6.5 X 11 Double Line.P65

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-17292-9 - Precipitation: Theory, Measurement and Distribution Ian Strangeways Index More information

Index

adiabatic lapse rate 68 Castelli, Benedetto – raingauge experiment 143 aerodynamic raingauges 167 Charles’s law 31, 40 air pump 28, 34 chemistry in evaporation 30 Airy, George – cloud droplets 36 China (ancient) 3 Aitkin, John – cloud nuclei experiments 42 church, power of 13 Alter, J. C. – wind shield for raingauge 165 cirrocumulus clouds 94 altocumulus clouds 87 cirrostratus clouds 94 altostratus clouds 95 cirrus clouds 91 Amontons, Guillaume – barometric pressure 30 Climatic Research Unit datasets 233 Anaxagoras – rivers, rain, Homeric ocean, hail 5, 7, 9 cloud chamber 34, 35, 36 Anaximander – wind is moving air 5 cloud physics 46, 70 Antarctic Oscillation and effect on precipitation 271 clouds Arctic Oscillation and effect on precipitation 270 classification and identification 70–3 areal estimates of precipitation from point droplet formation 106–8 measurements 237–42 early ideas 33–43 Aristophanes – The Clouds 6 formation 75–7 Aristotle measurement of base height 101–4 decline of his teachings 13 observation from satellites 73 on dew 48 coalescence in raindrop formation 44, 108 on rain 9 compression theory in raindrop formation 43 return of his teachings 17 condensation views on the elements and rain 7–10 see especially 39, 41, 44–52, 68 atmosphere convection see especially 29–30, 60, 63 forced, mixed, free – dispersion of water vapour by 65 Bacon, Francis – the scientific method 21 role in cloud formation 38 ball lightning 123 cooling balloon flights – investigating atmospheric by infrared radiation 50 composition 32 by rarefaction, expansion, ascent 39–41 Barlow, Edward – raindrops by compression 44 Coulier, P. J. – cloud nuclei experiments 42 barometric pressure cumulonimbus clouds 79 see especially 29, 41, 260–70 cumulus clouds 77–88 Barrington, Daines – raingauge tests at elevated sites cyclones, hurricanes and typhones 84 44 Bede, the Venerable – compiler of existing knowledge Dalton, John 15 cloud formation 37 Bernoulli, Daniel – kinetic theory of gases 31 gas laws, static theory of gases 30–2 Bouillet, Jean – solution theory 27 Darwin, Erasmus – cooling by expansion 40 Boyle, Robert – thermal dilation of gases 31 data logging 172–3 Boyle’s law 40, 67 datasets Bravais, Auguste – cloud vesicles 36 combined satellite and raingauge data 242 Brethren of Purity – secret society of Basra 16 organisations assembling datasets 231 Brownian movement 33, 57 raingauges 233–42

287

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-17292-9 - Precipitation: Theory, Measurement and Distribution Ian Strangeways Index More information

