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A review of the informatics sector in Uruguay
Hernandez, Diego Alberto, M.S.
The American University, 1993
Copyright ©1993 by Hernandez, Diego Alberto. All rights reserved.
UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor. MI 48106
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with with permission permission of the of copyright the copyright owner. owner.Further reproduction Further reproduction prohibited without prohibited permission. without permission. A REVIEW OF THE INFORMATICS SECTOR IN URUGUAY
by
Diego A. Hernandez
submitted to the
Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences
of The American University
in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the Degree
of
Master of Science
in
Information Systems
Signatures of Committee:
le College
Date 1993
The American University 7o3^ Washington, D.C. 20016
(HE AiffiBICAH UNIVERSITY LI3R4BY
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by
DIEGO A. HERNANDEZ
1993
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A REVIEW OF THE INFORMATICS SECTOR IN URUGUAY
by
Diego A. Hernandez
ABSTRACT
Informatics in developing countries has seen an increase in importance and influence
as the world’s economies become more interdependent. The personal computer has
brought information technology (IT) within the range of small users (i.e., in small or
poor developing countries.) Modem telecommunications have, in turn, shortened the
distance separating the developed from the developing world. Studies on IT use in
developing countries are not common. The experiences and lessons learned from
Uruguay’s informatics sector can be a valuable resource for other developing
countries. This study looks at IT developments in the public and private sector. It also
looks specifically at the education and telecommunications sectors as well as the local
electronics industry. The impact of the legal framework is also presented. The main
source of information were interviews and a questionnaire especially developed for
this work.
n
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT...... ii
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION...... 1 Foreword Sources of Information Background on Uruguay 2. THE PUBLIC SECTO R...... 6 Background National Information Policy URUCIB - An EIS for the President IT Use in Other Government Sites Questionnaire Results 3. THE PRIVATE SECTO R...... 19 Background Genexus - A Uruguayan CASE Tool AT&G Informatica - A Local Software Company URUDATA - A Reseller of PCs and Accessories Questionnaire Results 4. THE EDUCATION SECTOR ...... 26 University Level Primary and Secondary Levels 5. THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK ...... 31 6. THE LOCAL ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY ...... 34 7. THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS SECTOR ...... 37 8. CONCLUSIONS...... 40 Appendix 1. QUESTIONNAIRE (SPANISH) ...... 43 2. QUESTIONNAIRE (ENGLISH)...... 47 3. COMPARATIVE FACTS AND FIGURES FROM SELECTED COUNTRIES 51 4. 1993 STUDY PLAN AT THE UNTVERSIDAD CATOLICA DEL URUGUAY . . . 52
iii
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iv
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INTRODUCTION
Foreword
The informatics sector in Uruguay has been of interest to me for some time. Having
learned about informatics in the United States, both at school and at work, I was naturally
intrigued by how the country in which I was bom and lived until I was 22, was coping with
the introduction of information technology (IT).
Informatics1 in developing countries has seen an increase in importance and influence
as the world’s economies become more interdependent. As IT has evolved, prices for software
and hardware have declined thus making it accessible to more people. The personal computer
(PC) has brought IT within the range of small users (i.e., in small or poor developing
countries, for example). The economically efficient size of telecommunications networks has
also declined, although not as much as for computers.[16] Modem telecommunications
networks have in turn shortened the distance separating the developed from the developing
world. The globalization of trade has opened the doors for developing nations to be able to
leap-frog into today’s technology almost as soon as it becomes available in the developing
world. Studies on IT use in the developed world are common; they are less common for the
1 What is informatics? Information technology (IT), used interchangeably with the term informatics, is defined here broadly to include the supply side (computer hardware and software, telecommunications equipment and electronic-based industries) as well as the demand or user side (informatics applications in all economic sectors, information services industry, electronic publishing, broadcasting,management information systems, and so on.)[5]
1
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developing world. This is why a look at the informatics sector in Uruguay is relevant and not
only as a curiosity. The experiences and lessons learned from Uruguay’s informatics sector
can be a valuable resource for other developing countries.
Sources of Information
In order to collect information on the current state of the informatics sector in
Uruguay, I conducted several interviews, during May 1993. Some of the individuals
interviewed included:
a. the Head of the Informatics Department in the Office of the Presidency of the
Republic;
b. the Informatics Manager for the Administration National de Telefonos (ANTEL),
which is the state agency holding the monopoly on telephone services;
c. an IT advisor at the Comision National de Informatica (CONADI), who advises the
President on national informatics policy;
d. the managing directors of two of the largest software and hardware vendors in the
local market;
e. two computer science teachers from two private schools;
f. the managing director of one of the largest local insurance companies.
From these interviews I was able to get a general picture of what the public and
private sectors are doing in informatics. I was also able to obtain other contacts for further
information. As a result of these interviews I developed a questionnaire(see Appendices 1 and
2) to gather more specific and general information. I was fortunate that the people I
interviewed received me very well and on short notice. I also realized from the interviews that
any questionnaire I distributed was going to have to be specific, easy to complete and brief.
Most people liked to talk about what is going on, but not many wanted to write it down.
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I put together a list of over 100 names in public and private institutions I wanted to
get information from and, together with copies of the questionnaire, I sent it to Uruguay. I
prepared the list based on suggestions from the people I had already interviewed, institutions I
had read or heard about, and my own contacts. A friend of mine was kind enough to
distribute and collect the questionnaires for me. His persistency and legwork rewarded me
with 45 completed questionnaires.
I obtained additional information from various other sources: government reports
through the "amigocracia"2 , public reports prepared by the World Bank and other
international organizations, articles from IT publications, and other books. I also obtained
information collected informally through chance meetings, telephone conversations and my
own personal experiences. There is little, or nothing, available in Uruguay’s public libraries,
bookstores or newsstands. There are no specialized local publications, other than occasional
newspaper articles.
Background on Uruguay
Until the early 1960’s, Uruguay was known as the "Switzerland of South America."
The standard of living was comparatively high and there had been no wars to ravage the
countryside or population. Its largely homogeneous population - over 90% of Spanish or
Italian extraction, and Roman-Catholic - enjoyed a high literacy rate, living under the
protectionist umbrella of a central government offering generous social benefits, including free
health care, free education through university level, and a comprehensive package of social
2 The "Amigocracia" - Slang term which loosely translates to "government through friends." The term is generally applied to the informal network most people use to accomplish day-to-day bureaucratic activities, gather information, meet the right people, process paperwork, etc. Its foundation are social and school ties, which go beyond social and political barriers, as well as family and neighborhood relationships. If there ever was a country which operates according to who you know, that country is Uruguay.
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security benefits.
Uruguay is a small country, the size of the state of Washington. It is dwarfed by its
giant neighbor to the north and east - Brazil, and by Argentina to the west. The population of
just over three million has, at 0.5% [2], one of the lowest growth rates in the world. More
than half the population is concentrated in Montevideo, the capital. It still enjoys most of the
benefits of living the life of a small, developing country described above. However, it now
faces the challenges of a highly competitive world and is about to enter into the full terms of
the Mercosur agreement (free trade association of Uruguay, Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay).
This agreement will lower trade barriers such as quotas and import duties, between these four
countries. Whereas the bureaucratic and slow moving central government struggles to break
off from its past free-spending, guaranteed-employment habits, the informatics sector has been
developing almost on its own.
The country’s resource endowment potential is comparable to some of the East Asian
economic "tigers," such as Singapore and Hong Kong(see Appendix 3), and it rivals some of
its Latin American neighbors. For instance, fifty percent of the university age group of the
population has tertiary level education. This figure ranks close to countries like Canada and
the United States. Uruguay also has excellent market access opportunities through its
closeness to the large markets of Argentina and Brazil, as well as other nations across the
Atlantic. For decades it has had a stable government structure (except for one exceptional
period), to the envy of its neighbors, and its income distribution level is amongst the most
equitable in the continent.
Acting as a political as well as a geographic buffer between Argentina and Brazil, and
historically more developed than Paraguay, Uruguay is positioned to take advantage of its
"competitive advantage" within Mercosur.[1] [5] For example, its banking system has long
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been compared with the traditionally secretive Swiss system, making it particularly attractive
to businessmen from its neighboring countries looking for stability and anonymity. This small
nation is frequently used as a safe haven for political and economic refugees from other South
American countries.
The population maintains a high (95% [2]) literacy rate and a large conservative
middle class. It is a particularly well-informed society boasting 7 daily newspapers and 10
political magazines in Montevideo alone. The public education system is free through
university level. There is also one private university and several technical schools, providing
information technology education in particular.
Uruguay’s main exports have always come from the land. Its chief exports in 1991
were lamb’s wool (16%), fresh and frozen beef (11%), clothing (8%), rice (7%), leather
products (7%) and the rest being fresh and processed fish, textiles, cereals, cheese, etc. [10]
In brief, it is an agriculture-based economy. However, the contribution of the service - of
particular importance to the IT sector - sector to the GDP has grown in recent years, from
44% in 1970 to 58% in 1991. These figures compare very favorably with other Latin
American countries and with some Asian "tigers."(see Appendix 3)
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THE PUBLIC SECTOR
Background
Traditionally the public sector has always been a source of steady and secure income
for a large segment of the population. Current estimates place the number of public employees
at 260,000, or 21% of the total workforce of about 1.2 million. In other words, 8% of the
population is employed by the government. [2][10]
This large public workforce is also in short supply of certain skills, partly due to
common problems: low pay levels, inefficient staffing allocation between functions,
unproductive and duplicate efforts, etc. For instance, all imported merchandise must pass
through a dual customs system. First, it goes through the Customs Office, then it must pass
through a full customs procedures with the Banco de la Republica (BROU) - the national bank
for loans, deposits and export/imports. [26]
Attempts by the central government to improve the efficiency of its activities has not
been very successful. A national program for desbureaucratization (PROgrama NAcional de
DEsburocratizacion), has so far made no dents in the problem.
