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Astrobiológia Astrobiológia UTV, 18.3.2021 RNDr. Tomáš Paulech, PhD. KAFZM, FMFI UK „Jediné zrno na veľkom poli je rovnako čudné ako jediný svet v nekonečnom vesmíre“ Metrodorus (400BC, študent Demokrita) Vo vesmíre sú rádovo stovky miliárd galaxii. V každej galaxii sú stovky miliárd hviezd a ešte viac planét. Existuje iba jediný život? Astrobiológia – základné otázky • Čo je život? Ako na Zemi vznikol a ako sa vyvíjal? • Existuje život inde vo vesmíre? Je unikát alebo zákonitosť? • Akú limity sú pre život určujúce? Sú univerzálne? • Ako hľadať života na iných vesmírnych telesách a na akých? • Aká je pravdepodobnosť nájsť inteligentné formy života a ako s nimi komunikovať? • Môžeme osídliť iné vesmírne telesá a za akú cenu (pre nás aj pre hostiteľskú planétu)? Astrobiológia – mozaika disciplín Geo- a Chémia Biochémia Biológia Od neživého neživého Od a evolúcia a k živému života Pôvod Biomarkery: Astronómia Atmosferická Chemické stopy Definícia a chémia Prvotného života detekcia Proto Rover Mis ie Zem Planetarne Geológia Vesmírne vedy technológie Filozofia, Etika Adaptované podľa Gargaud et al., 2018 Definície a vlastnosti života Život – míľniky hľadania podstaty • -4. stor. - Empedokles : „ život má dušu, ktorá je z atómov ohňa “ • 17. stor. - Vitalizmus - „élan vital“ dáva život - spontánny vznik života vďaka „životnej sile“ • 1676 – A. van Leeuwenhoek - mikroskop a pozorovanie mikroorganizmov – baktérií a kvasiniek (jednobunkových húb) • 1859 - Charles Darwin – O pôvode Druhov • 1866 – Gregor Mendel – zákony genetiky • od 19. stor – organická chémia – život používa bežné molekuly (močovina, vitamín C,...) • 1920 – A.Oparin+J.B.S.Haldane – teória abiogenézy • 1939 – Winston Churchill – Are we alone? (novoobjavená esej) • 1944 – Erwin Schroedinger – What is life? • 1952 – Urey+Miller experiment (organické zlúčeniny) • 1953 – Franklinová, Watson, Crick – molekulárna štruktúra DNA • 2003 – Human genome projekt – sekvenovanie kompletného genómu Urey-Millerov experiment “A Production of Amino Acids under Possible Primitive Earth Conditions,” Stanley L. Miller, Science, Vol. 117, (May 15, 1953), pp. 528-529. Vzniklo mnoho druhov aminokyselín (aj biogénne) Urey-Millerov experiment, 1953 Univ. Chicago – simulácia proto-atmosféry Zeme 1996 - kauza meteoritu ALH84001 Život – neuzavretá definícia • 1994 - G.Joyce, NASA – aktuálna najpoužiteľnejšia definícia života: ▫ život je samo-udržujúci sa chemický systém schopný Darwinovskej evolúcie • Život ako prirodzený druh („natural kind“) ▫ Voda bola celé dejiny popisovaná iba vlastnosťami ▫ Odkedy bola zistená jej molekulárna povaha (H2O) boli odvodené všetky jej fyzikálne a chemické vlastnosti ▫ Je „život“ podobný prípad ako voda? – koncept, ktorý čaká na odhalenie podstaty, ktorou ho bude možné exaktne definovať? ▫ Dovtedy sme odkázaní popisovať aj život iba prejavmi a vlastnosťami Život – základné charakteristiky • Komplexita - trvalý rast celkovej komplexnosti v biosfére ▫ Superorganizmy - trilióny eukaryotických buniek + mikrobióm + vírusy ▫ Emergentné javy (celok je viac ako jednoduchý súčet častí) • Replikácia – živé objekty sa množia ▫ Šírenie a kopírovanie informačnej molekuly (RNA, DNA) ▫ Sebecké gény (jedince sú