting edge of the instrument being exactly at the same place when a considerable surface is to be wrought, it is made to traverse the surface, that is, to have a slow lateral movement in the direction of the intended form, and by this means to shave ofl spiral turnings.

§ 2. Circular Turning

Is the art of forming bodies of wood, ivory, metal, stone, &c. hy revolving the body upon a given straight line, as an axis in a machine, while the cutting edge of a tool is held at such distance, as to cut or shave off the prominent parts in thin slices, as the >body revolves, until it acquires the intended form. From the definition here given, it is evident, that all points oi the solid in the act of turning, will describe the circumference oi circles in planes, perpendicular to the axis, which will pass through their centres. Every section passing through the axis of the turned body, will have the two parts on each side of the axis equal and similar figures: and any straight line perpendicular to the axis, and terminated by the sides of the section, would be bisected by the said axis. For the sake of perspicuity, we shall call any section through the axis, the axal section, that is, a section of the body in which the axis would be entirely in its plane ; the design of the turning depends entirely upon this section, which, if it be a circle, the body when turned will be a sphere, and if an ellipse, it will be a spheroid, &c. This is the most useful of all kinds of turning, and essential in the construction of many kinds of engines and 288 TURNING. machinery, where every other method would fail, as not being sufficient to give the desired accuracy. Its use in fancy work is bevond description, and the labour thereby rendered easy. The practice will be obtained better from actual practice of the business, than from any description. The following are the descriptions of the most useful wood lathes, which have the same principles in common with those for turning metals.

§ 3. Lathes in general.

Lathes are of several kinds, as the pole lathe, the /oof lathe, and

the wheel lathe, which is used in very large work, and is revolved by manual strength. It consists of a great wheel with a winch handle at the end of its axle, by which the force is communicated. There are other lathes used for very largo work, driven either by steam engines, water v/heels, or by horse power. All these ought

to be so contrived, that the works may be stopped, even though

the power be still exerted.

§ 4. The Pole Lathe.

The pole lathe consists of the following parts, several of which

are common to every other description ; the legs or stiles for sup

porting it, the shears horizontally fixed with a parallel cavity be

Iween them for conducting the puppets ; the puppets sit vertically,

and are made to slide between the cheeks of the shears, the one

being made to receive the screw, and the other to receive the

conical point, which is fixed horizontally in one puppet for sup-

porting one end of the piece to be turned in its axis, the screw with another point supporting the other end of the piece to be

turned, by means of the screw, the body may be fastened or slack- ;

TURNING. 289

ened at pleasure ; the rest for the tool fixed horizontally to the puppets, and parallel to the cheeks, the tenons made on the lower

end of the puppets, in order to form a shoulder for re-acling

against the wedges below, the wedges for fastening the puppets so as to regulate to them any distance ; the treadle and cross treadle

for the foot, in order to give a reciprocal rotation to the body to

be turned, by means of a string coiled round it, and an elastic

pole which re-acts against the string and the pressure of the foot the pole for pulling up the treadle and acting reciprocally against i?he pressure of the foot, the string for turning round the body by the pressure of the foot downwards", and the reaction of the pole upwards.

The legs or stiles may be about two feet ten inches high, and are tenoned into the cheeks at their upper ends, and fixed by pins

or screws, the latter is preferable. In turning large work, it will

be necessary to brace the legs and cheeks to the floor or ceiling,

as may be found convenient, otherwise the work will be liable to tremble. The puppets are pieces of a square section, and ought to be sufficiently strong to answer every description of work.

The pole lathe is used in turning heavy or long work, the string is coiled round the material, which performs the office of a mandrel : but for general use this kind of lathe is not so convenient a-s that which is called the foot lathe ; and besides this, there is a loss of time in making the alternate revolutions. The pole lathe is now but little used. It is sometimes, as well as other lathes, tightened with a screw and washer.

This lathe has two puppets with a pin or centre in each, the

right centre is moveable by a screw, but the left puppet with the

centre is generally stationary, and the work is supported upon the centres. The rest is moveable between the shears, and fastened

by means of a screw bolt. In beginning to operate with this

machine, there must be a small part turned, in order to act as a pulley. No. 19 2 290 TURNING.

§ 5. Foot Lathe.

The foot lathe consists of machinery and a frame for sustaining it. The parts of the machinery are the treadle, the crank hook, the great wheel or fly, the band, and the mandrel ; the parts of the frame are the feet, the legs, the back board or b'rnch, the pillars, the puppet bar or bed, the puppets, and the rest.

The treadle or foot board is put into alternate motion by the pressure of the foot downwards, and the momentum of the fly- wheel upwards ; the board or frame of the treadle is screwed to

an axle, on which it turns.

The connecting rod or crank hook is hooked into a staple in the middle of the treadle board, and may be lengthened or shortened

at pleasure by screwed hooks ; it may either be constru-cted of

iron or brass, but is most frequently of iron, and even sometimes of leather.

The foot wheel or fly is put into motion by means of the treadle

and a crank on the arber of the wheel ; the motion is communi. cated from the treadle by the crank hook or connecting rod, and

fastened to the crank of the wheel by a collar, embracing and

turning round at the upper end. The foot pushes down the treadle,

and gives the wheel a rotative motion, and when the crank has

been drawn to the lowest point, the momentum which the wheel

has thus acquired draws up the treadle, and thus by the alternate pressure of the foot, and the momentum of the wheel, the motion

is continued. The wheel was formerly constructed of wood, but now generally of cast iron ; the general surface of the exterior side of the rim, is sometimes conical, and cut with three or four angular grooves, which are best when recessed with an angle, so

as not to have a flat bottom : this form is advantageous, on account of the band having more power to turn the wheel. Some wheels have two or more rims, in order to give different degrees of velocity or to increase the power. The axle of the wheel is made of wrought iron, except the centres, and bent in the middle, to form TURNING. 291

the crank : the centres at the ends are made of hard steel, welded to the iron part of the axle. The band connects the fly and mandrel, and is mostly made of cat-gut of such thickness as the nature of the work may require. It is either spliced at the joining,

or the two ends fastened together by hooks and eyes ; the band niay be either tightened by grooves in the great wheel, or in the pulley of the mandrel, or by sliding pieces in the legs.

The mandrel consists of an axle and pulley. The axle is constructed of wrought iron, except the part which turns in the collar, and which ought to be of hardened steel, welded round the iron part. The whole of the axle of the mandrel ought to be turned true in a lathe. It receives a supply of oil from a small hole drilled down from the top of the puppet, and through the steel collar.