A privatization law passed by Congress early last year, was defeated by a national
plebiscite last December. This law was designed to put up for sale, or open up to private
investors, several of the state’s monopolies such as the airline (PLUNA), the telephone
company (ANTEL), and others. Expectations of streamlining and modernizing these entities
vanished overnight.
6
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Another example of a failed effort to improve the bureaucracy was the privatization
of selected computing activities of the BPS. The Banco de Prevision Social (BPS), the state’s
social security administration, supports a retired population estimated at 700,000. [26] In order
to improve its payment system, they called for bids for a turn-key system to operate a
computer facility which would improve services. The winning bid announced last June, was
contested by some congressmen and the employees’ union. The argument presented was that
the employees in the existing IT department were not guaranteed employment within the
future system, and further, that the BPS should not be allowed to privatize some of its
operations in accordance to the "spirit" of the plebiscite recently held. The government had
already approved the bid based on the advice of the CONADI.[32]
National Information Policy
A new awareness to the growing demands for data processing services in the public
administration prompted the government to create the Comision Nacional de Informatica
(CONADI) - National Commission on Informatics. This commission was created by
presidential decree number 1005/973 on November 28, 1973.
The objectives of the CONADI were to plan data processing activities for the public
administration, control the use of existing mainframes and the information they held, and
generally advise the President on matters related to informatics.[33] As far as national
information policy, this was a narrow yet encouraging beginning. By contrast, countries like
Brazil, Singapore and Korea did not initiate national informatics policies until the late
1970s. [20]
The decree establishing the CONADI was subsequently revised and updated several
times. The latest version dated June 27, 1990, sought to encourage and promote - rather than
restrict and control - the use of computer technology in the public administration. The main
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objectives [7] of today’s commission are:
a. advise the President on the formulation of a national informatics policy;
b. promote the use of IT throughout the government;
c. improve administrative processes, planning and decision-making through the use of
IT;
d. prevent duplication of efforts in the development, operation andmaintenance of
computer systems, while insuring compatibility and exchange of information;
e. review and advise on all government procurement contracts with an IT component of
more than US$ 700,000;
f. promote activities towards the continuing education of IT personnel, by organizing
events geared towards analysis and exchange of information;
g. promote the private sector’s involvement in hardware and software production;
h. serve as liaison with similar advisory bodies in other countries and international
organizations.
This ambitious and forward looking list of objectives has faced an uphill battle since
its inception. To begin with, the commission is composed of five individuals, only two of
whom are explicitly mentioned in the decree as having to have IT expertise.[7] Moreover,
these two IT experts are to serve in an honorary capacity which makes it difficult to find high
quality individuals at all, even for brief periods of time.[33]
Through the "amigocracia" I was able to meet and interview one of the two experts
currently serving in the commission. His non-descript office is located in an unrelated
ministry building, behind an unmarked door. I believed it was ironic that the only piece of IT
in this office, besides telephones, was a Sun workstation, and a laser printer, still in their
original boxes two years after they were purchased. The boxes sat neatly on top a large bank
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safe which served as a bookcase.
In our interview I learned that the commission had organized an international seminar:
"Aportes para una Polftica Nacional de Informatica" ("Towards a National Informatics
Policy"). This seminar, which took place in August 1991, gathered participants from both the
public and private sectors in Uruguay as well as a small number of attendees from Mexico,
Argentina and Brazil. The seminar was sponsored by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and Spain’s Centro Regional para la
Education en Informatica (CREI) - Regional Center for Informatics Education, which
supports informatics-related education in Latin America. [11]
The seminar drew some important conclusions and recommendations for countries
seeking to develop or expand their own, and Uruguay’s in particular, national informatics
policy. In the first place, it was recognized that the CONADI needed more expertise and input
from the private sector in the form of a representative from the Camara del Software del
Uruguay (CSU). The CSU is an association of private business entities dedicated to look out
for the interests of the software producers and importers. However, this recommendation has
yet to be heeded by the government. Other recommendations put forth were:
a. Research and development (R&D) must be promoted and supported through joint
public-private ventures, tax incentives, etc. (This issue has yet to be addressed by the
government [7]);
b. reduce or eliminate import tariffs on hardware components, reduce bureaucratic "red
tape." (Under the terms of the Mercosur agreements, a uniform tariff schedule is to
be implemented as of 1994; the President’s task force on government streamlining -
PRONADE - is addressing the "red tape" issue);
c. software developers must be provided copyright protection(see Chapter 5)and
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Other recommendations included expanding IT as an integral component in education,
business and management training.
In November 1992, the CONADI sponsored the "Jomadas de Informatica en la
Administration Publica” (JIAP ’92), a symposium on informatics in the public sector. The
expectation of the CONADI is that this event will be held every year about the same time.
Various indigenous IT applications in various stages of design and implementation were
presented at this meeting. Among the systems presented were:
a. the development and implementation of a new branch of the national bank with
Automated Teller Machines (ATM) for banking after hours, plus, an automated
system to handle balance on savings accounts, accessible via magnetic card and
secured by a PIN number, or accessible by phone;
b. a system to capture household electric meter readings on a portable PC for eventual
transfer to the existing mainframe-based billing system;
c. a full-text database system to store all laws, decrees, regulations and directives related
to the activities of the Ministerio de Education y Cultura (Ministry of Education) and
related agencies;
d. a preliminary analysis of a proposed security system for the Ministry of Defence. The
system is designed to store digitized signatures, and protect them through passwords,
for military communications. The expectation from the developers was that this
system could eventually be used throughout the public administration. [35]
During my interviews, I noted that every mention of the CONADI drew a sigh and
eyes to the ceiling from the person being interviewed. I believe it is unfortunate that the one
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government agency formally established to work on a national informatics policy should have
such a weak reputation. Yet their efforts continue and must be continued. Continued
sponsorship and support from international organizations is necessarymaintain to the interest
of the government and private sector in achieving a national informatics policy. This is one of
the findings of a study commissioned by the International Development and Research
Center. [16]
URUCIB - An EIS for the President [4][21]
One of the most interesting software developments I found in Uruguay was in
operation at the Office of the Presidency. It is an executive information system (EIS) called
URUCIB, which stands for URUguay CIBemetico (Cybernetic Uruguay). It is the only real
time database and EIS of its kind in Latin America.
URUCIB has been in operation since October 1988 [21]. Its genesis was the need for
information technology to capture and access information needed for presidential decision
making. The various ministries and government agencies which gathered information are
physically widely dispersed. There was a need for a computerized system for structured and
automatic information sending, manipulation and storage. The basic objectives of the system
were to:
a. provide early warnings of data changes;
b. decrease the current transmission delay of the information coming from the various
sources physically dispersed;
c. prepare quantitative and qualitative summary reports of the same information, at the
macro-level, and in a timely manner for decision-making.
This EIS was developed under the auspices of the United Nations Development
Program (UNDP), as a pilot program for the region. It was created in Uruguay and is now in
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use with the government of the province of Buenos Aires (Argentina), the Argentine central
government and the central government of Nicaragua [4], In Uruguay, it is run and
maintained by the Office of Planning and Budgeting (OPP), a supporting office of the
Presidency. The original system called for 13 staff to run it, including:
■ 1 project director ■ 1 software engineer
■ 1 organization analyst ■ 1 system engineer
■ 1 senior economist ■ 4 programmers
■ 2 junior economists ■ 1 hardware technician
■ 1 statistical expert
The type and amount of information fed into the system was based on the President’s
needs, since it was designed for him. The President did not want information on the various
ministries since he met with each minister once a week. The six areas about which he wanted
information gathered, processed and reported to him were:
■ Information about the management of public enterprises and municipalities
■ Information about banking and foreign trade
■ Information on social indicators
■ Information on social security
■ Information on state income and expenditure
■ Information on the economic and employment situation
The above information was to be compiled from information supplied by the following
state and para-statal agencies:
■ ANTEL;
■ Banco Central del Uruguay (BCU) - the Central Bank;
■ Administration Nacional de Combustibles, Alcohol y Portland (ANCAP) - the
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state’s oil refinery, alcohol distillery and cement producer;
■ Banco Hipotecario del Uruguay (BHU) - the state’s housing and mortgage bank;
■ Banco de Prevision Social (BPS) - the social security bank;
■ Banco de la Republica (BROU);
■ COoperativa NAcional de PROductores LEcheros (CONAPROLE) - a national
cooperative of dairy farmers;
■ Direccion Nacional de Estadistica y Censo (DGEC) - national bureau of statistics
and census;
■ Direccion General Impositiva (DGI) - taxes bureau;
■ Intendencia Municipal de Montevideo (IMM) - municipality of the Department of
Montevideo;
■ Tesoreria General de la Nation (TGN) - treasury bureau;
■ Usinas y Telefonos del Estado (UTE) - electricity generation and distribution; and,
■ Education Primaria (Primaria) - primary education authority.
