MULTI-NATIONAL CONSERVATION OF ALLIGATOR LIZARDS: APPLIED SOCIOECOLOGICAL LESSONS FROM A FLAGSHIP GROUP by ADAM G. CLAUSE (Under the Direction of John Maerz) ABSTRACT The Anthropocene is defined by unprecedented human influence on the biosphere. Integrative conservation recognizes this inextricable coupling of human and natural systems, and mobilizes multiple epistemologies to seek equitable, enduring solutions to complex socioecological issues. Although a central motivation of global conservation practice is to protect at-risk species, such organisms may be the subject of competing social perspectives that can impede robust interventions. Furthermore, imperiled species are often chronically understudied, which prevents the immediate application of data-driven quantitative modeling approaches in conservation decision making. Instead, real-world management goals are regularly prioritized on the basis of expert opinion. Here, I explore how an organismal natural history perspective, when grounded in a critique of established human judgements, can help resolve socioecological conflicts and contextualize perceived threats related to threatened species conservation and policy development. To achieve this, I leverage a multi-national system anchored by a diverse, enigmatic, and often endangered New World clade: alligator lizards. Using a threat analysis and status assessment, I show that one recent petition to list a California alligator lizard, Elgaria panamintina, under the US Endangered Species Act often contradicts the best available science. Building on this analysis, I also provide empirical evidence that the multi-species petition model under which Elgaria panamintina was proposed is problematic, thus corroborating claims made by the US Fish and Wildlife Service in their recent policy decision to ban such petitions. Shifting to Mesoamerica, I use global and regional status listings, distribution data, and a preliminary protected area gap analysis to show that an entire genus of alligator lizards (Abronia) is warranted for recognition as a flagship, despite conflicting social views toward the lizards. I supplement this finding with novel radio telemetry data on Abronia graminea, which reveals their strong arboreality, generalist forest habitat use, and adaptability to forest disturbance. Finally, I provide a checklist and bilingual dichotomous key for all 29 species of Abronia, and offer best-practice solutions to broader species identification problems in understudied regions of the world. My findings challenge conventional wisdom in this system, and showcase lessons of broad relevance to applied conservation that account for social and biological linkages. INDEX WORDS: Abronia, Elgaria, Batrachoseps, Biodiversity, California, Endangered Species Act, Identification, Imperiled species, Integrative conservation, Flagship species, Mesoamerica, Mexico, Museum science, Natural resource management; Spatial ecology; Protected area gap analysis; Radio telemetry, Transdisciplinary MULTI-NATIONAL CONSERVATION OF ALLIGATOR LIZARDS: APPLIED SOCIOECOLOGICAL LESSONS FROM A FLAGSHIP GROUP by ADAM G. CLAUSE B.S., University of California, Davis, 2010 A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ATHENS, GEORGIA 2018 © 2018 Adam G. Clause All Rights Reserved MULTI-NATIONAL CONSERVATION OF ALLIGATOR LIZARDS: APPLIED SOCIOECOLOGICAL LESSONS FROM A FLAGSHIP GROUP by ADAM G. CLAUSE Major Professor: John Maerz Committee: Byron Freeman Jeffrey Hepinstall-Cymerman Nik Heynen Fausto Sarmiento Electronic Version Approved: Suzanne Barbour Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia August 2018 DEDICATION To Guy Clause, John Kinsey, and Joe Maher, who I wish could have seen this dissertation completed. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First to my parents, without whose encouragement this dissertation would not have been possible. Your patience with me, hands-on help with field work, and effort to keep me grounded were more important than you know. Thank you for trusting me to go off-the-grid for weeks at a stretch for my research, even though it caused worry sometimes. My committee chair, Dr. John C. Maerz, was the single most influential force behind this dissertation, and I am forever grateful for his guidance and investment in me. John, you are my role model for how to be an effective scientist, scholar, teacher, leader, and friend. Thank you for everything, big and small, that you have done to propel my career. My committee members, Drs. Byron J. Freeman, Jeffrey Hepinstall-Cymerman, Nik Heynen, and Fausto O. Sarmiento shared key feedback during the course of my dissertation research, for which I am grateful. I