The manner of holding the work, is very diff""^rent and various, almost in every instance. In general it is held in pieces of wood called chucks, which are screwed or cemented upon the nose of the mandrel. The socket for the mandrel to work in has been generally made in the back screw, but some experienced workmen prefer it to be in the mandrel. The mandrel is sustained at one end by the back centre, and at the other end by the steel col-

lar in the middle of the puppet head : the right hand extremity, called the nose, projects over the puppet, and terminates in a screw, which is sometimes convex, sometimes concave, and sometimes both : but if there is only one, the convex or male screw is generally preferred. The pulley has generally three or sometimes four grooves of different sizes to receive the band, and by this means it may be turned with different degrees of velocity, and made to accommodate the length of the band. The edge of the

pulley is bevelled in the same degree as the edge of the fly-whee'

and with the same number of grooves, but the lesser diameter of

the pulley is upon the same side as the greater diameter of the fly-wheel, and consequently, the greater diameter of the pulley upon the same size as the lesser diameter of the fly-wheel.

The parts of the frame are as follows : the two feet are screw-

ed to the floor, and mortised to receive the legs, which are fixed 292 TURNING.

thereon. Sometimes there is only one leg to each foot, but in the

best constructed lathes there are two ; the top of the legs are tenoned, which are received by the mortises in the bearers at the

top, and fixed therein.

The back board is fixed to the bearers, and supports two pillars

whiih are fixed to it, one being at each end in a vertical plane wi^h each leg or pair of legs. The puppet bar, or bed, or bearer,

pillar, is fastened at each end into each with nnortise and tenon ; the common foot lathes have no back board, and the bed consists of two parallel parts, called by some shears, the vertical sides of which form a cavity between them. The puppets are so constructed

as to be moveable upon, and fastened to the bar at pleasure, by

means of a screw below the bed ; they are generally three in number, the two extreme ones of which have pins with centres, and the middle one has a collar for receiving the ends of the mandrel. In turning of li^ht work, not very long, the right hand and middle puppets are used, and the work is sustained by a chuck fastened to the end or nose of the mandrel. In the common lathes, the puppets are made of wood, and tenoned below, to fit the hollow between the shears or bed, and the tenons are made suffi-

ciently long to come below, so as to receive wedges through a mortise cut therein, and by this means to fix them. In the best constructed lathes, the puppets are made of cast iron, and moveable also upon a cast iron bearer, and fixed to the required distance by a vertical screw underneath, which comes in contact with a horizontal plate or washer below the said bar. The puppet which receives the end of the mandrel for holding th'=! work has a cylindric hole with a conic shoulder, through its upper end, and with

the axis is directed to the centres in the other puppet. The fore

puppet has a cylindric hole through its top, to receive a polished

pointed rod, which is moved by a screw working in a collar. The

at puppets are made so as to take off the bar pleasure ; they are made forked below, and saddled upon the two upper sides of the bar. The sides or prongs are made very stout, and mortised to

receive a short iron bar, which encloses the lower part. Through TURNING. 293

receive a short iron bar, which encloses the lower part. Through

.he middle of this bar, a screw passes underneath, and comes in contact with a thin washer or plate on the under side of the bed,

to prevent bruising it. In order to move the puppets freely, and

to support them firmly, the bed ought to be made very straight, iind

of sufficient strength to preserve its figure.

The rest is made so as to be moveable round the work, and

fixed in any position, and may be conducted and fastened to any part of the bed.

The framing and the machmery are thus connected : the treadle

is fixed into the feet, or in brackets fixed in the back angles form-

ed by the legs and the feet : the fly is sustained at each end by a transverse piece moveable up and down in a frame, and made stationary in any part it is moved to, and thus it may either accommodate the length of the band or the crank hook. The mandrel is sustained at one end by the back centre, which is fastened into the head of the left puppet, and the other into the steel collar as before mentioned.

The machinery is thus put in motion : Suppose the crank to be raised about half a revolution from the bottom, then with considerable force pressing the treadle downwards, the fly-wheel will be put in motion, but if the force communicated is not sufficient to carry it round, it must he pressed down in the act of descending,

as often as may be cufficient to put it in rotation, in the required

direction of motion ; at every time the treadle begins to descend,

press with the foot. The momentum which the fly has thus acquired, will be sufficient to carry it round, even though retarded in

a certain degree by an obstacle, until it receive an additional im- pulse by the foot acting upon the treadle ; then by this momentum,

and the continued impulses, the motion is continued, even though the force of the tool is continually acting upon the body in the act of working, and therefore continually destroying a part of the force exerted upon the machine ; but the part thus destroyed is always renewed by an equivalent. The motion being continued, the band 294 TURNING. communicates the rotation to the mandrel, and the mandrel to the body, which is fastened to the end of the spindle in the manner before described.

§ 6. A Chuck.

Is a piece of wood or metal made to fasten on the end of the

mandrel, and to sustain the material while it is being turned.

Chucks are variously constructed, according to the design of the thing required to be turned. They are sometimes made of wood, and sometimes of metal, particularly of brass. Wooden chucks

have a cylindric hole, in which the end of the work to be turned is inserted, and are hooped, in order to prevent splitting when the

work is driven into the cavity : this kind of chuck is that which is

most frequently used. The work is also sometimes cemented to

the chuck, and sometimes screwed to it, as the figure of the thing

to be turned may require. The end of the chuck which is screwed

upon the nose of the mandrel, is sometimes a concave and sometimes a convex cylinder, the superfices being concentric, or having the same axis. In turning small work, such as snuff-boxes, the

material is fastened upon a hollow chuck. It is probable, that

the name chuck has originated from the work being driven, jam-

med, or chocked into it.

§ 7. Of Took.

The principal tools employed in turning, are gouges, chisels,

right-side tools, left-side tools, round tools, point tools, drills, inside

tools, screw tools, flat tools, square tools, triangular tools, turning

gravers, parting tools, calipers, &c. TURNING. 295

§ 8. The Gmge (Pl. XL. Fio. 1.)

Is for used roughing wood into its intended form ; also in finish,

ing hollows : the cutting edge is rounded. In turning, the gouge must be held with an inclination, and the handle considerably depressed, so that the side or basil of the gouge comes very nearly in a tangent to the circumference of the work, or in the tangent of a less circle, and consequently the cutting edge of the gouge will be above the axis. In the use of this tool, the rest is generally upon a level with the axis. Gouges are of various sizes, according to the work.

§ 9. I%e Chisel (Pi. XL. Fio. 2.)

Is used after the work is roughed into form by the gouge to finish cylindric, conic, or convex bodied In the use of this tool, the bank or horizontal part of the ^est, is raised considerably above the centre the of work, so as to be nearly upon a level with the surface, the and cutting edge must stand obliquely to the axis of the cylinder, so as to prevent either angle from running into the work ; the chisel ought to traverse the work gradually, but not too fast, as otherwise it will leave a roughness on the surface. This tool is used principally for soft wood. The basil must be made from both sides. Chisels are of various sizes, from a quarter of an inch to two inches and a half: these are convenient in running mouldings and cleaning the bottoms of grooves.

§ 10. Right-Side Tools (Pi. XL. Fig. 3.)