It is interesting to note that most of the above agencies were selected because of the
personal relationship between high officials in these organizations and system developers. This
factor largely determined their willingness to participate in the project. It is another example
of the "amigocracia" at work. Also weighing heavily in the selection decision was the degree
of access and the working relationship with the organization, as well as the internal handling
of their own information systems.[4]
The information needed to feed URUCIB was to be transmitted by telex. A
specialized national firm was sub-contracted to install and operate a private telex sub-network
providing direct connection between each agency’s microcomputers and the Presidency. (For
information security reasons, this network was set up without any communication capability to
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or from any national or international telex network.)[21] In practice, however, the information
is transmitted by other channels in addition to telex, depending on the agency and/or the
characteristics of the information. For example, information is sent on a diskette by
messenger, directly via a hookup to the mainframe at OPP or even by a phone conversation
or a written piece of paper! [4] A schematic representation of the operations of the system is
depicted in Appendix 4.
The URUCIB EIS is based on Stafford Beer’s3 cybernetic organization model called
Viable System Model (VSM). The model provided the designers of the system with a
conceptual framework regarding its statistical data filtering system and the use of "recursion
levels" to facilitate the location of significant indicators for each participating agency. The
original software prototype was written in Fortran and Pascal. The working system was
written in C in its entirety, with a database design which allows interface from both UNIX
and DOS environments.[21] A PC DOS-based version of the system is now available for use
by any agency for their own purposes.[4]
A key component of this system in its conception and use, is the Management Center.
The center is an office where the President, together with the ministers or directors from each
ministry and agency, would be able to view the state of the nation and make decisions
accordingly. One report compared it to the British Cabinet War Room of World War II, quite
likely a result of Mr. Beer’s English heritage.[21] Unfortunately, I was not able to see this
room.
3 Stafford Beer and the cybernetic organizational model - Mr. Beer is credited with being the founder of management cybernetics.[29] Cybernetics is the study of human control functions and of mechanical and electric systems designed to replace them. In the conceptual formulation of the cybernetic organizational model, the manager is the principal source for receiving, assimilating, and processing data, as provided for in the parallel feedback loops, using accumulating knowledge to alter both input and /or throughput (process) as one means of influencing output. [30]
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with, it depends on the good will and interest of the heads of the various agencies involved in
supplying information to OPP to keep the system up-to-date. The telex system developed for
this system is used, but data is also supplied by phone, fax, messenger, letter, etc. In other
words, the system is updated with data "which gets to us any possible way we can get it." [4]
Another issue, I was told, is that the older generation state employees - who in essence have
tenure in their jobs - are a barrier to innovations and change to the established ways of
working. They remain part of bureaucratic structures which are hard to motivate and are not
very efficient by nature. [4]
Labor strikes by post office and communications unions, together with all other
services, also caused countless delays and inconvenience. Strikes are a common occurrence in
daily life, especially ones that affect essential services (hospitals, electricity, telephone,
banking) and other government-run operations (trash collection, land transportation, port and
airport operations, etc.).
One issue in the development of this system was the source of much experimentation
and positive outcome. The URUCIB project had no precedent in Uruguay. Therefore, for
most of the people involved in the project (only one of whom had done coursework abroad)
this was a new experience. The multi- and interdisciplinary nature of the project gave rise to
friction and clashes on the part of people from different disciplines. This was compounded by
vague objectives and minimum communication between all involved. By the same token, this
project raised these issues to a common level where solutions had to be found, new
approaches tested and task coordination achieved. In fact, the project team met with resistance
at the implementation stage where information provided by participating agencies was critical.
For example data providers from the various agencies, unfamiliar with the workings of an
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EIS, were concerned that the data would be viewed by the President without any
accompanying explanation. This issue could have been dealt with in an authoritarian manner,
invoking the President’s name and demanding compliance and participation. Instead, to their
credit, the project team individuals chose dialogue instead of confrontation to deal with fears,
discrepancies and doubts. This approach led to real implementation on solid grounds, not just
political. [4]
Perhaps by far the most interesting aspect of this system is that it currently has no
client. The President for whom the system was developed in the first place, is no longer in
office. His successor does not access or use the information collected, or even use the
Management Center. So the data is gathered anyway by six people assigned full-time to keep
the system up-to-date. It is expected that as each agency and ministry receives its own PC-
based version of the system, a new set of clients will develop. But this has not happened yet.
IT Use in Other Government Sites
The established IT in other government ministries and agencies is varied, to say the
least. Based on a survey by CONADI [22], and comments I received from my interviews and
other sources, the approach to IT is not as much systematic as it is reactive. The tools used,
in general, are those that are available and not necessarily those suggested by any system
analysis. URUCIB is a prime example of tiiis situation: the selection of hardware and software
was made based on professional journal articles, phone calls, consultants’ opinions.
Additionally, literally hundreds of letters were sent out to vendors to seek technical
information. The software developed in-house was tested for compatibility on the available
hardware. [4]
A total of 29 government ministries and agencies were surveyed by CONADI(see
Appendix 6). The kind of information collected included type of hardware and software used,
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and how the hardware is connected. For instance, 17 agencies (60% of the total) use Novell
to network their PCs, two use LANtastic, only one uses IBM’s SNA or DEC’S Pathworks. I
strongly suspect that whoever completed the survey from the remaining agencies do not know
if their PCs were networked or how. (The high proportion of Novell versus other products
coincides with sales and usage numbers I collected from vendors.)
The sector’s installed computer base is of approximately 24 mainframes, mostly IBM
3090 series. They represent more than 80% of the total number of mainframes in the country.
Dozens of IBM mid-range AS/400 computers are in use by the government, as well as large
numbers of PCs. Some of the most popular software programs used are Genexus,
WordPerfect, dBase III, Lotus 1-2-3, and Clipper.
Based on my interviews, and own observations, I noted that what is in use is what the
market offers. All of the products named have strong local representation and support. I did
notice many curiosities. For instance, there seems to be very few Apple computers in
government use. I would have believed that the more intuitive look and feel of Apple’s
operating system, and other software, would have been a popular choice among IT users. The
director for URUDATA told me that Apple was poorly represented locally and that the
machines themselves were technically hard to work with. Only two sites were identified to me
as being users of Apple computers: the OPP has 1 out of more that 90 microcomputers at
their site. The other user pointed out to me is a daily newspaper called "La Republica," with
several installed in a network. The questionnaires revealed two individual users of Apple
computers.
Questionnaire Results
The information I gathered from the questionnaires confirmed that for most
organizations (8 out of 9), IT applications are developed by personal initiative rather than an
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organizational workplan. This ties in with similar comments I received in my interviews. Half
of the those questioned have a PC at home which they use for personal purposes and
consulting. This latter purpose is very common for Uruguayans: virtually every worker in the
public and private sector earns additional income from odd jobs, the "amigocracia," etc. Ten
percent of those questioned had a regular second job teaching or consulting. One of these
individuals has three regular jobs related to informatics!
On average, 3% of an agency’s or ministry’s staff is involved in IT activities. This
figure varies from a high of 8% at the Ministry of Agriculture, to 4% at the LAboratorio
Tecnologico del Uruguay (LATU) - the national standards laboratory, 3% at the state’s oil
company and less than one percent in the Army. Virtually all questionnaires claim that all
informatics staff have at least a computer operator’s degree. Only the Ministry of Agriculture
informatics group admits to having non-technical support staff.
Most respondents have computerized common everyday activities such as payroll,
personnel records, budget accounting, stock of supplies, procurement, etc. The Ministry of
Agriculture staff have some specialized statistical applications dealing with their area of
interest, such as a database on the fishery sector, and a database on laws, decrees and
regulations affecting the ministry’s interests. This latter application is different than the one
the Ministry of Education prepared for their regulations, yet the purpose of the database is the
same. This duplication of effort, and lack of information sharing across government entities,
is a challenge to overcome.
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THE PRIVATE SECTOR
Background
The private sector in Uruguay operates in an environment which is, as a whole, unlike
most other comparable nations. One feature of this environment is that government
regulations control too many aspects of daily operations: entry and exit of firms, license
requirement to remain in operation, public ownership and price setting of crucial inputs (i.e.,
petroleum products, telecommunications, power). High value-added taxation (VAT), as well
as steep social security contributions also affect the sector negatively. [26]
In addition the labor market in Uruguay, though highly literate, is heavily unionized
and combative. Generous and advanced labor laws provide for job security and social security
benefits. However, this has led to abuses in which management tends to cave in to labor
demands more often than not because the central government usually sides with the workers
in labor disputes. The labor force is also negatively affected by significant emigration, in
particular of the young and most technologically capable workers.[26]
Further, and of particular importance to small business in the IT sector, the domestic
capital market is small and undeveloped. This factor, together with the difficulty of an
adequate definition for the use of collateral for lending operations, has limited the monetary
resources available for growth enterprises. For instance, most small- and medium-sized firms
tend to be self-financed through family and friends. The "amigocracia" plays a large role in
this area. One problem described to me by a nascent software developer was that banks do not
19
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 20 accept software as collateral.[19] Bartering for services and products is a common and
acceptable way to partially alleviate this situation.
Much hope has been placed on the Mercosur Agreement. Prompted by the demands of
this Agreement, it is hoped that rationalizing bureaucratic processes and deregulating trading
services will improve Uruguay’s private sector position vis-a-vis its Mercosur partners, and
particularly the rest of the world. [18]
Genexus - A Uruguayan CASE Tool
This product was developed by Artech Consultores, Ltda., a local software consulting
company. Genexus is a Computer-Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tool for applications
design and development.