thank Drs. Jana Johnson, H. Bradley Shaffer, Virginia Boucher, and Peter Lahanas for being my most important pre-grad school professional mentors. Despite my concerns to the contrary, you convinced me that I had what it took to be at least an average PhD student. My research was facilitated by the tireless staff at the UGA Science Library, who tracked down key literature in response to my countless interlibrary loan requests. A fantastic community of student colleagues shared much-needed companionship during my time at UGA. To Cyndi Carter, Chris Cleveland, Becca Cozad, Brian Crawford, Jacob Daly, Jon Hallemeier, David Haskins, Elizabeth Hincker, James Hunt, Connor Lake, Pearson McGovern, Rebecca McKee, Chris Murphy, Todd Pierson, Sean Sterrett, Ben Thesing, and Ryan Unks: thanks for making days in Athens almost as good as days in Mexico or California or Fiji! Vanessa Kinney-Terrell v facilitated just about everything, and always with a smile and positive attitude. They are too numerous to name here, but many faculty, postdocs, and students in the ICON program at UGA enriched my education and contributed to my academic growth in exciting ways. Thanks to all for welcoming me into the program. A veritable army of volunteers and colleagues helped me with Elgaria and Batrachoseps survey work in the mountains of eastern California: Brad Alexander, Amy Chandos, Justin Clause, Linda Baeza, Nick Buckmaster, Nick Duenas, Jim Erdman, Bob Hansen, Nick Hubeek, James Hunt, Stevie Kennedy-Gold, Jenn McKenzie, Erin Nordin, Ivan Parr, Dan Smith, Kayla Smith, Jessie Terry, Ben Thesing, Erin Toffelmier, Cleo Tuday, Gary Wilson, and Tyler Wilson. I hope that all of you enjoyed it as much as I did. Special thanks to Levi Gray for bringing Abronia to my attention, for showing me first- hand the wonder, terror, and fun that comes with working in Mexico, and for convincing me that I could make a dissertation of it. I profited immensely from the support and mentorship of Dr. Adrián Nieto-Montes de Oca during my studies in Mexico, and Dr. Jonathan Campbell kindly encouraged me to enter the world of Abronia. Israel Solano-Zavaleta, Walter Schmidt-Ballardo, Gustavo Jiménez-Velázquez, and Karlo Soto-Huerta were influential in the execution of my research in Mexico, and I feel privileged to call you my colleagues. Gracias, mis amigos. Levi Gray, Carlos Pavón-Vázquez, Peter Scott, Chris Murphy, and Eric Schaad were a dream team on a whirlwind tour of southern Mexico that produced most of the data for Chapter 7 of this dissertation. That round-trip drive from Georgia to New Mexico to the Guatemala border and back was worth every minute. I am indebted to Malcolm Greeley for donating his time on two enjoyable, but Abronia-depauperate, Mexico ventures—someday, Malcolm, we’ll go back down there and see them in the wild! vi It is non-hyperbolic to say that my ICON internship was the best internship ever. I am grateful to Robert Fisher, Kim Lovich, and Rajen Reddy for making advance arrangements on my behalf, and to Steve Anstey and the rest of my Likuliku and Malolo family for turning those months in Fiji into a truly life-changing experience. Vinaka vaka levu to all! My graduate career, and the research presented in this dissertation, was made possible through generous funding provided by a University of Georgia Presidential Fellowship and Warnell Graduate Assistantships. And now, James and Connor…let’s go get that new species. It’s the final countdown. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ v CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1 2 WHAT IS THE BEST AVAILABLE SCIENCE?: CONSERVATION STATUS OF TWO CALIFORNIA DESERT VERTEBRATES ................................................... 19 3 RE-SHARPENING THE ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT: EMPIRICAL SUPPORT FOR THE REGULATORY BAN ON MULTI-SPECIES PETITIONS .................... 85 4 WHOSE FLAGSHIP?: NATURAL HISTORY INFORMS CONSERVATION PLANNING FOR AN IMPERILED MESOAMERICAN REPTILE CLADE........ 110 5 BREEDING-SEASON HABITAT USE, HABITAT SELECTION, AND ADAPTABILITY TO DISTURBANCE IN ADULT ARBOREAL ALLIGATOR LIZARDS, ABRONIA GRAMINEA........................................................................ 171 6 DICHOTOMOUS KEY AND CHECKLIST FOR THE ARBOREAL ALLIGATOR LIZARDS (SQUAMATA: ANGUIDAE: ABRONIA) ............................................ 203 7 IDENTIFICATION UNCERTAINTY AND PROPOSED BEST-PRACTICES FOR DOCUMENTING HERPETOFAUNAL GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTIONS, WITH APPLIED EXAMPLES FROM SOUTHERN MEXICO ....................................... 273 8 SYNTHESIS AND CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................