Migration: A COMPAS Anthology

Edited by Bridget Anderson & Michael Keith Published by COMPAS 2014 Edited by: Bridget Anderson and Michael Keith

Copyright © COMPAS 2014

Migration: A COMPAS Anthology is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 444 Castro Street, Suite 900, Mountain View, California, 94041, USA.

Published by the ESRC Centre on Migration, Policy and Society (COMPAS) University of Oxford, 58 Banbury Road, Oxford, OX2 6QS Tel.: +44 (0) 1865 274711 Fax.: +44 (0) 1865 274718 Email: [email protected]

COMPAS is an ESRC funded research centre based in the School of Anthropology at the University of Oxford The mission of COMPAS is to conduct high quality research in order to develop theory and knowledge, inform policy-making and public debate, and engage users of research within the field of migration. www.compasanthology.com

ISBN: 978-1-907271-03-8

Cover design: Finbar Mulholland, WeCreate Design Typesetting: Mikal Mast, COMPAS Printed and bound by Hunts - paper & pixels Contents

Introduction...... i Beyond Rules...... 2 Beyond Contract...... 32 Keeping Time...... 52 Representations: Power and Pitfalls...... 72 Troubling Bodies...... 96 Troubling Emotions...... 117 Making Politics...... 142 Rescaling and Re-placing...... 172 Routes and Reading out of this Anthology...... 202

Contributors

Nazneen Ahmed is Research Assistant Katharine Charsley is Senior Lecturer Alan Gamlen is Senior Lecturer in the in the Faculty of History, University of in the School of Sociology, Politics and School of Geography, Environment and Oxford. International Studies, University of Bristol. Earth Sciences, Victoria University of Ash Amin is Professor of Geography at Nick Clark is Senior Research Fellow Wellington. the University of Cambridge. at the Working Lives Research Institute, Jane Garnett is Fellow and Tutor in Bridget Anderson is Professor of London Metropolitan University. Modern History at Wadham College, Migration and Citizenship at the University Robin Cohen is Emeritus Professor and Oxford. of Oxford, and Deputy Director of Former Director of the International Andrew Geddes is Professor in Politics at COMPAS. Migration Institute, University of Oxford. the University of Sheffield. Joaquín Arango is Professor of Sociology Phillip Cole is Professor of Applied Matthew Gibney is Associate Professor at the Complutense University of Madrid. Philosophy at the University of South of Politics and Forced Migration at the Madeleine Arnot is Professor of Wales. University of Oxford Sociology of Education at the University Cathryn Costello is Andrew W. Mellon Ben Gidley is Senior Researcher at of Cambridge. University Lecturer in International Human COMPAS. Les Back is Professor of Sociology at Rights and Refugee Law at the University Sander L. Gilman is distinguished Goldsmiths, University of London. of Oxford. Professor of the Liberal Arts and Sciences Michelle Bastian is a Chancellor’s Fellow Rosie Cox is Reader in Geography and and Professor of Psychiatry at Emory at the Edinburgh College of Art, University Gender Studies at Birkbeck College, University. of Edinburgh. University of London. Nina Glick Schiller is Professor of Mette Berg is a Lecturer in the François Crépeau holds the Hans and Social Anthropology at the University of Anthropology of Migration at the Tamar Oppenheimer Chair in Public Manchester. University of Oxford. International Law at McGill University. Melanie Griffiths is ESRC Future Scott Blinder is Director of the Migration Gina Crivello is Research Officer in the Research Leaders Fellow at the University Observatory at the University of Oxford. Department of International Development, of Bristol. University of Oxford. Linda Bosniak is Distinguished Professor Suzanne M. Hall is Lecturer in Sociology at Rutgers University School of Law. Nicholas de Genova is Reader in and Research Fellow at the London School Urban Geography in the Department of of Economics. Jo Boyden is a Professor in the Department Geography, King’s College London. of International Development, University Sondra Hausner is University Lecturer of Oxford, and Director of Young Lives. Hein de Haas is Co-Director of the in the Study of Religion, University of International Migration Institute. Oxford. Michelle Buckley is Assistant Professor in the Department of Human Geography, Franck Düvell is Senior Researcher at Dirk Hoerder is Distinguished Visiting University of Toronto. COMPAS. Professor at Arizona State University. Mano Candappa is Senior Research Dace Dzenovska is Senior Researcher and Vanessa Hughes is Research Officer at Officer at the Institute of Education, Marie Curie Fellow at COMPAS. COMPAS. University of London. David Feldman is Rouse Ball Professor Engin Isin holds a Chair in Citizenship and Alessio Cangiano is Senior Lecturer in the of English Law at the University of is Professor of Politics and International School of Economics, University of the Cambridge. Studies (POLIS), Open University. South Pacific. Leslie Fesenmyer is Research Officer and Hiranthi Jayaweera is Senior Researcher Stephen Castles holds a Research Chair in ESRC Future Research Leaders Fellow at at COMPAS. Sociology at the University of Sydney. COMPAS. Ole Jensen is Research Officer at Mark Freedland is Reader in Employment COMPAS. Law at the University of Oxford. Michael Keith is Director of COMPAS Ferruccio Pastore is Director of FIERI Shamser Sinha is Senior Lecturer in and holds a Personal Chair in the (International and European Forum for Sociology and Youth Studies at the School Department of Anthropology, University Migration Research). of Applied Social Sciences, University of Oxford. Davide Però is Lecturer in the School of Campus Suffolk Shahram Khosravi is Associate Professor Sociology and Social Policy, University of AbdouMaliq Simone is Professor of in the Department of Social Anthropology, Nottingham. Sociology at Goldsmiths College, University Stockholm University. Ida Persson, is Research and of London. Russell King is Professor of Geography at Communications Officer at COMPAS. John Solomos is Professor of Sociology at the University of Sussex. Deborah Phillips is Visiting Professor Warwick University. Clara Lecadet is Postdoctoral Researcher at the School of Geography and the Sarah Spencer is Senior Fellow and former in the Laboratoire d’Anthropologie Urbaine, Environment, University of Oxford. Deputy Director at COMPAS. CNRS. Halleli Pinson is Senior Lecturer in the John Urry is Distinguished Professor of Eithne Luibhéid is Associate Professor Department of Education, Ben-Gurion Sociology at Lancaster University. of Gender and Women’s Studies at the University of the Negev. Nicholas Van Hear is Senior Researcher University of Arizona. Jonathan Portes is Director of the and Deputy Director at COMPAS. Philip Martin is Professor of Agricultural National Institute of Economic and Social Carlos Vargas-Silva is Senior Researcher and Resource Economics at the University Research, London. at the Migration Observatory, University of of California, Davis. Jonathan Price is Research Officer at Oxford. Mikal Mast is PR and Communications COMPAS. Ellie Vasta is Associate Professor of Social Officer at COMPAS. David Robinson is Director of the Inclusion at Macquarie University. Linda McDowell is Professor of Human Centre for Regional Economic and Social Steven Vertovec is Director at the Max Geography at the University of Oxford. Research, Sheffield Hallam University Planck Institute for the Study of Religious Sonia McKay is Senior Research Fellow Ben Rogaly is Professor of Human and Ethnic Diversity, Göttingen. at the Working Lives Research Institute, Geography at the University of Sussex. Bastian Vollmer is Leverhulme Research London Metropolitan University. Alisdair Rogers is Senior Tutor at Keble Fellow at COMPAS. Rob McNeil is Head of Media and College, Oxford. Iain Walker is Senior Researcher at Communications at the Migration Martin Ruhs is University Lecturer in COMPAS. Observatory, University of Oxford. Political Economy in the Department Fiona Williams is Professor of Social Michael Nausner is Professor of for Continuing Education, University of Policy and International Professorial Systematic Theology and Dean of Oxford and Senior Researcher at COMPAS. Research Fellow at the University of Leeds. International Affairs at the Reutlingen Bernard Ryan is Professor of Migration School of Theology. Chris Wilson is University Lecturer in Law at the University of Leicester. Demography and Professorial Fellow at Emma Newcombe is Head of External P. W. A. (Peter) Scholten is Assistant Nuffield College, Oxford. Relations at COMPAS. Professor of Public Policy and Politics at Amanda Wise is Associate Professor of Roger Norum is Postdoctoral Research the Erasmus University of Rotterdam. Sociology at Macquarie University. Fellow at the Faculty of English, University Liza Schuster is Reader in Sociology at of Leeds. Cynthia Wright teaches at York University, City University London. Toronto. Caroline Oliver is Senior Researcher at Nandita Sharma is Associate Professor COMPAS. Carol Wolkowitz is Reader in the of Sociology at the University of Hawaii at Department of Sociology, University of Aihwa Ong is Professor of Anthropology Manoa. Warwick. and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Isabel Shutes is Assistant Professor in California, Berkeley. Xiang Biao is University Lecturer in Social Social Policy at the London School of Anthropology at the University of Oxford. Julia O’Connell Davidson is Professor of Economics and Political Science. Sociology at the University of Nottingham. Nando Sigona is Birmingham Fellow and Lecturer at the University of Birmingham. Acknowledgements

The production of an anthology requires far more skills Ida also managed the two poetry competitions that than editing. We would like to acknowledge and thank the were initiated specifically for this volume, judged by outstanding COMPAS communications team, managed Keble fellows Erica McAlpine and Matthew Bevis, and by Emma Newcombe, both for the work that has gone poet Ruth Padel. Supported by Keble College Oxford, into this volume, but also for their work over the years, Erica and Matthew also generously donated their time, which has contributed significantly to the profile and skills and knowledge to provide the prize of a poetry accessibility of COMPAS research. workshop for the young people whose poetry was More particularly we would like to thank Mikal Mast, shortlisted. We would like to thank the entrants and COMPAS PR and Communications Officer, for the judges from all our photograph and poetry competitions layout and design, and for rising to the challenging task of over the years. Special thanks are owed to Ruth Padel for co-ordinating the anthology, managing communications permission to reprint her poem, The Prayer Labyrinth. with contributors, copy editors and printers, and keeping We thank the Economic and Social Research Council us all to time. We thank Finbar Mulholland for designing (ESRC) for the ten year research centre grant that has the cover and the web-based version of this publication. facilitated COMPAS’ work and the creation of this Roger Norum did an excellent copy editing job, while volume. We are also grateful to Oxford University’s at the same time finishing off his PhD. We are grateful School of Anthropology and Museum Ethnography for that he submitted on time. Sophie Martin formatted the the many ways in which they have supported us, including bibliography and proofread (while also decyphering some providing us with accommodation and administrative very poor handwriting), Richard Allen also proofread, and support. In this vein, our work would not be possible Leslie Day photocopied entries and made sure they did without the commitment of key members of staff, not get lost. Ali Rogers, who has always been a stalwart including Victoria Kingsman and Robert McNeil. friend of COMPAS, gave constructive comments on the Finally, we would like to thank the contributors for introduction and the bibliography, at very short notice. the enthusiasm with which they entered into the project, Also deserving of thanks are Mette Berg, Dace and all members of the COMPAS team, past and present, Dzenovska, Julia Morris, Nick Van Hear and Xiang Biao, for their commitment and contribution to the study of all at COMPAS, for their assistance with the bibliography. migration. We hope that this anthology reflects some of Ida Persson, COMPAS Research and Communications those efforts. As always, those who are unnamed have Officer, managed the annual photograph competition, also provided help, support and inspiration in many and Ingrid Pollard, Rachel Jones and Paul Halliday have different ways. served as judges in different years.