Are used for turning of cavities of hollow cylinders, or thosa hollows which have only one intenial angle in turning both the 296 TURNING.

bottom and the side : for this purpose, the tool is made to cut both by its end and side-edge, so that these two cutting edges form an angle with each other rather acute. This tool must be held on a level with the axis of the work. Side tools are made of different widths, to suit various cavities. The basil is only made from one side of the tool. The flat side is upwards, and consequently, the basil downwards

§ 11. Left-Side Tools

Are not used in internal work, as the right-side tools, but 'up Ihe left side of convex surfaces, such as spheres, torus mouldings, ovolos, &c. The acute angle is upon the contrary side of this tool to the other. Left-side tools are likewise made to various widths.

§ 12. Round Tools (Pl. XL. Fig. 4.)

Are used for turning concave mouldings, and are of various widths, to adapt themselves thereto.

§ 13. Point Tools (Pl. XL. Fig. 5.)

Are used for various purposes, as turning of mouldings, and the of screws, for which they particularly shoulders are useful ; they are sometimes employed in turning the flat ends of work.

§ 14. DrUls (Pl. XL. Fig. 6.)

Are used for making holes ; the work is fixed upon a chuck, but previous to this, the commencement of the hole is made with a ;

TURNING. 297

point tool ; the point of the drill is presented to this small cavity,

and held in the line of the axis ; then by pressing forward while

the lathe is turning, the hole will be bored to any required depth the drill should be drawn out once or several times, or the core

will clog it, and prevent it from operating.

§ 15. Inside Tools (Pl. XL. Fig. 7, 8, 9.)

Are employed for turning out hollows and cups of all descrip. tions, and have various forms, according to the curvature or angles of the work.

§ 16. Screw Tools (Px. XL. Fig. 10, 11.),

Are employed in cutting of screws of various sizes of threads. The work must first be turned truly cylindrical, then by applying the tool to the end, and pressing gradually with a uniform motion in the length of the axis, the screw will be produced

§ 17 Flat Tbols (Pi,. XL. Fig. 14."J

Are used for turning cylindric or conic surfaces.

§ 18. Square Tools.

Are intended for brass turning only. In these, the cutting edges always terminate with right angles. 2 o 298 TURNING.

§ 19. Triangular Tools

Are used for turning iron and steel. They are of a triangular

section, with three cutting edges, and are employed in turning

planes or flat ends, also in the concave surface of the hollow bo-

dies, as in cylindric and conic cavities.

§ 20. Turning Gravers (Pl. XL. Fig. 13.)

Are used for turning steel and iron, in roughing out the work, though some works may be entirely finished by them. They are nearly the same shape as the tool used by engravers upon copper.

§ 21. Parting Tools (Pl. XL. Fig. 14.)

Are used for maki ng deep incisions, for cutting off a part of work, grooving, &c.

All these tools are bevelled or basilled from one side, except the

chisel for soft wood, which is basilled from each side, and are all

held upon a level with the axis, except the chisel.

§22. Callipers

Are used for taking the diameters of rotund bodieus. TURNING. 299

§ 23. Description of the Plates, with the Methods of Turning El. liptic Boards, Swash, and other Kinds of Work. PLATE XXXV.

Tlie Pole LatJie.

Fig. 1 represents the pole lathe, as seen from the back. A end of the foot-board or treadle.

A B the string to be coiled round the wood to be turned. D E one of the legs, the other being hid in the view. E F the shears or bed of the lathe formed of two pieces, with a parallel space between. G H, I K, the puppets, made moveable in the parallel space and fixed below with wedges to any required distance, G II con. taining the fore centre, and I K that of the back centre. These centres are tightened by means of screws, L M the rest. Fig. large boring 2, collar, with seven holes, from half an mch to three inches and a half diameter. Fig. 3, a boring collar for small work. The holes ABC may be contracted at pleasure, by means of a sliding piece inserted in a slip or groove parallel to the faces. The sliding piece is moved by means of a thumb screw at D. The figure of the perforation is an equilateral triangle, the lower part of the slider forming the base of the said triangle ; then as a circle may be inscribed in an equilateral triangle, the collar will fit all sizes of cylindrical bodies, from the greatest size the perforation will contain, to the least, and touch the body to be turned always in three points, which are all that are necessary to steady the work in its revolution. This machine is generally constructed of iron. 300 TURNING.

PLATE XXXVI.

The Fool Lathe in its general Comtruction.

A B the treadle or foot-board. a the manner of fixing the treadle to the floor. C the crank hook, hooked into a staple, and the end of the piece A.

D the crank for turning the fly with the upper part of the crank hook formed into a collar for embracing the crank. E the fly-wheel with several angular grooves cut in its circumference, in order to hold the band and keep it from sliding.

F the pillar for supporting the end of the mandrel. G the puppet supporting the end of the mandrel, which holds the chuck. H the right-hand puppet, containing the fore centre, which is tightened by means of a screw.

I, K the legs, the fly being supported by that of I, the other end

is supported by an upright between the legs. L the mandrel, showing the end of the spindle projecting over the puppet G, in order to receive the chuck. M the rest, tightened below by means of a screw, and made so as to be fixed in any position to the chuck. N a foot-board. O several of the most useful tools employed in turning.

§ 24. Elliptic 'Fuming.

DEFINITION.

If there be a plane with any indefinite outline, and two inflexible right lines at right angles to each other, and if the plane be

fixed to an axis at right angles therewith, and if the two inflexible

lines be made to coincide with the plane, and be so moveable oa TURNING. 301

shall call the primary line, *t8 surface, that one of them, which we and through may always pass through two fixed points in the plane, intersected by the axis, and if the the poittt where the plane is or slide along a given point, other transverse line be made to pass plane, but would remain stationary which is not attached to the in motion and if a secondary plane even though the plane were ; to the primary plane, then be fixed to the inflexible lines, parallel while the point in the transverse line if the axis be carried round will also be carried round, and every is at rest, the primary plane the secon- circumference of a circle : Doint in it will describe the round, and will perform its re- dary plane will likewise be carried primary plane and the axis, but volutions in the same time as the rectangular lines, they will cause being immoveably fixed to the direc progressive and retrogressive motion in the it to have both a revolution and lastly, if another tion of the primary line in each ; the secondary plane while point at rest be held to the surface of ellipse, a circle, or a straight in motion, it will either describe an be at the same dis- line. Hence the describing point will always intersects the pri- tance from the centre or point, where the axis mary plane. axis, will The eccentricity of the ellipse, or the difference of the trans- be double the distance between the stationary point in the verse line and the axis. placed with its Instead of the stationary point, a circle may be perpendicular to the axis, and centre in this point, and its plane and fro along two fixed instead of the inflexible line moving to opposite parts of the circum- points in the plane, the diametrically on the revolving ference may always touch a pair of parallel lines plane. 302 TURNING.

PLATE XXXVII.

Illustrations . This Plate exhibits the various Positions of the Chuck for turning of Elliptical Work at every Eighth of a Revolution,

according to the foregoing Definition.