According to the two engineers, Breogan Gonda (55) and Nicolas Jodal (33), who
designed it, Genexus was bom out of necessity. As part of their software consulting activities,
which they carried out in Uruguay and Brazil principally, they developed this tool without
thinking of marketing it. Working on their own (the company only had one secretarial support
person) it took them 20 man-years to develop Genexus, before they were ready to sell their
first copy. Today, IBM’s International Division - which provides hardware and marketing
support - backs this product for their AS/400 line of mid-range computers. The developers
claim that Genexus is the most widely solo software product of its kind in Latin America. Its
price, based on type of license, is between US$ 5,000 and US$ 40,000. Artech now employs
40 people to support this CASE tool.[12]
The Genexus automatic database generator uses an interactive dialogue, an auto
modifying database and various artificial intelligence features for use by systems analysts and
developers. For use with high-end IBM PS/2 and AS/400 computers, Genexus generates
programs in COBOL/400 and SQL/400 for its applications transactions. It is also able to
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incorporate other programs from external database libraries which may be in COBOL, RPG
or C.[13]
Genexus supports the entire software development life cycle. It:
a. permits the development and transactional database programs in a standard form,
which encourages the participation of its users;
b. automatically generates an optimal-sized database required to support specific
transactions;
c. automatically generates the program logic required to maintain the integrity of
program transactions;
d. automatically supports changes in databases that result from changes in the application
definition, and at the same time generates the required conversion programs to support
the new application definition. It also provides quick and automatic detection of errors
in existing and newly created applications.[13]
This CASE tool is presented as substantially different from other CASE tools, which
for the most part tend to support only those manual processes involved with applications
development. In Genexus, data transactions are transaction processes which create database
applications. These transactions normally correspond to user documents or terminal screen
inputs. One of the most interesting features is that Genexus allows immediate prototyping of
specifications, which allows for verification and timely corrections.[13]
This software has been exported mostly to banking institutions in various Latin
American countries as well as Spain, Brazil, Chile and the Netherlands. In Uruguay itself, it
is widely in use in the AS/400 community in government agencies, including the ANP,
ANCAP, BROU and the Ministry of Labor and Social Security.
AT&G Informatica - A Local Software Company
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 22 This company was founded fifteen years ago by three partners, and it is now one of
the largest software developers in Uruguay. Back in 1977, it was one of the first local
companies dedicated to software development. The company also sells products from other
companies such as WordPerfect, Lotus 1-2-3, etc., as well as hardware (PCs and
peripherals). [14]
A total of 20 people, 17 of which are engineers, work for this company. It has
developed a series of software tools, typically for business operations. Among them: SGP - a
payroll and administrative system; ARCA - a transaction processing system for banks; SAC -
a specialized processing system for advertisements, geared to mass mailing publishers (i.e.,
newspapers); GENATEC - a data dictionary and COBOL program generator; MENUPC - a
menu-driven application integrator. Their main product line is a product called P-SIG.
First released in 1989, P-SIG, which stands for Sistema Integral de Gestion
(Integrated Transaction System), is designed in a modular fashion for all-purpose business
applications. It includes modules for accounting, financial analysis, stocking, purchasing,
billing, automatic check generation, cash register system, and others. It was designed to
operate on a standalone PC running DOS 3.0, or higher, or in a Novell network environment.
It is written in COBOL, with additional use of Assembler and TurboPascal.[14]
The P-SIG system has an installed base of over 250 sites, many in other countries like
Paraguay, Argentina and Venezuela. About %25 of these installations are in government
offices, the remainder being private organizations. The latter include insurance companies,
banks, hotels, bookstores, schools, accounting firms, medical labs, restaurants, shoe factories,
shipping companies, newspapers, industrial steel mills, etc.[14]
The selling and marketing of software in Uruguay is not regulated at this time. As a
result, all software developed locally is sold as a service, as opposed to a product, so as to
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pay less taxes. [14]
URUDATA - A Reseller of PCs, Software and Accessories
This company was founded in 1986. As the company states, their name is derived
from URUguay and DATA. Their main line of business is the sale of PCs and peripherals,
related software (including network software), and accessories (i.e., diskettes, plastic storage
boxes for diskettes, etc.). As of 1993, they also began to offer education courses for selected
software. Company sales in 1991 topped the US$ 2 million mark for the first time, and this
figure was surpassed in 1992. The value of their technical service contracts reached a monthly
average of US$ 25,000 in April 1993. In terms of volume, URUDATA sells more than 10%
of all the PCs sold locally (about 1,000 a year) in the market, currently estimated at 15,000
units in all. About 70% of their sales are to the private sector, the remainder to the public
sector. [18]
During my interview with one of the directors of the company, I learned that this
company places a great deal of importance on the formal IT education of its potential
employees. They do not hire anyone that does not have a university or other formal degree in
Computer Engineering, Computer Analysis or in Computer Operations. (In reality, it is also
very difficult to acquire similar kind of knowledge any other way.) The company employs 44
people, all of which possess one of the degrees mentioned.
One of the most popular products sold by URUDATA is Novell network software. It
seems that virtually all PCs sold in Uruguay are networked, and that the LAN product of
choice is Novell’s. There is certain parallelism with what occurs in the United States where
70% of the LAN market is held by Novell. The company is one of three which has installed
the most networks in the nation. It also employs one of only two Novell-certified network
engineers in Uruguay.[19] However, the product brand for PCs is another matter. Most PCs
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sold in Uruguay are IBM clones (mostly 386s and 486s, as well as some 286s) like Samsung,
MITAC, DUTY, and other brands most of which come from Korea, Taiwan, and China. The
company that tries to live off the products from a single vendor will not succeed, I was
told.[19]
The typical price of a 386SX PC (unspecified brand) is US$ 1,600, plus VAT. This
price includes 4MB RAM, 8 MHz speed and 80 MB hard disk memory, with a VGA color
monitor. A Hewlett-Packard LaserJet 4 sells for US$ 2,720, plus VAT. The value added tax
(VAT) is 22%, which makes these products quite expensive in comparison to similar products
in other countries.[18]
Questionnaire Results
Out of a total of 45 respondents to the questionnaire, 35 were from the private sector.
Of these, only 31 answered how many employees they have working in the informatics area.
The average number for most companies is 5% of their total staff. This includes some
extremes like a textile company with only one systems engineer in a company of over 76
employees, to a company involved in hardware and software reselling which states that all
their 44 employees are informatics professionals. For these same companies, the average
length of experience in the informatics area is almost 10 years. From managers to employees,
the average age is 31.
Regarding the type of software and hardware used, the majority of the 35 respondents
claim they use PCs (286s and 386s). Six respondents have 486s as well. The most popular
package is Lotus 1-2-3 with 30 users, followed by WordPerfect with 21 and dBase with 19.
Only five use another type of spreadsheet, Quattro, while three prefer Excel. Alternative word
processing packages used include Word (7 users) and Wordstar (2). Other database products
used include FoxPro (10), and Paradox (2).
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Like in the public sector, the most common applications indicated were in accounting,
billing, inventory, general administrative functions and payroll. Some users had some
statistical applications running, while only four said they used some kind of electronicm ail,
and two had a management information system (MIS) in place.
Virtually all respondents (29) are DOS users, while a third (11) have Windows as
well. Almost half (16) of all these users have their PCs networked with a Novell product.
Two users noted they also had a Mac computer in their organization. Only five users
responded that they were UNIX users.
The respondents in general showed a typical reticence to explain or document what
they use and what they used it for. They were far more communicative when it came to
checking off boxes than in completing the free-text questions in the questionnaire. Again, I
had anticipated this kind of overall result.
Eight respondents identified their companies as P-SIG (previously described) users.
One of these companies is McDonald’s Uruguay. This worldwide popular chain of restaurants
operates three in Uruguay, and will be opening more soon. The Manager for Administration
and Finance noted in his questionnaire that they use computing capabilities to run virtually all
their operations, from sales and inventory control at the restaurant level to day-to-day
management and administration. They also developed their own MIS to prepare all
documentation needed, for social security purposes, when hiring new employees. This kind of
system is needed because, according to the chief financial officer for their operations in
Uruguay, McDonald’s has "...over 300 employees with a an annual turnover of 80%, in a
country with very bureaucratic regulations."
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THE EDUCATION SECTOR
University Level
There are only two universities in Uruguay, one public and one private. Both of these
offer programs in the field of IT. The Universidad de la Republica (URU) is divided into
several colleges, called Facultad: medicine, dentistry, veterinary science, law, etc. IT
programs are offered through the Facultad de Ingenieria - FI, Engineering College.
The URU was the only university for over one century. It has the largest teacher
(close to 4,500) and student (over 65,000) body and an excellent reputation. The FI, like all
URU colleges, does not require an entrance exam, nor does it have an entry quota. Any entry
limitations would run counter to the Uruguayan educational philosophy of equal, free and
universal education for all. The only entrance requirement is successful completion of pre
engineering coursework at the secondary education level. Unlike other nations, degrees
obtained through military academies are not recognized as university-level degrees.
The FI offers a single five-year program leading to the degree of Computer Engineer.
Completion of the first three years of the program lead to the degree of Computer Analyst.