Introduction Bridget Anderson and Michael Keith

1. A Decade of Migration has already restructured traditional social and economic ‘Migration’ is a difficult word. Difficult because it relations. Migrants themselves, internal and international, encompasses a vast array of interlinked phenomena, are increasingly vocal. Migration is set to be a key political none of which are clearly explained by the word itself, issue into the future. The proportion of people that move and because it is a political, social, economic, historical, internationally, approximately 3 per cent of the world’s anthropological, geographical, demographic and global population, has remained relatively stable for a considerable developmental issue. Furthermore, it touches people all period of time. Yet it seems that the meaning, significance over the world personally in myriad ways. Harnessing and constitution of such movement have changed both public issues and private problems, mass migration in the the way in which we consider our present and the calculus last decade has attracted political controversy in the global through which we conceptualise the future. north, been at the heart of vigorous urban agglomeration Technology and economic growth has meant that in the BRICs and the global south, and mushroomed travel has become easier, in Europe particularly for people academic analysis and public scrutiny. Its associations with from former Communist states. Some borders have economic growth and development, with security, crime fallen; for example European Union (EU) enlargement in and political conflict, and with changing demographics 2004 and 2007 (and now in 2014) eventually facilitated and communities have excited often furious debate, free movement for EU citizens across 28 member states particularly in what The Economist calls ‘the rich world’. of the European Union. At the same time, states are The 2003 Global Commission on International Migration, ever more concerned to manage migration. In place of a UN high level dialogue in 2006, and the establishment the Iron Curtain we have new walls – according to one of the Global Forum on Migration and Development in estimate, 6,000 miles of walls have been built in the past 2007 have kept migration on the international agenda. decade to divide territory and population, from the West Significant economic changes and shifts in power have Bank to India, to the US and to South Africa, oftentimes themselves given rise to or been facilitated by population turning mobility or walking to work into ‘migration’. Walls movements and the global move to the city. Such moves and borders are not impermeable, however, but rather, to may be within as well as across international borders. In use Balibar’s term, ‘polysemic’. While for some travellers China, rapid economic development has been fuelled by a they are impassable, patrolled with guns, detectors and massive rural-urban movement of people. While Europe unnavigable bureaucracies, for others these same borders has 35 cities of at least a million people, by 2025 China will are barely noticeable, requiring nothing more than a have an estimated 225, and India’s number will have grown nod to a security guard. More particularly, travel for the from 42 to 68. By 2030, some 350 million more people will wealthy has usually been easier than travel for the poor. live in Chinese cities. And though growth in Indian cities The 1905 UK Aliens Act did not apply to those travelling is driven more by expanding urban populations and the first class, and in November 2013 UK Home Secretary reclassification of formerly rural land, the move to the city Theresa May announced the launch of the invitation i only ‘GREAT club’, a fast track premium visa service for Migrants Trade Union (MTU), for example, is a union elite business executives coming to Britain. This is not a established for and by migrant workers in South Korea. phenomenon restricted to the UK. Several EU states now As well as self-organising, there has been a growth in offer permanent residence to those who can afford to the numbers and types of organisations working with pay for it: in Spain, investors spending €500,000 or more migrants. Some national trades unions have developed on residential real estate or a portfolio of properties are considerably by organising migrant workers and admitting eligible for the “Spanish golden visa” meaning they and them into their ranks. The gradual softening of attitude their family can live and run a business in Spain. Portugal by the American Federation of Labor and Congress of and Ireland run similar programmes. In Malta a person Industrial Organizations, and their split with the ‘change who pays €650,000 (plus €25,000 each for any spouse to win’ trades unions in the US, for example, spurred or minor children) can be granted Maltese citizenship, immigration reform possibilities and new thinking in the provided they meet due diligence criteria and pass a American legislature. criminal background check. Cyprus too offers ‘citizenship by investment’. 2. Beyond the Empirical In the face of ever more diverse attempts to check and Mobility has ineluctably slipped many of its descriptive to channel flows of people, mobility itself has continued. typologies. This challenges the ways in which scholarship In 2012 there were approximately 365,000 apprehensions is structured by both analytical lenses and empirical of undocumented migrants by US border agents at the evidence, how we make sense of the world both through US-Mexico border alone. Such attempts at control can gathering ‘data’ and the analytical frames which make such be at terrible cost: 477 deaths at the US southern border data meaningful. Analyses of migration were for years in 2012 and an estimated 16,000 deaths at the borders premised on a distinction between the refugee/‘forced of Europe between 1993 and 2012. Thus, enforcement migrant’ and the economic migrant. This distinction and control run alongside concerns about the human was formalised in the 1951 Refugee Convention and key rights of migrants and abuse of migrant workers: to structuring international policies on the governance conditions endured by workers in the Gulf States, and by of mobility, but in the past decade academic attempts (undocumented) workers in Europe, the US and across to describe and analyse these phenomena have moved Asia, and the treatment of asylum seekers have given rise further and further away from the refugee/economic to a sustained growth of campaigning around the human migrant binary. There have also been significant moves rights of migrants, against deportation and detention, beyond old push-pull paradigms. New approaches in the and in support of mobility. Grassroots activism may be social sciences of the 1990s reconceptualised the building driven by the engagement of migrants themselves. The blocks of ‘society’ – transnationalism, super-diversity, ‘DREAMers’ movement in the US in recent years drew autonomy of migration, and a rediscovery of the urban. on the self-selected ‘outing’ that structured the politics Conceptual rethinking in turn challenged what it might of sexuality to promote migrant rights of the children of mean both to dwell and to be mobile, forcing migration undocumented residents. Migrant workers have formed studies to transcend a methodological nationalism that their own trades unions – the Seoul-Gyeonggi-Incheon once saw the world through a Westphalian lens of separate ii and discrete nation states (with distinct populations), and in the 1990s the invisibility of gender in migration policy to begin to rethink the geometries and temporalities of and analysis was rectified by ‘adding women and stirring’, networks, circuits, propensities and flows of mobility. there is a reaching towards the beginnings of theorisation While these represent very different schools of thought of subject making, considering how queer migrations on migration, they all demand a rethinking of the nature disrupt gender binaries and categories completely, and of the relation between the individual/family, the state, interrogating the different ways that gender is constructed and the nation; between identity, sovereignty and place, at borders. foregrounding questions of citizenship and belonging. The arrogation of powers to keep people ‘in place’ The construction of both individual subject positions – from historical regimes of serfdom, to contemporary and collective subjects through rule, law, power and affect measures to regulate movement, to modern city forms demand an understanding in migration studies of the such as the hukou system in China – all define who is propensity of people to act as well as their demonstrated and who is not a migrant in relation to regional, national patterns of movement. The latter privileges an empirical and municipal governance of scarce public goods subdiscipline that measures movements in numbers, with and ideologies of nation or belonging. However, the data that is invariably flawed and incomplete. The former mechanisms of state power have long been made more provokes a social science that takes the very definition complex through the contingent formations of both of the migrant as problematic and shifts attention on to the institutions of governance and the subjects of their contested theoretical framings of regimes of citizenship, logics of governmentality. The flow of bodies is regulated freedoms to move and the unintended consequences of through regimes of the biopolitical as well as through migration’s externalities. Both are necessary to compose the more arbitrary deployment of powers of allocation a picture of contemporary migration, but this theoretical and coercion by the state. How individuals, families and turn we suggest moves us beyond the empirical (or networks come to consider themselves to be connected, occasionally empiricist) inflection of some migration to share a propensity to move, to trigger relationalities studies scholarship. between virtual exchange and chains of mobility reflect For many years, the theory, practice and policy particular configurations of technology and regulation. of citizenship was insulated from migration research The externalities of the migration process may be (though not from the lives of migrants), but the two now priced or regulated through state arbitration but, as inform each other far more closely, with some scholars Nobel laureate Elinor Ostrom remarked, the challenge arguing that citizenship offers new possibilities for the of common pool resources is made much more complex developing politics of migration, and others that it is in the context of new arrivals triggered by migration necessary to think beyond citizenship. This is part of a flows. For example, moral categories of eligibility for more general move to break out of the constraints of welfare may inadvertently favour or discriminate against border thinking, and to embrace the scholarship of the the migrant. Systems that are based primarily on a social sciences that constructs individual and collective contributory contract – that those deemed worthy of human subjects through complexities of institutional welfare support must have paid in before they claim – forms and path-dependent specificity. For example, while inevitably favour those who have remained in a single iii nation state. Systems that allocate resources – be it open to social science and to the humanities, so it schooling, subsidized housing, unemployment insurance challenges the way in which we think of some of the or public and private health – principally according to foundational concepts of the social sciences and the measures of social need, may favour the new arrival humanities. more. At times this can be contentious – as when new Conceptually, conventional academic disciplinary arrivals with vulnerable children claim access to scarce boundaries and a language of national economies resources, such as school places, subsidized shelter or and nation states look increasingly limited in a world social housing. At other times it can hide alternative characterised by flows of people as well as capital. rationalities. Public health concerns over communicable The large majority of humanity continues to stay in disease may trump categories of rationed access to a single state for most, if not all, of their lives, but in medical care when it becomes in the interests of all this new context, how do we understand economic to prevent major outbreaks of ill health rather than performance and sustainable growth, and how do we differentiate between the eligibility criteria of migrants theorise sociologies and economies of the nation state in and local people. The promotion of competitiveness an era marked by geographical mobility of ‘non-citizen’ at the scale of the city may sit in tension with national workers, free flows of Foreign Direct Investment and or regional policy, or regulated freedoms of locational by organizational forms of transnational corporations? preference. The institutional foundations of comparative If one high-tech worker moves between jobs for a advantage may generate varieties of capitalism that limited time within a single corporation in two different structure markets and valorize migrant labour differently. international spaces, and another moves between two Trade-offs between the openness to admitting migrants companies operating online in a virtual global space and migrant rights in liberal democracies may in turn while living in the same country, which is the migrant? structure potential flows of people and the possible as What does this mean for the obligations of one country well as the actual phenomena of those who stay or are to educate future generations in a national context when left behind, as well as those who move. significant fractions of the labour force might have been In each case, the data that is so essential to critical educated elsewhere? How does economics prioritise judgement and becomes grist to the mill of scholarly the development of human capital and the support of inquiry can mislead, as empirical inquiry potentially slips national workers and companies, whilst maximising the into empiricist scholarship and the positivist fallacy that comparative advantage of a flexible economy attracting to measure all is to know all. Migration, like all fields of the ‘best and brightest’ and competing for global human and social sciences, demands a careful balance investment? How do strong affiliations to both local between a scientific measurement of data and a nuanced neighbourhoods and global diasporas reframe what we understanding of the institutions that structure human mean by ‘the social’ and ideas of political community? behaviour. How are the arithmetical calculations of social policy that structure logics of rationing scarce public goods 3. Migration and the Social Sciences challenged by international mobility? How are welfare nets As the study and analysis of migration becomes more made politically legitimate in the context of newly mobile iv demographics across the medium term? What challenges shape political community to reflect the plural scales of do migration-driven diversities pose to the creation of neighbourhood, municipality and nation? How do we the good society? What do new transnationalisms (and organise an understanding of citizenship that recognises complex new configurations of the field in anthropology) the obligations of international law, the principles of mean for ideas of ‘culture’, and how do they relate to new human rights, and the geographical and historical realities conflicts and intercultural dialogues? How do legal and of mobility? democratic institutions respond to and shape these drivers Policy agendas across the rest of the world reflect of economic globalisation and diasporic identities, which this combination of generic pattern and geographical/ are influencing behavioural norms and gender relations, historical specificity. Liberalisation of trade sits uneasily, at and informing interventions? times, with the development of local human capital: brain Practically, new social science paradigms must address drain is offset by remittances which may diminish with questions arising from the globalisation of mobility. How time, flight and exit may serve as an alternative to political will new cartographies of development structure future reform and local social movements. Diasporic politics patterns of migration? What is the relation between can create new geometries of political engagement across migration and the management of global markets? How transnational networks of influence. Gender relations, does massive urbanisation reframe our understanding kinship, and the family may be stretched and reinvented of the social, the economic and the political? What do for better or for worse in time and space through the migration’s challenges to sovereignty and territoriality process of movement. Quantitative national measures of mean for the relation between (non-)citizen, state and social mobility, which mark how one generation fares in nation? How do changes in the way we think about the comparison with the next, are potentially undermined by future reconfigure the geometries of collective wellbeing? migration. If first-generation migrants occupy positions In formulating policy interventions, the UK faces where they are commonly overskilled – engineers driving particular challenges. The 2011 Census has revealed the New York cabs, doctors cleaning floors in the financial growth of super-diverse local areas and neighbourhoods districts of Europe – their own class position and their ,but integration and cohesion remain major public childrens’ may be hard to define. Social capital may concerns, placing emergent identities of ethnicity and trump objective class or status position, juxtaposing faith at the heart of social policy concerns. In contrast problematics of social and geographical mobility. to most other countries, demographic changes in the UK in the last decade have been driven principally by 4. The Rationale of the Anthology international migration. How does the UK promote the To understand mobility we have to transcend interests of workers and companies, particularly when boundaries:territorial, disciplinary and professional. they act globally? How does international migration Post-war 20th-century scholarship tended to privilege a structure public debates about the UK’s place in the study of migration as movement between free standing EU, the evolution of nationalism, and devolution? What nation states, with a once and for always commitment are the options for Britain in a Europe where the free to a new country, notwithstanding the complexities of movement of people is a fundamental right? How do we free, forced, family, temporary and permanent flows that v long characterized the complexity of the process. But for of previous work, but often contributors responded by the study of the contemporary moment we need to think saying that they would like to write about quite a different across different geographical scales and temporalities, subject that had caught their interest. Thus, we hope to recognizing that geography generates plural geometries have captured a transformative moment in the decade and relationalities, and that history might run backwards of migration that is both contemporary and forward as much as forwards, faster at some times than at others. looking. This involves moving beyond the analytical register of Contributors did not undertake to write on the the nation state, beyond the Eurocentric focus of the themes through which we have organised the text, such ivory tower, and beyond a privileging of the empirical as ‘Troubling bodies’ or ‘Keeping Time’. The structure field. of the anthology has consequently arisen from the pieces, In this anthology, we start from a recognition that rather than the contributions being shaped for particular the sense in which the conceptualization of migration headings. Many pieces could fit under more than one as a singular process (itself always a simplification) is heading, and the headings themselves are interrelated: increasingly nuanced by the manner in which mobility is how can we separate bodies from representation, or time increasingly qualified. It is qualified by the complexities from place? The style varies, some contributors have of its geographies and the plurality of its histories – the extemporized, others have outlined and described. All selective permeability of destinations, and the rights contributors were asked to make short entries prompting and freedoms of places of origins and arrival; the further reading and reflection. Put together we hope contingencies of the future home, the presence of past that they provoke new insights and suggest new ways of elsewheres, and the multiple allegiances of diasporic and thinking, both about migration and about some of the transnational imaginaries. It is typologised by routes, foundational concepts of social science. networks and circuits. The reasons, aspirations and The anthology does not aspire to be a synthetic purposes of those who move and reactions to their overview of migration research today, nor to provide movement are similarly variable. a comprehensive range of geographical or theoretical The publication corresponds with the 10th anniversary perspectives. Instead, we hope that it might serve as a of the ESRC Centre on Migration, Policy and Society, provocation. We have chosen to publish primarily online which opportunistically – if slightly arbitrarily – offered the (although a limited number of conventional books are chance to look backwards and forwards simultaneously, available), so that the anthology might work as both linking the publication to a conference held in the an intervention and a resource. Because migration University of Oxford in February 2014. Entries are studies shares the sub-disciplinary dangers of the self- drawn principally – but not exclusively – from the work referential and the parochial, we hope that the anthology of researchers who are or who have been based at the might suggest pathways and routes of future scholarly Centre over the last decade. Their work is supplemented inquiry that draw on reflections of past research, linking by invited contributions from a range of scholars who migration as a theme to wider patterns of social change. have collaborated with and/or been admired by the team For these reasons, we have combined academic prose at the Centre. Pieces were commissioned on the basis with a selection of photographic images drawn from vi the annual COMPAS photography competition over restrictions, and as citizens are ever more deeply implicated recent years, and selected of poems drawn from poetry in immigration enforcement. When external borders competitions for adults and children run this year, which become more permeable, internal borders are often were kindly judged by two members of Keble College, tightened, and there is increased interest in examining Oxford, Dr Erica McAlpine and Dr Matthew Bevis, and post-entry controls governing welfare benefits, labour by novelist, critic and author, Ruth Padel, who has kindly rights and the right to settlement and citizenship. This added one poem to the collection. has received particular academic and political attention Sub-discipline conventions commonly betray within the European Union, and rights to free movement disciplinary roots, but we have nevertheless tried to of all European Economic Area (EEA) citizens within provide a general resource, and to link material to further the EU have run alongside ‘habitual residence’ tests for reading which might be taken up by people inside and accessing welfare benefits. This has implications for outside the academy. In deciding to publish online using nationals: in Italy, local residence requirements, which principles of a creative commons license, we intend to had hitherto been a formality, are increasingly drawn on make material as widely available as possible. We hope to police the claims of international migrants in response that the anthology will thus serve as a resource for to populist anxiety. This has had a significant impact on teaching and research: a grab bag to dip into as much as a Italian internal migrants, who may be from Italy but who text from which to teach. are not ‘local’. So, even as they are shored up, the borders between the citizen and non-citizen are revealed as ever 5. Towards Provocation more fragile. The tension between citizenship rights and human rights, or between citizenship and equality, has Beyond Rules been the focus of considerable interest in political theory, International migrants are made, in large part, by laws and looks to be moving centre stage in political debate as and the imbricated powers of borders and sovereignty. detention, deportation and hostility to migrants increases, Migrants are not simply governed by laws, but constructed raising concerns about discrimination and fairness. by them, and immigration controls are not only about admittance but about the creation of particular types of Keeping Time relations. This places the state at the heart of immigration How long a person stays or intends to stay is an important studies. Yet the state has often been under theorised qualifier in the distinction between the mobile and the in migration analyses, either treated as a neutral arbiter migrant. States not only control migration through refusal between the competing forces of capitalism, democracy or granting of entry, but also through imposing temporal and nationhood, or as an instrument of brutal coercion, requirements. Liberal democracies can be averse to intervening from a position somehow outside ‘society’. ethnic citizenship, and often restrict access to nationality However, there is a move towards more nuanced through ever more stringent conditions regarding length approaches to analyzing the state and its relation to of stay. More generally, states govern through temporal migration, not least as popular hostility to immigration devices and rationalities. Institutions such as the school, is increasingly invoked as a reason for heightened the university, the factory, the city hall, the hospital and vii the prison sustain temporal logics, turning time into waged and undocumented may be more immediate, the place-specific rhythms. Regarding migrants in particular, horizon of possibility foreshortened: temporalities of bureaucratic procedures are marked by different and just in time and getting by that generate alternative tactics sometimes contradictory tempos, with time traps set, in of the quotidian, choreographies of everyday life that use deadlines that are simply impossible to meet. With some the propensity of the city to hide the stranger and the notable exceptions, migration research has not typically freedoms of anonymity. engaged with theories of time, but equally, work that engages with the social theory of time rarely engages with Beyond Contract migration scholarship. Much of the literature on time Immigration controls are not only about the creation takes the nation state as an unexceptional container of of migrants. The contracts of citizenship, of marriage time, even as histories of mobilities inevitably historicise and of work for example are codified at the border: both state and nation. Departing from an often strongly what is citizenship, what is marriage, and what is ‘work’? imagined, if contested, past, nations increasingly look to Are the paints, carried in the bag of an artist entering the future with demographic and cultural anxiety, and as a visitor, evidence that she will break her conditions states consider the future and how it may be governed of entry? Workers and labour markets are, like migrants through a series of anticipatory actions: ‘pre-emption, and immigration, constructed in important ways by law. preparedness and precaution’ work their way through The law does not simply intervene to regulate naturally government. occurring processes of buying and selling labour, but But time is not only a matter of governance. The rather, is key to their construction in the first place. Are bringing to bear of the imagined future and of the there types of labour that should never be classified remembered past on the contemporary moment is a as ‘work’ (sex work being the most contentious and critical element of human subjectivity and agency. With consistently struggled over with respect to immigration)? this in mind, how should we understand, for example, Are there groups of people who should never be the ‘decision’ to migrate? As the originating point in a classified as ‘workers’ (children for example)? Responses series of familiar stages, rationally oriented towards some to such questions vary by state and by ‘culture’, and how intended future? Or as a much more distributed, uncertain these two domains of work and immigration intermesh, and emotional phenomenon? What are the costs and reinforce and undermine each other raises fundamental possible pleasures of states of uncertainty, waiting and policy and theoretical questions. temporariness? What does the spatial process of migration Immigration also raises questions about the nature of tell us about experiencing and passing time? Futures ‘free labour’. How is it that while liberal democracies evince present map unevenly for different migrants. The horizon horror at ‘modern day slavery’ on Gulf construction sites, of possibility for the skilled worker may involve a calculus they condone sponsorship, precarity and subcontracting? of known unknowns, a career that translates professional What does this tell us about the relation between labour, uncertainty into financial risk through rational optimising freedom and contract, particularly as migrants continue of human capital over a multi-year investment in the to queue up for the possibility to work in the Gulf and migration process. In contrast, the future for the low elsewhere? Furthermore, when does being a ‘migrant’ viii matter, and when and where are the questions of interest observation cannot be detached from the experiment. addressed that relate to the precarity and insecurity that This also has ethical ramifications: once we ask people are experienced by citizens and non-citizens alike? if they are concerned about immigration, they become concerned about immigration. The more they hear that Representations: Powers and Pitfalls others are concerned, the more concerned they become. It is not only rules that define migrants. Social scientists While representations in current affairs and journalism are beginning to acknowledge the ways in which research are often hostile, the migrant as depicted in myth and itself contributes to the making of ‘migrants’. As with in story – from soap operas to portraits, films, poems, many population groups, particularly those identified as novels, and religious allegory – is far more complex. sources of social problems, this can make the relation Exploration of migration in multiple forms, and a between research on the studied population and coming together of social science and the humanities government policy extremely delicate. Social science in exploring the experience of mobility, mark important often does not follow state definitions: the subjects new developments. The structures of feeling that such of many migration studies on integration and ‘second narratives evoke are often invoked most powerfully generation’ migrants are, in law at least, commonly through creative expression such as the poems and citizens. The burden of representation falls selectively. images incorporated into this anthology. Qualitative research, in particular, has focused on the low waged, the poor and the excluded. The wealthy and the Troubling Bodies ‘expat’ have received, surprisingly, little attention: once a The annual COMPAS photography competition, whose non-citizen is well heeled, their migrancy, it seems, is of winning entries are to be found in this volume, was initiated less interest to both state and science. partly to support the development of more creative, There are methodological implications, and migration less stereotyped images of migration. It is surprisingly research requires reflexivity, whether qualitative or difficult to acknowledge bodies in migration, because quantitative. While ethnographic or qualitative research is visual representations are freighted with assumptions and associated with interpretivism – with the researcher not anxiety about gender, class, religion, culture, identity and, separable from reality, and their subjectivity implicated encapsulating all, race: that is, anxieties about migration in the findings – survey methods, big data analysis, and and embodiment. Anxieties about the bodies of migrants certain more quantified social science disciplines tend emerge in concerns about threats to the national body: to be associated with positivism, facts, objectivity and the pregnant woman accessing health services, the rise truth. The researcher is separate and observes, and the of ‘non-white’ populations, the spread of disease, and research object has qualities that exist independently so on. Part of being a ‘migrant’ is to be marked by one’s of the researcher. However, the unavoidably politicised body, one’s way of being in the world. When people are and fuzzy definition of the migrant and the lexicon not so marked, their migration is more likely to be viewed of migration suggests that, like qualitative methods, as unremarkable. quantitative immigration research methods are not It is a truism to say that migration is about the apolitical and free from bias. Like Schrödinger’s cat, the movement of bodies; the movement of voices and minds ix through computers and telephones, like the movement ethical imperative of Levinas to recognize ‘the presence of capital, is free of many of the constraints that bind of humanity in the eyes that look at me’ is displaced by the movement of bodies. Yet it seems that bodies are the substitution of ‘faces’ by ‘hands’. In this sense, just as largely absent from immigration policy (though not the representation of the migrant is never innocent, their anti-trafficking policies), as indeed they are absent from corporeal form signifies the intersectionality of identity many state policies. Thus, the bodies of migrants and typologies of gender, class, race and sexuality, all mutually non-migrants are invisible, even as the sustaining of constituted. bodies is increasingly becoming a migrant job, creating a global demand for specifically female care workers. So, Towards Emotion for all the anxiety about migrants and the national body, Technology is facilitating the transnational spread of in policy the migrant is largely disembodied, imagined caring networks, through Skype and through email, as a rational calculator of costs and benefits, though as with families that monitor each other on screens, where feminist scholarship in a range of disciplines and sites grandparents can see and speak to their grandchildren, has demonstrated, liberal disembodiment is grounded in and share apps that allow you to kiss online: pursed lips assumptions of male and ‘fit’ bodies as the norm. setting off pairs of vibrating smart phones across the Certain skills and experiences are strongly imagined as planet. At the same time, the disembodied migrant is embodied, and migrants can be in demand as embodied typically regarded in policy as hiding suspect emotions. rather than abstracted labour. For example, UK horse Immigration officers must discover motivations and trainers claim that they need migrant work riders because intuit plans as part of their roles. In contrast, the citizen British people are ‘too large’, and owners of Asian is an emotional subject in their responses to migrants – restaurants claim that customers do not expect to be fear, anger and hostility, but also pity and compassion. served by white bodies. This makes migrants’ bodies Immigration is regularly typified as exciting ‘heated’ troublesome for policy to manage, particularly when debate, yet the relation between the study of emotion it comes to labour. Migration and immigration policy and of immigration has been underdeveloped, both reveals some serious contradictions and tensions with in relation to the emotions of the migrant, and the this, even as it promotes the idea that anybody/any body emotions of the enforcer of immigration controls. The can do low-skilled work, which is why low-skilled jobs emphasis has been, rather, on the requirement for the can be preserved for nationals. There is a longstanding cold light of reason and of objectivity, yet, according to tendency to imagine low-waged labour as disembodied, Weber, a fully developed bureaucracy is dehumanized by or as ‘hands’. As far back as his landmark 19th-century the elimination of the personal, irrational and emotional. explorations of the new industrial metropolis, Friedrich The question of whether ethics is founded on reason or Engels commented that the typical Manchester factory emotion continues to excite debate in political theory, but owner ‘cannot comprehend that he holds any other is also manifest in political practice around immigration. relation to the operative than that of purchase and sale; Apart from attitudes to migration, an exemplary he sees in them not human beings, but hands as he exception to the lack of interest in emotion is in the study constantly calls them to their faces’ . The moral power and of ‘integration’. While with respect to integration policy, x emotion has sometimes been reduced to ‘getting along oneself as a part of a native group has become an with one another’, scholarly interrogation of ‘community’ important aspect of the politics of laying claim to social, with respect to migrants, citizens and neighbourhoods cultural, economic and political resources, be it land, has practical and political ramifications. Ideas of inclusive livelihoods, social service, or a sense of home. Such communities, unmarked by hierarchies of gender, class claims of autocthony, also evident across the political and faith, are revealed as complex multi-layered relations spectrum, are often made against migrants. Those who of belonging and exclusion. Yet it is through an affective claim nativity against migrants may be the larger body of register that many of the qualifiers of belonging are citizens, but in certain parts of the world they may also expressed in everyday life – a sense of desire, a fear of be first-nation sovereignty movements. This suggests loss, the vertiginous moments of insecurity that may that the conventional understanding of colonialism, as trouble and traumatise the new arrival and the seemingly a form of foreign occupation and domination, has had settled alike. major implications for the framing and recognition of immigration and politics. Beyond Politics Migration is unavoidably political. It is not just that it is a Rescaling and Re-placing hot topic used by political parties in liberal democracies, Migration scholars, such as Nina Glick Schiller, have and by other forms of power in non-liberal democracies, long pointed out the danger of conceptualizing social in order to achieve certain political ends, but it lies at the science through a lens that studies societies contained heart of social activity and relations. If politics queries within nation states. The fallacies of methodological the constitution of the good society, then migration nationalism reflect the interconnected nature of a world amplifies some of its core questions. Who belongs? that has, in at least some senses, globalized, but this What do they belong to? Who decides? What rights and problematic is particularly pronounced in situations of obligations do belonging and not belonging carry? These migration. The consequences of migration play out at politics cannot be reduced to party politics. Indeed it different geographical scales. The movement to the city is noticeable that when it comes to immigration, those in countries such as India or China commonly involves on the right may talk about workers’ rights and welfare movements of both cultural and emotional distance states, subjects usually associated with those on the left, greater than most international migrations, and logics while those on the left often talk about efficiency and of ‘rights’, labour markets and integration that blur contribution, concerns generally associated with those the hard boundaries of intranational and international on the right. The stranger, that is the foreigner and the movement. Importantly, people move to places, to streets migrant, has the propensity to generate a mirror dance of and to towns. They do not move just to nations, and in political discourse, with left and right uncertain, flipped the moving to places and communities they also reshape around or merely a matter of perspective. them, often quite literally building places. The imperatives Central to the politics of migration are notions of of the small neighbourhood characterized by rapid social national identity, subjective and collective, and their change (including processes of migration) are logically relation to citizenship. Understanding and identifying different to those of the municipality whose economic xi growth may be fuelled by migrant labour, or the nation sciences, and raise dilemmas and trade-offs that are that contemplates its own optimum population. both ethical and scientific. The scholarship of migration The turbulence of social change in small inevitably invokes questions of the ‘ought’ as well as neighbourhoods may display strange similarities of the ‘is’. How we consider the cognitive framing of suspicion, towards cultural incomers of both and utility optimising of neoclassical economics or gentrification and new migrants from other parts of the contemporary political science, alongside the charged same continent. As Simmel argued at the turn of the last dilemmas of moral obligation, international law and the century, we should not confuse spatial distance and social weight of historical injustice challenges researchers and distance, particularly as the challenges of diversity do not the public alike to consider how commensurable these necessarily respect the passports of the single market. very different policy goals and structures of scholarship The European Union considers that movements within might be. Migration questions the fundamental relations the EU are not formally covered by policy prescriptions between people, our obligations to the stranger as well of migrant integration – a policy term reserved for as the familiar, and implies a political economy and a ‘third country nationals’. But such legal typologies and research agenda that speaks both to moral sentiments technical niceties may not reflect the social dynamics of and the hidden hand of market imperatives. In this life on the ground, where relations between strangers may sense, this anthology aims to provoke a thinking that is flourish or generate new kinds of border marking, where simultaneously analytical and normative, recognizing the a metropolitan paradox may be characterised by both logical and epistemological differences between the two, intense intercultural dialogue and nascent xenophobia in but encouraging an endeavour that strives to be up close the same space. and then at a (critical) distance from its subject matter. Of course, this indicates an entire research agenda 6. And So ... rather than the subject of an anthology, but we hope that Fundamentally, the very category of ‘migrant’ has the following pieces can suggest some ways in which the been opened up. Who has not been a ‘migrant’? Who field can be opened up. We have included an annex of does not have mobility written into the histories of further reading as a resource to help map some routes themselves or their loved ones? But if everyone is a out of the anthology. This combines the canonical, the ‘migrant’, if the category or subject is so broad, how can eclectic, and important COMPAS contributions for those it be analytically useful? What is the difference between readers who are interested in rediscovering key texts or migration and mobility? And what does using the lens starting new lines of analysis and inquiry. We hope that it of mobility/migration bring to our understanding of will encourage you to author your own contribution, and human relations: political, social and economic? These to share it with others by adding to our online version of questions bring migration to the core of the social Migration: a COMPAS Anthology.

xii The Prayer Labyrinth Ruth Padel

She went looking for her daughter. How many visit Hades and live? Your only hope is the long labyrinth of Visa Application interviews with a volunteer from a charity you’re not allowed to meet. You’ve been caught: by a knock on the door at dawn, hiding in a truck of toilet tissue or just getting stuck in a turn-stile.

You’re on Dead Island: the Detention Centre. The Russian refugees who leaped from the fifteenth floor of a Glasgow tower block to the Red Road Springburn – Serge, Tatiana and their son, who when the Immigration officers were at the door, tied themselves together before they jumped – knew what was coming.

Anyway you’re here. Evidence of cigarette burns all over your body has been dismissed by the latest technology. You’re dragged from your room, denied medication or a voice. You can’t see your children, they’re behind bars somewhere else.

You go on hunger strike. You’re locked in a corridor three days without water then handcuffed through the biopsy on your right breast. You’ve no choice but to pray; and to walk the never-ending path of meditation on not yet. Your nightmare was home-grown; you’re seeking sanctuary. They say you don’t belong. They give you a broken finger, a punctured lung. From The Mara Crossing by Ruth Padel, published by Vintage, reprinted by permission of the Random House Group UK Beyond Rules

‘We Want to Hear from You’: How Informing Works in a Liberal Democracy Dace Dzenovska The UK Border Agency (UKBA) conducts raids during to inform on foreigners, that is, ‘them’? But is informing which it arrests persons deemed illegally resident or not still informing, regardless of who is informing on illegally working. In order to undertake such raids, the whom, as Ivan Krastev has argued with regard to spying agency relies on the public’s willingness to report. (2013)? Apparently, ‘over 100,000 allegations are received per The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 set into year from members of the public’ by ‘letter, email or motion a myriad of re-bordering practices. Former telephone’ about ‘individuals living in their community’ internal boundaries between Soviet republics became (Vine, 2010). The agency’s website addresses the British external borders between new nation states and for public as follows: ‘If you suspect that someone is working some, such as Latvia, they became borders between the illegally, has no right to be in the UK or is involved in European Union and Russia. The interests of the renewed smuggling, we want to hear from you.’ Latvian state converged with those of the European For someone like me who grew up in Soviet Latvia, Union, as both aimed to strengthen the external border and who analyses socialist legacies and postsocialist in order to regulate the movement of variously defined transformations, it seems paradoxical that government foreigners. The initial period of transformations was institutions in a liberal democratic state like Britain somewhat chaotic, since border control procedures and rely on citizens informing on individuals living in their technologies were not yet standardized. The Latvian community. How is it that the informing machinery that border guards did what they thought appropriate in order the Communist Party deployed is commonly thought of to meet the goal of strengthening the border. Border as a feature of a totalitarian state, whereas the informing guard officers explained to me that one of the techniques apparatus crafted by the UKBA is an acceptable technology used to reach this goal was to approach people on the of government? How is it that in the Soviet Union street if they looked as though they did not belong. individual informers were either victims or collaborators, In the process of further EU integration and border whereas in Britain they are virtuous citizens? Is it because standardisation, the Latvian border guard was tasked not the Soviet state is thought to have governed through only with strengthening the external EU border, but also arbitrary power whereby everyone was living in fear that with becoming civilized, that is, with protecting borders tomorrow they too could be informed on, whereas the while observing the basic human rights of border British state is thought to govern through transparent crossers. Approaching people on the street without any power whereby the public receives clear guidelines on intelligence could be deemed discriminatory. The border how to inform and on whom? To put it another way, is guard shifted to other strategies: they collaborated with it because the Soviet state used informing to govern its the police, employment agencies and hotels, and asked own, whereas the British state invites citizens, that is, ‘us’, government institutions and businesses to report on