Let A B and E F, No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, be the two inflexi-

ble lines, intersecting each other in I, at right angles, and let C, D be the two fixed points. Let A B be denominated the primary

line, and E F the secondary line, and let the lines A B and E F

at right angles, taken as a whole, bo called a transverse ; also let

C represent a primary point, and let the describing point be taken

at G, in the line drawn through C D produced : now in all posi-

tions of the chuck, the primary line A B is always upon the point

C, and E F upon D ; having premised this in general, suppose,

before the machine begins to start, that E F, No. 1, the secondary

line coincides with E G, and the point G with o, o being in the

plane of the figure to be described ; then because A B always passes through C, the points I and C will be coincident, A B being

then at right angles to E F. Let us now suppose the motion to

commence, and let it perform an eighth part of a revolution, as at

No. 2, the describing point G still remaining in the same position with respect to C and D, viz. in the right line to C D G, then the point 0 will now be at a distance from the point G, and a part G o of the curve will be described by the fixed point G, also the point

I will be above the line C D G : now let the motion proceed, and describe another eighth as at No. 3 ; then the point o being always in the line E F produced, E F will be at a right angle with the fixed line C D G, and A B coincident with C D G, and the point which was last at G, will now be at L In like manner, when another eighth has been performed, as at No. 4, the point o has performed three-eighths of a revolution, tho point 1 is in a line drawn irom the point C, perpendicular to the fixed line C D G, and the point 2, which was at G, in No. 3, is situated between 1 ard G. TURNING. 303

In this manner, by continuing the motion, the whole curve will be generated. No. 6 shows the curve, when half a revolution has been described, No. 6, five-eighths; No. 7, six-eighths, or three quarters ; and No. 8, seven-eighths.

Here it may be proper to observe, that the angles performed by the revolution of the machine, are very different from the corresponding angles, formed by lines drawn from the centre of the ellipse, to the describing point, and to the extremity of the curve at its commencement.

From what has been said, it is easy to conceive that the operation of elliptic turning is nothing more than that of the ellipsegraph or common trammel, with this difference, that in the operation of turning, the ellipse is described by moving the plane, and keeping the point steady, but in forming the curve by the ellipsegraph, the plane of description is kept steady while the point is ia motion. The transverse A B E F is the same as the grooves in the trammel cross, and the line C D G the trammel rod : here the cross and plane of description move round together, but fixed to each other, and the trammel rod C D G is held still or immoveably confined : in the trammel, the board and cross are fixed together, and held while the trammel rod C D G moves with the points C and D in the grooves.

To set this machine therefore, it is only to make C D equal to the difierence of the axis. :

304 TURNING.

PLATE XXXVIII.

Shows the relation between the foregoing diagrams and the chuck. Let K L M N be the face of a board representing the plane, which is fixed to the axis of the machine. And let O P Q R be another board made to slide in the board K L M N, each two points O and K, L and P, M and N and R, coinciding at this moment : K L M N will therefore represent a wide groove in the board ; as this groove may be of any width, we may conceive the breadth to be very small or nothing, and may therefore be represented by a groove or by the line A B parallel to K N and L M, and in the middle of the distance between them. In- stead of supposing the point D always moving to and fro in the line E F, we may suppose a circle, or the end of a large cylindric pin moving in a very wide groove T U V W across the slider O P Q R. Now therefore, all the differences between these diagrams and those in the former plate, are only wide grooves in place of lines passing longitudinally through the middle : for the line A B is always conceived to move reciprocally from the one side to the other of the board K L M N : now it is the same thing whether one straight line slide longitudinally upon another fixed line, or whether a bar of any breadth move in a groove of the same breadth, or whether a straight line in reciprocal motion always pass through two fixed points.

No. 1 shows the chuck, as in the first diagram of the last plate

No. 2 as No. 2, No. 3 as No. 3, and No. 4 as No. 4 of the said plate. farther Any explanation is conceived as unnecessary. It now remains to explain how the chuck is connected with the machine, and how the parts are connected with each other.

The end of the spindle of the mandrel passes through a stout upright, and projects over it with a convex or male screw, to which is fixed the board K L M N with the faces at right angles to the axis : a circular ring or end of a very large pin is attached to the said side of the upright, so that the ring or pin may be TURNING. 305 fixed at any required distance from the axis of the spindle, and be in the that its axis and the axis of the mandrel may always same horizontal line or plane. The wide groove K L M N is made on the inside of the board diame- next to the face of the upright, and equal in breadth to the either in a ter of the cylindric pin, and the slider may move groove upon one side or the other, or move in mortises, but in whatever mode the reciprocal motion of the slider is performed, so the groove in the slider must always be made from the inside, for that that the board which is fixed to the axis must be cut away ring or pin, and since purpose, in order that it may fit upon the outside of the slider, the the work to be turned is fixed upon the and inside, or the slider may slider must be flush both outside project on the outside.

it is of no consequence what the It has been mentioned, that

it signify what the com- boundary line of the board is, neither does that the same bination of the parts are that form the chuck, so principle of motion is performed. The parts exhibited in this

plate, show the most simple form of the principle, and therefore the diagrams are better calculated to afford instruction. In some chucks, the principle is almost concealed by a complication of

parts, which, though not necessary in forming the motion, are

essential in the practice : for this reason, by continual working, if the parts were only of the most simple forms, when the grooves and pins wear, the truth of the motion would be destroyed without chucks, the any remedy to rectify it. In the best constructed

board which is screwed upon the end of the mandrel is a frame, the parts of which is variously constructed by different people, but nearer it which form the sides of the grooves, may be brought together by means of screws, and thus the sliders and the cylin-

dric ring or pin may move exactly in the grooves. The drawing of the chuck, and the manner in which it is con-

nected with the machine, is exhibited in Plate V. to the explana- information tion of which we must refer our reader for further ;

the geometrical principle, and the manner in which it is combined Nos. 19 & 20. 2 p .306 TURNING.

with, and their relation to the parts in practice, being all that is intended to be explained in this place ; and indeed this is almost the whole that can be done. The practice can never be obtained from any written description, but only from the actual exercise of the art itself, so that any farther attempt, besides the uses of the tools, which we have already given, would be needless : one thing only is to be observed, that in turning several ellipses, the cir-

cumferences will be nearly parallel, as the difference in their several axes is the same.

PLATE XXXIX.

Fig. 1 is a view of the end of the machine ; the principal parts

shown in this view are A the pulley of the mandrel.

B and C sides of the frame supporting the pulley.

D frame for the rest to slide in. E and F legs supporting the frame D.

G and H continuation of B and C below the frame of the rest.

I nut and screw under the frame of the rest. K the elliptic chuck with two grooves, through which the knobs of the slider pass, and are connected on the outside by a strong bar of iron, which is screwed upon their ends. This also shows the screw for fastening the board to which the work is fixed

This frame is strongly braced to the roof, in order to keep it steady.

P the rest.