nástroje replikujúcich sa génov) – R.Dawkins • Metabolizmus (homeostáza, využitie voľnej energie prostredia) ▫ Nástroje: chemiosmóza, respirácia, fotosyntéza, Krebsov cyklus, Calvinov cyklus... ▫ Rast/vývin – zachováva sa jedinec, nie jeho zložky (bunky/molekuly) ▫ Autotrofia/heterotrofia • Interakcia s okolím (od komunikácie baktérií po ľudstvo) • Evolúcia – vývoj a adaptácia v prostredí ▫ dynamika na úrovni druhov/populácií – prirodzený výber ▫ dlhodobo sa zachováva a vyvíja populácia, nie jedince ▫ nastane zákonite: variabilita, dedičnosť znakov, diferenciálna „fitness“ ▫ zabezpečila divergenciu všetkého života a jeho dnes pozorovanú rozmanitosť Porovnanie veľkosti genómov rôznych domén života (log. škála!) Funkcia DNA - Centrálna dogma MB • DNA (genotyp) • RNA (mediátor) • Bielkovina (fenotyp) Príklady proteínov - Draslíkový kanál, Akvaporín, Laktáza, perCry Biogénne prvky a prebiotická chémia Murchison meteorite, celkom cca 100kg, 75 aminokyselín Biogénne prvky • Biogénne prvky : „CHNOPS“ - tvoria 97% biomasy • C – uhlík - nosný prvok „organickej“ chémie • H – vodík - protónové gradienty, tvorí 2/3 atómov človeka • N – dusík - nukleotidy ACTG a mnoho ďalších zlúčenín • O – kyslík - vysoko reaktívny plyn, bunkové dýchanie eukaryot • P – fosfor - ATP, fosfolipidy, fosfátové skupiny RNA • S – síra - zložka dôležitých aminokyselín, aktívne zóny enzýmov • CHNOPS sú základom: • aminokyselín/bielkovín • cukrov • ATP • RNA/DNA... • Esenciálne stopové prvky - Na, Mg, K, Ca, Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, Cl,... • Komplexné molekuly nachádzame vo vesmíre bežne ISM molekuly – mimozemská chémia Zrno pórovitého medziplanetárneho prachu Medzihviezdna hmlovina Carina Foto: NASA/ESA, časť hmloviny Carina Kométa 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko Kometárna chémia Cathrin Atlwegg, Rosetta, Univ. Bern Pôvod vody na Zemi Podľa: D. Breuer , Origin of the terrestrial planet‘s water, crust and atmosphere, Summer School “Basics of Astrobiology“, Vienna, 2018. Chémia základných kameňov života H2, CO, CH4(metán), NH3(amoniak), N2, HCHO(formaldehyd), HCN (kyanovodík) aminokyseliny lipidy cukry nukleobázy peptidy, proteíny membrány RNA, DNA Základné stavebné bloky života – dostupné z prebiotickej chémie A.Pross, 2018 Abiogenéza a dejiny života na Zemi Kolónia baktérií E.Coli (Wikipedia) Dejiny života na Zemi • Slnko má o 25% nižsiu svietivosť • Deň trvá 5-6 hodín • Mesiac len asi 230.000 km od Z. • Silné slapy – vlny 10-100m • Mikrozirkóny z praoceánu Abiogenéza, LUCA Sinice „vynašli“ oxygenickú Proteobaktéria a Archeon fotosyntézu. vytvorili eukaryotickú bunku O2 (toxický plyn) zmení celú endosymbiózou. planétu Z baktérie sa vyvinú mitochondrie stratou génov. Obr: Wikipedia Banded Iron Formations – vrstvy pásového železa v horninách, Západná Austrália Všetky druhy Dobre definované druhy Trend Krieda 75% druhov Hlavné vymierania Menšie vymierania Perm-Trias 90-96% druhov Ordovic-Silur Neskorý Devon 20-50% druhov Trias-Jura 60-70% druhov 70-75% druhov Globálne vymierania komplexných organizmov (posledných 600 Myrs) Fylogenéza života LUCA – Last Universal Common Ancestor • LUCA = hypotetický organizmus/druh • predchodca 3 domén života: ▫ Bacteria ▫ Archaea ▫ Eukaryota • LUCA – predpokladané (veľmi pokročilé) vlastnosti: ▫ (jedno)bunkový organizmus s dvojvrstvovou membránou ▫ DNA genóm 500-1000 génov ▫ Chemiosmóza cez membránu +ATP syntáza ▫ Genetický kód (platí Centrálna dogma molek. biológie) ▫ Katalýza reakcií proteínmi (variabilita biochemických dráh) ▫ Schopnosť EVOLÚCIE/speciácie • Fylogenetický výskum - všetky živé organizmy zdieľajú spoločného predka vďaka evolúcii • najpodobnejšie k LUCA sú termofily, preto pôvod života hľadáme pri podmorských prieduchoch Extremofily • Termofily (horúco) - hydroterm. komíny, gejzíry, max. 121°C • Psychrofily (chlad) – pod 15°C, Antarktída, jazero Vostok • Halofily (salinita a pH) – 15-37% koncentrácie, extrémne kyslé • Xerofily (sucho) – púšte, správa vody, v skalách • Piezofily (tlak) – 1000 atm., niekoľko km v Zemi a oceáne • Radiofily (žiarenie) – 1,5 roka vo vesmíre, reaktory • Väčšinou viac extrémov naraz Deinococcus Methanopyrus kandleri a pyrococcus furiosus - hypertermofily radiodurans foto: Wiki Abiogenéza - fázy prebiotickej chémie Netlogo simulácie vzniku fosfolipidovej dvojvrstvy Abiogenéza – hypotézy • RNA world – vznik inform. molekuly a replikácie • Fe-S world – vznik metabolizmu • Lipid world – vznik membrány • Virus world (vírusy ešte pred prvými bunkami) • Panspermia – život nepochádza zo Zeme • Presný scenár zrejme nikdy nespoznáme • Dôležité skúmať zákonitosti a predpoklady vzniku života Lokality abiogenézy • Panspermia • Katalytické minerálne hliny • Povrchový metabolizmus • Primordiálna polievka • Čierne podmorské komíny • Zásadité hydrotermálne komíny N.Lane, 2010 Stromatolity – kolónie cyanobaktérií zarastené v pórovitej hornine (Austrália) Lost City, Atlantický oceán – zásadité prieduchy na oceánskom dne a serpentinizácia Redox – príklady metabolizmov • I – respirácia kyslíka • II – Metanogenéza • III – anaeróbna respirácia síry • IV – anaeróbna respirácia železa Podľa Astrobiology Primer v2.0 Život na najbližších planétach? Venuša, Zem, Mars – geologické epochy • Astrobiology primer v.2, p.599 Mars – recurring slope lineae (RSL) In-situ výskum: Curiosity Perseverance Tianwen-1 Orbitery InSight Vodné svety Slnečnej sústavy Saturn s mesiacmi Enceladus a Tethys Mesiac Európa, Jupiter Enceladus@Saturn (Cassini) Enceladus- výtrysky hmoty spod ľadového povrchu (credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech) Titan – radarová mapa povrchu, moria metánu (Cassini+Huygens) Pluto – šípky ukazujú zlomy pravdepodobne sformované pri mrznutí oceánu 1/Ceres @ hlavný pás asteroidov Zdroj: NASA / JPL-Caltech / UCLA / MPS / DLR / IDA 1/Ceres –sonda Dawn/NASA (2007-18) • pozorovanie stôp kryovulkanizmu • erupcia zmesi vody, kvapalného amoniaku/metánu pod bodom mrznutia vody • vytvára sa ľadový ekvivalent „magmy“ na úbočiach vulkánov (napr. Ahuna Mons, výška 4km nad povrch) • hypotéza: podpovrchový oceán slaného roztoku vody Zdroj: New Scientist Exoplanéty a hľadanie biosignatúr Podľa www.trappist.one Čo robí planétu obývateľnou? • zdroj kvapalnej vody • zdroj energie pre biochem procesy • zdroj prvkov • fyzikálne podmienky v limitoch biosfery • aktívne geochemické procesy ▫ vulkanizmus kôry vytvára zdroje energie ▫ platňová tektonika • tekutá voda može existovať aj mimo obývateľnej
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