2 Beyond Rules 3 Eurozine, References Policing the Crisis: Mugging,Crisis: the Policing State and the Law , London: MacMillan. Surveillancea modern is technologyof government a constitutive feature of feature a constitutive In conditions when polity. the and distribution accumulation the is about polity-making ofto are thought resources rights-based and when rights informing to a right scarce, be do not have who those on And rights- duty. civic a becomes work or to present be UK, in the scarce be to thought are often resources based ‘moral in public and sustained panic’ the by as is evident into Moral translates panic al., 1978). et (Hall political life emergencethe of virtuous the that who makes citizen phone email to informcall and that writes on individuals in their community. living liberal as democratic as well totalitarian states by deployed in the lies them between difference the However, states. ofpower ofeffect the to to blind us freedom on power the Soviet Perhaps our and ethics our politics. ourselves, for be useful bringing a critical can still and traces state its oflens onto the late liberal workings power. Hall, S. et al. (1978) et Hall, S. and Order Delusion’, ‘The I. (2013) Transparency Krastev, http://www.eurozine.com/articles/2013-02-01-krastev-en. html Immigrationand Detecting ‘Preventing (2010) J. Vine, A ThematicOffenses: and Customs ofInspection How and Uses Intelligence, UK Border the AgencyReceives http://icinspector.independent.gov.uk/wp-content/ uploads/2011/02/Preventing-and-detecting-immigration- and-customs-offences.pdf everyonebe could that are targeted by informing practices. informingare targeted that by practices. Thereare important the between differences foundation might be at the thinking, then, Rights-based suspicious persons or activities. The border guards went persons or activities. suspicious border the but most raids place because took on raids, reported and guesthouses Hotels off. tipped guard was people suspicious, or looked did not pay guests when reportedgot they when angry or with their boyfriends Informing turned girlfriends. a crucialbe to out strategy territoryfor controlling the in conditions of freedom. and post- Soviet the between a connection Nobody made of practices Soviet in Britain, like In Latvia, informing. informedto be clear who needed now was it on, which made informing acceptable. informingapparatus ofof and that Party Communist the Union WhereasSoviet in the UKBA. the mostly is in liberal Britain, it under suspicion, considered certain bodies informingused state WhileSoviet the to exercise uses British state the citizens, its over power repressive informing to produce virtuouswilling to report citizens If neighbours. on their informing Soviet the apparatus of power aimed to maintain the Party, Communist the informing rights. allocate to apparatus aims UKBA’s the report to they are asked like who seem on those People the right to be present or to work. do not have ofofpractice liberal democratic the If informing. one thinks of political life in terms of rights granted the state by to be housed to work, present, to be right – who has the between distinction the then assistance, and receive to rights and those who do not becomes those who have 4 Beyond Rules neither perverted sadistic,nor that they were,neither perverted and still explains, ‘was precisely that so manywere like him … trouble with Eichmann,’a monster…. The Arendt indeed to believe comforting that Eichmannvery was humanity,against and war crimes’. ‘It would have been his during the Jewish‘crimes against for trial Eichmann, people, crimes Adolf technocrat Nazi profile the high- of to the unsettling ‘normal’-ness regard evil’(1963). designated ‘thebanalityof Arendt famously whatHannah wethe midstof in are violent dislocation, however, we begintoappreciatethat not only be experienced in fact as arathercoercive if todescribe what can language banal of this proliferation been similarlyeuphemizedtransfers’. as ‘populationWith haveconducted a massscale,on historically deportations is,synonym for deportation indeed, removal. When bureaucratic euphemistic and sanitized contemporary away,carrying removal, a disposal. Astill amore etymologically, the word’s origins would indicate a statecraft. unexaminedfixtureof largely understated, whichunderscores itsstatuskindof asa even, perfunctory distinctly nondescript aboutthe term, always be found to have a history. But there is something will deportation course, the practice of enforcement, of such exalted genealogy. As a figure law-making of and law community, alarger has no deportation the public life of individuals to with the relationshipof proper concerned philosophical debate and political practice of history citizenship, forinstance, which derives from ahallowed concepts. legal politicalideasand Unlike of in thehistory that has no distinguished pedigree is a term Deportation As iswell known, Arendt invoked this notion with undoing. an Ineffect, To of issuggestive de-port Nicholas DeGenova Deportation orcie sm epeaedee ob oto place’; corrective: some people are deemed to be‘out of purely administrative a of the air has Thus, deportation ostensibly unwanted, undesirable, unwelcome foreigners. states ‘removing’disposing of)their (or recourse of iniquity operates as anutterly routine and mundane by thenon-citizen subjected punitiveto itasaprofoundly measure. Hence, something that canonlybeexperienced pervasively institutionalized merely as aadministrative its more non-citizens – thatitis (individualized) of expulsion in deportation connotation as the prosaic andprocedural contemporary characterizes chiefly what Jews Indeed, this is to their eventual extermination. European of the mass deportation superintendence of question wasfrom Eichmann’s precisely inseparable evil in the so-called Final Solution,the particular of cogs intheadministrative machinery’. individuals into ‘functionaries and mere reduction of bureaucracy’: the dehumanizing every the nature of and perhaps totalitarian government, ‘the essence of evil derivedparticular from what Arendt deemed to be Eichmann’s Inotherwords,become ‘legal’. thebanality of which for genocide, and injustice criminality and had dedicated toadministrativeorganization massmurder advancement’personal bureaucratic within a large-scale his in lookingoutfor diligence ‘an extraordinary from systematic and acts,criminal motives’no ‘hehad apart despite Eichmann’s evident culpability repeated for because, inArendt’spossible, furthermore, account, was his epoch. This criminals’ of the greatest one of pedestrian thoughtlessness ‘predisposed him tobecome ‘diabolical ordemonic profundity,’ Eichmann’s very any Devoid of normal’. andterrifyingly are, terribly Notably, giventhe roleinperpetration hisinstrumental Beyond Rules 5 , Durham: Duke , Durham: Duke The DeportationThe Regime: References Aftermath: Deportation Law and New the , New York: Penguin. , New York: becomes a defining horizon for her life. This prospective prospective This life. her for horizon defining a becomes and of the bordered within across disposability spaces furthermore,states, condition a protracted enforces of ofrecriminations the to vulnerability and law, the a complex and variegatedspectrum consequently, ofriddled with becomes life everyday in which ways inequality conditionalities, multiple precariousness, deportabilityrespect, In this is also a and uncertainty. of way that renders one’s temporal predicament and life and tentative relatively life projects to be always one’s overshadowed and often precautions with vexed tenuous, terror persistent a but diffuse by fear of – the detection, more these Yet, and expulsion. apprehension, detention, torturousor less conditions of who are for those life beneath lives their to make circumstances by compelled horizon the ofofpossibility the been deportation have increasingly normalmade ever ‘terribly– and terrifyingly our phrase) – within modern normal’recall Arendt’s (to 2010). and Peutz, global ‘deportationGenova (De regime’ Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the in Jerusalem: Eichmann Hannah Arendt, (1963) Banality of Evil (2010) N. and Peutz, N. Genova, De of and Freedom the Space, Sovereignty, Movement Press. University (2012) Kanstroom, D. & Oxford: Oxford University York American Diaspora, New Press. Ensnared within the pompous gestures the within Ensnared of ‘national’ susceptibility deportationto her – A non-citizen’s they must be ‘removed’.’ they must own its enforce to prerogative and a state’s sovereignty desultorythe legalorder, deportation of non-citizens ofa sustains dissimulation the more elementarythat fact are plainly judged to be disposable. lives some people’s formthe Thisnot ordinarily take may ofand deliberately forcibly shipping offpeople but to their literal deaths, an implausible or improbable consequence is that neither ofresult ofstudy In a recent deportations. some legal for deportationexample, United States, in the Daniel Kanstroomofhistories case scholar provides immigration judges admit can be found to explicitly who vulnerable sending medically are that they sometimes deporteesto almost certain … ‘that simply because death of law is the however, More generally, land’ (2012). this deportationofenforcement the entails always a dire and abruptusually separation of non-citizen an individual from material and the practical coordinates ofall her day- that life and the actual livelihood circumstances, to-day she has been engaged as well in sustaining and cultivating, human relationships of and affective immediate all the as these are made. which a deeply existential deportabilityinvolves therefore – predicament that is defined by the space of from the removed being coercively the nation grim prospect of a life. make to sought has otherwise she where state of possibility unpredictable The always deportation 6 Beyond Rules lawful entry, those for inlow-skilled jobs. particularly controlshavewhere tightening immigration restricted is exceptionally harshinaperiod there is status irregularity are alsoprotectedunderEuropeanlaw. and discrimination, maternity workers and, inthe case of applicable to all these rights are otherwise generally because is important This not to be discriminated against. right to be protected during maternity, evennor the right havethese in categories no example,for thatmigrants means because they are non- (orsemi) compliant.This employment protection simply denied somemigrants pay taxes have since they are notregistered,judges and are notableto whogenerally undocumented migrants avoidance. It was inevitable that it would beappliedto cases in wheretherewasinsurance national taxor this positionhadbeen reversed, particularly 20th century the applied toemployment cases, but by the middle of theinitsoperation.Initially, contractor itwas not of illegality, either in the construction there was an issue of todeclarecontracts unenforceable where the courts in it was beingused the nineteenth century by the middle of contract are unclear, of illegality common law doctrine of employment the law.application of the origins of Though relevant this are particularly in the consequences of The status. themselves, migration migrants that determines and that it is the law, rules immigration rather thanthe the of operation non- (orsemi) compliance asaresult of (Anderson andRuhs 2010), show how workers fallinto Anderson, intheir innovative work oncompliance employmentfrom rights. Ruhs Martin Bridget and without documents migrants namely the exclusion of deregulation, I want to address a fundamental question of h omnlwitrrtto fcontracts where common law of The interpretation Why Are theMostVulnerable Are Why DeniedEmploymentRights? Sonia McKay raidsortobeprosecuted. unlikely tofaceimmigration the ethnic enclave employers know that they are very of workerspresent mostlow arein sectors, paid but outside identifying them as the offenders.main Undocumented such‘easy’ on targets asemployers in ethnic enclaves, per worker) authoritiesto appear focus but immigration to increase proposed them£10,000 from to £20,000 (andin2013 those employing undocumented migrants sanctions against points to the use of government The policies have to make the vulnerable even served more so. is that their work’,what they describe as ‘illegal the truth haveLabour governments the need to eliminate asserted was deemedirrelevant. knowing that she would nothave righttowork a legal that it was her employer who had broughtherto the UK month, well below the national minimum wage. fact The the employer while being paid just £150 a the hands of the realitywas different,shesuffered and abuseat very conditions, and but terms beenpromised generous had brought tothe UK toworkin heremployer’s home. She to avulnerableyoungwoman Indonesian been who had any employment protection denied the right of courts another UKEATand Anindita 0400/11 (2012) where the v Zarkasi abusive treatment,the recent asincase of be rightthat the law should operate so astoencourage redress, however poorlythey may be treated. It cannot a ‘cheap’ workforce but it means that they have no legal notonlymakesundocumented. the This undocumented the the weak position of employers who areaware of andthe law then privileges with permission the country enter to workers EU non for difficult increasingly is It It cannot be right or just that employers away can get coalitionandthe previous boththe current While Beyond Rules 7 Population, Space and Place Population, References Undocumented Migrants, Ethnic Enclaves Ethnic Undocumented Migrants, Contemporary marriage-related migration is diverse. given additional protection, in particular protection, additional option ofthe given Ifregularisation. stepa considered this is too far in the currentas a bare then surely minimum political climate, ofregulation for the should be arguing we all employment ofguarantee relationships and the minimum the least at statutoryEU and with in keeping protection, employment urgently need an alternative We international standards. separationthe guarantees ofmodel which immigration as a fundamental labour law to validate and labour law, guarantor of the workplace. rights in migration ofbasis on the with marriage.However, increasing international and ready the migration and travel of availability transnational technologies, communication unions and international marriagemigration with occur increasing frequency. International migrantsbring from their spouse a may countryof diasporas originestablished to join them; homelands to ancestral maintain connections sometimes through marriage;in parts of from move Asia women poorer to wealthier nations to fill rural bride-shortages; meet internationalor travellers business students tourists, Bloch, A. et al. (2013) A. et Bloch, Constructs Class-based or , ESRC and Networks: Traps Opportunities, project, http://www.undocnet.org. and ‘Semi-compliance (2010) B. and Anderson, M. Ruhs, Illegalityin Migrant An Analysis of Labour Markets: Migrants, UK’,in the State and the Employers 16(3): 195-21. Katharine Charsley Marriage Migration Is there an alternative? I would argue that the that argue would I an alternative? there Is with exploiting vulnerable workers in this way. Effectively Effectively way. in this workers exploiting vulnerable with encourages doctrine exploitation common law the the of on and, as our research documents without those migrants undocumented et Bloch (see demonstrated has ofconditions employment the al., 2013), who are those only option the is no when work worsen undocumented at all. first duty of the stateof regardless ofstandards, employment minimum is to ensure This enforcement the who those not just immigration protects status. are undocumented, but benefits allworkers who do not their terms or having being undercut face and conditions undocumented. to the offered those to ‘match’ reduced governmentsIndeed, gocould If further. policy their conditions (a working exploitative to eliminate aim was that such legislate could they public interest) legitimate migrantsundocumented those whistle the who blew be would conditions exploitative employers’ on their Marriage and movement have long been intertwined. long been In Marriagehave and movement household husband’s to their brides move many societies, upon marriagebut in versa), vice frequently less (and contemporarymarriage migration involved distances the This span national borders. and can be substantial may British new: nothing is transnational border-crossing and 18th-century17th by brides sought in men British from brides’ chosen ‘picture colonial India, Japanese immigrantsphotographsUnited to the for Japanese brides’ and the ‘war in States the early 20th century, Europe to join World their GI husbands after leaving historical examples of II all provide War international 8 Beyond Rules a topic of concern in the US, concern whilethe in Europe a topicof so-called ‘mail orderbrides’ has been vulnerability of countries are seldom problematic. In contrast, the betweenothers. individualsdeveloped from Marriages however,marriage, attract more politicalattention than transnational become hotly contested. Some types of the state. Inthis context, the ‘right tofamily life’ has selected by individualsfamilies) than (and/orrather given migration, that spousesgenerally are to manage attempts togovernmental pose afundamentalchallenge can marriage As thislatter view suggests, migration. earlierlabour as anunwanted side-effect of migration countries European haveoften seen morefamily Council Directive 2003/86/EC) whilst northern (see European integration light, as facilitating migrant positive a in reunification family viewed conventionally vary.also migration states haveEurope, In southern power. conventional domesticrelationsof of may challenges in the inversion encounter new gendered they a virilocalnorm) (often against husbands migrate their isolationamplifyingpatriarchal control,but where are often viewed as vulnerabletoabuse and exploitation, wives men who seek a foreignwife. Migrant status of hierarchy – may be complicated by the sometimes marginal ‘up’ the international – that women areoften marrying hypergamy a moreprogressive partner. Assumptions of women’s will provide marriage hope that an international men’s search foramore‘traditional’ spouse overseas, and tension has been betweenunions. some One suggested place underlie some America. Gendered imaginaries of prospective Europe,Latin Asiaand eastern bridesfrom and ‘romancetours’ to meet introduction services whilst developedcompanies offermenfrom countries dating websites facilitate online relationship formation, duringoverseas international future partners sojourns; Governmental perspectivesmarriage-related on migrate is only one contributing factor in marriages is only one contributing factor in marriages migrate to myresearch, own the opportunity ethnographic of and cousins from Pakistan, which have been the subject But fields. between British Pakistanis marriages even inthe arranged marriage globalised in occurring countries from developed between partners marriages border limited use cross- in explaining Such modelsareof these relationships. a more rounded understanding of of scholarshipin thisarea,hasoften been atthe expense evident in much migration, for policyand opportunities of case the inter-ethnic ‘homeland’marriages. in difficult particularly proved has which thantoanother country,Denmark greater something couples must demonstrate a combinedattachment to socio-economic and cultural desirability: hierarchies of spouses accordingto immigrant to the impulse to sort response ingenious requirement particularly presents a has been common.Denmark’s ‘CombinedAttachment’ inwhichmarriage transnational ethnic minority groups whose average incomes are lower,groups including a spouse’ssponsor have immigration more impact on minimum income requirements for those applying to available to demonstrate alternative motivations. Current alongstandingromanticrelationshipwould notbe of where evidence marriages, transnational Asian arranged wasSouth seen This as targeting was notimmigration. the marriage of purpose demonstrate that the primary Rule (1985-97) required would-be to spousal migrants enjoymobility. marital Purpose the InUK,thePrimary suchgroups, whilst allowing otherstocontinue to have been developed affect which disproportionately instruments fraud.Some regulatory and immigration of form the in problematicintegration debates forced around marriage, issue, political high-profile a become someethnic minorities have of ‘homeland’ marriages Emphasis on transnational marriages as motivated bymarriages transnational on Emphasis Beyond Rules 9 or ‘love bridge’ bro kærlighedens between or ‘love Thus, the growingin marriage-related interest Thus, The legal of status migrant undocumented children transnational – becoming frequent commuters on commuters transnational – becoming frequent so called the Copenhagenwhere their Pakistani and Malmo in Sweden, been grantedpartners permission have to reside. migration reflectsa belated recognition that, rather than this is an being a marginal topic for migration studies, of issues area in which crucial importanceare brought genderedthe including nature of fore, to the migration, of diversity the the contemporary international mobility, ofcentrality migration relationships for understanding and tensions patterns, and experiences motivations, rights and immigration human between control. turns that legislation despite in ‘citizens into them other, possibilities their 2012), (Sigonabecoming’ and Hughes, of in a them trapping thereby limited, are regularisation always have Children situation. in’ and no way out ‘no way partbeen of migration, literature increasing despite but about known remains area, little in this and research migrant andundocumented experiences their children, immigration precarious their how lives. their impacts status combination and dynamic as a complex understood be can of policy in the embedded state, the vis-à-vis relations services public and legal plans, framework, own and their (2007) as Willen Or, and position. histories expectations, ‘migrant a illegality’argues, a legal to refer can status, of and a ‘mode condition socio-political in the being Rather status. fixed a Furthermore, not ‘illegality’is world’. a range through of move as non-citizens, migrants, Vanessa Hughes Vanessa Undocumented Migrant Children In the UK, undocumented migrant children are a diverse migrant UK, undocumented In the a diverse are children half Over population. of 120,000 were estimated the of most spent borneither UK or have in the life their of They for a variety come there. from a number reasons, of migratingbackgrounds, independentlydifferent withor precarious their into pathways diverse with family, their immigration (Sigona, status Their 2013). are experiences heterogeneous:accordingly in terms of journeys, their arduous, long, months range can several a from which cross-country passage to a short ariline flight; interactions immigrationwith institutions state other and authorities and theirprofessionals); and healthcare as schools (such What of most unites life. everyday is their however, them, of intersection the at position immigration and children’s This and legislation. policies and legal policy framework of a space creates one the On children. limbo for these non-deportable, facto are de hand they on the while that often help reconnect families to much-missed kin to much-missed families help reconnect that often marriage be understood must Transnational in Pakistan. of context in the A broader relationships. transnational in ‘marriage‘migration’ only on the focus can migration’ ofappreciation blinker and meanings broader the value ofIn order to maintain involved. to those relationships offace in the marital relationships restrictive increasingly found equally have couples some immigration policies, The spouse. their with reunited be to ingeniousways of advantage taking involves ‘Surinder Singh’ route the rights of European Economic Area (EEA) citizens of freedom exercising non- joined by to be movement EEA spouses, whilst in Denmark, significant numbers of are doubly which lives live now Danish Pakistanis 10 Beyond Rules Act (Development, Relief, andEducation forAlien political movementThe unafraid’. the DREAM around decade, declaring themselves as‘undocumented and havemigrants become loud andclearover the past young undocumented it, the voices of because of 2013), perhaps or (Lopes Gonzalez-Barrera, Obama and under deportations Despite an increase in the number of a view across the Atlantic shows a different situation. so farreceived little attention in publicpolicy and research, access to public services. migrants’ restrictions of overemerge inconnection time, with increasing inparticular access in difficulties and remain variations However,local (for aUScomparison see Gleeson andGonzales, 2012). schools asafe place formany children often represent indeed, are mostly able to access these public services; entitled to access education andhealthcare inthe UKand destitution. Legally, children are undocumented migrant experience highhousingmobility, insecure incomes and children usually live in poor housing conditions and Undocumented migrant similarities can be observed. andfamily orhousehold situation, some deportation history,many differences intheir migration of danger ways andonadaily basis. there are While in amyriad of status, rather than focusing exclusively on‘illegality’. immigration towardsscholarly precariousness scrutiny of ashift in over (2013) theirthus suggests future. Sigona control status, their loss of irregular leading to a certain of to adulthood often also marks a transition to full visibility under 18years remain relatively protected, the transition or less visible at different points intime. children While status becomes more sothat their legal arrangements, spaces inrelation to different institutional orpolicy ‘illegal’ statuses andcan simultaneously inhabit both ‘legal’ While in Europe undocumented migrant children have in Europeundocumented migrant While children status affects migrant Precarious immigration International Migration International Workersamong Undocumented Migrant in Tel Aviv, Israel’, State Power,“‘llegality”: and Abjectivity Criminalisation Willen, S. (2007) ‘Towards of aCritical Phenomenology Education. Youth, Graduate School of and Belonging’, Harvard Paperpresented atthe Deportability’, conference ‘Illegality, Undocumented BeyondChildren the Experiences of N.Sigona, Precariousness: Understanding (2013) ‘Constructing Oxford: COMPAS. N.Sigona, and Hughes, V. (2012) Disapproval’, FactTank, Pew Research Centre. Continue under Obama Despite Latino Deportations of A., (2013). ‘High Rate Lopez, M.H. and Gonzalez-Barrera, the UnitedStates’, Undocumented Life in Matter? AnInstitutionalAnalysisof Gleeson, S. and Gonzales, R.G. Dopapers (2012) ‘When understand how status. theyareaffectedby theirlegal continued tobetter reality and, assuch, itisimportant way, children arelikely undocumented migrant to be a moretenable in the US thaninthe UK. Either migrants future for young undocumented make a permanent underdebate currently reform in immigration changes trend,however,Counter tothedeportation thepotential 2013). theUK(Sigona, from childrenwill bedeported it ishighlyunlikelyand Europe been decliningin that status.defined by theirlegal politically andto resist being toengage migrants has motivatedillegality some young undocumented take place remains tobeseen,abjectivitybut sofar and will morecomprehensiveArrivals). Whether reform some underDACAfor Childhood Actionfor (Deferred led to Obama’s executive order suspending deportations citizenship for themselves and their parents has so far Act) Minors demandingapathway and tolegalisation Contrary to the US, numbers haveContrary deportation International Migration International 45(3):8–36. References No Way Out,NoWayIn, 50(4):1-19. I Walk between the Lines Amara Hark-Weber