288 Index

Davy, Humphry – cooling by ascent 40 radar 284 Deluc, Jean André satellites 284 cooling by expansion 40 hail 46 Galileo Galilei – raingauges 143 raindrop formation by compression 43 gas laws 67 water vapour; kinetic theory of gases 29 Gay-Lussac – balloon flight 32 depressions (extratropical cyclones) 88–98 Glaisher, James – balloon flights 32 Derham, William – vesicles (clouds composed of) 35 global annual precipitation means over land 247 Desaguliers, John Theophilus Global Climate Observing System 232 clouds and electricity 35 Global Historical Climatology Network 232 raindrops 43 datasets 236 steam 26 Global Precipitation Climatology Centre 232 Descartes, René datasets 235 clouds, raindrops and hail 33, 43, 46 Global Precipitation Climatology Project 233 evaporation 24 Global Precipitation Measurement Mission satellite dew – does it rise or fall? 49–50 212 dew and frost – early ideas 9, 48–52 global trends Dines, W. H. – mechanical raingauge designs 154 precipitation over land 247–52 direction finders for lightning 126 precipitation over the oceans 252–4 disdrometers – measuring individual raindrops 176 Gough, John – cloud formation 37 dispersion of water vapour into atmosphere 65–7 Greece (ancient) – views of the elements 4–10 Dobson, D. – solution theory 28, 145 Guericke, Otto von Du Carla – orographic rain 38 air pump 34 cloud chamber 42, 106 Egypt (ancient) 3 condensation 25 El Niñoand La Niña– effect on precipitation Guillaume de Conches – explanation of rain 16 258–68 electricity in evaporation 30 Hadley Centre (UK Met Office) – datasets, research electric field mill in lightning detection 125 and modelling 233 elements (ancient Greek views) 4–10 hail – early ideas 9 Empedocles – views on elements 5, 7 hailstones, growth of 114 Empiricism, philosophy of 21 Halley, Edmond ENSO (El NiñoSouthern Oscillation) 262 hydrological cycle 38 Epicurus – hail 10 raindrop growth 43 Espy, James Pollard solution theory 27 cloud particles fall 37 vapour as ‘bubbles’ 34 cooling by ascent 41 Hamilton, Hugh Euripides – air and earth as basic elements 5 rain and mountains 43 evaporation solution theory 28 see especially 5, 22, 57–9 Heberden, William – increase of rainfall near the extratropical cyclones (depressions) 88–98 ground 44, 146 extremes of precipitation (causes and extent) 271–4 Hebrews (ancient) 3 Heraclitus – fire as the basic element 5 fall speed Himalayas – observations in by Joseph Hooker 32 of ice particles and hail 115 Hippocrates of raindrops 110 views on water 5 first law of thermodynamics 67 wind is moving air 10 fog 75 Hooke, Robert – raingauges 144 fogbow showing nature of cloud droplets 36 Howard, Luke – new concept of clouds 37 Folland, C. K. – raingauge aerodynamics 168 Huddleston, F. – turf wall 165 Franklin, Benjamin hurricanes, typhoons and cyclones 84 electricity in raindrop formation 44 hail 47 Industrial Revolution – ideas about steam 26, 145 kite experiment 119 instability of atmosphere 69 solution theory 28 inversions in atmosphere 68 thermals 38 Isidore – medieval encyclopaedist 13–15 viscosity of air (in passage of droplets) 36 frost 9, 48 Jevons, W. S. – raingauge wind errors 44, 147 future developments Job of Edessa – Book of Treasures 15 funding 284 new raingauge network 280–4 Kelvin, Lord – cloud droplets 44

Index 289

Kepler, Johannes – importance of measurements 5 Nimrod and Gandolf in radar precipitation kinetic theory of gases 25, 31 measurement 198 Koschmieder, H. – pit gauge 166 Nipher, F. E. – wind shield for raingauge 164 Krafft, Georg Wolfgang – cloud droplets 36 noctilucent clouds 100 Kratzenstein, Christian Gottlieb – cloud chamber 35, North Atlantic Oscillation and effect on precipitation 106 269 nucleation La Niñaand El Niño– effect on precipitation 258–68 of cloud droplets 42, 107–8 Lambert, Johann Heinrich – barometric pressure and of ice particles 110–12 temperature 38, 39 lapse rate of temperature in atmosphere 67–8 oceans latent heat of vaporisation of water 26, 59 areal averages of rainfall over 242 Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent de – heat, air composition, clouds over 86 evaporation 29–30 geographical distribution of instruments 234 law of partial pressures 31 improving measurements over 282 law of thermal dilation 31 microwave emissions from 223, 224 Le Roy, Charles precipitation trends over 252–4 dew 49 raingauge distribution over 177–9 solution theory 27 Oceanus (Homer’s view of the earth) 4 Leonardo da Vinci – scientific method 18–19 orographic clouds 38, 98 lightning oxygen to nitrogen proportions in atmosphere 32 charging process 119 clouds that produce lightning 119 Palissy, Bernard – Discours Admirables (rivers and detection of range and position 124–32 rain) 19–20 detection from satellites 133, 226 pit gauge – ground level exposure 165 discharge processes 121 Plato – writings and views on the natural world 5–7, sprites 124 10 strikes 121 Pliny – Roman encyclopaedist 10 Locke, John Poisson, SiméonDenis – cooling by ascent 41 Empiricism 21 precipitation importance of measurements 22 detectors 176 Loomis, Elias – cloud formation 41 extremes 271–4 Lucretius – compilation of Greek knowledge 10 trends in UK since 1766 254 variability 258–71 means of global precipitation over land 247–54 see also rainfall measurement; snowfall measuring clouds – cover, type and height 101–4 measurement melting of snow as it falls 115 precipitation radar on satellites 214–15 Mesopotamia 3 Priestly, Joseph mesoscale convection 83 air is a mixture of gasses 30–1 metadata 179 cooling by expansion 40 Middle Ages 12 Pythagoras – universe explained mathematically 5 Mizauld, Antoine – Mirror of the Air 18 molecular diffusion – dispersion of water vapour by radar in lightning detection 133 65 measuring precipitation with, on ground 190–200 Molyneux, Thomas – solution theory 27 from satellites 214–15 mountains – role in cloud formation 38 radiation – solar and net 60–3 Mountains of the Moon (as related to depressions) raindrops 39 fall speed 110 multicell storms 82 growth of 43–6 Musschenbroek, Pieter van – water vapour as rainfall measurement ‘balloons’ 26 early attempts 139–49 with radar 190–200 nacreous clouds 101 from satellites 220–6 Negretti and Zambra – natural syphon raingauge 155 raingauges net radiation 63 electrical 157–62 Newcomen, Thomas – steam engines 26 errors 162–4 Newton, Sir Isaac global datasets 233–42 cloud droplets 35 manual and mechanical 151–7 water vapour 25 optical 174 Nile River – source a puzzle to the ancient Greeks 4 over the oceans 177–9 nimbostratus clouds 96 wind errors and their prevention 164–72