Q the piece by which the rest is fastened. Fig. 2 a view of the inside of the chuck, containing the parts

N and O : this side of the chuck being placed against the side C of the frame. Fig. 1.

N the board containing the slider O, showing the end of the TURNING. 307

board revolves round screw which is fixed in the mandrel ; the N round, but has a a centre, while the slider O not only moves longitudinal motion to and fro in the part N. showing the Fig. 3 a view of the outside of the mandrel frame, parts L and M. ring L a part of the side C of the mandrel frame, showing the causes the reciprocal motion M which is fastened to it, and which of the slider O in Fig. 2.

PLATE XL.

TOOLS.

Fig. 1 the gouge for roughing and traverang the work. Fig. 2 the chisel used in smoothing cylindric, conic, and convex surfaces after the gouge.

Fig. 3 right-side tool.

Fig. 4 round tool.

Fig. 5 point.

Fig. 6 drill.

Fig. 7 inside tool for angular work, all the sides being made to cut occasionally as well as the upper side of the hooked part.

Fig. 8 inside tool for concave curved work.

Fig. 9 inside tool for turning a solid sphere within a hollow one.

Fig. 10 screw tool for the convex or male part.

Fig. 1 1 screw tool for the concave or female part.

Fig. 12 flat tool. Fig. 13 turning graver.

Fig. 14 parting tool.

For the particular properties and uses of these tools, see articles where they are particularly described. 308 TURNING.

§ 26. To turn a Hollow Sphere.

First turn the convex surface, on which draw two great circles at right angles to each other ; then the line joining the intersection of these circles, is an axis of the sphere, which will divide each circle into two equal parts or into half circles : divide each semicircle into two equal parts, and each circle will be divided into quadrants. Upon each of the intersections or poles, with a centre bit, bore a cylindric hole, with its axis tending to the centre of the sphere, to such a depth as to leave the solid space between the two bores equal to the diameter of the cylindrical bores, or something less, with the same centre bit upon the division of each semicircle bore holes tending to ; the centre as at first, and of the same depth there will : be now six holes, then if the axis of any two be fixed in a straight line with that of the mandrel, with the convex surface of the sphere in a hollow chuck, then the interior surface may be turned out to a certain extent, and formed by means of the instrument shown in Plate XL. Fig. 8 : take the sphere out of the chuck, and place the hollow part thus turned in the chuck, fixing it fast therein with the axis in the same straight line with that of the mandrel, then turn the opposite hole in like manner. Proceed in like manner with each two remaining pairs of opposite holes: in turning, the hollows must be so large as to penetrate each other, and leave only so much of the solid to connect the sphere with the core, as is sufficient to support the latter: then each of the eight connecting parts must be sawn through close to the core, and as the core is less than either of the holes, it may be taken out, and the connecting pieces may be sawn off with a bent saw close to the concave surface, and thus you will have the hollow sphere required. TURNING. 309

turn one Sphere within another. § 27. To

cylindrical holes as before, then bore Find the centres of the depth, so that its axis may tend to each of the holes to an equal each pair and that the thickness between the centre of the sphere, than the be equal to, or something more of opposite holes may sphere then fixing the axis of diameter of the required interior ; mandrel, with the tool represented m each hole in the axis of the of the outer turn a part of the interior surface Plate XL. Fig. 8. sphere, the convex surface of the interior sphere, and a part of connecting parts, which are each to be cut and thus leave eight sphere, the convex surface of the interior with a bent saw, close to surface of the exterior sphere. and to the concave through, holes are perforated or bored quite If the cylindrical be turned within each other by the same a series of spheres may at least must be greater than that means but the diameter of the the operation with the most • be best to begin the bore it v^rould in succession till after this the next, and thus interior sphere, and the one be loosened. In performmg the one next the exterior diameter of each hole maybe con- cylindrical excavations, the of the m- proportion to the diameter of each tinually less, and in ternal spheres. cube be turned within a sphere, In the same manner may a the interior solid spherical, it is instead of turning the surface of cuttmg of an inside tool, which has its only turning it flat by means with it. edge straight, and at a right angle

§ 28. Conclusion.

making the axis of Many kinds of turning may be performed by progressively, or with a reciprocal the work to be tuirned to slide according to a certain motion through two collars, as given points revolve uniformly. If the axis law, while the b-ody continues to 310 TURNING.

proceed with a uniform motion, and a tool be pressed to the surface, the tool will cut a spiral line on the said surface. If a single crank be fixed to the end of the mandrel, and the end of the crank made to touch an inclined plane while the body IS m motion, the point of a sharp tool being pressed upon the surface, and kept stationary by means of the rest, a line will be cut or described on the surface of the wood, and this line will be the circumference or perimeter of an ellipse, which will have the pro poxtion of its axes in the ratio of radius to the sine of the plane's mchnation. If the surface of the body to be turned be straight and the cutting edge of the tool be always held equi-distant f^ the axis, the body itself will be turned into a cylinder, and all its sections perpendicular to the axis will consequently be circles. If the surface of the body be turned into mouldings, the work IS denommated swash warJc, which was much in request in former times, for bodies standingupon the rake, or upon an inclined plane as the ' m balusters of scaircases, but is now entirely laid aside An mdefinite variety of subjects or figures may be obtained 'by urging by different regulations of the mandrel, by making thi cx^k slide upon various surfaces, or by other methods of regulating the axis m a direction of its length. INDEX

EXPLANATION OF TERMS

USED IN TURNING.

N. B. This Mark § refers to the "preceding Sections, according to the Number.

Axis, an imaginary line passing longitudinally through the middle

of the body to be turned, from one point to the other of the

two cones, by which the work is suspended, or between the back centre and the centre of the collar of the puppet, which sup. ports the end of the mandrel at the chuck.

Back Board, that part of the lathe which is sustained by the four

legs, and which sustains the pillars that support the puppet bar.

The back board is only used in the best constructed lathes. In

the common lathes, the shears or bed are in place of the back

board, § 5. Back Centre. See Centres, and § 5

Band, § 5. See also Cat-gut. Bearer, that part of the lathe which supports the puppets. ^ r». Bed of the Lathe, the same as bearer, which see. 3.2 TURNING.

Boring Collar is the machine having a plate with conical holes

of ditferent diameters ; the plate is moveable upon a centre,

which is equidistant from the centres or axes of the conic holes; the axes are placed in the circumference of a circle. The use

of the boring collar is to support the end of a long body that is

to be turned hollow, and which would otherwise be too long to be supported by a chuck. See Plate XXXV. Fig. 2.