COMPAS Photo Competition 2008 Second Place 12 Beyond Rules f h ol eel h xrm ntuetlzto f the world of reveals the extreme instrumentalization of the polls.debate manyparts in toxic The immigration by doing so they risk losing rights,protect migrants’ if even those withcompass, amoral have little incentive to electoral democracies. Politicians, limitationof structural level,national as they are notcitizens. face a Migrants will nevernot, and are be, at the politicallyrepresented rhetoricremains because migrants anti-migrant around impunity syphoningsocialbudgets. culture of The of illnesses, with the intention come ortothenorth global jobs fromlocals, create unemployment, crime bring and media means the takepublic still believes that migrants researchto thecontrary, by repetition the politiciansand of years Despite them. from benefit may they indeed – statements without facing any consequences at the polls one policy area where politicians canmake outrageous subjects rarely recognised or interlocutors.is Migration debate, policies: they are the objects of migration as theyhave tofearencounterswithauthorities. learned their bestseems option tobeduckingmoving and on, happens (anemployer refuses to pay them,example), for migrants, when something bad labourers andirregular as acitizen. But for manyothers, including ‘low-skilled’ resident are often treated skilled andpermanent labourer have more resources to defend themselves: the highly they protest. rarely mobiliseorSomemigrants deported; detained or fear beingarrested, vote elected. They get or position ascitizens.from their arenotcitizens: they don’t Migrants rights their for fight now They citizenship. minorities,have LGBTQsprisoners and wonformal challenges. rights human Vulnerable groups, such aswomen, aboriginals, ethnic specific very face Migrants Migrants rarely participate in public debates inon participate rarely Migrants The Human Rights of Migrants Migrants HumanRightsof The François Crépeau border without documentationborder proper isatworst an policies. migration Eveninternational thoughcrossingan controls and border has witnessed the securitization of oversight over their policies and practices. past decade The sovereignty, to territorial little control or very and accept powers relating theirdiscretionary component of be a politically sensitive,policies to states consider migration is is relatedand toborders south. Because migration and rights violationsbynorth statesboththeglobal in not justifyjustanydistinction. does status immigration and justified, be can individuals question iswhetherthedistinction betweenright. The fundamental a of implementation the represent benefits residents,that citizens or even as notall long-term have all the samegovernmentthe benefit entitlements of at the national level. does not imply that migrants This migrants the human rightsof ensuring the protection of in lawprohibition and practice is akey challenge in economic, political and socialrights. Enforcingthis civil, cultural, discriminationinthe enjoyment of of include ‘national origin’ the grounds amongprohibited covenants international rights explicitly human on twoonly citizens’ rights –they‘everyone’.are for The their common humandignity. Human rights are not rights guarantees human asdocitizens, of by virtue same the from benefit – migrants irregular including – rights human law (andoften constitutional law), migrants under international stayto enterand the country), in exceptions (the right to vote and be elected, and the right hostile publicopinion. often anuninformed, and the malleability of migration irnsfc nicesn utr fsystemic face an increasingculture of Migrants defined narrowly two With rights.have Yetmigrants Beyond Rules 13 State policies often increase vulnerability. Some work work Some increase vulnerability. often policies State migrants a strategy need human beings, all Like of care and so on. Additionally, unscrupulous recruitment care and Additionally, so on. agenciesinto forcing them egregiousrequest can fees, long-term debt. permitswho then immigration to the are tied sponsor, migrants the as he can have enormouswields power, deportedterminateshe moment the Most contract. their and do not labour unrecognised needs have countries repressadequately ‘irregulartolerating employment’, undergroundundocumented where labour markets migrantsoften is citizenship to Access exploited. are to long-termin resulting often even denied, residents, statelessness. particular, In rights. own empowerment their for fight to administrative (courts, to justice meaningful access national human rights institutions, tribunals, labour and inspectors so on), freedom ombudspersons, of right to organiseand the association and join unions, and support organisations society from civil are crucial ofelements relating discourse Public strategy. such to migrationbe to change:media must the also needs politicians need on migration more accurate issues, much couragethe scapegoatingthe reject to ofand migrants, about migrants’public opinioneducation needs rights and the benefits of societies. diverse The author thanks Anna Purkey and Bethany Hastie for comments on The author thanks Anna Purkey an earlier version of this article. Migrantare often not, or unaccompanied children, Victims of human trafficking (for the sex trade or security the should have migrant workers Temporary administrative offence and should never be considered be never and should offence administrative irregular a crime, migrantsarrest, face deportation and The procedural in appalling conditions. often detention, migrantthe maze facing legal any on generallyis issue and assistance judicial help, undecipherable without ofup systems set often have States is rarely available. for migrants detention in long- result that administrative termor pro scant with forma detention, periodic review. range from purpose-built to ad-hoc centres Facilities are often and containers, and even stations police camps, supervised regulated, not well or Alternatives monitored. available. nowhere to detention are almost no legalwith and deported guardian, detained adults, like They rarely undergo or legal a proper representative. ofinterests ‘best determination,child’ the to and access or health care is often illusory. school as irregulartreated labour) are often forced migrants, without benefiting from the specific protections they are under international law. owed of their However, contract. and regular status a work of lack foreignness, isolation and social languageskills, them categorizationor make unskilled’ as ‘low-skilled ofconfiscation identity as such exploitation to vulnerable poor housing, dirty, wage theft, documentation, or travel of health lack conditions, working dangerous and difficult 14 Beyond Rules large gains inincome and development. World gains The large Bank, restrictions,could easily leadto butitiswheremigration face the most currently migrants relaxed. section of This lower-skilled workers tobe admissionof governing rules havethe callsfor There Programme. been particular World Bankandthe United Nations Development countries developmentand such asthe organisations by many low-incomeincome countries is supported that thisdifficultissueisexplicitlyandopenlydiscussed. requires migration approach of tothe globalgovernance coherent failuretodealwiththisissueend.A has The rights with this in mind. for migrant design a strategy two models, policymakers are yet to but international workers.migrant comprehensivemigrants rights but admit relatively few Europeoffer northern some countries of spectrum the rights.restrictions on migrants’ At the other endof they have openadmissionpolicies but placesevere very ‘high numbers/lowcountries a operating rights’system; admission. after aregranted the rights migrants and some of workerspolicy between openness to admitting migrant debate: howthe trade-offs in immigration to manage the hardestquestionsthis in overlooked again oneof workers onWorld sitesinQatar. Cupconstruction numerous deathsNepalese among of reports heels of timely, meeting wasThis particularly asitcamethe on migration. labour international of the global governance In earlyOctober2013, the GeneralAssembly UN debated The liberalisation of immigration policies inhigh- immigration of liberalisation The to be made between these is a clear trade-off There statesexamplesof are the otherGulf and Qatar in New York,But as they gathered policymakers once Rethinking Migrant Rights for Development Rightsfor Rethinking Migrant Martin Ruhs Martin benefit from work available inricher countries. many more to of admitted, but reduce the opportunities policies. workers Equalrights can protect the few migrant more restrictive admission can come at the price of workersthat new migrant the same rights ascitizens get is that insisting this trade-off implication of affected. The particularly is benefits and services welfare certain access lower-skilled to migrants receiving countries. right of The the for costly be to perceived are that rights specific few lower-skilled workers frompoorercountries. restrictive admission policies, especially for admitting workers new migrant tends to beassociated with more rights for some rights formigrants. Greaterequality of I foundaninverse relationship between openness and Migration (2013), Labor Rights: Regulating International of over 45high-income countries in my recent book workers.policies in immigration labour Afterexamining both ‘moremigration’migrant ‘more rights’ for and have ratifiedthis convention. nations, themmigrant-receiving major countries, none of living and workingillegally. abroad To date, fewer than50 economic,social rights formigrants, and includingthose civil, political, which lays comprehensive out a very set of Workers, Migrant ConventionUN the onRightsof worldhave called for morecountries to ratify the 1990 more equal rights for migrants. Activists around the (ILO), demand Organization Labour as theInternational workers inlow-income countries. incomes of the raising the most effective ways of is oneof migration instance,for believeslabour that moreinternational The tension betweenThe ‘access andrights’ applies to a dilemmaisthatitnotalways The possibletohave At thesame time, workers’ rightsorganisations, such The Price Beyond Rules 15 References The Price ofThe InternationalRegulating Rights: Labor Thesedepartures principle are equality from the We should startcreation ofthe discussing We of a list than the rights fewer include would list A ‘core’ entrytermsthe spell out of imposing their inequality, services,public social jobs, access right to on their limits assistance and participation in elections. partas a legitimate as discrimination but not seen of suggest indeed would immigrationthat control. Few migrants should be able to to make their the way benefit office or polling station on the day they step onto the rights and account for the interests of interests for account the rights and by nation states restricting a few specific rights that create net costs for to more obstacles therefore and are countries, receiving policies. open admission which Exactly for migrant rights’ ‘core workers. universal but it up for is still debate, be on this list rights would of be at the centre is a that should debate upcoming global governancediscussions on the of migration. be likely would more countries but Convention, 1990 to accept it. Most thissignificantly, would include those admit largethat countries and currently numbers have Thus, conditions. improve seriously to minimal incentive protection overall largethe involved, numbers given might be a It be increased. would for migrant workers is one groundedit but conclusion, in counter-intuitive it migrant protectingto when it comes reality: rights, turns out less is more. Ruhs, M. (2013) Ruhs, Press. Migration, Princeton: Princeton University This article first appeared in The Conversation on 2 October 2013

1 Sarah Spencer Equality for All? Few migrant-sending equal and on full nations insist Few Internationalglobal governanceabout the debates of So if there is a trade-off openness to be made between Equality is not, however, the intention ofthe however, not, is Equality any government ofsection for one Their ofmigrants. conditions society: Equality is, one might have thought, an inclusive principle. principle. an inclusive thought, have one might is, Equality Declaration ofTheUniversal commits Human Rights and inalienable rights ofequal ‘the nations to protect all members of the human while closer to home family’, partyBritish Conservative the ofspeaks of equality opportunity in this country’.for ‘every individual single abroad, of for fear workers for their rights reduced of labour markets the to access countries. higher-income reaction of muted the for instance, Witness, Nepalese the governmentofdeaths to the With in Qatar. their citizens currentthe arrangement nations’ economic both suiting a joint press held governmentseven two the interests, migrant ‘fully respected’. conference to say were rights trade-off the ignored almost completely migration have Global migration debates and rights. openness between on MigrationGlobal 2014 Forum at the as those such and discussion. up the should open in Sweden Development organisations between a reasoned debate need that We more migration such advocate promotedevelopment, to primarily and those concerned Bank, with World as the the protection and equality of as the ILO. such rights, is the solution? This what is a with question and rights, for there is a But strong case liberalising no answer. single international labour migration, for especially low-skilled through temporary This achieved be could workers. migrationofset programsa universal protect that core 16 Beyond Rules is the default position fromwhich states have to justify Convention on HumanRights (ECHR), in which equality Economic, Social andCulturalRights and the European Covenant rights instruments,like theInternational on states have signed up to human exclude?’ majority of The to justified it is grounds what ‘on be should and politicalrightsshouldbegranted. measured and hence at what point equality in civil, social be should contribution or affiliation how clear it is Nor exclusionbuilding capacity than toovercome rather it. access to equality suchon criteria, moreover, reinforces affiliation existing may beweak buttheirneedforprotectionstrong. Basing their or discrimination), by barred still a child or not be within the migrant’s control (if may contribution example, for flaws; also but strengths residence; contribution. Allhave social ties; length of the individual’s acquire equal rights: the strength of various should criteria as the basis onwhich migrants draw theline? Is thereaworkabletest we canuse to decide where to do the restrictions amount to illegitimate discrimination? circumstances,those circumstances, whatare when and insome some migrants the rights of restrict some of itislegitimate to inside (2006)? If follow the migrant Bosniak puts it: when is it legitimate for theto border As Linda equality for allwithin the territory? principle of byborders, the when shouldthatrightbetrumped and its sovereign right to control its of aspart on migrants when isitlegitimatestate a toimposerestrictions for democracy, taken asread. equality with citizens is,– where migrants’ in aliberal toafairtrial and rights –such asfreedomtorture from at JFK or Charlesde Gaulle. Yettarmac there are other Rather than criteria for earning equality,earning Rather thancriteriafor the question Academic and policydiscourses have toyed with divergenceThat raises afundamentalquestion: not sufficient to claim restrictions are necessary for the for necessary are restrictions claim to sufficient not is It grounds. those on proportional and justified be to refugees not considerthe difference in the treatment of thought this alegitimate aim butdid to come. court The it needed toprovide incentivean toworkersstudents and by their spouses. The UK justified this on thegrounds that residents (workers and students) are allowed to be joined postdatedhisarrival, whenothertemporary marriage whose to deny the right tofamily reunion toarefugee stable residence was permit likewise not sufficient reason a Convention (De Schutter, absence of 2009; 2011). The based exclusively on nationality as compatible with the treatment difference of reasons’ beforeit could regard wouldsaid agovernment have to provide ‘weighty hisrighttoproperty. Court The the enjoyment of thebasis on his nationality was, for instance, discriminationin of national Turkish atax-paying to benefit and residence status. unemployment Austria’s denialof nationality, immigration of discrimination ongrounds has clarified that these provisions include protection from Rights Human member states, of theCourt European which anyrestrictionmusta cleartestagainst bejudged. that it is intended to achieve. So the Convention provides between the restriction and the aim proportionality of legitimate aim and To benon-discriminatory, the restriction must pursue a justification. reasonable and objective no has treatment the less favourable amounts to discrimination –onlyif difference in treatment Not every other status’ (Art.14). minority,national association witha property, or birth political nationalorsocial or otheropinion,origin, such as sex, race,ground colour, language, religion, in relationtothe rights inthat Convention ‘onany any departure. ndcsosbnigo h 7Cuclo Europe In decisions binding onthe 47 Council of provides ECHR discrimination protection from The there must relationship be areasonable Beyond Rules 17 EuropeanLaw Human Rights Notes References , Princeton , Princeton and Oxford: Princeton The Citizenof Alien: The Dilemmas and the (2): 162 -177. EU citizenship status is Janus-faced, drawing on drawing Janus-faced, is EU status citizenship Teresa May, Shadow Home Secretary, Second Reading Second Reading Home Secretary, Shadow May, Teresa Declaration: UN Col 565. 2009. 11, May Bill, Equality emphasis. author’s politically underwhelming. Without great Without the fanfare, underwhelming. politically of weightiest uploaded into the political concepts was apparently an afterthought. EU Treaty, The original more. but promising much existing rights, was (EEC) (1957) European Economic Community aiming to liberalise not only trade a common market, the in goods and services,far more ambitiously, but Bosniak, L. (2006) Bosniak, L. (2006) Contemporary Membership Press. University Migration between ‘Links (2009) and O. Schutter, De Thematic report, ofDiscrimination’, European Network Legal European Commission. Experts, ‘The (2011) Prohibition of O. Schutter, De Discrimination EU the for Relevance Law: under European Human Rights Thematican Update’, – report, Directives Non-discrimination of European Network Legal European Commission. Experts, ‘TheC (2013) ofImpact Oliver, and Entitlements Restrictions Integration on the ofMigrants’, Final report Family of the of University Oxford. project, COMPAS, IMPACIM for ‘Equality All? The (2012) S. and Spencer, J. Pobjoy, Immigration Between Allocation and the Status Relationship ofUnited Kingdom’, the in Rights Review atIn the this Pobjoy analysis I Jasondraw significantly on my work with contribution. his gratitude ofwith University acknowledge and Cambridge 1 CathrynCostello Reflections on an Anniversary: at 20 Reflections EU Citizenship That test provides more than fine points to debate to any need felt not yet European governmentshave I am writing this 20 years to the day after the Maastricht after the Maastricht I am writing this 20 years to the day ‘Economic 1993. November on 1 into force entered Treaty (coordinating union’ and ‘political and monetaryunion’ and were home affairs’) foreign policy and ‘justice also grandly announced: The Treaty main events. the ‘Citizenship ofThe established’. the Union is hereby for those ‘holding the nationality ofwas status a Member largely Theand pre-existing were State’. rights attached purposesof immigrationpublic the control or to protect restrictions the that Therealso be evidence must purse. are necessary and proportionalto that end. in court. public authorities an It is operational yardstick for a right to be when it is legitimate to consider can use principle and the equality should prevail. restricted when a broad range play brings into It of and social economic, up the necessity personal when weighing considerations and proportionality of the restriction. or impose they restrictions reasons for the their out spell COMPAS arethey based. Recent on which the evidence studies had difficulty tracking down any rationales for retrospectively, where, except in place many restrictions through a parliamentarychallengedhad been they Oliver, 2012; Spencer, and or in courtprocess (Pobjoy 2013). If challenged, governments may find the impacts ofsuggesting poorly restrictions evidenced, a new agenda.research Iffor all, not equality aim is indeed the grounds?then inequality for whom, and on what 18 Beyond Rules over staying? Even within the‘free movement’ frame, the prerequisite for citizenship rights? Why valorize leaving right? Isn’t itoddtoputleaving one’s asa country Whyfree movement shouldtransnational be the central laboratory.circular migration EU is the world’s The the knowledge they could return. were already living. Many left and went home, safe in residence in the countries where they their rightsof security of meant instant regularisation andgreater these fromcountries, many migrants enlargement EU states, with almost75millionpeople, into the EU. For 2004, whichten additional brought an of enlargement controversial transitional constraints accompanying the periods were included, a precursortothe more ‘fellow Europeans’seemeduntroubling. of migration just six ornine countries, In acommunity of construed. and exceptions generously strictly legislation interpreted Texas Other equality rights followed, toCalifornia). with citizen cannot expectmovingon residence from, say, education (a right a US fees for tertiary in particular and guaranteed her equal treatment in some domains, TreatyThe freedomsembracedthemobilestudent skills income ortests no understood, andpermitted. migrants.to EEC bounds ‘Work’was broadly out of in attempts, forinstance, tokeep publicsector work inEuro-law), failing many earlycases (a commonpattern right, with few bureaucratichurdles. Governments lost was notsubject to executivemigration discretion, but a numbers, insisted that enforceable. was Court legally The massive in betweenstates, EEC whilenotavailed of work quietly but effectively. ‘Free movement’ for workers moves: to clout, withrealitgot having createdcourt a economic actors. draftersdidn’t The anticipate the next capitalandpersonsinthe capacity of movement of ihteceto fEU citizenship came expectations. With the creation of Greece,When joined, transitional Portugal and Spain member states to seek out the migrants they want, repel and member states to seek out themigrants equally. residentsparticipate itslong-term not allof created bydirective. EU remains apolityinwhich EU The amuch less secure denizenship type status favourof are consistently naturalization standards onrejected, in that the EU should haveoffspring. common Suggestions provision by families seeking EU citizenship for their this aboutthe‘abuse’ of in responsetoconcerns partly Ireland, the onislandof citizenship childrenfor born Forexample, removed Ireland the constitutional right to arestrictive exerting nationality law. pullon capable of a polity, it begs confederal analogies. EU citizenship is Indeed, for those who seek to understandtheas EU EU citizenship paradoxicallynational sovereignty. asserts and nationality law. Leaving it to states to decide who gets actionswere taken. but no legal with horror, Roma were met massexpulsionsof of Initial reports France andItaly defy legality, both EUandhumanrights. Roma (including EU citizens) from forced evictions of ongoing has failed to protect the most marginalized. The sentiment. For robustness, allits legal EU citizenship aresubject to anti-migrant migrants more fraught.EU about‘benefit tourism.’scaremongering welfare state offers its own, notwithstanding populist arrived Thefreshly job-seekerstudent or cannot claimallthatthe local time. over accrued being benefits legislation and case law, with full entitlement to social current in reflected is compromise awkward An elusive. that equality with national citizens was and suggests to enjoy resources’ residence rights seemsthe to privilege alreadyprivileged, ‘sufficient and insurance health citizenship’sinclusivity. inherentlyegalitarian Requiring the ‘economically active’ sits uneasily with privileging of Meanwhile, nationalitylaw has become a meansfor No less troubling aretensions between EU citizenship EU,In the larger free movement has become Beyond Rules 19 For some wishful thinkers, EU citizenship is the is EU citizenship thinkers, wishful some For and precarity in risk societies. These changes have given given These changes have in risk societies. and precarity formsnew to rise of geographic nation states mobility; ifas challenges these perceive conventionally not threats regulate to tightly and continue to their sovereignty, and migration.mobility arise between tensions often But demands for labour and immigration restrictions, goalsinstitutional aspirations, between and individual between state definitions of persecution and individual restrict the EU rights, and much litigation ensued. and much EU rights, restrict the The EU Courtof speaks status. in post-national ultimate However, status.’ fundamental the be to ‘destined as it transnational, remains predominantly citizenship The are best tensions although no longer intractably so. of case C-34/09, EU (Case the Zambrano in exemplified status EU citizenship The2011). Zambrano children’s virtue (by of their birthEU rights created in Belgium), on whom father for their least (or at parentsfor their they financiallywere dependent), not just but to also live did rights The in Belgium. Zambrano children’s work to EU the enter to Belgium left not dependhaving on their familiar in an all too The legalparents had lived space. precarious with seekers asylum as rejected legal limbo, to remain. The of scope humanitarian leave ruling the be litigated.to continues The restrict response: Belgian no longer would scenario in that children so nationality virtue by Belgian become of birthterritory. in the EU is irrelevant.citizenship In Without that nationality, but as not post-, EUis revealed citizenship respect, this hyper-national. Franck Düvell Franck Framing and Reframing Irregular and Reframing Framing Migration Thelegalenergized most concerned shenanigans have The concept of irregular or ‘illegal’ migration dates applied during the occasionally was it 1930s; the to back It 1980s. late popular from the becoming before 1970s emergencethe to related is of modern the nation state, currentsocial its but the with is associated version transformation from modernityto liquid modernity, to neoliberalism and and Keynesianism from Fordism globalisation, resulting in the new flexibility, mobility others. So when Italy confers nationality on EU migrantson EU nationality confers Italy So when others. posthumously them making shores, on its drowned as restorative empty gesture Italian, the so much is not ofthe by condemned is Malta And while order. statist Strasbourg courtwho arrive seekers asylum for detaining expand will it that announces simultaneously boat, it by Bulgaria citizenship’. to EU citizenship too sells ‘investor they that a maintaining a pretence even without investors, obtain EU citizenship to easy is It there. live actually will There practices these that are hints a price. at for some, the far, thus but a legalprompt will in EU law, reaction EU has largelyofquestions underlying obscured who is a citizen. third-countrynon-EU called (so national) family ofmembers EU citizens allows EU law EU citizens. ofirrespective together, reside to members’ family the Thatmost litigatedthe this has become of nationality. turn, national restrictive the reflects rights citizenship EU formationfamily when migration ofcitizens own states’ came to EU too many ‘others’. law seen to involve was trumpeda right that them giving for many, rescue the immigrationdomestic to sought Governments control. 20 Beyond Rules large scale regularisations,large improved andborder entry enlargement, EU to due is flows and stocks in decrease 151,000 in 2008 to 73,000 in 2012. This from its peak of immigrant population. Estimated annual inflow decreased the EU’s 1.9-3.8 in 2008,10 million around per cent of decreasing from anestimated 3.1-5.3 million in2002 to previously estimated, but alsoevidence that they are research hasfoundnotonlythat numbers arelower than however, EU, the In migrants. international all of fifth immigrants, one around estimated 30-40 millionirregular 7.1 billion. Globally, there are an global populationof the only account for around0.5 per cent of immigrants and increasingproblem.However,major irregular modalities.(regularisation), orimmigration residinginacountry already (irregularly) nationals foreign the or politicalstatus of with enlargement), EU (as anothercountry the citizens of the political status of reduced or prevented by changing, orreconstructing, dramatically.dropped can be migration Thus, irregular visa requirements abolished Albanians,for entries illegal status. legal in2010, Greece When, migrants irregular haveRegularization programmes given some 4 million such asPoland andthe Czech Republic became regular. fromstates migration the shifted EU east, and irregular of borders ten states The joined theUnion. European For can alsobe declared legal. illegal instance, in 2004, meaning that what was once declared deconstructed, can be constructs mere intellectual statement, for legal isnota This construct. is asocial,legal politicaland and which migration arenot.Thus, irregular permitted are migration which types and levelsdetermine of migration. bring aboutirregular inflexible and bureaucracies. tensions rules These and immigration lives flexible between and perceptions, Irregular migration is typically perceived migration to bea Irregular only exists because policies migration Irregular problem. For the individual it can be a disaster. Irregular phenomenon; however, it is social a major normatively Numerically,constructed. minor is a migration irregular populations.is migration Asaconsequence, irregular mobile polities are ill-equipped and unwilling to accept immigration. practices alsofacilitateirregular status. visa, Impracticallegislationlaissezfaire and loss of or inefficient or bureaucratic residence renewal andappealprocedures, andwithdrawal overly are relevant not removed and/or arede facto non-removable. Equally are to refused asylum seekers whoeither do notreturn, paths intoirregularity.is related path important Another visa conditions are the main or working inbreach of the EU,cent theUS). In per in overstaying and entry legal inthe(incontrast40 EU toaround migrants irregular of apply forasylum – onlyaccounts 10 for aroundpercent individuals whosubsequently successfully –often of entry security issue. But research hasfoundthat clandestine is a border controlandborder migration that irregular allocated torepressive measures. attention and resources calling intoquestion the level of US, the than better significantly faring is EU the though policies are rathereffective, that current suggests This move, withinthe conditions set by law. reside and return in thispopulationaccumulating. policies result regularisation lackcontrolsand border of 550,000 stable withannual around apprehensions. Tighter seem inflows whilst (2012) million 12 almost to (2000) irregular. Over time, stocks have increased9million from werepopulation the immigrant overand 25 percent of thetotalpopulation, was cent 3.6perof immigrants irregular crisis. Incontrast, in the2008, US the stock of economic the and enforcement law intensified controls, Migration is inherent to fluid modernity but current current but modernity fluid to inherent is Migration Conventional suggest discourses and media reports migrants Hence, the overwhelming majority of Beyond Rules 21 The border-crossing nature of The border-crossing is of activities such Diaspora governance in the international arena migrantand legal healthcare, local education, to access and financial services. to an increasing interest internationalthat community the over multilaterally to cooperate ways is seeking managementof international migrationabsence in the of global migration a centralized governanceframework Trade Internationalakin to the Monetary Fund or World Organization. of Though aware their interdependence international migration,over over as an issue it see states should and no international bureaucracy, they, which of In lieu sovereignty. an internationalexercise institutional link migration to efforts to the are underway framework, agenda, internationalestablished which development is one ofareas the few of global governance where a and therefore powerful exists, widespread consensus for mobilizing the international community. vehicle on therefore centres humanitarian and development organizations helping migrantsto the to contribute countryof efforts origin, and on the of – facilitated states International as the such institutions multilateral by Organization for Migration for Global and the Forum Regional Migrationand various and Development, shared – to build dialogue, Processes Consultative improving legal and administrative practices and (re-) practices legalimproving and administrative border and with controls law combined regularisation reduce and reverse prevent, efficiently could enforcement irregular migration. This articleThis on a paper presentedbased is Metropolisat the conference on 12 September 2013. Alan Gamlen Diaspora Governance Diaspora governance is a multi-layered matter, matter, Diaspora governance is a multi-layered Policy options such legalas introducing options such migration Policy Migrationwith immigration, equated is often but every immigrantis also an emigrant ofto a place ties with origin. ofWith the help modern such technologies are growing and ties diasporas – broader and deeper, across borders from a professed dispersed communities ofplace force a more conspicuous origin – are becoming in global affairs. They act as filamentsborder offlows goods and ideas that established money, for the cross- local, are global to the from the at everyauthorities level, is strugglingHow govern.to Diasporas are thickening. the international system adapting? national and international not just also but involving In theory a jealously and processes. local institutions ofguarded prerogative migration national governments, the to local institutions: falls in practice policy often agencies enforcement and banks law hospitals, colleges, ofabsence the with dealing or the people own their ofpresence At this level, in their communities. ‘others’ migrants’ for example, diaspora governanceinvolves, Associations transnational enterprises Hometown and of consular representatives with working origin the state, migrants’ in both regions channeling actors municipal and destination regions money into public good projects, and improving support ethnic-based fostering networks migrationsome of illustrates the shortcomingsof our of and exclusion the society, certain mobile populations represents ofbeginning the at a major injustice 21st the century. refugee including programmes, resettlement channels, 22 Beyond Rules politicalorganization. of form politics, is now governance diaspora becoming a normal international basisof the territorial Once a violation of worldpower. transfers,connections andtothecentres of investments, donations,philanthropic technology and crime, andtofacilitate remittances,recruitment networks –diaspora against cross-border tomonitor institutions work withthrough–andoccasionally and at‘home’. Meanwhile, diaspora electoral participation rights,property or protections abroad socialsecurity and for legal grievances,diaspora theirstruggle supporting governments. undermining or ‘national culture’ from embarrassing and refrain andtheirdescendants to retain encouraging emigrants dissident monitoring exiles,expatriates and aswell as example by establishing networks, ‘model’ honouring help them contribute positively to the homeland, for but more oftencommunitiesbuild diaspora and return, sometimes promote They policies across government. Ministry, that is responsibleforcoordinatingrelevant have such aninstitution, often housed within the Foreign allUnitedNationsmembers of ago, now half around states twenty years their diasporas.a handfulof from Up states evolve institutional mechanisms to‘engage’ formal exited thenationalpopulation. one was taskedspatially people whohad withmanaging in originstates where, until recently,counterparts no haveThey foundthemselves without institutional destination states, is most immediate. where migration traditionally fallenmainlyto policy has that migration for those problem seeking to collaborateinthis way is A central states linkedmigration. by international understandings, and cooperative approaches amongst Three interlockingThree explanations helpus to understand entails addressing ‘paying court’ Often this kind of is rapidly disappearing asorigin gap But this governance towards an appreciation of how engaging diasporas how engaging towards anappreciation of fordevelopment’, to they seekare steered ‘migration organizations in thinktanks and international by experts Advised and urged globalmigration. to govern efforts wider international states’ initiativesdiaspora of are part Viewed inthisway,migration. international managing of challenges the shared to solutions cooperative find wider community to the international reflects by sections of efforts institutions diaspora establish to states From this perspective, origin by migrants’ the rush interests and ideas,expectations. but also by international that states are driven not onlyby national suggests most fordiasporagovernance. identities,national interests,national than rather matter citizenship? Either way, perspective, from this explanatory post-liberaldemocratic of brand ethnic a nationalism, or right-wing, long-distance anexpressionof governance multicultural within diaspora the origin state? Is diaspora a liberal democratic regimes also seek to incorporate Ordo just as they malign their immigrants? emigrants ethnicity on – areinclinedtoembracetheir contingent example,for states thatracial – where citizenship is case, the it Is place. first the in interests these constitute ‘nationality’that ideas of interests on national than globalization. thewheelsof lubricant greasing From this perspective, states see as the diasporas cultural betweenstates. nation make themidealintermediaries identities and chameleon-like cultural competencies that decision-makerstheir hybridabroad, opinion-shapers and money, theirscarce skills, theirconnections to global their migrants: materialresources of over the formidable perspective, patrioticloyalties give states origin leverage proliferating at such aremarkablerate. From one described above governance are of why the forms A third and final perspective on diaspora governance diaspora perspective on final and third A explanationfocuses less on A second strandof Beyond Rules 23 This is increasingly practised action enforcement referredHirst (2000) as being UK system the to extending states’ authority and infrastructuralauthority states’ extending power diaspora governance their territorial beyond jurisdictions, disruptsof traditional neat, symmetries the power place, that bind and the modernidentity of system nation states, ofinklings giving Whose world. a post-Westphalian utopia is being created? framework and a philosophy of and a philosophy framework is then citizenship that enforcement officials. acted upon by in liberal democracies. It of demands down and tracking the persons with an ambivalent the identification legal‘illegal so-called existence, immigrants’.Although at first sight this practice hegemonic public and policy discourses contradictions, raises liberal tensions and regional (national, and so on) have levels at different platform discursive legitimizes that generatedan effective Europe across UK, but not only in the enforcement, this and beyond. prophecy ofparticularlyendangeredCarl Schmitt’s by run legislature the executives , whereby motorized legislation in officials at but citizens the at ‘aim not do laws where and as regulators oftheir capacities this, By activities’. citizens’ great or as to whether how discretion ‘professionals have contemporaryand, despite and to use to interpret’ laws oftalk of‘retreat the becomes ‘enforcement state’, the ofsomething a lottery’.context this claim into the Putting of or as ‘stop-and-search’ such enforcement intrusive in liberal democracies place taking practices ‘spot-checks’ legal the which is existence by UK or the Germany, like per and se questioned controlled ‘on the spot’, it recalls Enforcement Bastian Vollmer . Thisseem . may last (with reference to Locke’s to Locke’s reference (with legal existence legal Different groups in society perceive enforcement groupsDifferent perceive in society Diaspora governance, then, is partis then, Diaspora governance, of efforts wider Second Treatise of Treatise Second Government should be powers these that ) of functions separatelyadministered two other from the this With judicial. and the ‘government’: legislative the separation of and other the check can branch one powers, a sort of is created. power balanced and staff enforcement some people, For differently. exceptional. nothing is power executive the with dealing staffEnforcement of keepers as are seen order or as can represent they an others, For friendly auxiliaries. actions or their threat that restricts behavior, authoritative their questions or even Theof legitimacy is possible. it And yet, impossible. a human being on a territory a certainwith jurisdiction recognition and permissionrequires This is state. the by legalcomplex a highly to attached is It matter. an easy not Enforcement makes law real. Without enforcement, laws laws enforcement, Without real. law makes Enforcement after documents official in down written words empty are rules these undergoing and gives that process a democratic legitimacy the regulations enforced . The is usually to exist law guards border forces, as police such authorities state by – so have law enforce who or military People personnel. – a range ‘on duty’ are long as they of they Thus, powers. of power represent executive the Montesquieu state. the Spirit of in The argued Laws the furthers their own interests. What began as a goodfurthersinterests. idea own their gathers moral force of the convention. to govern incorporating globalization by cross-border internationalexisting into the communities and system, By a transnational world. to system adapting that by 24 Beyond Rules in. situation shefoundherself than someNGOassistance – toescape the devastating welfare safety net – other had noaccess to ashort-term had stolen her papers.partner At the same time, she ‘settled person’. Shecouldnotleave asher thecountry with a Britishcitizen or shehad beeninapartnership residence, anindependent and given her achance of have heraccommodationatawomen’s supported refuge concession wouldDomestic Violence Concession. The status under the Destitution immigration for not apply meaning shecould Economic Area(EEA)national, was a European because her partner in the rules spouses, ‘family route’ as partners’ she fell into a‘gap’ entering on the to remain inthe UK. Unlike migrants leaving the country, right her ownjeopardising or legal choice between staying in the violent relationship, shefaced a stark access to publicservices, migrants’ the regulations on domestic violence. As a result of who lived in aBritish city and was experiencing severe AfricanwomanIn 2013, Iwas toldaboutaNorth nvra es:Hwt eieteeitneo a person? universal sense: How to define the existence of existentialism, notonly inliberal democracies but inan societies. It leaves apuzzle which addresses the ethics of do not suit liberal democracies and point to post-liberal enforcement practices that perhaps, but adevelopment of theword’ (1995). in thefullsenseof underit,whicha soil,fromitislocated itemerges; earth is never utopian;it has apiece of where ‘a concrete truth ) Ortung theund soil (inOrdnung Schmitt’s mysticism of While muchstudies focuses While attention in migration We have here not anoveau ancien regime (Beccaria, 1995) Muddied Waters: Migrants’ Entitlements to Public Services andBenefits Muddied Waters: EntitlementstoPublicServices Migrants’ Caroline Oliver Caroline Humblot. Schmitt, C. (1995) Ideas European of History Müller, J. (1997) ‘Carl Schmitt - An Occasional Nationalist?’, , 40(2):279-95. Criminology Journal of Hirst, P. (2000) ‘Statism, Pluralsim andSocialControl’,British Bellamy, University Cambridge R.(ed.),Cambridge: Press. Beccaria, C. (1995) highest level. The current UKPrime Minister David highest level. current The eligibility. Yet at the still this narrative ispropagated excluded migrants from with a much list of longer legally status and some refugees EEA nationalsmay only be entitled, granted UK; the in benefits and housing have paidnothingintoit’. develops toprotect the welfare state ‘from those who welfare chauvinism welfare provisions.narrative A of public to regulate the costs of emerging from aconcern apparently are growing, access tostate support migrants’ 1994). However legal policies curtailing rhetoric and (Soysal,due to humanrightsandequalities concerns rightshavesense, migrants’ expanded, geographical and ‘austerity’. For years, at least in acomparative historical of climate states liberal in the current interest within western renewed has become a subject of and welfare support experiences.migrants’ However, access to state services influence regulations and rules post-entry which in ways much less scholarlyattention hasbeengiven tothe through bordering practices, entry on the regulation of In practice, few migrants can rapidly access social In practice, few migrants ‘On Crimes and Punishments’ and Other Writings‘On Crimes and Punishments’ , Staat, Grossraum, Nomos, Berlin:DunckerGrossraum, Staat, & , 23(1):19-34. References References Beyond Rules 25 , IMPACIM , IMPACIM The Impacts ofImpacts The Restrictions Mapping the Conditions ofMapping the Stay References Oxford: and States Immigrant Rights, Welfare Limits of Citizenship. Migrants and Postnational In this sense, although attention to migrants’to although attention sense, In this rights of ‘vectors well-known in addition to the Thus, Jayaweera, 2013). Jayaweera, within incorporationis an importantregimes of focus one partjust are in law rights attention, of scholarly the The growing ofcomplexity story. creates regulations a barrier in itself Such rights. ability to exercise to the entry limit to seek that contexts within restrictions, only to economically self-sufficient migrants, have been on impact their understanding without implemented and on social cohesion and wider migrantindividuals integration. of subordination’ gender and and ethnicity class, race, most social scientists with which their intersections there is an urgent need to consider the are well-versed, ‘immigrationin which itself status’ ways a becomes for the consequences with division state-legitimated This opportunities may face. individuals and outcomes ofoccur as a result legal the rulesaccess to regulate created to services,of effects or indirect the accompanying the complexity itself. Jayaweera, H. and Oliver, C. (2013) C. and Oliver, H. Jayaweera, and RationaleUK and in the Restrictions for Entitlements Press. Oxford University (1994) Y. Soysal, Membership in Europe, of Chicago: University Chicago Press. Working Paper, Oxford: COMPAS. Paper, Working Impacts of The (2013) C. Oliver, on the and Entitlements Restrictions ofIntegration A Comparative Migrants: Report IMPACIM , Family Project Report, Oxford: COMPAS. (2013) H. and Jayaweera, C. Oliver, ofIntegration on the and Entitlements National Migrants: Family Report,Project Oxford: , IMPACIM Kingdom United Report.The COMPAS. (2012) D. Sainsbury, Within migration studies and social policy, it is Within migrationand social policy, studies – arguably that UK shows the within to this Attention Cameron recently called for a purge on ‘benefit tourism’, tourism’, purge‘benefit a on for called recently Cameron “something for the culture nothing” ‘ending claiming that immigrationapply in the to needs that is something system’. as in the welfare well system as has on insisted the research recent encouraging that importanceof but not only to entry attention regimes, ofand ‘incorporation understanding the documenting ofregimes’ differential that give states European welfare services and public welfare to access depending on migrants’ entryThe2012). category current (Sainsbury, line of inquiry broader the ofto theme speaks how national inside territories, borders are increasingly oftreatment differential through the legal, documented migrants for a significant (and extending) period of time after entry. (Oliver, European countries than in many other more so a growing is there – 2013) regulations the to complexity As the migrants by faced territory. state enter they once ofcase policies demonstrates, Norththe African woman tread a fine line, attempting to balance conflicting ends, to concernsresources state to ‘protect’ from a need domestic health or preventing around public safeguarding The complex web an astoundingly is outcome violence. of around and addenda the rules, exclusions regulations, ofeligibility migrants to a range of public servicesand benefits (Jayaweera and Oliver, 2013). ‘Complexity’ is a repeatedly that crops up in interviews word local with officials andvoluntary sectorTheworkers. opaque rules and legalisticformulations ofnot simply are eligibility it a result, As servicefor most understandable providers. in admissions tutors receptionists, for GP can be easier staff Centre collegesand Job migrants to refuse access servicesto wrong decision. rather than risk making the servicesto Access and lottery’can be a ‘postcode (Oliver Hackney Boys Besim Can Zirh