(By comparison, the Systems Analyst degree in Paraguay is four years long, a Programmer’s
degree is awarded after two years of study.) The study plan at the FI is divided into
semesters, with an initial heavy load of mathematics and other sciences in the first four
semesters. From the second semester on, the student is required to attend classes in a lab
environment with concentration on group projects. Technical electives are offered for
26
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concentration in the areas of mathematics, economics, telecommunications, operating systems,
artificial intelligence, operations research, etc. This list is changed every year. [34]
Typically, every first year class is swamped with students in undersized classrooms.
There are numerous dropouts due to the heavy study load and limited facilities. Exact
numbers cannot be confirmed because registered students usually take more than the allotted
time to finish their degree, taking less courses per year in order to earn a living. Another
facility for students is that they may start a semester before they complete all courses from the
previous semester. In doing so, students end up taking exams throughout the year almost
irrespective of the semester they are attending. Considering the average number of labor
strikes normally pursued by the URU authorities, professors and students alike, some degrees
can take many years to complete.
The FI operates several Bull, Unysis and Sun computer systems virtually all running
the UNIX operating system, or its DEC version Ultrix. Some of these systems are networked,
some are connected via URUPAC (ANTEL’s network system).
The university also manages a recently established Red Academica Uruguay a (RAU) -
Uruguayan Academic Network. This network of databases which soon expects to link up to
INTERNET for wider connectivity, has about 100 regular users. It is composed of four
servers connected via Ethernet. The main operating system is UNIX, with TCP/IP as the main
communication protocol. The four servers and their functions are the following:
a. Sun Server 4/330 with a modem connected to URUPAC, 2 direct lines to the Colleges
of Pharmacy and Medicine, 5 modems connecting to ANTEL’s telephone system.
This server administers all out-of-country connections and it also administers RAU’s
electronic mail;
b. DEC Server System 5000/200 to which a laser and a line printer are connected. This
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server is the main storage facility;
c. Bull Server, DPX2000, which operates as backup for the Sun server for all functions;
d. Unysis Server, U-6050, which stores public databases for interactive access or via e-
mail.[34]
Other networked machines offer graphics capabilities, etc. Some of the applications
currently on this local network include; a human gene database, shared by the College of
Medicine and the "Clemente Estable” research institute for biological sciences; a database on
genetic evaluations of dairy cattle; and, an astronomical database for image analysis.[34]
I was told that INTERNET access was to be made effective towards the end of 1993.
In the meantime, all 400 local users of the electronic mail system of the RAU are able to
communicate via dial-up or direct lines, or X.25 connections. INTERNET connections are
strongly dependant on improved service from ANTEL which so far can only provide analog
connections. Digital links should be available soon. The hope of the RAU administrators is
that satellite links will eventually be possible.
The Universidad Catolica del Uruguay "Damaso A. Larranaga" (Catholic University)
was established in 1984. This university concentrates on the Humanities, except for degrees
offered in Informatics. The study plan has been developed in two levels, similar to the FI: a
degree of Informatics Analyst, after three years of study, and Informatics Engineer at the end
of five years (see Appendix 4). The entry requirements to this program are the same as those
required for FI students. The university’s total student population is about 2,500.
Based on my interviews, the degrees conferred by these universities are similarly
regarded, more so than the diplomas offered by the ORT Institute. This institute is the world’s
largest private educational system with representation in over 40 countries. [28] It offers
diplomas and certificates in the field of Informatics. A three-yearProgramming Analyst
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degree is the highest level diploma offered by this institution. Also offered are 18-month PC
programming certificates, as well as shorter length certificates on subjects like UNIX4
programming, Lotus 1-2-3, C+ + , Novell networks, etc. In coordination with Artech
Consultores, Ltda., the ORT also offers "Design and Development of ApplicationsUsing
Genexus." The ORT’s attraction are the multiple classroom sites it offers around the nation,
as well as convenient evening hours. Neither the FI nor the Catholic University offer courses
elsewhere but Montevideo. ORT’s courses are seen as the equivalent of a continuing
education program.
ORT’s twelve teaching labs are equipped with over 200 PCs (IBM AT, 386 and 486),
as well as larger DEC VAX, IBM AS/400 and RS6000, and UNYSIS U-6000 systems. This
organization has the only licensed training facility for Lotus and WordStar products.[28]
It is estimated that between the three institutions mentioned above, there are about
4,000 students in the informatics field. [9]
Primary and Secondary Levels
The public secondary education system recently embarked on a program to equip
some of its schools with personal computers for educational purposes. A total of 32 schools
around the country will have PCs installed, covering approximately 30% of the student body.
I was very interested to hear that eight regional centers will be established to support
computing activities in these schools, as part of a wider program to bring up the technological
level of public education. The report I read, however, did not mention how computing is to
be taught, what software will be used, or how and when teachers would be trained, for
4 Grupo UNIX Uruguay - UNIX, and its variations, are used extensively in Uruguay. What the ORT teaches is strongly supported by the "Grupo UNIX Uruguay," a local users group supported by some of the largest vendors of IT products in Uruguay, as well as the local representatives for IBM, Bull Computers and NCR. This group had its first - and only, to date - meeting on September 1991. A large component of this meeting was training and information dissemination. [31]
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example. [36]
In the private education sector, I visited two schools. Administrative areas in both
cases had been automated, taking care of payroll, roster, registration, etc. Computer use for
teaching purposes was limited to basic programming and word processing. One of these
schools, perhaps the best equipped in the nation, also had a primary school computer lab
equipped with six PCs running educational games on basic math, spelling, etc. All the
programs are in English, made in the United States.
By the time a typical student graduates from high school, they will have taken six
years of English lessons. This is a compulsory requirement, part of the curriculum which is
developed and administered by the Ministerio de Education y Cultura which all public and
private school must follow.
Even at the university level the Universidad Catolica offers a course on Technical
English. Every person I met regarding this project used informatics-related terms in Spanish
or English with equal ease. Having learned about IT in the United States, I only knew the
English language terminology but everyone in Uruguay understood me quite well. In almost
every office I visited I could find the latest copy of PCWorld, BYTE, Computing, etc., in
English, not the Spanish version. The questionnaires confirmed that most people keep up-to-
date by subscribing to such publications.
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THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK
On September 15, 1991, a weekly newspaper called "Busqueda," published a front
page article under the heading: "More than 10,000 illegal copies of software are in circulation
locally." A week later, another newspaper, "El Diario," reported the common local practice
of software piracy and how distribution among friends and co-workers is widely accepted.
The same article also quoted newspaper advertisements from different stores offering pirated
software copies.[8]
Software piracy is not uncommon, as I found out in my interviews and through the
"amigocracia." Although no one company or public office would admit to it openly, popular
software programs like WordPerfect, Lotus 1-2-3, dBase HI, etc. are illegally copied and
widely circulated.
In theory Uruguay has some of the strongest legal protection regulations afforded to
software developers. Neither Argentina, Costa Rica or Chile offer similar protection. Uruguay
is at the level of other technologically more advanced countries like Singapore, Korea and
Hong Kong, where local copyright laws have been clarified and expanded to cover software
explicitly.[20] "Software is to be considered a protected object, covered by article 33 of the
Constitution, the 1979 law ratifying the Berne Convention and the law on literary and artistic
property, number 9739 of December 17, 1937." [8]
In practice these laws needed to be enforced. It was not until December 22, 1988, that
software rights per se were formally established. Until then, the National Library’s Copyright
31
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Registry did not even accept software for registration. Presidential decree number 154/89 of
April 11, 1991, amended the copyright law of 1937 to expand protection to - among other
things - software authorship. According to this amendment, software authors are entitled to
monetary indemnification if their rights are violated. In addition, the law established the
possibility of jail sentences for violators. [8]
Despite the existence of the copyright laws, there is still much copying taking place.
To this date there have been no lawsuits brought to court. I believe that there are several
reasons for this: (a) the Uruguayan market is inherently small, in terms of dollar amounts and
volume; and, (b) software copying and distribution is cheap compared to the cost of
purchasing a new copy. The "amigocracia" plays a large role in this activity.
One of the driving forces behind the effort to enact, enforce and otherwise prevent
software piracy has been the Camara del Software del Uruguay (CSU), an association of
business entities dedicated to look out for the interests of the software producers and
importers. The CSU was formed as a result of the increase in native software developments
for export, and the signing of the Mercosur agreement. The CSU is composed of 24 or so
local and multinational hardware and software business companies which have a business
interest in Uruguay. One purpose of the Chamber, according to its president, is to conduct
market research and business development, assist in forming joint ventures and other
arrangements to local companies wishing to be competitive with other companies within
Mercosur. Just as important to the CSU is its campaign for intellectual protection against
software piracy. It was instrumental in drafting the presidential decree mentioned above. [33]
The CSU also appeals directly to the public by means of government-sponsored
advertisements in the local media. These ads compared software piracy to driving without a
license, and to thieves and pirates. A third campaign used the very current theme of AIDS in
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stating that the use of unlicensed software was unsafe since there was no proper protection
from viruses.[9]
Information privacy has been a major issue for Uruguayans for many years. During
the military dictatorship of 1973-1984, it was a known fact that the military and police
authorities kept a dossier on virtually every citizen. People even became paranoid of talking
about certain subjects on the phone or in public places. Any suspicion of even a vague
relationship with left-wing parties was deemed to be an offense which would go on record and
result in a permanent ban from public employment. This in a country where almost 1 in 4 is a
public employee.