290 Index

Reynolds, Osborne – cloud droplet growth 45 Socrates – on clouds and the elements 6 rivers solar radiation 60–3 Aristotle’s view 9 solution theory (of water vapour) 27–9 dependence on rainfall 5 sounders on satellites 216 of Korea and China 140 Southern Oscillation (El Niñoand La Niña) 262 Plato’s view of origins 7 sprites associated with lightning 124 puzzle of the Nile 4 St Elmo’s fire 123 Rodda, J. C. – raingauge errors and correction stability of atmosphere 69 166 static theory of gases 31 Romans (ancient) – encyclopaedic compilations steam – properties of 26–7 10–12 Stevenson, T. – first pit raingauge 166 Rowning, John – on the composition of clouds 35 stratocumulus clouds 86 Royal Society – set up in 1662 22 stratus clouds 75 supercell storms 83 satellites supercooling in hail formation 47 active microwave sensors 213–15 supersaturation of air in cloud formation 43 algorithms 217 Symons, George James – leader in rainfall brightness temperature 218–19, 220 measurement 147 cloud identification 218–20 ground truth 218 telemetry of data 172–3 lightning detection 133, 226 Thales – views of the cosmos 4 orbits and weather satellites 202–5 Theophrastus – origin of rivers 10 passive microwave imagers 211–13, 214 Thompson, Benjamin – infrared cooling and dew 50 precipitation from active microwaves 224 time-of-arrival method of lightning detection 129 precipitation from passive microwaves 222 Torricelli – barometer 29 precipitation from visible observations 220 Townley, Richard – first continuous measurement of precipitation over the oceans 252–4 rain 145 radiometers in visible/IR spectrum 207–11 trends in global precipitation 247–54 sounders 216 trends in UK precipitation from 1766 254 saturation of air by water vapour 58 Tretyakov wind shield for raingauge 165 Saussure, Horace Bénédictde tropical cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons 84 convection and cloud formation 35–7 Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission 211–12, 224, solution theory 28 285 supercooling (of raindrops) 47 turf wall for raingauge exposure 165 scanning radiometers on satellites 208–11 typhoons, hurricanes and cyclones 84 Scot, Michael – questions about rain and rivers 17 variability of precipitation (causes and extent) sea surface – microwave emissions from 223, 224 258–71 sea surface temperature viscosity of air in falling cloud droplets 36 in ENSO 258 Vitruvius – Roman encyclopaedist 10 measurement of 263 Seneca – Roman encyclopaedist 10 Wallerius, Nils – evaporation in a vacuum 28 Sevruk, B. – raingauge errors 169 water vapour snow particles – growth of 112–14 see especially 22–30, 57–60 snowfall measurement White, Gilbert – Natural History of Selborne 145–6 after falling (depth or weight) 185 wind errors in precipitation measurement 164–72 as it falls 182 wind shields for raingauges 164 as it melts 187 World Meteorological Organization 231 with optical raingauge 184 Wren, Sir Christopher – raingauges 143, 157 with radar 199 wind shields 184 Xenophanes – fossils in mountains 5