COMPAS Photo Competition 2009 Third Place Beyond Rules 27 This year, the controversy about the Home Office Whatis that while the mobile is also interesting ofas a result In 1999, 7,500 Serbian the persecutions, being moved into communities and neighbourhoods. communities into being moved Arrest’ raised campaign van or Face Home ‘Go public concerndamage about the done to Britain’s to overstayers The campaign invited cosmopolitan cities. Twitter text ‘Home’ on 7870, and the Home Office used offer a runningto commentary campaign. van on the Anti- immigrant racism and xenophobia is given official in both offpublic license It is line and on-line worlds. migrantsyoung that not just forms face institutionalised ofcannot remain they to leave marginalisation without – also have – they funds public to recourse or have work ofa sense with to live mobile the by enhanced insecurity phone in the palm of their hand. an instrumentphone is now of border control it is also a was in Tirana, Albania, a child as Salle, device. connecting old telephonestook He out telephones. with obsessed of rubbish the to re- only to pieces them bins and took telecommunications againthem assemble mutant little like in part phones was with obsession His Frankensteins. his elder his link to telephonethe that fact the to due was phone home every month or so with who would brother, obsessed he is still ofnews his life in London. Today, with mobile ones. but now with phones, fled into Albania,Kosovans andwere guns circulating in off well relatively parents were Albanian by Tirana. Salle’s and his father worked a nurse standards – his mother was where developed A kidnap economy ranger. as a forest off well relatively was ransom. Salle to held were children to a pair ofafraid, and his brother paid £4,000 smugglers Salle’s – to secure family posing as a – a man and couple Les Back and Shamser Sinha and Shamser Les Back You’ve Got a Text from UKBA from UKBA Got a Text You’ve The politeness of the British immigration officials 214 million that there were estimated In it was 2010, but are moving, people young is not only that It Christian’s mobile phone vibrates as he settles into his as he settles mobile phone vibrates Christian’s seat for the flight to Montenegro. weeksTwo the ago, informedUK Border Agency(UKBA) he no him that him Britain, and to remain asked in the longer had leave to provide flight details of when he informed On Facebook his friends in country. the he planned leave to turningBefore Montenegro home. coming was he that his phone off for the flight, Christian looks down and his surpriseis from it To message. text his new checks journey’. a pleasant and reads: ‘have UKBA, and scrutinized questioned him is somehow that have world, In a hyperconnected the hardest thing to take. border control and regulation is taking more complex story forms. Christian’s sophisticated and technologically ofemblematic is oftechnologies that reality new the getborder people control are as mobile as the on and off of airplanes. international representing migrantsan world, in the increase of almost 40 million in the first decade of the ofOne in three century. 21st migrants these are young The ofregulation adults. migration youth producing is ofhierarchies new life order and rank the that belonging ofchances generation. a globally mobile at exists it while because also, moving border is the that ofthe extremity the EU and UK, internal immigration everywhereproliferate lecture from the – now controls theatre, to the workplace, to the crèche – spaces. through what immigrationwho can move status filtering by The border itself(Mezzadra and is being multiplied required to police it are and practices the Nielson, 2008), 28 Beyond Rules networking, canbe technologically connected migrants absencetoday has been transformed. thiskindof of experience andMohr, migrant him’ (Berger 1975). The the same time, thatwhich isabsent, continues without hefeels to be absent. At explains: ‘Hemisses everything absence’. Writing inthe 1970s, Berger the ‘double pain of missing home is described as the immigrant’s sense of Man , ASeventh migration, Berger’s study of extraordinary living acrossnational borders. InJohn experience of Friday nightatapubineastLondon. every to meet via text message who arrange Albanians his multi-ethnic networks inLondon,andthe young is hisway tostay connectedTirana, with hisfamilyin London’s super rich andmiddle class. His mobilephone of worksand restoringthe properties mainlyrepairing He being held or deported. to London without fear of many, hecanmove freely the around world and return racism andresentment. the economy that is fraughtwith market in asector of multicultural labour was built on akindof which itself whenheconnected changed with Harbhajan’s business Polish plumbers. labourers and Albanian Salle’s fortunes decorators, and painters Rastafarian of up made is firm but EuropeansIlovehate the Eastern ‘em.” His building footing. Asheputit, “All the people inthe building trade religious Sikh with Marxist leanings, that he found his only whenabuilderandnon- Salle met Harbahajan, inGreater in aschoolLondon.It was inDagenham Kent police. Hewas 12yearsold. beer and was picked up by the full of atruck back of intothe he eventually sneakedstory: remarkable himself through Europeisa to London.Hispassage passage Through the mobile phone and virtual social the mobilephoneandvirtual Through are changing the digital age the technologiesThe of Salle’s status now is stable and, unlike immigration He lived with inBarkingandended his brotherup their student attendance documenting or visits to their aboutmigrants, through monitoring pass oninformation teachers, and university lecturers are allbeing asked to control isbeing‘in-sourced’. Doctors, health visitors, in ourbag.we fumble for the passport Rather, border at Heathow onlyhappen when Calais or longer no These practices. bordering with in hand the proliferations of ourworldhand goes hyper-connectedThe nature of technologies likethe phonesandinternet. airplanes, smart through between time and space is radically transformed in-between. being caught there, without lessening the insecurities of the relationship between here and life has transformed social Clifford’s experience shows how thedigitisationof status meant hewas unabletomove forwardback.or thein present. beingtrappedHisimmigration sense of lovedand ones–inrealtime – exacerbated his own friends he was incontact with theunfoldinglives of and buildingtheirlives. fact that through hisiPhone The love, who wereGhana working, fallinginandout of his future.for day, Every hekept upwithhisfriendsin was beingprocessed – hecouldnotworkplan or legally life was effectively case on hold while his immigration with my colleague Shamser Sinha.Clifford’smigrants young adult in astudy of Clifford, whoparticipated ayoung asylum seeker called demonstrated by the case of absence: quite the contrary, was it can exacerbate it. This butIcan’tSkype aroundthem,” putmy arm shesays. the time. “I can talk to my for 45 minutes nephews on recently relativesthat shespeakstoher all Dominica in through text messaging and email. Charlynne told me loved ones left behind, andevenremotely participate of thelives keepand cafe Londontracka in sitin of They to the life ‘back home’that is unfoldingwithout them. It has been well established that the relationship Technologicalconnection doesnotlessenof the pain Beyond Rules 29 , London: Penguin A SeventhMan, London: Penguin References or unneeded people. This becomes visible chillingly when Thischillingly visible becomes people. or unneeded a ‘have message a text from UKBA: receives Christian pleasant journey’. Berger, J. and Mohr, J. (1975) J. and Mohr, J. Berger, Books or, ‘Border as Method, (2008) and Neilson, B. Mezzadra, S. ofMultiplication the - EIPCP multilingual Labor’, Transversal http://eipcp.net/transversal/0608/ webjournal, March mezzadraneilson/en. articleThis is an excerpt fromSinha entitled a book with Shamser Routledge in 2015. by Migrant City to be published Successive British governments have claimed that that claimed governments British have Successive homes. homes. Willingly or not, they are enlisted as affiliates of immigration control. immigration UK points-based the arbitrates system ofbasis on the than do rather can people young what This than an ideological more little is are. who are they within a drawn lines being thick the gloss concealing generation of the Here, people. young globally mobile terms of are from, how you where by inclusion are set or and whether bank account, is in your money much Theremain as a result. to grantedbe will not you leave border itself captures and expels unwanted nets, moves,

Migration Helen Woods, age 12

Migration is a flock of birds who leave the last shrill calls of summer leave the trees and nests that cupped them like a hand while they waited for their hearts to grow big enough to fit the whole world in. Their wings sing of a bright new future. They pass the sound of the sky feather to feather, beak to beak. But wherever they land, far away in the winter that glows gold, somewhere, back there, the prints their tiny feet left behind are still etched. They are waiting for the ghost of a bird to brush the ground.