At the "Primeras Jomadas Nacionales de Derecho Informatico" (First National
Conference on Informatics Law), held in May 1987 in Montevideo, one the issues attracting
the most attention at this lawyer’s meeting was the privacy of information and individual
rights. Less than two years ago, the CONADI supported the establishment of a commission to
study the issue of information privacy in Uruguay. The driving force behind this proposal was
the concern over the unauthorized use of personal information stored in present and future
databases. In this light, the right to privacy was to be protected by a law to be drafted for this
purpose. This has yet to happen.
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THE LOCAL ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY
The local electronics industry has essentially developed on its own, just like the
software industry. In contrast to other countries in the region such as Argentina and Brazil,
there has been no government policy to stimulate the creation of electronics industries. There
are no active incentive policies nor modernization support for sectors where IT could play a
role. There is little risk capital available for local investment, most companies depending on
individual capital-raising from friends, relatives, etc. The banking industry is not geared for
lending to the small-business sector. Furthermore, the liberalization of the import market, and
Mercosur, have narrowed the choices for any local development of hardware and
components. [3]
There is no local hardware production, according to my interviews and other available
information. [3] There are several reasons for this. For instance, hardware components are
taxed much more heavily than whole machines. This actually creates a disincentive to even
stock parts. As the office of the Presidency told me, they do not even have a maintenance
contract for their equipment. It is cheaper to "cannibalize" parts from other machines or even
buy whole new machines! [4]
Another observation made to me was that Uruguay did not want to commit the same
mistake made by its larger neighbors. Both Argentina and Brazil had adopted, for some time,
a protectionist policy towards their own local hardware manufacturers. (In the case of Brazil,
this policy was extended to a large number of industries, like television manufacturers, for
34
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which Brazil devised their own color system, PAL-M, which is incompatible with any other
set.) Brazil places exorbitant import duties on PCs (up to 400%) so as to protect local
industry. Mainframes were not taxed as heavily due to the lack of local production.Argentina
had similar arrangements to protect its industry. The result was that an inferior local industry
developed, unable to compete internationally or even locally. Both countries have only
recently dropped their import tariffs. [26]
Hardware production, as opposed to non-regulated software marketing and
development, also has the same kind of problems faced by the private industry as a whole.
Labor in Uruguay is not cheap and it tends to be dominated by combative unions and
strangling government regulations. Moreover, there is no government policy in place designed
to promote this sector, nor a policy to modernize the bureaucracy which could, at least
indirectly, positively affect the development of a local electronics industry. And, as pointed
out before, capital availability is limited to what entrepreneurs can gather outside the banking
industry.
According to Snoeck et al [3], Uruguay has developed, in the last ten years, an
electronics industry which has manufactured tailor-made products to feed local demand. In
numbers, there are about 40 companies dedicated to this activity. All but two of these
companies were capitalized by their own owners. Most of these companies are involved in
importation or servicing of a line of products, this being a way to finance product
development. For over 60% of these companies, some of the products they developed were
made for a single client. This custom manufacturing is also their local competitive advantage.
Over 60% of these companies have annual sales of less than US$ 200,000. In all, this
represents less than 0.5% of the total money value of the output for the industrial sector.
However, the effect some of these tailor-made, and innovative, products have had is much
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larger in indirect terms. For example, one company developed a complex set of sensors and
automatic controllers to stretch leather prior to marketing. This stretching typically increases
pelt size by 3 to 5 percent, which for a major export product is important in terms of money
value. Another example of a product geared towards indirect support of a main export sector
was developed to improve the production of combed wool (also called tops). This system
consists of a series of electronic sensors and controls which improves the quality, reduces
costs and production time of processing virgin wool.[3]
Having a direct impact on the IT sector, four companies are dedicated to the
manufacture of uninterruptible power sources (UPS) designed for use with microcomputers.
This is a significant product in a country which has an unreliable national electric grid and
frequent - announced and unannounced - power outages.
The conditions of the Uruguayan electronics industry will continue to suit relatively
minor local needs and at a level which is not competitive internationally. According to Miller
[24], there are eight critical success factors to building a modem electronics industry and
Uruguay has achieved only one of them: its human resource is highly literate and trainable.
Other factors (such as government strategies and export marketing support from government,
foreign strategic alliances, flexibility to adapt to market and technological changes) need to be
developed if this small nation wishes to take full advantage of its potential. Uruguay’s local
competitive advantage - human resources - should be promoted in order to compete at an
international level. The government should provide an effective policy through tax incentives,
export promotion and bureaucratic streamlining.
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THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS SECTOR
The current structure positions ANTEL as the monopoly service provider for most
telecommunications related activities. The exceptions being the cellular phone system
adjudicated through a bidding process to a private company earlier this year, a private telex
network mentioned with the URUCIB system and the sale of selected telephone accessories.
The sector was readying itself for privatization. It was to be a dramatic change for
ANTEL as prepared itself to enter into full competition with private and overseas companies
in most all services. On December 1991, a regulatory entity - CONTEL - to approve
agreements with foreign companies regarding telecommunications services, authorize and
control prices and tariffs, manage and control the radio-frequency spectrum, etc. was
established. ANTEL was to be sold off, and potential bidders included Telefonica (Spain),
Bell South (US) and others. However, the December 1992 plebiscite turned back all these
plans, and CONTEL never came to life.
Telecommunications systems have been in development locally since 1976, when the
first telex nodes were introduced. This development was a result of a world market survey:
the existing electro-mechanic systems available were of an obsolete technology yet compatible
with the demand existent at the time; electronic technology was also available but for a
demand expected ten years from then. By default, an electronic product for the existing
demand was required and locally developed for ANTEL. Also developed for ANTEL was a
local data network called URUPAC.
37
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 38 URUPAC [17] is the National Data Packet-Switch Transmission Network developed
and manufactured locally, and in operation since 1989. The main objective of this network is
to promote the maximum use of existing telecommunications facilities, integrating the
telephone and telex networks with this data network. The data packet-switches were designed
and manufactured in Uruguay, based on INTEL’S IEEE 796 Multibus I standard. They expect
to continue using this technology in the near future. The expectation is that by 1995, the
packet-switch network developed will be large enough to accommodate the needs of an ISDN
service predicted for that year. One user of this telecommunication network is Paraguay
through a satellite interface in Argentina. [23]
Telecommunications are the core physical infrastructure for IT users. Empirical
studies have shown that both the quantity (lines per 100 people) and the quality (e.g.,
availability of digital communications links) of telecommunications are extremely important
for generating exports and attracting foreign investment.[16] In terms of quantity, Uruguay
has the highest density (13.4 lines per 100 people) in Latin America; regarding quality, close
to 60% of these lines are connected to digital exchanges.[26] For comparison purposes,
Argentina and Costa Rica have about 10 lines per 100 people, Paraguay has 6, Mexico and
Brazil have 5 each, and Chile has 4. ANTEL’s positive performance in these areas contrasts
with deficiencies in other areas.[17]
ANTEL currently faces a backlog of over 50,000 requests for telephone service (the
total number of lines in place is 450,000). The expected waiting period for installation of a
new telephone line is over a year, and longer if outside Montevideo. While completion rates
for phone calls in Montevideo are 50% (good networks in developing countries average 70%),
quality of service declines in the country’s interior cities and rural areas. Some towns do not
have anything more than manual exchanges or rural multi-access radio telephones.[17]
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While local phone tariffs have gone down, they are actually subsidized by the rates on
international calls which are twice the comparable rate of a call made from abroad to
Uruguay. This rate has hurt the international connectivity of Uruguay’s computer networks,
when done through ANTEL. [4]
ANTEL’s computer operations are sophisticated for the market.[17] They use an
IBM 3090 mainframe connected to over 500 terminals in the whole country. It boasts the
largest DB2 application in Latin America. The agency employs about 40 engineers and
systems analysts who performs all tasks from design and development through maintenance.
Office systems support take up about 85% of all IT resources. Development work is done on
a DEC VAX system. In the main building they have 180 PCs linked by six servers on a
Novell network. The type of software used includes WordPerfect, Lotus 1-2-3, Quattro Pro
and Clipper. All software applications are developed in-house.[17]
The computer department prides itself in the amount of training it offers in-house. It
is also one of the reasons why so many people leave ANTEL and head to the better paying
private sector. In the last 5 years alone, the staff turnover has been more than 70%. Most IT
staff is young, averaging 25 years of age. Women make up half of the IT group, but make up
most of the analysts. The engineers are mostly male. Even the people I interviewed seemed
surprised at their own figures in this respect. [17]
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CONCLUSIONS
Uruguay has come a long way in the path towards becoming an information society. I
believe that what needs to be done is for that path to be defined, and promoted - not
interfered with - by the government. Export companies should be provided with incentives
(like tax holidays), active export promotion assistance, loan guarantees for capital investment,
R&D support, investment in upgrading education facilities and so on.
One of the government focus areas, I believe, should be the education system. It
currently produces an overabundance of medical doctors, agronomists and lawyers. It is not
unusual to find lawyers driving taxis or doctors working as stockbrokers. In the late seventies
I worked as an air traffic controller, and three of my fellow controllers were a dentist, a
lawyer and a doctor!
I believe Uruguay could be at the forefront of some informatics sector activities, like
software development. By developing CASE tools and EISs, the Uruguayan (as a developing
country) software industry is on the right track for future growth. [25] The software industry
is labor intensive and this country has the specialized labor to develop it locally. To add to
this competitive advantage, Uruguay has a large market to buy its products: Spanish-speaking
Latin America. It has effectively begun to carve its own niche in specialized applications in
accounting and CASE tools. With support from international organizations it has developed
some systems which are in the leading edge of their specialties.