Callipers, compasses with each of the legs bent into the form of a curve, so that when shut, the points are united, and the curves being equal and opposite, enclose a space. The use of the cal- a«cer. lij)ers is to try the work in the act of turning, in order to

tain the diameter or diameters of the various parts. As the diameter points stand nearer together at the greatest required than the parts of the legs above, the callipers are well? adapted

to the use intended. Cat-Gut, the string which connects the fly and the mandrel, § 5. Centres, are the two cones with their axis horizontally posited for sustaining the body while it is turned, § 5. Cheeks, the shears or bed of the lathe as made with two preces

for conducting the puppets. degree at the end, and be- Chisel, a flat tool, skewed in a small veiled from each side, so as to make the cutting edge in the

middle of its thickness, § 9. mandrel Chuck, a piece of wood or metal fixed on the end of the

for keeping fast the body to be turned, § 6.

Circular Turning, § 2. end of the Collar, a ring inserted in the puppet for holding the run freely mandrel next the chuck, in order to make the spindle

and exactly, § 5. Collar Plate. See Boring Collar. Connecting Rod. See Crank Hook. supporting the Conical Points, the cones fixed in the pillars for TURNING. 313

body to be turned ; that on the right hand is called the fore cen-

tre, and that on the left hand, the back centre, § 5. Gbauk Hook, sometimes called also the connecting rod, as it con

nects the treadle and the fly, § 5.

Crank, the part of the axle of the fly, which is bent into three

knees or right angles, and three projecting parts ; one of the

parts is parallel to the axis, and has the upper part of the crank

hook collared round it, § 5.

Drill, § 14.

Elliptic Turotng, § 25.

Feet, the horizontal pieces on the floor which support the legs of the lathe, § 5, Flat Tools, § 17.

Flt Wheel, § 5. Foot Lathe, § 5.

Foot Wheel, or Fly, the wheel or reservoir for preserving and continuing the motion when the force applied by the foot is not acting, § 5.

Fore Centre, that on the right hand. See Centres, § 5.

Gouge, the tool for roughing out the work, § 8.

IxsiDE Tools, § 15. 2q 314 TURNING.

Lathe, the machine for holding and givingj^motion to the body to

be turned, when the requisite force is apphed.

Lathes in general use, § 3.

Left-Side Tools, § 11. Legs, the uprights mortised into the feet for sustaining the upper

part of the lathe, § 4, 5-

Mandrel, that part of the lathe which revolves the body when

turned in a chuck : the pole lathe has no mandrel, § 6. Mandrel Frame, the two puppets which hold the mandrel ; a hardened steel collar being fastened in the fore puppet, and a screw with a conical point in the back puppet.

Nose, that part of the spindle of the mandrel which projects over the puppet to receive the chuck, § 5.

OrAll Chuck, § 25.

Parting Tools, § 21.

Pikes, now called conical points, which see.

Pillars, the uprights fixed at the ends of the back board, for sup

porting the bed of the lathe or puppet bar, § 5. Pitched, is the placing of the work truly upon the centres. Point Tool, § 13.

Pole, an elastic rod fixed to the ceiling of the turner's shop for re-acting by means of the string upon the treadle against the TURNING. 315

pressure of the foot ; the foot draws the string downwards, and

the pole exerts its force in drawing it upwards, and consequently should have no more elasticity than what is sufficient for this purpose, as the overplus would only tire the workman, § 4.

Pole Lathe, § 4.

Pulley, § 5. Puppet Bar. See Bearer. Puppets, the upright parts for supporting the mandrel, the one on the right being called the fore puppet, and that on the left the

back puppet ; the screw is fixed on the one, and the mandrel

collar on the other puppet, § 5.

Rest, the part of the lathe which sustains the tool while turning, §4, 5.

Right-side Tools, § 10.

Roughing out, is the reducing of the substance by means of the

gouge, to prepare the surface of the body for smoothing.

Round Tools, § 12.

Screw, the conical points or centres as made with a screw, in or-

der to tighten the work ; the screw or screws ought to be kept

so tight, that there should be no play, otherwise the work may

be in danger of flying out, § 5. Screw Tools, § 16. Sheers. See Cheeks or Bed of the Lathe.

Slider, ^ 25. SauARE Tools, § 18. String, that which connects the treadle and the pole in the pole

lathe, and in the foot lathe it passes round the fly-wheel and the pulley of the mandrel in order to turn the latter.

Swash Work, § 29. 316 TURNING.

Tools, § 7.

Traversing, is moving the gouge to and fro in roughing out the work.

Treadle, the part ot the lathe by which the foot communicates its

force, and gives motion to all the other moveable parts, § 5. TRiANfixJLAR Tools, § 19.

Turning in General, § 1. Turning Gravers, § 20. W

Wabble is the shaking of the work in the act of turning, because

it is not fixed truly upon the centres. There are several other terms which are common to smithing and turning. See the Index and Explanation of the Terms to those

articles. TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY,

PAGE DUFINITIONS ...... 12

Definitions of solids. • • . . . 14 — PiiATE I. ^Definitions ..... 16 Plate II.—Solids ..... 17 — Plate III. ^Problems ..... 18 Prob. 1. From a given point in a given straight line to erect a perpendicular .... ibid Prob. 2. To let fall a perpendicular from a given point to a given straight line .... ibid.

Prob. 3. When the point is at or near the end of the line,

method first . . . - ibid

Frobi 4: To draw a perpendicular from a point at the end 19 of the line .....

Rrob. 5. To bisect a given straight line - - - ihid.

Prob. 6. To bisect a given angle - - - ibid.

Prob. 7. To make an angle equal to a given angle ibid 318 CONTENTS.

PAGE

Prob. 8. Through a given point to draw a line parallel to

a given right line .... -20

Prob. 9. To draw a line parallel to another at a given

distance - - . . • - ib.

Prob. 10. Three straight lines, of which any two are

greater than the third being given, to describe a

triangle, the sides of which will be respectively

equal to the then given lines - - - 20

Plate IV.—Problems . - - - - - ib.

Prob. 11. The side of an equilateral triangle being given,

to describe the triangle - - . iJb,

Prob. 12. To describe a square, the sides of which shall

be equal to given right line a ... jj.

Prob. 13. To describe a hexagon, the sides of which shall

be equal to a given line .... jj. Prob. 14. To describe any regular polygon, the sides of

which shall be equal to a given line . . ib.

Prob. 16. To inscribe a polygon in a given circle . 22

Prob. 16, A square being given to form an octagon, of

which four of the sides at right angles to each

other, shall be common to the middle parts of the

sides of the square - - - iJ.

Prob. 17. In a given circle to inscribe a hexagon or an

equilateral - - - - -23

Prob. 18. In a given circle to inscribe a square, or an

octagon - . . ib.

Prob. 19. In a given circle to inscribe a pentagon - ib. CONTENTS. 319

Practical prohlems performed on the ground.

PAGE — Pl,ATE V. ^Practical problems .... 24

Prob. 1. To erect a perpendicular from a given point to

a right line, of a tape or string - - • ib.

Prob. 2. To erect a perpendicular at or near the end of

a right line, by means of a tape - . jj,

Prob. 3. Another method - - - - 25

The same figure - . . . • ib.

Prob. 4. To describe the segment of a circle to any length,

and perpendicular height . . - t&

Prob. 5. To describe a semi.elliptic arch to any length

and height with compasses .