COMPAS Schools Poetry Competition 2013 First Place Beyond Contract

Immigration and Low-Skilled Work: The Pret A Manger Question Jonathan Portes There is much empirical evidence that suggests that, in the different example; not immigration, but inflation. UK, immigration has little or no impact on employment Suppose that the price of goat’s cheese goes up, as it is or unemployment overall. But there’s an unfortunate doing now, because of a Europe-wide goat cull (yes, for tendency for dialogues on this topic (oral or in response some of us this is a crisis). Now, what can we say about to economists writing about this topic) to go something the impact on overall inflation? like this. First, a respondent points to an example – • In the short term, consumers will adjust. They may they personally, or someone they know, has lost out on buy less goat’s cheese and more of other things; an employment opportunity to an immigrant. Or they • over time, so will other variables. The exchange rate note that a particular local business or sector seems to may fall slightly (our terms of trade have worsened); employ mostly immigrants – Pret A Manger in London • the Bank of England, in accordance with its mandate, is a frequent target. For this reason, David Metcalf, who will adjust interest rates to ensure that the impact is chairs the government’s Migration Advisory Committee, not to push up inflation target in the medium term. frequently talks of the ‘Pret A Manger question’. Most economists will therefore agree on the following We economists usually respond to the question points: by saying that this is ‘anecdotal evidence’, sometimes • There may be some impact on inflation in the short (although I myself try not to use this phrase too much) term. This will be less than one might expect just referring to the lump of labour fallacy, and explaining from the price rise, and the magnitude and persistence again what the evidence says about overall or average of the impact will depend on how the adjustment impact. The respondent then concludes, perhaps process works; understandably, that economists live in a statistical world • there will be no impact at all on inflation in the which has little or no connection with reality; and worse, medium to long term. that when confronted with reality we are not interested. Now suppose you want to know how quick the adjustment I’d like to try to explain why ‘anecdotal evidence’, in is – does the adjustment take a week or a year? This is this specific context, is indeed irrelevant, not because it an empirical question for which need empirical evidence, is anecdotal, but because it is a partial rather than general and there are various ways you might think about equilibrium concept. That is, by definition, it tells you finding that evidence. But the key point here is that the only the local or partial impact of something, which fact you’re paying more for your cheese doesn’t tell you may or not be offset by developments elsewhere in the anything about the answer to the initial question – the economy, which – by definition – the anecdote cannot impact on inflation overall in the economy. It is not just tell you anything about. that the price of cheese is ‘anecdotal evidence’; it is that To illustrate this I think it is helpful to look at a the anecdotal evidence about cheese tells you absolutely

32 Beyond Contract 33 (Anderson 2013) powerfully sums up this sums powerfully (Anderson 2013) So we need to know what happens Britons what happens the to to know need So we always is evidence anecdotal not that is point So the interested in the modernin the interested of law labour migration. need an to realise that we come I have Most recently, understanding ofimaginative long history the of legal point regulation at the where concerns about labour intersect. migration, and poverty behaviour anti-social and Us Them? to happens what shops, in the not employed who are happens and what shops and sectors, in other employment of levels overall to ofwagesand demand. consumer Those determinewill that factors are the on impact the shops sandwich many how No matter unemployment. accumulate you many ‘anecdotes’ how and goyou into, nothing about you tells this them, in working about Poles in. are actually interested the question that you it or irrelevant, or it is not quantitative; that invalid shops very be can often Going into sandwich useful. how about management to and talking and employees the industry is organised a lot about the you can tell employment practices of that andspecific industry, how And workers. that might impact on migrant and native that studies research quality are many high there indeed to do methods and structured systematic use qualitative of type this exactly condescending, not just is It research. that all but wrong, for to dismiss economists evidence when looking to it. But, attached numbers have doesn’t at economy-wide variables – inflation, unemployment – looking at developments to no alternative is simply there as a whole. in the economy Mark Freedland Interdisciplinarity in the Study ofInterdisciplinarity in the Study of the Law Migration Labour The interesting and difficult question is not what Thetrueis same for immigration and employment. When I embarked, many years ago, upon the study ofstudy upon the ago, many years When I embarked, oflaw the of contract the at the I looked employment, concerning law in parishes and case legislation settlement one of hiring,it provides because annual by most the importantofsources concerning early law contract the of extremely become I’ve later, Many years employment. nothing about the question you are actually interested in, interested are actually you nothing the question about ofspeed is about the which in the process adjustment the wider economy. shops or supermarket aisles, happens in cheese cheese The take could adjustment all prices. for in all shops, but ofprice the looking at but or a year, a week cheese goat’s go many shops you into – can’t how alone – no matter equilibrium a general is inflation because is This you. tell of concept; levels it is determined the overall by demand – a price one and looking at economy, the in and supply anything. tell you partial equilibrium concept - can’t shops sandwich that possible quite is it Theoretically, hiring immigrantsfor Britons unemployment increases shortin the term, doesn’t. it possible that equally is and it dependsdoes it whether establishing that point is the But but observe you on what themselves, not shops in the – it depends on what is happeningwider economy in the The of number process. wider adjustment the Britons a partialshops is in sandwich equilibrium employed – which overall employed concept,number but the of levels overall but shops, dependsnot on sandwich labour supply and labour demand, in addition to other factors – is a general equilibrium one. 34 Beyond Contract nad,mc fthat differentiating between ‘them onwards, much of people like from the later 18th century us’. Indeed, largely now, differentiating others from‘hard-working allways of pillory. whippingorsessions in the stocks or the sentences of which criminal orquasi-criminal liability to depended of likethe uponnuances terms, –become technical legal quaintly Shakespearian –‘sturdy andthe vagabonds’ that to us nowhow sound rather various terminologies law and administrative practice, and to be reminded of this, our elaboratebody to consider the evolution of the wandering poor.lawyer, Asa Ifounditinteresting labour, andtoput pressure upon supply and mobility of to control the regulation which connected upefforts of acat’s cradle Labourers in1349, tracing the strings of theof Ordinance the inEnglandfromtime of itself the marketlabour andof ‘vagrancy’ the controlof of thelongstory disorder. Itgives of historical survey an economic socialandinstability and the or threatof butabove thepresence seeming alltorepresent begging, seeking perhaps parish, casualwork, perhaps to rural whowanders‘vagrant’ parish fromtown totownrural or as awhole, having inearliertimes been focused the on the state has shifted towardsmigrant the non-citizen of the alien andundeserving shows how the idea of by thecommunity. support of undeserving perceivedwho are persons for therefore tobealienand evolve and mutate, over time framing different categories between communitythat these alienation,andthings and regulation makes divisionsintersection to arguethatlegal These of course, as Anderson suggests, are, course, then as as Anderson suggests, of These history, book,lookingback throughBritishlegal This disciplines. colleaguesfrom workingin totally different disparate and quite unexpectedly serendipitously and derive inspiration my own research work namely inOxford, that I often pursuing of privileges thespecialpleasuresand one of , Oxford:OxfordUniversityImmigration Control Press. B.Anderson, (2013) enough’. Reading too committed to work’‘persons notworkingand include such mysterious prescriptive notions as ‘persons might seems, it which, system new a in benefits welfare 2013, late inthatwouldtighten of therationing further Work andPensions asIwrite this of the Department today. Considertheapparentlytaking proposals shapein with controls illuminateissues thatwe grapple migration of settlement and the in parishesandearlyhistory vagrancy chapters inthis book that describe the old law of relevance,Farfrom beingwithout contemporary the they can, for example, be regarded as ‘benefit scroungers’. somewhat conjoined with ‘failed citizens’, failed inthat as migrants treatment of law andculture of the modern a multi-dimensional tableau of out toconstruct in order British subject-hood. inclusionin even partial a zoneof ceased to represent at large, as that Empire orCommonwealth progressively the British Empire, andthen in due course from the world in particular. Primarily it wasmigration fromelsewhere in andlabour ingeneral immigration controlof consist of differentiation, came to axis of and us’, another great In Anderson’sIn islaid this historicalplatform book, Us and Them? sadTe?TeDneosPltc f Politics of Us Them? and TheDangerous References thus encapsulated for me Arrival Sheffield Station Sam Scott

COMPAS Photo Competition 2008 First Place 36 Beyond Contract the globaleconomy by several trillion dollars. the worldwould expand worldto the richest countries of the the from the population poorestcountries of of less than 5percent of that emigration estimates suggest his papers. Clemens’ one of Sidewalk?’ as the title of Trillion-Dollar Emigration: ‘Economics and the Bills on another development economist, using the phrase the joke introduced above, has led to Michael Clemens, in rich countries. with immigration fact, together This little appetite reducing for restrictions to there is very thispotentialgain, welfare. However, eventhe face inof increase in global countries enormous could leadtoan movement tolabour in the barriers to rich poor from such that reduction a minor asDaniRodrick, suggest economicrationality. restriction leadingtoafailureof at small costs; that is,gains unless there is an exogenous for big notion that there should notbe opportunities the reflects it terms, plain In money). easy words, other (in markets it isnot financial in returns excess obtain to possible that states it essentially markets, financial for developingin Economicsfor histheory. Designed Fama,Eugene whowas awarded the 2013 Nobel Prize the sidewalk somebody would have already picked it up.” there had been a 20billon dollar “That’s impossible, if ‘efficient of notion the markets’, does not bother to look down and simply says: under trained been has who “There’s a 20billonthe dollar sidewalk!” economist, The Suddenly the non-economist stops, looksdown andsays the joke it is an anthropologist, inothers a sociologist). walking alongside a non-economist (in some versions of well-knownA economist withan economist joke starts h siae fseveral development economists, estimates of The by developed was hypothesis efficient-market The The Economic Impacts of Migration Migration EconomicImpactsof The Carlos Vargas-Silva Cambridge MA. Cambridge EconomicResearch, Paper 9129, National Bureau of Rodrik, D. (2002) ‘Feasible Globalization’, NBERWorking 25: 3-106. Dollar Bills on the Sidewalk?’, Clemens,Trillion- A. (2011) M. Emigration: ‘Economics and bills onthesidewalk. those of few a find to happen you case in down looking to labour movement.decreasing barriers In sum, keep that there will be noconsensus to suggests in turn mechanism that can deliver this compensation, which Pareto improvement. However, thereclearexisting is no could bea to compensate the migration losers perhaps theirgain winnerscould use some of If migration. of asaresult host countries and arelikely to beworse off single person. Some people inhome forevery not true home and hostcountry, the on average, while likely tobetrue is in benefit economic positive the However, terms. economic in benefit all would countries host and individual worsethe andhome off), since the migrants without making anyother whichis better one personoff win-win situation or, at least, as aPareto improvement (in could beseenwin- asa the surface immigration On more a cheaperfrom force increase labourandproductivity. benefit host countries while remittances, from benefit Still, we would countries to expect migrant-sending themselves. tomigrants goes immigration additional from the welfare increase that results reasons isthat most of the countries? from poorOneof labour movement of rich countriessuch maintain strongrestrictions to the thequestion trilliondollaris: Why do immigration, fthere is really so much frommore to gain If References ora fEconomic Perspectives, Journal of Beyond Contract 37 But then ideas about appropriate childhood are about appropriate then ideas But childhood migration independent child Thus, be can migrant boys and girls are overshadowed by a focus on a focus by migrantgirls are overshadowed and boys street and children,trafficked child sex orworkers, child of consideration no with refugees, ofabsence the viable locally. people options for young peppered Children contradiction. growing with up in rapidly changing societies findregarding expectations inconsistent often how multiple, themselves balancing though even So, should spend their time. and they where migration child condemned is widely work-related earn home to leaving is what an income internationally, enabling children, possible for some schooling makes uniforms utensils, like. and the for school to save them migration, gazeintense the Despite on work-related or higher status better access to and girls relocating boys scrutiny;critical far escaped has thus schools even is it Therise in school- recent quarters. applauded in some migrationchild related responds to a dramatic escalation Among globe. aspirations across the in educational education, to selective access it facilitates social elites by is driven it among populations in poverty whereas as is seen schooling local service Increasingly, shortfalls. a ofmeans becoming somebody of and social wealth of out way a significance, drudgery the and poverty rural offarming, like occupations and of young the releasing parental generation. the from hardships the endured by ofno guarantee is there though Even return, an economic the cover to sacrifices financial major make families many and opportunityindirect direct, ofcosts school-related migration, land or animals. selling their for example by and children detrimental, than rather developmental migrate circumstances and material social under differing Jo Boyden and Gina Crivello and Boyden Jo Child Work and Mobility and Child Work Prevailing ideas about independent child migrationabout independent ideas child Prevailing Writing about children and ‘the politics ofpolitics and ‘the about children Writing at culture’ the end of Sharon Stephens (1995) 20th century, the in terms modern the characterises world of ‘transnational flows of commodities and people;by vast numbers of groups; and stateless migrants, projects state by refugees, of cultures boundaries national threatened the redefine to and passive as unwitting cast Children typically [...]’. are ofsubjects rather than active global forces, shifting these participants challenge and reshape the who experience, girls who migrateand around Boys them. alone world particularattract internationally attention as victims triggeringthus been violated, rights have whose an array ofthe Yet policy and programmatic responses. protective social and that inequalities political economic, extreme commonly underpin remain largely this trend ignored. reflect recent efforts globally to re-setof the boundaries efforts these means to be a child; it what increasingly define and govern children’s vulnerability, usechildren’s to given is attention Growing of time space. and with their learningand dependence needs on adults, formed emotional attachments of context in the stable structuresfamily nuclear regardedbeing to as central In this expanding and wellbeing. their development paradigm of are portrayedas young the childhood, the as such learnersGlobal initiatives rather than earners. expansion associated the for All campaign and Education ofand part,their played boys as formal have schooling full-time girls everywhereschool to attend are expected migration child Relatedly, into their teens. until well and a sign ofto schooling as a threat is taken for work confused often and is or mistreatment breakdown family with Astrafficking. a result, the everyday experiences of 38 Beyond Contract former addresses the basis for supporting an expansion an expansion addresses the basis for supporting former migrants. the While onthe exclusionbe dependent of citizens) for rights to welfare may (of public support citizens. the extent to which Another dimension concerns status asnon- their legal andconditions of the terms of are excludedmigrants fromrights to welfare onthe basis the ways those debates concerns inwhich dimension of welfare states. One from the provisions of migrants often the framed exclusion by questions regarding of welfare andcitizenship are Debates about migration, than create asocial deficit through their physical absence. rather strengthen bondswithin extended family groups home. Inthis way, children’s forwork migration may not available andcare opportunities learning inthe natal in the host household, enables boys andgirlstoaccess forhelping out familyhardshipand,inreturn can mitigate households relocation frompoorly-resourced to better-off to both collective andindividual considerations. Child their work, respond regarding schooling andmigration co-contributors to the household economy anddecisions populations inpoverty, children upas commonly grow relativesbut accompanied by trusted orpeers. Among without their parents areinpractice not alone migrate the children who many of Furthermore, the internet. make new friends and access resources like libraries and has brought them, enabling them to see the wider world, how much migration they appreciate the opportunities motivations andaccounts. Young people often explain wechildrenof must migrating consider young people’s own benefits and costs the up weighing In families. their and with varied outcomes forthemselves andfor Migration, WelfareMigration, andCitizenship Isabel Shutes for International Development, London. for International Paper Team’, Background forDFID Migration Department A. andHashim,I.(2005) ‘Children andMigration: Whitehead, Culture “Late S.Capitalism”’ in (ed.) Stephens Culture in Stephens, S. (1995) ‘Children andthe Politics of immigration and welfare have,immigration arguably, beenlimited welfare. However, debates regarding the provision of in andundeserving ideas about whoisdeserving of status, normative citizenship confers, and a question of that formal with respect to the rights and obligations premised onitsexclusivity to citizens within anation state. that universalismto limitsocial rights onthe grounds is the latter addresses the basis for restricted universalism, universalism, to extend social rights to non-citizens, of through migration. inequality, aswell asthe circumstances they enter into children leave of and theirpositionswithin structures assessing the situationswhichfrom of to the importance stay away.’distance moved and the length of points This course, the movecircumstances migrants to and, of movement, what kinds of onwhat triggers but depend itself, migration effects do notarisefromthe fact of its positivenegative and (2005) that, maintain ‘Manyof vulnerability inmanycontexts.Hashim and Whitehead young fromfamily networks andseparated may increase for work schooling or migration is without risk.Being Citizenship is thus both a question of legal status, legal Citizenship is thus both aquestion of This is not to suggest that children’s isnottosuggest This independent , Princeton:PrincetonUniversity Press. References hlrnadtePltc fthe andPolitics of Children Beyond Contract 39 Theof conditionality requires thus social citizenship the principle of ofeligibility’ ‘less system: Law the Poor the total amount of benefitsthat a household can claim of conditions the that basis the on capped benefits being of than those be more attractive should not claimants parallels also reveal they But poor. the ‘hard-working’ immigrationwith oflimiting the policy: to welfare access and other categoriesfor seekers asylum of European Economic Area (EEA and non-EEA) migrants likewise normativeentails ‘undeservingabout the ideas poor’ dependency’.That that the and ‘welfare is not to say principles underpinning conditions of to welfare access across categories contradictions are without of citizens are Lone parents increasingly required and non-citizens. them engageto move to measures including in paid work, support)from unconditional (income social assistance to conditional work-related benefits – underpinned by an model of‘adult-worker’ (non-EEA) By contrast, welfare. migrant are granted women rights ofin residence the UK via family reunion as the dependants of men, as wives, in turnwhich basis ofthe is from social exclusion their and their dependenceon male wage the rights to welfare ofbreadwinner’ model a ‘male – re-instating welfare 1992) in the context of(Lewis, immigration policy. a broadening ofoffocus the on debates migration principles ofthe considers that and welfare inclusion/ and non-citizens. citizens for groups, different exclusion An analysis ofhistorical of the treatment paupers and in which ways both the reveals for example, criminals, from certain legal been excluded rights (for have citizens certainin which ways also the but rights), voting example, groups are normativelyconstructed citizens’ as ‘failed migrantsin addition to or non-citizens (Anderson, currentIn the 2013). principles the in which context, social rights in the state-guaranteed with associated ofprovision replacedbeen increasingly by have welfare With the restructuringWith the of universal states, welfare by the extent to which they revolve around around a binary revolve they which to extent the by This non-citizens. and citizens between distinction partlyis distinction in limitations: methodological to due ofabsence the nationality/ on immigration data status, citizens basis for distinguishing the is foreign nationality non-citizens and citizens However, and non-citizens. Theyare are not unitary legally groups, or normatively. sharing common race/ethnicity, gender, class, by divided lines of based with divisions intersect which division Those divisions and immigrationon nationality status. ofunderpinned development the over states welfare ofcourse the analyses As feminist century. 20th the classic the to respect with citizenship, social emphasise, of state welfare based on the era, was post-war the gendered ofdivision citizens paid and unpaid work: granted were paid (men) as security social to rights family to granted were is, rights (that women workers, Williams, 1992; (Lewis, wives as mothers and allowances) lesbian disabled, anti-racist, along with As feminist, 1989). was social citizenship conveyed, and gayhave critiques both shaped by that was based on a universalism’ ‘false constructionin the and implicated of and social divisions 2003). inequalities (Lewis, replacedbeen increasingly with have welfare to rights conditional entitlements bearers ofclaimants are not the or rights to welfare, (Dwyer, 2004). of‘choosers’ active the indeed be may they (as welfare Benefits of conceived areas ofin other re-structured provision, ‘obligated’the but as healthcare), such to who are required as a condition of engageactivities in work-related access that conditions and of principles Analyses the benefits. to bring the thus to attention underpinto welfare access stratification the in implicated is citizenship which in ways of Current reforms both and citizens non-citizens. to the welfare benefits system in the UK reveal parallels with 40 Beyond Contract international migration to carry out domestic work has to carry migration international cleaning, cooking,laundry, childcare andeldercare. household tasks including of wide outarange carry sector. working largely wage and inthe informal They below minimumgroups, all oftenearning lowest of paid worldwide’. Domestic workers arealsoamongstthe country, would employer bethe tenth largest thiscountry alldomestic workers worked inone lowest estimate, ‘if are women. As the ILO (2011) puts it, even atthe whom could beashigh100 million, 83per cent of domestic million workers worldwide,the number and (ILO) estimates that there are at least 53 Organisation Labour care. International The theand globalisationof migration the feminisation of paradigmatic symbolsof Domestic workers – are now the iconic female migrants making aroundsocialinequalities. claims- of with a commonbasisforcollective forms social citizenship the ‘false universalism’for replacing of citizenship. connections mightprovide Those the basis residency/ increasing restrictions on access to permanent to rights campaigners with regard migrant activism of low-paid workersto aLiving Wage, with regard the and welfare the activism reforms, of to current with regard disabledpeople socialrights:theactivism of denial of or to the curtailment with regard different social groups making connections between thepoliticalactivism of citizens alike. potentially facilitates the basisfor This socialcitizenshipcitizensnon- forand conditionality of to examine the and market competition, it is important individual responsibility, consumer choice principles of While notalldomestic workersWhile are migrants, Domestic Workers and Rosie Cox Race, GenderandClass, Polity Cambridge: Press. Williams, F. (1989) EuropeanSocialPolicy,Regimes’, Journal 2:3,159-173. of Lewis, Welfare J. (1992) the Development‘Gender and of Basingstoke: Palgrave. C.and Pierson(eds.), Lewis, G. (2003) ‘Difference and SocialPolicy’, in N. Ellison , 29(2:)265-287. Sociology of Welfare RightsEntitlements?’, to Conditional Dwyer, P. Conditionalityinthe UK: From (2004) ‘Creeping Immigration Control, B.Anderson, (2013) pliant workers, but also because ethnic ‘others’ are often regimes may makenot onlybecause immigration them and abuse. domestic workers vulnerable to exploitation particularly substantial control over their employees’ lives and makes live in their employer’s home. gives This employers frequently include thestipulationthatdomestic workers workers.and migrants rights asboth Suchregulations outpaiddomesticbut labour restrict their who carry such as the au pair scheme, which to those allow entry specific visas for domestic workers, or other arrangements receiving countries that include regimes of immigration countries suchthe Lanka and asthe Sri Philippines and policiesfrom byexport labour been encouraged has workers of flow This decades. recent in rapidly grown Migrants are favoured to carry outdomestic work, arefavoured Migrants tocarry au Pairs Pairs au Oxford:OxfordUniversity Press. oilPlc:ACiia nrdcin suso of Issues Introduction. Critical A Policy: Social sadTe?TeDneosPltc f Politics of Us Them? and TheDangerous Developments British in SocialPolicy,Developments References Canadian Journal Canadian Beyond Contract 41 References Global Care Work: Gender and Migration Global CareWork: One particularly of example interesting au the how The of study labour has grown paid domestic in tandem flexible childcare available. available. childcare flexible formulation is in out exchange’ pair has played ‘cultural and Sweden Denmark, Norway In Nordic countries. the there has been a rapid growth in au pairing years in recent supported, in part,at least to families subsidies state by part– costs childcare of cover to friendly’ ‘woman wider The2010). Isaksen, (see policies majority ofwelfare au and Philippines from the come countries pairs in these just on the role in home, order remittances to send take have Nordic countries Yet do. workers domestic other as ofidea the rejected and allowing visa worker a domestic a practice such because migrationwork domestic for ofout be would their egalitarianwith sync principles. pairing, as a formAu ofrather than exchange’ ‘cultural portrayed with as in is acceptable keeping and even work, access supportsprinciples as it ‘feminist’ women’s (some) outside the home. to work growth the with of Researching itself. work paid domestic it encompasses because is appealing work paid domestic major structuralthe of inequalities contemporary It life. of a site be to home the reveals thereby waged labour, social shows it divide; disrupting public/private the reproduction a form be to of that and one work waged form, as any as much just globalisation by is affected subtle the also exposes It manufacturing. including intertwiningof inequalities class and race/ethnic gender, the and all within situation, employment a single within of space confined home. a family Isaksen, L. W. (ed.) (2010) (ed.) W. L. Isaksen, Lund: Nordic Academic Press. in Nordic Societies, International Labour OrganisationWork ‘Domestic (2011) Brief Policy on Estimates Global and Regional Number 4: Switzerland. Geneva, ILO, Domestic Work’, Au pairs carryAu kinds ofsame the out as domestic tasks considered appropriate to deal with dirt. with deal appropriate to considered or to Closeness from dirtdistance of is a marker and migrants status, ofand members groupsminority ethnic are regularly portrayeddirtier inherently as privilegedthan more groupsdirty to so-called suited and better therefore if as workers domestic treat also may Employers work. It is not uncommon for domestic are they innately dirty. to to be forced their employers with who live workers cutlery different use ofand crockery rest from the the in the clothes their to wash allowed be and not to family, or same bathroom. to bathe in the machine same washing The of stigma dirt with in a vicious traps them working cycle that defines domesticwork as low status because migrant and migrant as it is done by women women dirt.deal with they because status low time same At the of employers their enhance are able to workers domestic homes, spotless their world the to displaying by status – all made preparedbeautifully lives and stress-free meals the labour ofpossible by others. are they rather yet than as dirty, being seen workers, white, enthusiastic, generally healthy, imagined as young, fun in a foreign countrygirls having middle-class before pairing is constructedAu to ‘real life’. as a down settling form of cultural exchange and au pairs are by definition this Despite language and lacking skills. young migrants, in conditions that and work image, au pairs often live offrom those little differ The workers. other domestic surroundingregulations precise au pairing from differ are au pairs recognised nowhere but countryto country, are ‘partthey Instead, ofas workers. the family’; the labour carrythey their out around the home is ‘help’, is a and money’ their employer is ‘pocket pay pitiful While‘host’. scheme the au pairs do use and hosts some are many others who do not, there as originally intended, form cheapest as the offavoured and au pairs are often Hanoi Saskia Blume