One of the developers of Genexus referred to Uruguayans as "...generalists...during
40
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the week we have our regular job and in the weekend, we paint our houses, fix the car’s
engine, repair the refrigerator, rewire the electrical system. The same thing applies to
informatics. "[12] This wide-base of knowledge is what allows local programmers to be able
to learn the intricacies of new technology very quickly, and mm around and develop
innovative products. The quality of education and training available in Uruguay is well
recognized beyond the national frontiers. This know-how and ability needs to be promoted
and encouraged to thrive by the government. All the good examples of software development
I saw were achieved through the hard work and ingenuity of a few, with occasional help from
outside agencies. The government’s commission on informatics, although on principle well-
intentioned, has not lived up to its potential.
The public sector needs to improve its performance. It was hoped that privatization of
many state-owned and operated enterprises (telephones, gas, petroleum products, electricity,
etc.) would go a long way towards streamlining the bureaucracy and improving its efficiency
and competitiveness. The plebiscite on the privatization law, however, turned back all those
expectations. The current President’s term expires in November 1994. Until then, he is a
’lame duck’ president without any possibilities of being able to pass any other similar laws.
If the software industry looks to expand even more in the international market, it is
going to have to seeks alliances with large multinational corporations, just like Artech did
with IBM. Even the initial selling to DBM was hard because, according to Genexus
developers, IBM did not believe a product from a developing country could pass their
rigorous tests.[12] Pass they did, and now the groundwork has been laid for others to follow.
The electronics industry, small as it is, has carved its own local niche with its custom-
made, or one-of-a-kind output. Its impact on the economy has been noted, if not in quantity,
at least in the effect it has had on other productive sectors (manufacturing, for instance, and
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the services sector in particular).[3] This sector can grow if it falls under a national, long
term plan for growth and development which the government does not have at this time.
Putting aside the political side of this issue (private vs. public industry), the need to develop
this sector is essential if it is considered in conjunction with the informatics sector. Both of
these affect the productivity and competitiveness of the economy as a whole.
There should be more efforts like the JIAP ’92 meeting organized the CONADI. In
striking contrast to the United States, for example, little has been done in the way of
communicating or exchanging ideas with other users. The concept of making presentations to
a wide forum of IT users has not caught on. This is an area which also needs improvement,
and should not be totally dependent on the CONADI for action.
"The challenge is to capture, capitalize and leverage free floating brainpower. "[37]
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QUESTIONNAIRE Pleas* write dearly. If there is any question you cannot or do not wish to mower, please leave it blank. Thank yo u ! 1. Personal Information 1.1 Full Name 1.2 Age
1.3 Years of Experience 1.4 University Degree in Informatics 1.5 If you have a computer at home, please describe hardware (including brand and model), software and purpose
2. At Work 2.1 Title
2.2 Organization Name
2.3 Main area of activity for this organization 2.4 Main area of activity of your department/office □ Public Administration □ Administration/Human Resources □ Banking/Insurance/Finance [] Computers [] Computers [] Consulting □ Communications (advertising, marketing) [] Accounting/Billing [] Education [] Design □ Engineering/Architecture Q Personnel training [] Research and development □ Research and development [] Medicine [] Public Relations □ Sales (Retail or wholesale) □ Sales/Marketing □ Other______Q Other______
2.5 How many employees in this organization? □ 1-5 □6-25 □26-75 □76-150 □ 151-500 □ 500-1000 □ +1000 2.6 How many employees in this organization work in the informatics area? □ 1-5 Q 6-25 □26-75 □76-150 Q151-500 □ 500-1000 □ +1000 2.7 Of all employees involved in the area of informatics, what degrees do they have? □ Sys. Engineenng Number?______[] _Other______Number? □ Programmer/Analyst Number? ______□ _Other______Number? □ Operators Number? [] Other______Number?
Corn'd... 43
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3. Technology 3.1 What computer systems do you have in your organization? Large Systems Mid-range systems Servers PCs IBM IBM IBM tntal Workstations □ ES/9000 Q 43xx Q Syst. 34. 36 Q 586/Pentium □ IBM Q 309X □ AS/400 Q AS/400 [> 8 6 □ Digital □ 308X □ Syst. 38 □RS6000 □ 386 □ Apple □ 360/370 I! Other ("I Other Q 286 □ Sun f l Other Digital (DEC) Digital (DEC) □ 8088 QNeXt Q MICROVAX □ MICROVAX □ Bull Motorola □ Other □ 050 □ VAX Series □ VAX Series □ Digital (VAX 9000) □ 040 □ Alpha Series Q Alpha Series Q ncr Q 030 I! Other fl Other □ Unisys □ 020 fl Other □ Bull □ Apple □ Taligent Q ncr □ AST RISC/Alpha Q Hewlett Packard Q Compaq □ RISC fl Other fl Other □ Alpha 3.2 How many ot each in your organization? 3.3 What operating systems are there in 1-3 4-8 9-20 21-49 50- your organization? Large systems □ □ □ □ □ □ DOS Q o S 12 □ DOS Windows Q OS/400 Mid-range systems □ □ □ □ □ □ Macintosh □ UNIX LANs □ □ □ □ □ □ MVS Q Other______Servers □ □ □ □ □ PCs-8088 □ □ □ □ □ 3.4 What network operating systems are in use in this organization? -286 □ □ □ □ □ □ Novell-Netware -386 □ □ n □ □ □ Banyan Vines -486 □ □ □ □ □ □ DECNet 586/Pentium □ □ □ □ □ □ Microsoft-LanManager RISC □ □ □ □ □ □ 3Com Alpha □ □ □ □ □ □ AppleTalk Apple □ □ □ □ □ □ Other______Workstations □ □ □ □ □ 3.4 What programs or programming languages are in use in this organization?
Q Paradox Q Assembler Q Other Q WordPerfect Q Pascal Q Other _ Q Word Q Basic Q Other - Q Lotus □ c Q Other □ Excel □ C+ + Q Other Q dBase □ Fortran Q Other _ Q FoxPro Q Clipper □ Other _
Cont'd...
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4. Applications ______4.1 What functions and tasks have been computerized in your organization?
4.2 How does your organization decide to computerize a function or task?
[] Development plan [] Analysis of functions [] Personal initiative Q Other___
4.3 Has your organization developed any computer programs in-house and to what purpose?
4.3 How are the computer skills of your personnel kept up-to-date?
In-house Informal Q courses [] External courses [] training Q Other
4.4 How do you keep abreast of new products and developments in informatics?
Cont'd...
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5. Additional Commentaries 5.1 Please use space below to add other comments or observations you think may be relevant to this study
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CUESTIONARIO Por favor ascribo eon daridad. S! hay alguna prtgunta quo no puoda o quiort contest*, daja a! aspado an bJanco. GRACIAS! 1. Datos Particulares 1.1 Nombre y Apellido 1.2 Edad
1.3 Anos de Experience 1.4 Titulo Universitario en Informdtica 1.5 Si tiene una computadora en su casa, descnba hardware iinduyendo marca y modeloi, software y uso
2. Lugar de Trabajo 2.1 Cargo
2.2 Nombre de esla Organizacidn
2.3 Principal Area de Actividod de esta Organizacidn 2.4 Principal Actividad de su Departamento/Ofidne [] Administracidn Publica [] Administraddn/Recursos Humanos [] Banco/Seguros/Finanzas [] Computaddn Q Computaddn Q Consultorlas [] Comunicaaones (avisos, marketing! Q Contaduria/Facturaddn [] Educaddn Q Disono Q Ingenieria/Arquitectura [] Entrenamiento del Personal [] Investigactdn y desarrollo [1 Invesbgaddn y desarrollo [] Medidna Q Reladones Publicas Q Ventas el por mayor yio menor [] Ventas/Marketing Q O tra ______Q O tra ______
2.5 iCudntos empleados hay en esta orgamzaddn? Q 1-5 []6-25 Q 26-75 Q 76-150 Q 151-500 □ 500-1000 [] mis de 1000 2.6 iCu&ntos empleados hay en esta orgamzaddn trabajando en el drea de informatica? Q 1-5 Q6-25 Q 26-75 Q 76-150 Q151-500 Q 500-1000 Qmds de 1000 2.7 Del total de empleados en el Area de informdtica, ^que tftulos profeslonales poseen? Q Ing. de Sistemas. iCudntos? Q Otro______jCudntos? Q Analista Programador. ^Cudntos? Q Otro______iCudntos? Q Operador. jCudntos? [] Otro______iCudntos?