Plate VI.—^Practical problems - - . • ib

Prob. 6. Any three straight lines being given to find a

fourth, proportional . . . > t&.

Prob. 7. To divide a line in the same proportion as ano-

ther is divided - . - .28

Prob. 8. Any distance being given in feet and inches of a

part of a drawing, to divide a given length of

a similar part of another drawing into feet and

inches, so as to form a proportional scale • t&.

Prob. 9. A drawing being given without a scale to pro-

portion, another having the dimension or extent of

some part of the intended drawing - 29

Prob. 10. To draw a diagonal scale - - - 30 320 CONTENTS. CARPENTRY.

PAGE Section 1. Definition ..... 31 2. Tools .... ib. 3. Of saws ..... ib. 4. The axe ..... 32 5. The adze ... 33

6. The socket chisel - . ib 7. The firmer chisel ... 34 8. The ripping chisel .... ib. 9. The gimlet .... ib. 10. The auger ..... 35 11. The gauge . . 36

12. The level .... ib.

13. To adjust the level . . . 37 14. The plumb rule .... 38 15. The hammer - 39 16. The mallet .... 40 17. The beetle or mawl ... ib.

18. The crow . . . . ib.

19. The ten-foot rod ib.

20. The hook pin ... . 41 21. The carpenter's square 42

22. Operations - ... ih. 23. To join two pieces which are to form four

angles, and the surfaces of one piece or both

parallel and perpendicular to those of the other 43 CONTENTS. 321

PAGF

Section 24. To join one piece of timber to another, to

form two right angles with each other, and the

surfaces of the one to be parallel and perpen-

dicular to those of the other, and to be quite

immoveable, when the standing piece is pulled

in a direction of its length, while the cross piece

is held still ..... 44 25. Another method .... ib. 26. To notch one piece of timber to another, or

join the two, so as to form one right angle, in

order that they may be equall;/ strong, in re-

spect to each other - - - - 45

27. To fix one piece of timber to another, form-

ing two oblique angles, so that the standing

piece cannot be drawn out of the transverse - ih.

28. To cut a rebated notch in the end of a scantling or piece of wood ... 46 29. To cut a grooved notch, or socket in a piece

of timber ..... iJ. 30. To cut a tenon .... t&. 31. To frame one piece of timber at right angles

to, and at any distance from, either end of

another, both pieces being of the same quality 46

32. To join two timbers by mortise and tenon, at

a right angle, so that the one shall not pass the breadth of the other .... 48 Nos. 21 & 22 2 R 822 CONTENTS.

PAGE

Section 33. Of foundations and timbers in joisting and

walling - - . - - 49

34. Stud work and plaster buildings . . 51

35. Description of a table of scantling . . 62 36. The table of bearing posts . . 53

37. Observations on the table - . ij.

38. Table of girders - - - - 55 39. Table of bridging joists . . « i&,

40. Table of binding joists . . . sq 41. Table of beams - . - - «J. 42. Table of principal rafters ... 57 43. Table of purlines ---«&. 44. Observations - - - . 58

45. Table of small rafters - . . fj.

Abstract of the building act, so far as regards the car.

penter - - - . - — t&. Plate VII. ^Tools - .... 60 VIII. —Dove-tailing, notching, &c. - . 61 IX.—Flooring - - ... 62

X.—Girder joists, scarfing, <&c. - . 64

XI.—Framing for a wooden house - . 65 Law regulating buildings in the city of New-York . 67 Lien Law 76

Index and explanation of terms used in carpentry . 78 CONTENTS. 323

JOINERY.

Section 1. Definition

2. The bench

3. Joiner's tools

4. Definitions

5. The jack plane

6. To grind and sharpen the iron

7. To fix and unfix the iron

8. To use the jack plane

9. The trying plane -

10. The use of the trying plane

11. The long plane

12. The jointer

13. The smoothing piano

14. Bench planes

15. The compass plane

16. The forkstaff plane

17. The straight blocl-

18. The rebate plane

19. Sinking rebating planes

20. Of the moving fillister

21. Of the sash fillister in general shavings oi 22. The fillister which throws the

" the bench - - • shaving 23. Of the sash fillister for throwing the

ofi* the bench - i24 CONTENTS.

PAGE Section 24. Rebating planes without a fence . . 105

25. - Skew-mouthed rebating 4)lane - . jj. 26. Square-mouthed rebating planes - . 106 27. Side rebating planes ... jj. 28. The plough . . . -107 29. Dado grooving plane - . -108

30. Moulding - planes • . . iJ. 31. The bead plane - - . . 109

32. A snipesbill - . . . hq

33. Hollows and . . rounds . m 34. Stock and bits . . . -112

35. The centre bit - . « - 113 36. Countersinks - . . ib.

37. Rimers - . . . .114

38. The taper shell bit . . . U,. 39. The brad-awl .... ih. 40. Chisels in general . . 115

41. . The firmer chisel . . ug 42. The mortise chisel - - - iJ.

43. The gouge . . .

44. The drawing knife . . - 117

45. Of saws in . . general ^j.

46. The ripping saw . .- . .

47. The half ripper - . , 1I8 48. The hand saw - . . . ib.

49. The pannel saw - . . (b,

50. - . The tenon saw . f.. fj. Q

COxNTENTS. 325

PAO£

Section 51. The sa.sh saw • . . 1 1157

62. - The dovetail saw ih. 53. The compass saw to.

54. The kev.holfi nr tlirninf» aam •7 to.

55. The hatchet

56. The square . - to.ih 57. To prove a square

68. The bevel . . . to.

59. The ffauffe to. 60. The mortise eauffe - to.ih

61. . The side hook . , - to.ih

62. Th3 mitre box -

vltj. ± lie oilUULiil£^ UlUCK * m to.

ib.

65. Winding - - sticks . tO:ih 66. The mitre square Plate XII.— Tools .... 1 OK XIII.—-Tools 126 XIV.-—Mouldings l.

XVII.—Ditto - . . .

XVIII Ditto 132

XIX.—^Mouldings for sashes and cornicas 133

XX.—To describe the scrool of a hand .rail 155

XXI.—Dog-legged stairs 158

XXII. —Geometrical stairs 165 2 2 326 CONTENTS.

PAGE Section 71. Definitions .... 133

72. To make a straight edge - - - 134

73. To face a piece of stuff - . .135

74. To shoot the edge of a board - . 136

75. To join two boards together . 137

76. To join any number of boards, edge to edge,

with glue, so as to form one board - . ih.