COMPAS Photo Competition 2011 Shortlisted Beyond Contract 43 The point is to know where to look. We are accustomed The where to look. We point is to know International migration and migrantsin are present shop is when we experience that we The convenience Thebag of little attains a salad suddenly washed specific places and into specific types of employment. To types specific into employment. and of places specific migration understand and ‘see’ to understand need we helps us to do this. The subcontract this specificity. internationalwhere place to thinking that the migration is the as a social and political issue visible becomes air border land, – the or sea port. ofThis is, the course, migrant a claim the would-be can make point at which for admission for some purposeand for period some ofand, more generally, subcontract the However, time. are organised, us labour markets show in which ways the internationalwhere are other places that there migration issue. becomes visible as a social and political of aspects mundane most the Think of our daily lives. supermarketto the regular visit the and welcome the of convenience Think and packagedvegetables. washed and subcontracting then about the production networks of and delivery packaging picking, the involve that chains farm or field from way their make they as products these be migrant well stage to supermarketmay At each shelf. workers. ofnot a result migration,of but tendencies long-standing of use towards and temporarycausal workers labour with or temporarymobilised by often labour providers, 19th gangmastersIn the known. sometimes are as they in gangs to pick worked and children women century, students often undertook work. such Later, crops. broader significance. It canmigrationofin our experience and migrant workers signify the presencecan also we of quotidian reality, this shopping, and, beyond Andrew Geddes Subcontracting Subcontracting Any grand or ambition for reasons scheme economic The migrationnot that is here issue somehow Few aspects ofaspects Few modern by remain life untouched of presence the This a subcontract. only a key is not for many migrantrelationship employment workers ofan indication now. more broadly, but, live we way the Think of is produced and food that packaged the before chamber the hotel ending up on supermarketshelves, construction the shop, coffee ubiquitous now maid, the or IT services. business hospitality the call centres, site, agenciesby that are people employed encounter In all, we be may These workers workers. provide to subcontracted migrants and, very often, they are temporarily employed. of both speed and efficiencysome kind ofvia a employment Indirect is subcontract. likely to depend on Take can also support subcontract employment. direct ofcase the migrant, high skilled for the quest the such as those in working in financial services in the City of be subcontracted London. Theseto people are unlikely workers, but who offices cleans their their that likely offices? Banksit’s but may traders, well their employ directly subcontracted employed, indirectly by will be cleaned who are often migrants. workers recruitmentthe Rather, of subcontracting. this causes subcontracted migrant workers fits with the intensified ofuse labour deregulated in liberalised, contracts such This is a generalthe as is so often trend, but, markets. offacet some at more closely look we when case modern life, within a general trend we can also see some specific ofeffects specificity this is It migrationmigrants. on and ofthat is often lost in discussions While ‘immigration’. migrants into are and often seen understood as moving ofreality, the to countries, is that migrants course, move 44 Beyond Contract andreferences.degrees, certificates and how workers signal their abilities to employers by offer, they jobs the fill to suited best the workers find to models for explaininghow employers screen applicants than employers. Economistshave developed avariety of seekers,than job whoknow moreabouttheirabilities employers know moreaboutthe jobs they are offering that is often complicated by asymmetric information: matchesRecruitment workerswith jobs, process a workers at astreet corner. upinthe early morning A with amobile phone andwhite vangangmaster picking may be amultinational company; but may alsobe alone hours andconditions. allowagencies employers to differentiate pay, working lowest cost. Subcontracted workers employed through the at shelves to farms and fields from produce shift to employers who are seeking practices of the recruitment to keep prices as low as possible. then feeds into This that exert significant pressure ‘down’ production networks both satisfy and create demands migrants. Supermarkets and life with effects that extendbeyondfar migration chains. thesupermarket major the ‘real employer’, often one of the ‘enduser’consumingtheproductand literally from is distant both metaphorically and labour they perform worker foodprocessing,the or the migrant inagriculture life. modern For and sustain aspects of support migrants see and understand the ways and in which migration International borderscomplicate job matching, as International How does this work? labour provider A temporary modern is also akey feature of supermarket The How Worker toReduce Migrant Costs Recruitment Philip Martin to recruiters country,in another to recruiters intermediaries relyingon offers on pass job onecountry in often, More recruiters borders, and interact with them while they are abroad. and screen workers,to recruit facilitate their move across roles. Somereceive job ordersfromemployers and travel can play labor’ many ‘merchantsrecruiters. These of for-profit including intermediaries, by facilitated often and jobsinanother, jobmatchingare inonecountry is make it toharder match workers and jobs. workers When differences culture,language, in descriptions can job and our behalf. on made are that or make we that choices the from flow markets and aboutissues the ethical that and normative labour of also tells us something about the organisation washed salad that we shouldeatit.But the littleof bag and migrants. We forus and know that salad is good act of the mundane migration in shopping we can encounter the presence of Even significance. broader a the way we live and the choices that we make all possess to better regulate gangmasters.death didlead to efforts Morecambe Bay. were They subcontracted andtheir of their lives while picking cockles onthe treacherous waters 2004when at least 21people fromChinalost February wasto exploitation. brought This into stark focus in workersregulate, andmigrant may thus be morevulnerable to difficult are that sectors in work often However,they employment that have longrelied uponsuch workers.of labour, fortypes to provide particularly temporary legal course, perfectly Itmoney is, frompay forthis service. of may alsoprovidegangmaster accommodation anddeduct The subcontract helps us to see and understand howThe Beyond Contract 45 Threesuggestions concrete recruitmentfor reducing could and contracts Standardizing job descriptions recruitersregulate Most countries penalizing those by to recruiters, but they will pay more one than the typical will pay but they to recruiters, governmentssome wagesthat foreign as specify month’s recruitment Ifmaximum the charge. a two- have workers per cent 4.2 to equivalent month is one contract, year of foreign earnings;one month contract, on a three-year recruitment yield Reducing would cent. per costs 2.8 is $2,000 pays who worker low-skilled A benefits. significant over $7,200 promising contract a for recruitmentcosts in of$5,000 remit country another may in years three these to per cent from 10 costs remittance Cutting earnings. 5 per cent saves $250, but cutting rercruitment costs in half saves the migrant $1,000. Furthermore, recruitment costs lowering can reduce debt peonage, trafficking, violations ofother and the are human rights that sometimes associated with international labor migration. for offering incentives are standardizing costs contracts, goodengagement the and encouraging recruiter behavior, of as recruiters. companies multinational established in decrease Standardization to the has contributed separatedbe can sending into which costs, remittance can Businesses costs. and fees exchange-rate pickup fees, of element standardize each transaction remittance the of economies and technology use to achieve that scale remittance costs. lower of the cost help to reduce recruitment.Agreements laborer, worker, a domestic be to required skills on the and both worker could increase or driver technician, in getting right workers the by satisfaction employer worker-held develop could Governments right jobs. the skill ‘passports’that record at home and skills acquired at home or a re-employment facilitating abroad, thereby return abroad. normallyenforcement However, regulations. violate who Recruiters are paid for their services. Employers Recruiters Employers paid for their services. are matches recruitmentLow and goodcosts worker-job to pay call for employers International conventions gaps ofWage labor oneor more motivate to eight they may never have met to recruit and screen workers. recruitto met workers. and screen have never may they For-profit recruiters operate in all migrationprominent are in especially but they they Asia, where systems, and from South workers million low-skilled several move into GulfAsia Southeast Cooperation countries Council year. each generally some or ofall costs pay recruitmentof care health managers, including workers, skilled highly are relatively there because and engineers, professionals, of and the consequences workers such few a poor match there are often However, for business. can be costly the than jobs in occupations such workers more low-skilled serviceas domestic and construction making laborer, move in order to high fees pay to willing workers some to the front of the queue. result in satisfied workers andmigrationgovernments that satisfy outcomes in both employers, and labor high However, migrant countries. sending and receiving their permits to violate by can prompt costs workers worker-job Poor overstaying. jobs and second taking unqualified dismissing employers to lead also can matches no to return who arereluctant have they because workers who arrive Workers their recruitment to repay way debts. mistreatment, to vulnerable abroad are especially in debt on are counting all partiessince workers that these know higher wages abroad and their debts returnto repay to their home countries with savings. all ofrecruitment the ofcosts they migrant the workers it is often there are unless complaints, However, hire. of payment the hard to detect worker-paid (excessive) fees. wage this entire gap will not give migration. Most workers 46 Beyond Contract notorious ‘handshake apartments’ ( ‘handshakenotorious apartments’ warehouseattention. They migrants, sometimes in have attracted much recent academic and architectural China’s is one of hotels and convention centres across the world. Dafen copies’ ‘originalthat decorate the walls of global hubof VanPicassos; Goghsor the oil painting city is a a crate of now markets his own work. InDafen today you can buy space from where he setting up astudio andsmallgallery classics before in Dafen, copying old masters and modern oil paintingfactory an workedthe onproductionlineof home.USA before returning He described how he once in Guangzhouandtravellingart to Hong Kong andthe Hui settled in DafenCunShenzhenafter studying Adecco and Manpower to move low-skilled workers over multinationals such istoencourage as third suggestion matching workers with jobs overcheaper. borders The capital tomake or knowledge the business transaction of workers annually,hundreds of dozens or without the foreigncountriesandemployers.particular could also be favoredrecruiters to receive job offers from lower-rated recruiters. A-rated business at theexpense of payor agencies lower fees, helpingthem to attract from government receiveA-rated recruiters faster service more effectiveworkers, toprotect migrant especially if to adhereregulationsmay be recruiters encourage onlysticks, that offering carrots high costs. Instead of workers the foreign jobsthey seek, albeit at get if complaints, on depends which may notbeforthcoming oehryucnla u fyourwindow to shake youtogether canleanout of Many recruiters today are relativelyMany recruiters small, moving chengzhongcun (villages in the city) that (villages Migrant UrbanisminChina’sMigrant woshou feng woshou ), soclose Michael Keith migration anddevelopment. migration policy forward onthe often overlooked that links R-term and protections for workers improved would move is a business where costs can be loweredrecruitment aim toprotectRecognizingtheir citizens abroad. that can doonce inside, that andtosending governments and what they that regulate who can enter the country interest both to receiving governments great process of whileprotectingmigrant workers.for-profit recruiters with compete to status nonprofit their using recruiters, to become organizations international for unionsor workers. An alternative to multinationals would be overcharging than rather scale of economies via profits standardjobdescriptions and contracts and achieve of borders. Multinationalscould speed the development China’s cities, fastest growing where these itisinvillages shares. Shenzhen, oneof In formal with familiesholding units, asjointstock companies, commonlyorganised Special first developedor villages into semi autonomous economic the of one Zones inDeng’sEnterprise 250-300 ‘clans’ 1978 reforms, became Shenzhen When on to their facility to own, develop and trade property. use leases sold onthe market, in the city held villages bywhere full ownership the state with limited isreserved rights they sustain. Unlikeland, urban property the rural thecitywhennotneeded. squeezing peopleoutof times in boomand labour saturated with migrant sponges, city as function they office, planning Shenzhen onememberof yourneighbour’s In the hand.wordsof Moving workers over borders to fill jobs is a complex Their prosperity and flexibility depend on and reflect and on depend flexibility and prosperity Their Chengzhongcun

Beyond Contract 47 has become an iconic urban has become form of are so extensive in comparison cun are so extensive chengzhongcun made a land grab based on the fictitious cultivation cultivation fictitious the on based grab land a made cun Thethe storybe apocryphal may invokes it but GIS and satellite technologies, in the wake of wake the in technologies, satellite GIS and moves growththe with to experiment of Shenzhen, the who inspectors by mappedout was process cadastration ofas guests stayed the Because committee. village’s the boundaries of than secure more to tenure villages owed cun each was to be landholdings, definedby the limits of elders the area. So according to Sherlock cultivable its formulateto out inspector the take map ofthe would the After a long based on a particular tree. lychee cultivation sleep, to went inspectors dinner the and hospitable lunch lychee and up the dug went local families point at which of one set in trees of landscape a new and created plots from north They moved sector. in a different trees lychee that occasion south and ensuring on to east, each to west the ofthe – boasted Sherlock – why is And that lychee. the boundaries of the with most other villages in the region. ofand suspicion solidarities local between balance central of wit the and valorises authority, fool the local to the Guanlan in which the sense bureaucrat. It captures state itselfsees ofsite as a ofpossibility the propensity, generating affluence resting on the authority to develop, the potential oftransact and leverage the land. The contemporary China, bringing together property rights, The particular urban fabric and migrant demography. assemblage of housing supply and cultural flux allows extraordinary simultaneously to accommodate city the flows of migration and the dynamics of urbanchange, and externalities allocate the to of demographic change The ofconfiguration metropolis. particular the a through villages accommodated massive flows ofthe peoplecity, but migrant status into is conditional and qualified. Theof costs change (the sustaining the migrant driven – cun management cun’s ). In the space ofspace the In cun). guan ) that separatesnei inside boundaries that is hard to provenance but hard provenance is to boundaries that ) and is still ( guan guan ) from outside liwai the cun’s At the time oftime At the ‘reformthe and opening up’, Deng’s The border of the village defined the territory for And so one day in 2008 in another chengzhongcun in another in 2008 day And so one revealing. revealing. villagesin Shenzhen and other partscity in the of south the growtheconomic own their encouraged develop to were had to turn sent inspectors been Government strategies. reform principle into economic cartographythe of The practice, inspection local landholdings. confirming privilegedthose in the regularise to was cadastre based itself Guanlan ofwave Zones. lay Economic first Special old boundarythe outside ( zone ( the formsused barely old, by marked of passport and identity halfcontrol. It sits to Dongguan, way for famous a city of autonomy the government,local its prompting several interventionsgovernmentto rein in local from Beijing proximity However, and 1990s 2000s. affairs in the growthto the area villagemeant the had to potential to facility and the in manufacturing investment attract a large migrant and factories, workshops accommodate labour. population, and sweated to the limits the development, potential Guanlan’s propertyrights of of days the Before village the ‘clan’. Guanlan – in the northern of district we Shenzhen, edgeto the of drove village the ( seamlessly the landscape moves a hundred metres few from dense residential blocks to a field of barely visible the about where talk We brick. to crops and back ‘English’ (his Sherlock laughs. Holmes Sherlock ends. for the works for himself) nickname committee the to His father had been elected committee. nascent in the an old regime turningmonth, that over arrangementdemocratic of a story He tells village affairs. about the most migrantslive. 48 Beyond Contract earn some moneytofundtheirvehicle so they repairs earn ripeapricots they thought to they would try orchards of travelling workers. theirtyre burst nextto some When of coast. Woodyhitched Guthrie had aridewith a bunch It was early inthe Second World War onthe US west apartments. Functionally, the penthouse and tennis courts with swimming pools, gym, Fen XinCunfourkilometres away, community agated town altogether, creating Da that they moved out of distance inhometowns ( at a often) husbands sustain family ties and reproduction where children left behind andsometimes wives or (less districts displaced torural largely are welfare externalities) ( from cultivating crops ( ‘their main livelihood, puts it, has shifted asavillager China, postreform the ‘uncivilspaces’ urbanof of in the city.most villages AsHelen Siu puts it in astudy economy: the joint stock companiesthatcharacterise the drivers Shenzhenandthe instrumental of needs of mediating between the planning an institutional form gengwu)’ (2007). From theGrandCouleeDamwherewaters comedown In Dafen the original villagers wereIn Dafen the original villagers so successful We willwork inyour fightand we’ll fighttill wewin! le ntegon nahtelgto themoon ‘neaththelightof ontheground Sleep Green pastures of plenty from dry desert ground desert plentyfromdry Green pasturesof We withthewind comewiththedustandwe go oki orocad fpeaches andprunes I work inyour orchards of Every state in this Union us migrants hasbeen stateinthisUnionusmigrants Every nteeg fyour cityyou seeusand then of On theedge gengtian) to cultivating real estate huijia). Bound for Glory - Bound forGlory chengzhongcun Agriculture andFood Agriculture Processing Woody Guthrie generate generate Ben Rogaly (2): 329-350 Spaces in Post-reform South China’, AmericanEthnologist, Siu, H. (2007) ‘Grounding Displacement: Uncivil Urban Routledge and UrbanChange Capitalism: Economic Life Constructing Keith, M., Lash,S.J. Arnoldi, Rooker, and T. (2014) migrant urbanism,Chinastyle. migrant of the andinformalities governance of the formalities the metropolis; these are the and needs of the migrant of the individual joint stock company, the rights the logic of interest, self between the city rational instrumental and through anothercalculus – onethat sees implicit trade offs rights canmake this surface legible property inthe the map of citycelebrated ‘Shenzhenspeed’. But characterisationvernacular of aflexible of exemplifications complexion drivescomplexion over totheworkersafter their soon her woman Guthrie refers to as ‘Swedish lady’ because of telling. A its of context specific the outside recognizable containselements that are economy inthestory settled mobile and both people.and Yet the political toencompassallsocial classes US appears the wartime Guthrie’s example,example, for solidarity in national time.across spaceand In industrialisedin agriculture capitalism. agrarian entwined layersas theythe confront deeply of theworkers sympathetic with a account of the group as aperipatetic musiciana young fallingfor womanin Guthrie mixes could become mobile again. his own story On the surface, There can be no generalizing about migrant workers aboutmigrant canbe no generalizing There References chengzhongcun have become , London; China 34b Beyond Contract 49

THE FRUIT TO MATURE. PICKERS MAY MAY PICKERS TO MATURE. THE FRUIT AS THE ORDERS, BY AND AWAIT STAND CHANGE WARM A TAKE MAY WEATHER USUAL SOONER. THE FRUIT AND RIPEN BY OBTAINED BE MAY SLIPS CREDIT ARRANGEMENTS MAKING THE PROPER STORE’… Hhhhmmm. THE COMPANY AT to ask any questions? want Anybody Yes. I’m one that’s shore glad we quit that striking striking that quit we shore glad one that’s I’m right for ain’t just out]… cause broke [when war another an’ work, quit up an’ to people one buncha full of shoot you an’ down drive to bunch that crops ofold tear gas, all waste to all kinds-a-goin’ around. four ofI stole I had them apricots. big pretty these back planting them I’m And now for breakfast. ofside the here by up some Grow this old store. I paid him back. Thenknowing easy I can rest day. The cannery/fruitnot wealth accumulates thus grower processing and only through production, sale of food, indebted. harvestthe making also through but workforce Theofdistribution land and machinery role has a major the by backed is it Importantly, do this. in enabling him to effectiveness behind the lies legalas which, state enforcer, ofThissign. not does agreementcredit the workers that againstacts inevitably state the mean that interests the of has had a and, at times, Thecan have state workers. in also be called may state the However, role. protective at industrial action. One of attempts to crush workers’ remarks: workers the women coming across a younger woman also describes Guthrie and from she had planting stones four apricots picked eaten in the early morning: Bound for Glory is autobiographical,verythe yet nature of ofworlds the far – spaces described agricultural workers has signed his agreement to the debt the workers his agreement has signed workers the debt to the he Quiet everybody… Won’t bother to read all of this everybody…Quiet Won’t DUE TO COLD WEATHER ‘DEAR SIRS: order. THE APRICOT DAYS, THIRTY THE PAST OF WILL NOT BE RIPE ENOUGH TO BE CROP BE THERE WILL CANNING. FOR SUITABLE PERIOD TO ALLOW WAITING A TEN DAY Three grades of apricots, you know… Now, the the Three grades of Now, know… you apricots, warm the in ripen last plain ones anybody weather; Selects a box. so much Pay the plain ones. can pick of less shape, better taste, Better ripen earlier. get for picking more money a little You them. plain as the a box as much twice about them, verythe can they best want folks Moneyed ones… get, Selects. and the best is the Extra The workers in Guthrie’s storyinto a are enticed in Guthrie’s The workers The connection between pay rates and the market rates and market the pay The between connection The storythe as explicit remains conditions unfolds. timing of harvest the apricot depended on not only the ripeness of fruit, the itself but also weather, by affected the owns in this case which on cannery, from the orders orchards. form of The down broken cannery. the to indebtedness within easy employers are no other means there vehicle but not through naivety, debt, on the take So they reach. inequality to the are resigned they now, For necessity. of The company man he has ensures relationship. the identified the owner of broken the that vehicledown and take on in the company store – the first time a worker goodsfound that they store the inspected to subject were The do. could nothing they was there mark up but a hefty ‘field boss’ then uses statement the rather cannery’s than in the harvest: to announce the delay words his own arrival and explains the distinctions between the different the different and between explains the distinctions arrival qualities of in terms apricots of pay: and pickers’ price 50 Beyond Contract can workers act to improve their working conditionsand in fields and food factories? How much and in what ways havechallenging inreinforcing or inequalityinjustice and actors roledostates and international required? What workers numbers of yeararelarge and atwhat times of retailers? Tocreditors and whatextent, how predictably, control across foodgrowers,and packers, processors, ownership of cultural questions. isthestructure What political, economic and involves asking a commonset of its diversity, which, inspite of the understanding of employmentsector,production theindustrialisedfood in migrant does, nevertheless,exemplar asan of serve is invented. the story It to establish how much of work – makes it impossible employers and places of particular with associations fleeting conurbations, from California Press.California Berkeley: IndustrialAgriculture, University of of Organization Thomas, R.(1985) CarolinaPress.North the American West of Economy G.Mann, (2007) Guthrie, W. (1943) over money, time, bodiesandfood? over meanings as well as what extent is this a struggle the ‘wage’, to Mann’s of (2007) detailed deconstruction and Geoff industrialised agriculture, the workings of to obscure the ‘farmer’ the ideal urban of the use of of wages? And, following (1985) exposure Robert Thomas’ Our Daily Bread: Wages,Daily Bread: Our Workers the and Political Harmondsworth: Penguin. Harmondsworth: Bound forGlory, Citizenship,Work: Genderand Social References hplHl:TeUiest f University, Chapel Hill:The of At Sundown Vivien Urban, age 14

In my country, I felt the gentle grass touching my feet lying under the cherry tree with flowers white and sweet. I watched the red plate of the sun going down. And, as the shadows grow, so grew the quiet.

In my other country I have grown used to the rumbling sounds of cars. At night from my window I watch the stars. My clock ticks, tick-tock pushing forward time. I think of the red plate of the sun going down.

COMPAS Schools Poetry Competition 2013 Third Place Keeping Time

Time Michelle Bastian Watching the sweeping second hand of the clock, a we supposedly know better than to dream of a single certain kind of time appears. Smooth, continuous, common language, of a universal medium of translation. seemingly inevitable. The clock’s face promises much, Yet this is belied by the short set of numbers that grace yet it reveals little of the work involved in producing the multiple screens we touch and watch throughout the time. Look more closely and one is forced to confront day. Here the dream is alive and well. Twice a year this time’s precarious materiality. In a classic analogue clock, dream is disturbed as we make our concessions to the a quartz crystal, shaped into a small tuning fork, creates variations of solar time. Yet even this small reminder of countable oscillations used to distinguish ‘before’ from the way we humans make time collectively weakens as ‘after’. Chosen because of their low response to changes our clocks shift from our wrists to digital networks that in temperature, quartz crystals are laser-cut and set synchronise our displays. We no longer experience the to vibrate at a frequency of 32,768Hz – such seeming uncanniness of being responsible for making the clock precision, but even so, this material configuration fall back or spring forward. Even fewer of us are called represents a compromise between accuracy and cost. upon to add the irregular leap second that is needed to Half a second is lost or stolen from every day. Yet even keep International Atomic Time in synch with Universal this is still not precise, it is only an average. Each day Time. The variable Earth, which gives us the time we brings its own variability – the material chosen because hubristically call ‘Universal’, is not obedient to the same of its lack of ability to respond still responds, after all. laws that caesium atoms are subject to. So a second is The constant battle to transcend the facility for added here and there. Unnoticeable, it would seem, except response, a facility inherent within all materials, leads for those responsible for IT systems, for whom a second to ever more intricate methods of fine tuning and out of place can cause cascades of server meltdowns. calibrating. Behind the illusion of the sweeping second Like the elusive ‘mono’ of monocultural agriculture, our hand, our clocks cannot actually operate like clockwork; attempts to enforce the purity of the one become coeval they cannot live up to the metaphor they have inspired. with the creation of ever more vigorous interlopers, even Unable to escape contingencies, they make time through while most others are pared away. particular mediators – ytterbium, caesium, quartz, Earth, Looking more closely at clocks, we find that time is not Sun – each only providing partial infrastructures for an inert background. Far from encountering a pre-existing managing the varied relations that make up life. The desire entity, we encounter emergent methods for moving with to produce a transcendent method of global coordination and through the different processes, speeds, delays, continues to be balanced against the contingent qualities mobilities, repetitions, rhythms and transformations and capacities of the materials pressed into service. that inhere within beings, objects, networks. What is at In our time of migrations, flows and un/settlements, the heart of time, then, is not gears and oscillators, but