Sigue. 47
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3. Tecnologi'a 3.1 □ Paradox □ Assembler □ Otro □ WordPerfect □ Pascal □ Otro Q w ord □ Basic □ Otro — □ Lotus □ c □ Otro □ Excel □ C+ + □ Otro □ dBase □ Fortran □ Otro □ FoxPro □ Clipper □ Otro Sigue... Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4. Aplicaciones Pricticas______4.1 iQu6 funciones v tareas han sido computarizadas en su organizacidn? 4.2 £En que se basa su organizacidn para computarizar un tarea o funcidn? Q Plan de desarrollo Q Anilisis de funciones [] Inidativa personal Q Otro______ 4.3 £Su organizacidn ha desarrollado programas de computacidn internamente, para uso propio, y con que fin? 4.3 iCdmo se mantiene la capadtaddn del personal? Cursos Cursos ofreddos Entrenamiento Q internos [] fuera de la organizacidn Q informal [] Otro 4.4 jCdmo mantienen al dia sus conoamientos sobre nuevos productos y sistemas en materia de informdtica? Sigue... Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 50 5. Comentarios Adicionales 5.1 Por favor utilize este espado para agregar cuaiquier otro comentano u observadbn que crea pertmente ai temai i I i i I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of 8 19 39 % % Level Tertiary Education 1990 Age in Group 5154 12 56 26 62 8 58 50 75 n.a. n.a. 53 49 46 n.a. 45 47 62 44 % of GDP Services as 96 n.a. 68 (%) 1990 Adult Literacy 1,210 81 49 2,790 93 52 6,350 2,840 93 2,900 95 1991 1970 1991 13,200 n.a. GIMP APPENDIX 3 180 2,160 90 47 110 640 2,170 96 480 12,890 450 1962 n.a. - information not available 1 1 51 380 99 407 8,512 240 2,767 Area sq km) (thousands 3.1 4.4 5.8 2.8 S J 177 sso Comparative Facts and Figures from Selected Countries 13.0 757 570 32.0 43.3 150.0 (millions) Population CHILE KOREA BRAZIL SOUTH URUGUAY PARAGUAY SINGAPORE ARGENTINA HONG KONG X. COSTA RICA Source: WorldDevelopment Report, 1993.115] Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX 4 1993 Study Plan at the Universidad Catolica de Uruguay "Damaso Antonio Larranaga" FIRST YEAR First Semester Second Semester Introduction to Informatics I Introduction to Informatics II Calculus Mathematical Analysis I Lineal Algebra I Lineal Algebra II Logic Introduction to Digital Electronics Technical English SECOND YEAR First Semester Second Semester Systems Architecture Operating Systems Data Structures I Data Structures II Mathematical Analysis II Statistics I Logic Epistemology THIRD YEAR First Semester Second Semester Systems Analysis I Project Database Systems Design Artificial Intelligence Information Systems Numeric Calculus Statistics II Telematics Philosophical Anthropology FOURTH YEAR First Semester Second Semester Operations Research I Operations Research II Programming Language Theory Systems Analysis II Computer Networks Applied Mathematics Production Systems Financial Analysis FIFTH YEAR First Semester Second Semester Simulation and Modelling Expert Systems Systems Auditing Project Evaluation Graphics Computing Research Methodologies Special Topics I Special Topics Graduate Thesis Source: Informatics Engineering Dept., Universidad Catdlica del Uruguay 52 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX 5 Schematic View of URUCIB Agency Agency Agency Data Transfer Process Data validation, pre-filtering, and maintenance process Database Data querying and presentation process MANAGEMENT CENTER Source: ’URUCIB: An EiS in the Presidency of the Republic of Uruguay." [16] 53 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX 6 Government Ministries and Agencies Surveyed by CONADI 1. Administracidn Nacional de Puertos - ANP 2. Administracion de Ferrocarriles del Estado - AFE 3. Administracion Nacional de Combustibles, Alcohol y Portland (ANCAP) 4. Administracion Nacional de Teltibnos - ANTEL 5. Banco Central del Uruguay - BCU 6. Banco de Prevision Social - BPS 7. Banco de Seguros del Estado - BSE 8. Banco de la Republica Oriental del Uruguay - BROU 9. Companla del Gas 10. Contaduria General de la Nation - CGN 11. Intendencia Municipal de Montevideo - IMM 12. Ministerio de Defensa Nacional - MDN 13. Ministerio de Education y Cultura - MEC 14. Ministerio de Ganaderia, Agricultura y Pesca 15. Ministerio de Industria, Energfa y Mineria - MIEM 16. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores - MRE 17. Ministerio de Salud Publica 18. Ministerio de Trabajo y Seguridad Social - MTSS 19. Ministerio de Transporte y Obras Publicas - MTOP 20. Ministerio de Turismo - MTOP 21. Ministerio del Interior 22. Oficina de Planeamiento y Presupuesto - OPP 23. Obras Sanitarias del Estado - OSE 24. Palacio Legislative 25. Primeras Lineas Uruguayas de Navegacion Aerea - PLUNA 26. Poder Judicial 27. Tribunal de Cuentas 28. Universidad de la Republica - URU 29. Usinas y Tel6fonos del Estado - UTE 54 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. REFERENCES [1] Porter, Michael E. 1990. The Competitive Advantage of Nations. New York: The Free Press. [2] The World Bank. 1992. The World Bank Atlas. (25th Anniversary Edition). Washington, DC. [3] Snoeck, Michele, Judith Sutz and Andrea Vigorito. 1993. Tecnologia de punta en un pais subdesarrollado: la industria electronica en el Uruguay." Desarrollo Economico: Revista de Ciencias Sociales. No. 129, Vol. 33. abril-junio 1993. Buenos Aires, Argentina. [4] Mussio, Juan Carlos. Director of Informatics, OPP. Interview by author, Montevideo, Uruguay. May 25th, 1993. [5] Hanna, Nagy K. 1991. The Information Technology Revolution and Economic Development. The World Bank Discussion Papers No. 120. The World Bank: Washington, DC. [6] "Uruguay-Paraguay 3rd Quarter, 1993." Country Report. The Economist Intelligence Unit, London. [7] Government of Uruguay - Presidential Decree No. 584/990, dated June 27, 1990 [8] Delpiazzo, Carlos. 1992. "Teoria y practica en la lucha contra la piraterfa del software." Protection Juridica del Software. Fundacion de Cultura Universitaria. Montevideo, Uruguay. [9] Roberto Mejias and Melissa Rigg. "Information Technology in Uruguay and Paraguay: A Study in Contrasts." (Tucson: University of Arizona, 1991). Photocopied. [10] World Development Report: Investing in Health. 1993. Washington, DC: The World Bank. [11] CONADI. Conclusiones del Seminario "Aportes para una politica nacional de informdtica." 1991. Montevideo, Uruguay. [12] "Uruguay vende inteligencia al mundo." El Dia (Montevideo), agosto 22, 1993. [13] IBM del Uruguay and Artech Consultores, Ltda. "Genexus." CONTACTO. marzo 1990. Montevideo, Uruguay. [14] Gayoso, Manuel. Director of AT&G Informdtica. Interview by author, Montevideo, Uruguay. May 26th, 1993. 55 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 56 [15] Agha, S.S. Sustainability of Information Systems in DevelopingCountries: An Appraisal and Suggested Courses of Action. International Development and Research Center (IDRC). Ottawa, MR 316e, May 1992. [16] Mody, Ashoka and Carl Dahlman. Performance and PotentialTnfnrmatinn of Technology: An International Perspective. World Development, Special Issue, vol. 20, no. 12. Dec. 1992. [17] Repetto, Luis. Informatics Manager for ANTEL. Interview by author, Montevideo, Uruguay. May 27th, 1993. [18] Plan de Desregularizacion del Comercio Exterior y las Inversiones (PLADES). 1991. Sistema de promotion de inversiones de Uruguay: analisis v propuestas de reforma. Presidencia de la Republica. December 1991. [19] Del Campo, Fernando. Director, URUDATA, S.R.L. Interview by author, Montevideo, Uruguay. May 25, 1993. [20] Turkey: Informatics and Economic Modernization. 1993. A World Bank Country Study: Washington, DC [21] Ganon, Elena. 1989. "Sistema de Information Ejecutivo URUCIB: Una Breve Description." Unpublished paper. [22] Preliminary results from IT Survey conducted by the CONADI. July 1993. [23] Vina, A.R. Director, Survey Center. Interview by Melissa Rigg and Roberto Mejias. Montevideo, Uruguay. 1991. [24] Miller, Arnold. 1993. "Building a Modem Electronics Industry." Developing the Electronics Industry: A World Bank Symposium, ed. Bjom Wellenius, Arnold Miller, and Carl J. Dahlman, pp. 15-28. Washington, DC: The World Bank. [25] Schware, Robert. The World Software Industry and Software Engineering: Opportunities and Constraints for Newly Industrialized Economies. World Bank Technical Paper No. 104. 1989. The World Bank: Washington, DC. [26] Uruguay: Economic Report. A World Bank Country Study. 1993. [27] Saravia, Enrique. 1992. "Los sistemas de education superior en los paises del Mercosur: elementos fimdamentales y bases para su integration. ” Organizacion de Estados Americanos (OEA): Washington, DC. [28] ORT: Escuela de Sistemas de Computation. 3/1993. Brochure. [29] Brochu, Earl. 1993. "New JAD Approach Taking Shape.” Computing Canada, v.19, no. 15. July 19, 1993. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 57 [30] Landen, Delmar L. and Gayle A. Landen. "Understanding - and improving - organizations through cybernetics." National Productivity Review, v. 10, no. 1. Winter 1991. [31] Folio UNIX del Uruguay. 1991. Brochure. [32] Observador Economico (Montevideo), junio 25, 1993. [33] Luna, Osvaldo. IT Advisor, CONADI. Interview by author, Montevideo, Uruguay. May 27th, 1993. [34] Consejo Directivo Central, Facultad de Ingenieria, URU. Plan de Estudios: Carrera de Ingenieria en Computaddn. 1987. [35] CONADI, 1992. "Jomadas de Informatica en la Administracion Publica (JLAP ’92)." Proceedings of Symposium. [36] "Centres de Computaci6n Cubriran 30% de Alumnos." El Pais (Montevideo), mayo 31, 1993. [37] "Brainpower." Fortune Magazine. June 3, 1991, p.50. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.