77. To square and try-up a piece of stuff - 138

78. To try-up a piece of stuff all round . ib.

79. To rebate apiece of stuff . . 139

80. To rebate across the grain nn - - 141

81. To frame two pieces of stuff together • ib.

82. Boarding floors - . - - 144

83. Hanging of shutters to be cut - - 146

84. Hanging of doors - - - . ib.

85. To scribe one piece of board or 3tuff to

another - ... - 147

86. Doors - - . . . ib.

87. Stairs - - - - .148

88. Dog-legged stairs - - - .149

89. Bracket stairs - - - .153

90. Geometrical stairs - . . 154

Index and explanation of terms used iii joinery - . 166 CONTENTS. 827

BRICKLAYING,

PAOB

Section 1. Definition - - . . . 174

2. List of walling tools - . . 175

3. List of tools used in tiling . . . ib.

4. The brick trowel - - . . ib.

5. The hammer .... . tJ.

6. The plumb rule - - - - ib.

7. The level - . . - 176

8. The large square - - . - t5.

9. The rod ib.

10. The jointing rule

11. The jointer . . - • ib.

12. The compasses • - • ib. 13. The raker ..... 177 14. The hod ..... tA. 15. The line pins .... ib. 16. The rammer ... - ib.

17. The iron crow and pick axe . . 178

18. The grinding stone - - - ib.

19. The banker ... . ib.

20. The camber slip . . . . t6.

21. The rubbing stone - . . - 1T9

22. The bedding stone

23. The square . . . • ib. 328 CONTENTS.

Section 24. The bevel - - - - - 179 25. The mould ..... i6.

26. The scribe . . - - . 180 27. The tin saw .... (b.

28. The brick axe - - - - i&.

29. The templet . . - - . ib.

30. The chopping block - - .181

,31. The float stone - - - - ib. 32. Of cements .... ib.

33. Description of bricks • - .187

34. Of foundations - - - - 190

35. Of walls 193

36. Vaulting and groining • - - 1^6

Plate XXIIL—Tools ^'^^ XXIV.—English bond <00 XXV.—Flemish bond . - - . 201 XXVI.—Arch work - - - - 203 XXVII.—Piers and cornices - - - 204 XXVIII.—Groins . 205 XXIX.—Niches - - - - 206 XXX.—Steening wells - -

Absli|ct of the building act, so far as relates to the bricklayer ..... ift. Index and explanation of terms used in bricklaying 213 329

MASONRY.

PAGE

Section 1. Definition . . . . .219

2. Mason's tools .... ib.

3. Of marbles and stones . • . 220 4. Stone walls .... 222 5. Stairs ..... 226

6. Geometrical stairs . . . 227

7. An account of the origin of the arch, and au-

thors who may be consulted - - - 228

Plate XXXI.—Problems respecting arches, and methods

of determining elliptic arches - - - 230

Prob. 1. To render the compass method useful, not only ,

in describing the curve, but in finding the joints

perpendicular thereto, so as to form an arch

which shall not have any sensible variation in

practice from the true elliptic curve, nor in the

perpendicularity of the joints - - • ib.

2. To find the joints of an elliptic arch at right

angles to the curve - • - . 232

3. To describe the parabolic arch, and thence to nn

draw the joints at right angles to the curve - tft.

PiiATE XXXII.—Strength of arches - . . t6.

Index and explanation of terms used in masonry . 235

2 s 330

SLATING.

FA6E Section 1. Definition .... 242

* Slater's tools - - . . . . e&. Explanation of terms used in slating ... 243

PLASTERING.

Section 1. Definitions - - . . . 246

2. Plasterer's tools . . . - t6.

3. Materials - , . . - »&. Explanation of terms used in plastering . . 247

PAINTING IN OIL.

Definitions and tools ..... 255

The process for painting on new wood work . - ih.

The process for painting on old work . . . 257

A list of useful colours for house painting . . 258 .

CONTENTS. 331

S M 1 T Jtl 1 JM vr»

r PAGE

T^onniti ATI • • * • * 260

ib. StAptinn 1 Description of the forge

• 261 2. The anvil . - •

3. The tongs - • •

" ib. A fTamnrifira • • •

• 262 5. The vice . • •

ib. 6. The hand vice

* ib. 7. The plyers • • •

- 263 8. Drills - • 264 9. Screw plates -

- ib. 10. Shears . « -

• ib. 11. Saws , - -

- ib. 12. Of forsrins . . -

- ib. 13 Of heats - • •

- 267 14. To punch a hole . -

15. Filing and polishing ib. 268 16. To cut thick iron plate to any figure

- 269 17. Riveting . - -

ib. 18. To rivet a pin to a plate or piece of iron

ib. Id. To make small screw-bolts and nuts 271 20. Of iron, steel, cast steel, &c.

PtATB XXXIII.—Perspective view of a smith's work-

shop, showing a double forge with its apparatus

and some tools in general use 332 CONTENTS.

TABU

Plate XXXIV.—View of another part of a smith's work-

shop, showing the work benches with the vices,

the drill in the act of boring, and a turning

machine, as wrought by a winch and wheel, as also by the foot .... 276

Index and explanation of terms used in smithing . 277

TURNING

Section 1. Definition and history 286

2. Circular turning 287 3. Lathes in general 288

4. The pole lathe ib. 5, The foot lathe 290 6. A chuck ... 294 7. Of tools ib.

8. The gouge - 295

9. chisel The iJ.

10. .Right-side tools ib. 11. Left-side tools 296

12. Round tools ib.

13. ^int tools - ib.

14. Drills ib.

15. Inside tools . 297

16. Screw tools ib.

17. Flat tools - ib. CONTENTS. 333

PAGE

Section 18. Square tools .... 297 298 19. Triangular tools ... -

20. Turning gravers . . - - t6

21. Parting tools . . . - t&

22. Callipers

23. Description of plates, with various methods 299 of turning . - - - •

Plate XXXV.—The pole lathe - - .299

Plate XXXVI.—The foot lathe - - - 300

*6. Section 24. Elliptic turning . - - - Plate XXXVIL—Exhibits fee various positions of the 302 chuck for turning elliptical work,

Plate XXXVIII.—Shows the relations between the fore-

• going diagram and the chuck - -

Plate XXXIX. —View of a turning machine - - 306 307 Plate XL.—Of tools ... - -

Section 26. To turn a hollow sphere - - - 308

27. To turn one sphere within another - - 309

i6. 28. Conclusion - - . -

Index and explanation of terms used in turning . • 311

DIRECTIONS FOR THE BINDER. TABLE

Showing the Pages opposite which the Plates are to be placed. GEOMETRY. BRICKLAYING.

' Wate ; To face Plate X To face Page 16 23 Page 199 I 2 17 24 199 3 18 25 200 4 20 26 201

5 24 27 i 203 28 204 6 ^ 27 1 29 1 205 CARPENTRY.

30 i 206 7 60 8 61 MASONRY 9 62 10 64 31 . 230 I 32 . 11 65 I 232

JOINERY. SMITHING. 12 125 33 275 13 126 34 276 14 127

1 15 129 1 TURNING. 16 130 17 131 S5 299 i 18 132 36 300 i 19 133 37 302 1

20 165 i 38 304 21 158 39 306 i 22 165 ' 40 307

-'Cr D'

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