52 Keeping Time 53 References Objects of Time: How Things Shape , Temporality Notwithstanding the merits of merits the Notwithstanding body of this work, generations, in particular is generation, second the generations, which as a kind ofseen test. litmus scholars As some it. with are problems associated there that migrants to assume noted, it has tended will have assimilate into a vaguely defined,ofexample the following mainstream, Jewish, the white, middle-class Irish, and Italian migrants20th early US in the the to many migrant groupsare however, Today century. non- instead absorbed into an increasingly multi-ethnic, opportunities few or with under class for working white of mobility or even upward legalizing their residence. Furthermore, assimilation paradigm that assumes the will relinquish all time migrants and their offspring over runs through it, interfering with its steady sweep. Time runssweep. steady its with interfering through it, but resumes, then The hand waits, through time. washes the that Faith Faith. is lost. something in that moment from complicated us and free promises as it do will clock forms of response. Instead, we find ourselves inworlds of time the tell us helping aren’t clocks where our lives of lives and the where in worlds encounter, we those overlaid paralysing delays experience to areforced many perhaps time where in worlds terrifyingwith swiftness, itself to respond, after all. will be driven Birth, (2012) K. Macmillan. Palgrave New York, Griffiths, M.,Rogers, A. andB. Anderson, (2013). ‘Migration, COMPAS and Prospect’, Review and Time Temporalities: of University Paper, Resources Oxford. Research Mette Berg Generations from response. Even so, as I read about the delays, the ‘fast tracks’, the tracks’, ‘fast the delays, as I read about the so, Even The concept of generation understanding to is central of migration;think of ‘the idea the generation’, first ‘the generation sense In this and so on. generation’ second migrants to refers assumes and often children, and their particularthat each with associated challenges are passing generation: The first generation are saidto put expectation in the pay and low harsh conditions up with generation, second the have will children, their that their and that do, themselves they than lives better grandchildren, generation, third the in turn will fully be country the into assimilated of A voluminous settlement. ofbody itself associating literature assimilation the with ofparadigm, much has on US experiences, based it progress of relative the and documented tracked migrant something less tangible: the ability to respond. Time is Time ability to respond. the tangible: less something ourselves finding to response our as make, we something do not all relations that in and already entwined always most often the method Yet operate in same way. the search the has spawned clock, the ‘time’, as recognised in for and to variations materials that respond less less devices build we these From and circumstance. context ofexternalise we work the into which with making time, the to notice and able less less become the risk that we ofmyriad understand and to and successions sequences Birth, other (see each Our to relate 2012). these how pursuit the with entangled has become to respond need of freedom arbitraryoffcut of times stagnant the dates, detention and, clock the at again up look I 2013), al., et Griffiths (see A vibration hand second wavers. the a moment, for just 54 Keeping Time help us understand the ways in which pre-migration can generation understanding of in the west. A cohort the post-World ‘the baby-boomers’ War of II cohort (most often during adolescence). An examplewould be same events at roughly the same point intheir life course peoplewhohave experienced the of group meaning a can also refer to cohorts, descent, generation genealogical context (Kertzer, 1983). As wellin amigration as applied be profitably can that literature anthropological insociological meanings attachedand togeneration America? century in the specific historical early context to of mid-twentieth experiences embedded helpfully understood as particular experiences,as generalizable when they might be more andtheirdescendants immigrants European century early 20th- understood the experiences of erroneously inassimilationist scholarshiphas generation the use of unacknowledged historicalcontext.itbethat Could missing or a scholarship, migration namelythatof in generation with the problem conventional use of border-crossing practices. work Their points to another better suited to today’s migrants’ dynamics and migration continuingidentities transnational and commitments, their of toincludeappreciation an the second generation than itilluminates. neat, straight linetowardfull assimilationobscures more a several different countries. meansthatthe idea of This settling definitively in one or the other, or move between between home andhost society without and forth ever extended holidays move for children. Somemigrants back calls and text messages,telephone and visits, including their homelands through remittances, and e-mails, skype to continue tostaymigrants touchmore in enabling with ties to their ancestral homeland. Instead, globalisation is If this is the case, there are other definitions and definitions other are there case, the is this If Some scholars have accordingly extended work on diversity within migrant groups, especially regarding inter- diversity groups, especially regarding within migrant context, thereby enabling abetter understanding of intheirhistorical (Berg, 2011) and situates migrants generations asdiasporic migrants successive waves of a cohesive (Eckstein andBerg,forthcoming). group originbeing of from the same country migrants idea of another, the one challenging with conflict direct in often their stances towardCuba meanthat theirinterests are yet migrants, generation first defined genealogically are with more recently arrived Cubans inSpain.Both cohorts tending to identify more with their peers in the US than with those Spain, whoarrivedin Cubans the 1960s in differences Similar can beseen among cohort. the earlier among of unheard them, and they visit Cuba toadegree even thoughtheymuchcohort, are earlier than poorer send moreremittances than the their homeland.They phased out,pragmaticviews tend more towardto hold hadbeen migrants for Cuban programmes support financial when time a at US the in arrived who bloc,and the Soviet the economic crisis sparked by the demise of contrast, Cubans who left the island inthe 1990s after to oppose remittance sending and homelandvisits. By anti-Castro views, to vote for the Republican Party, and intothe US,integrating have tendedstrong to hold and whowere in given US federal support generous Revolution,after theCuban the early1960s in shortly US the conventional sense. in generation’ ‘first are both if even time, in point settlement at adifferent of arriveand inthe country differently compared tothose wholeave the homeland historical moment, may adapt ‘host’ society at aparticular historicaljuncturewhoarrive and a in particular at a after who leave Thus,they migrate. migrants theirhomeland migrants influence to continue may experiences This cohort understanding of generation sees generation understandingof cohort This To give an example, Cubans wholeft the island forthe Keeping Time 55 Journal of , Oxford: Berghahn Books. , Oxford: Berghahn may no longer be colonialists, no longer may be colonialists, References Diasporic Generation: Memory, Politics and Memory, Diasporic Generation: Politics as we think it is – that there such a thing such think it is – that there as we is How do these ideas getideas do these from one end of How earth the as an individual, or a religion. as an individual, a storm Theywind? the like are by blown other, to the are not imaginaries; they current global they realities: for most represent human what it means to be today, Arguably, They always. did not places. in most people, many ofgot and somehow west, from the came them as a but perhaps tacit throughout the globe, disseminated definitive statement of Euro-American dominancecontemporary or we power: worldview: ‘the picture [people] have of have [people] picture ‘the worldview: things way the Things?are’.) actuality in sheer WhatOh, things things? morality; human rights; individual; religion; the like: and actually, exist, to are thought things these capitalism: although historians of eternally, even can rightfully ideas with are so taken modernity).to (usually them trace We fundamental, real seemingly what seems about these contemporaryofaspects forget that we that human life That – everywhere. culture what is not always were they us think the it makes global – does: culture in this case, actually world shed light on divisions and cleavages within migrantwithin and cleavages on divisions light shed unexplained. groups leaves approach that the other Berg, M. L. (2011) M. L. Berg, in Spain Nation among Cubans (forthcoming)M. L. E. & Berg, ‘The Diaspora S. Eckstein, US and Spain’, Cubans in the Generational Divide: Ethnic and Migration Studies. ‘Generation as a Sociological Problem’, I. (1983) D. Kertzer, Annual Review of Sociology , 9: 129-149. Flow Sondra L. Hausner Appadurai’s point is that imaginaries are globally Appadurai’s In articulatingnotion ofhis global ‘imaginary’,the Arjun of writes Appadurai famously offlows, medias, – scapes technologies, financial worlds scapes global – Appadurai’s wellas flow. forms these All as people ideologies. and they way in the perhaps, – too powerful, are powerful mobilize many millions ofaspire to world in the people goldenthe urban and to to life are streets the where west, to way and the money with reputedlypaved falsely) (but face in the has soured tale a migrant’s Many opportunity. that offers after location of much-sought in a new, reality of rather less, not more hardship, variety, cultural a new sign. than a diamond-encrusted McDonald’s non- everyday the about what but enough, True shared. ofsymbols raw the thoughts, imagined – the modern the about aspiration and hope as that are not so much world processes thought collective world’s the way the about ideals? upon choice a few converged increasingly have are real (if are not imaginaries: they Ideals dynamic) symbols of (One work. and ought to, are, things way the remembers Clifford Geertz’s famous phrase defining ethnic relations, host society adaptation and homeland adaptation and society host relations, ethnic engagement.This the genealogical not mean that does ofunderstanding it is a In goodfact, migrants is ‘wrong.’ example of a termacademic from the that has travelled usage, and many people who are sphere into everyday ofdescendants migrants‘second as the self-identify grounded a historically understanding Yet generation.’ ofpre-migration generation takes and experiences which a richer can provide into account the homeland context understanding of migrantsand help in historical context 56 Keeping Time onre’drn h 6116 eido civil warand during the 1641-1666of period Countryes’ inForreigne hisMajestyes English Subjects borne of Children 1677theof ‘for Naturalizing Parliamentof of is illustrated by usage the English Act ‘naturalised’. That was recognised werewith the sovereign being territory or other persons whose association connection by birth, were ‘natural-born’from birth subjects. Lacking such a view that those whose connection to asovereign dated toastate’s andmarriage national. service military in the state, thoughotherpossibilities exist, such as residence of period is a naturalisation basis for common having an existing national parent. Today, the most its onterritory, typically by beingborn birth, by or of nationality throughaconnection toastate at the moment life. It is to be distinguished from the acquisition of connection to the state established during that person’s a state’s nationality (orcitizenship) through apersonal ‘Naturalisation’ refers to the acquisition by individuals of embrace concepts that become sharedembrace over concepts time and or to come to collectively– sharedconcepts construct it ispossibleforhumanbeings to act andto historically confluence. by or chanceYes, byevolved, exceptweway course, orourhumanity, ormaybegenes, even of the seen asnaturalandtimelessdefinitive. free will, choice – that are globally understood, accepted, – ethnicity,forms the market, peoplehood, personhood, there you go. means that these are now social Modernity you), so having come back to us by way of of victory but The The use the of term ‘naturalisation’ reflects the historic These social forms have nothing to dowith socialour forms These our ideaswon(and sometimes viatheeven sweeter Naturalisation Bernard Ryan Bernard h nrdcino new requirements for naturalisation the introduction of divest to difficult another nationality. or themselves of impossible is it whom for those in1999 introduced exceptions, for reform particularly dualnationality,has historically discouraged a legislative decades (Faist, 2007). For example, inGermany, which naturalisation over recent nationality arisingout of multiple of hasalsobeen increased acceptance There (Wallace 2010). years ten Goodman, and five between of residence states setting minimum periods of majority of several residence, with alarge years’ legal requirement of is likely to be available inprinciple to those who meet the may be characterised as moderately liberal. Naturalisation Subject[]’. the KingsNaturallborn taken to beand have toallIntents and Purposes beene inEngland,achild wouldborn ‘forever be esteemed and bothparentshadbeen that Under Act, if interregnum. this fleeting moment – movement– this fleeting moment intime.– and yet they make upthe world aswe know it, today, at discourse. There is nothing definitive or final about them, global of ease, unspoken, terms andyet they are the very all over migrated the They planet with subconscious form!’ through customs: ‘Hello! Iamyour new globalthought andsailed onthe planesoff themselvesthey got andgot themselves across the world, pan-geographically, as if constructs, now global,having mysteriously dispersed are notnatural, orreal:they are ourcollectiveformations the species, except inthe temporal sense. cultural These that have – space nothing to dowith the evolution of The recent trend in Europehasnevertheless been for The today’s European states naturalisation policies of The Keeping Time 57 13(3): 390-412. Dual Citizenship in Europe: From Dual Citizenshipin Europe: From , Farnham: Ashgate. , Farnham: References European Union Politics Looking to the future, we may ask how naturalisation ask how may we future, Looking to the asked asked to take specific concrete steps (voluntary activity, that they to prove juncture) naturalisation the earliest at trulybelonged Long-term in Britain. migrants will, to and lives to make calculations own their have however, The from around Europe evidence is that migrants live. to are far more likely countries developed from less (see counties from highly-developed those than naturalise The2012). and Vink, those that is implication Dronkers primarily motivated be to are likely naturalise who actually ofacquisition as the such considerations, practical by a privilegedpassport, of security the and residence, transmission of Their nationality to children. preferences influenced be typically also will concerningnaturalisation of state their – with identification and – to ties by origin, of as in relation to their state as well residence. arrangedshould be migrant the policy in which in a world formseveryday ofinvolves experience transnationalism. with politicians dispense preferable that seem would It naturalisation can be an instrumentthat view the for to access ready that claim the Even moulding society. naturalisation is necessaryto promote social and economic which The be outdated. integration perspective now may appears most appropriate to contemporary conditions is for naturalisation as an optional means treats one which in a state, reside to rights their protect to an individual more than that. and to claim its protection, and nothing Dronkers, J. and ‘Explaining Vink, M. to (2012) Access J. Dronkers, Affect Citizenship Policies Citizenship in Europe: How Naturalization Rates’, Boundaries of and Porous ‘The (2007) Fixed T. Dual Faist, (ed.) Faist Citizenship’, in T. Nationhood to Societal Integration in Europe: Naturalisation Policies (2010) Goodman, S. Wallace ofExploring Patterns EUDO Inclusion and Exclusion, Citizenship Observatory. Theideas can lead to questionable desire to select those to Citizenship also proposed that ThePath Citizenship to proposals Thewithin ThesePath two (Wallace Goodman, 2010). Most states now require require now states Most Goodman, 2010). (Wallace language(s) state’s with the familiarity to show applicants ofrequirements and to satisfy or culture, good character. majority ofIn a also necessaryis it European states, or self- active that the person is economically to show sufficient. The contemporary trend on to be selective to seek for states policy is therefore in naturalisation rather than and grounds, social economic cultural, naturalisation across the board. restricting access to A good the is example concerning policy. naturalisation British government the proposal in Theannouncedby require a longer to Citizenship in to 2008 period ofPath prior residence to the naturalisation of those who could through charitable citizenship’ ‘active not demonstrate Whilepoint was on this legislation or activity. similar Citizenship and Immigration Borders, adopted (in the ofbecause implemented, been never has it 2009), Act the both migrants– for impracticality sheer and voluntary bodies – of requisite ‘activity’. the to prove a scheme permanentfor eligible who were UK in the residence of as acquisition be encouragedto ought to naturalise, ofcompletion ‘the was citizenship British newcomer’s a that journey’,to aid their social integration.and likely To end, a shorterfor contemplated period was qualifying naturalisation than for permanentthat But residence. presumably proposal upon has not been acted either, ofbecause to government. unattractiveness inherent its greaterretain states As offreedom in relation to action ofand protection residence the permanentresidents than of naturalised citizens, it is somewhat difficult to latter the to become it easier make would they why see than the former. based on assumption that migrantsthe were could be Boy Waiting on a Bus at the Guatemala Border Gill Einhorn

COMPAS Photo Competition 2008 Entrant Keeping Time 59 into rather than entries , even including who is including , even borders and earlier forms of Yet, modern immigration are of controls Yet, a different Here is where recent historical research might historical research recent Here is where territories, the better to ensure a source ofa source ensure to better the territories, And labour. an importantis there contemporary relationship between at national controls enacted ‘vagrants’.local mobility control aimed at the poor and to be) (and continue They were and scale. character consolidation offoundational, for the nation and the notions ofboundaries and for making the sovereignty, ofinternational the itself system as capable ofimagined and civilized freedom individual government.Immigration context controls arose in the of aftermath and in relation direct to Atlantic slavery’s of the indenture over complex debates South Asian ofmeaning labourers and the and Chinese labour ‘free’ migrants‘free’ migration. and ‘free’ were process, In the labourers from Asian ‘coolies’/indentured distinguished do not thefit binary of colonizer/colonized. There is an importantclass- racist, that exposes the historical literature of character biased and patriarchal modern immigration for strategies administrative the and tracks regimes, people out ofkeeping it does But settings. (or in) diverse came exclusion help us understand how not necessarily modernto fundamental be to ofpractices sovereignty, – and to notions of identification law, modern freedom. re-thinking migrantto contribute projects – and justice categorytroubling the to indeed of migrantWhile itself. the history of immigrationis scale controls on a global in surprisinglyfact, and recent, not an are, complex, they of outcome inevitable international arrangementsamong Certain of kinds political communities. controls over rulers but initially were a long history, do have mobility far more concerned to control exits Cynthia Wright History, MemoryHistory, Immigration and Controls , Steve Cohen calls for a Museum calls Cohen , Steve Our historical retrievals, like our social movements, our social movements, like Our retrievals, historical Can historyand memory part as mobilized be of the struggleagainst immigrationIf controls? What how? so, about passports, to say have historical literature the does internationalthe immigration state nation bureaucracies, of global regulation and the system, migration? Who is ‘migrant’?the OrwellianThe World In DeportationFreedom! is of Immigration Controls ofIllegal Immigrationfought who those remember to and deported.detained those and immigration controls, with contrasted when especially idea, is an intriguing It of existing museums immigration. the historical Like migrationthat pre-suppose may museums literature, to (re)constructis a problem, and work sedentary They identities. populations – and singular ethnicized turning potentially nation-building projects, are often threatening ‘migrants’ ‘immigrants’. into Important as that to do more than remember. need to graspalso need to be controls came we how is, work it is that history– and why naturalized and is so often forgotten.What ifof the movements argue that we people – in all their range up the and – make complexity foundation of history?in her Clancy-Smith, world Julia re-conceptualization of Europe and North Africa from standpoint ofthe againstwrites and mobilities, people grainthe of in historical production that a long tradition on a focus the a deepbias, has shaped by sedentarist been as a primarynation state largelythat unit border assumes came they and why controls rather than explaining how The ofclassics rich to be. anti-colonial historiography on important – a potentially for conversations resource origins ofthe not always immigration controls – have been able to adequately account for migrant figures that 60 Keeping Time Empire – also Empire colonial resistance to mobility controls within the British fraudulentpapers, anti- challenges, boycotts, use of campaigns, legal anti-deportation smuggling, migration, resistance – clandestine attend to how diverse modes of victims – orboth. But any historicalanalysis must traffickingor criminals as depicted often and scale grand on a are‘illegalised’ andmigrants taken forgranted, consolidation. Today, affairsremainslargely this state of to challenge this regime and often contributed to its after World soon states that emerged War failed II largely and extended on aglobalbasis. post-independence The control regime were developed immigration the current the key elements of and the interwarperiod, most of ‘traffickers’. of grip white, and allthose in the the economically dependent, – todraw thelineatso-called uncivilized, thenon- control who entered and what happened at the border ought nation tobeableexercise the absolute right to movement. de-legitimized when it came to the facilitation (or not) of as ‘unfree’ as, increasingly, allactors but the nation were who assisted their movements, constituted them further with brokersand the indentured withprivatecontrol and the naturally the enslaved unfree Asian. Moreover, the association of of figure the against articulated centrally mobility were freedom and of Thus, liberal notionsof capacity that entitled them to mobilityrights.governing and the enslaved – those supposedly without the self- Historians broadly agree that,between the 1880s agree broadly Historians Linked to this was the principle that a self-governing sae h rhtcueo controls. Within shapedthearchitecture of Press. University Cambridge and the State, Cambridge: Citizenship Torpey, J. (2000) Borders Globalization of McKeown, A.(2008) Immigration Controls Cohen, S. (2005) c1800-1900 Migration, Press.California of Age an in Clancy-Smith, J. (2012) Politics, Refuge:Canada’s Periodical onRefugees Aiken S. J. (ed.) (2009) Special issue on NoBordersasPractical nttto fcitizenship. institution of one another;andforchallenging borders, nations andthe radically re-imaginingourrelationshiptospace, place and ‘citizen’/’alien’; and ‘legal’/’illegal’ for distinctions of to them, we have a renewed resource for challenging controls, and officials of ‘discretion’ immigration bureaucracies. of the By examining the history to left was much so challenging them frontally became far trickier because deployed, often making them less overtly racist, so that frequently shifted how they were administratively within theEmpire. Resistancecontrols to immigration free movement without a colour bar the principle of sovereign right toadmitexcludeor – thereby ending settler nations suchhad the asSouthAfricaandCanada that white theprinciple outcome the entrenchment of had as their anti-colonial Asiansinthe early 20th century the BritishEmpire, several ledbydramatic challenges tefsiaigacieo resistance together withthe fascinating archive of eotto sFedm:TeOwlinWrdo Is Freedom!:Deportation World The Orwellian of , London:Jessica KingsleyPublishers. h neto fthe Passport: Surveillance, The Invention of , NewYork: Columbia. Melancholy Order: Asian Migration ad the AsianMigrationad Melancholy Order: Mediterraneans: North Africa and Europe Europe and Africa North Mediterraneans: References ekly nvriyo , Berkeley: University of 26(2). Keeping Time 61 To avoid misunderstandings, it is importantis it to misunderstandings, avoid To Whatto changetheir lead them that factors are the A more generalofmost to life-course: relates factor they are going to have to stay much longer than originally much to stay are goingthey have to Third,expected. lead that are many factors there that it that and migrantschangeoriginal their objectives, to is very hard for governmentsin countries – especially legalstrong principles and democratic with to – systems this. prevent millions of that emphasise to who went migrant workers Germanywestern and other during European countries boom the years ofdid returnand 1960s early 1970s the This appliedparticularly those to homelands. their to joined that and Greece Spain as Italy, such from countries committed was which European Community, (then) the and implementing conditions economic out evening to on after the many did stay But freedoms. democratic recruitment1973-74 to remain likely most those stop; in Germany and North Netherlands, and the Turks were and the Netherlands. Africans in France goals?military1980 the ofcase In the and coup Turkey, repressionthe of labour organizations many caused failure and the unemployment Growing away. to stay of many farms and meant that many small businesses security offer to insufficient savings their migrantsfound upon return. again had to be postponed Return and again. men and – – increasingly early migrantsthe young were for years. a few only who hoped to be away women, young good the Theyby attracted had been wagesin western had but not been informedEurope, about high living Saving contributions. insurance and tax and social costs acceptablebe might It than expected. to slower much was Stephen Castles Migration Goals In the late 1970s, the German Federal Government Government German the 1970s, late In the Federal Whatmigrationaboutthe us tell this does goals of People migrate for many reasons: to seek work, migrateto work, for to seek many reasons: People escape persecution, for marriage, for education, to find of for and in conditions retirement just search better varying, migrants the case, have In each lifestyles. other Here I will only motivations. mixed complex and often discuss one issue: temporary migration for employment. a surveycommissioned of per Seventy ‘guestworkers’. ofcent interviewed those stay to had originally intended in Germany for less than five years. Yetquartersof about already stayed had in fact respondents the three- over five years. Only 17 percent had notchanged their Thesurvey about future on to ask went original plans. within Theto leave intended said they majority plans. et in Castles cited 1979 (Forschungsverbund, four years many ofthat clear was it 1980s, the By 1984). al., those returnwho planned to former not done so: home had long haul and in for the settling were ‘guestworkers’ Germany had acquired bringing along their families. ofcreation the despite minorities, ethnic new a whole labour keep to designed system legal and administrative migration temporary family reunification. and to prevent concerned?as governmentsthat just First, the workers did originally planned, migrant and employers workers They to Germany. intend to come only temporarily able to be to frugally, hard and live work to wanted oflivelihoods the enough to improve save quickly the their farms, developing for example by home, back family their improving or by just startingby a small business, Second, and health care housing, education, nutrition. that it can be very hard for migrants up to the idea to face of permanentthat realise they when even settlement, 62 Keeping Time ihu n ogtr nerto ot;cutiso costs; countries of integration without any long-term workersskilled both andless forskilled occupations, of as a ‘triple win’: a steady supply destination countries get suchschemes, describingit migration’its advocacy in of Commission uses European the euphemism ‘circular workers. temporary industrial economies also recruit The Council states Cooperation and Asia’s emerging Gulf The Australia worker now have temporary programs. large settlement countries,and Canada notablytheUSA, Traditional construction. for workimmigrant permits fixed-term and tourism, and agriculture for recruitment schemes, migration suchtemporary asseasonal introducing and othercountries Spain Europeanbegan Inthe early 20th century,migration. labour Germany, country. to realise that their future lay in the new parents began seeing the family dissolve was anathema: many idea of children was apowerful motivation the formigration, come with them. Since giving a better future to their they went home, theirchildrenmight not realised thatif Dutch)or better than theirparents’languages, parents (orFrenchwent to speak German to school andbegan underway. –got children Once migrants’ – andlife itself spouses and children. Family reunification and formation but astime went on, peoplewanted tolive with their workers’ in amigrant hostel for afew liveyears, frugally Today there isaworld-wide trend towards temporary Western Europe’s NewEthnicMinorities, London:PlutoPress. Castles, S.,Wallace, Booth, H.and T. (1984) und Technologie, Bonn. Endbericht, Bundesminister für Forschunggung’, Integrierter Forschungsverbund (1979) ‘Probleme der Ausländerbeschäfti - workers withoutpeople. diversity thein destinationcountry. You cannothave will stay permanently, inethnic oftenleadingtoagrowth process. Some the migratory inthe course of their goals them will change of proportion the migrants, a certain of 1970s relevant:remain whateverintentions theoriginal the 1960s and the guestworker system of the failure of example, is anything but temporary. lessons from The workers,care-workers, personneland hospital for workers, evenconstruction thoughthedemandfor labour lower skilled they all cantoprevent thesettlement of by encouraged destination states. do But governments settlement, a decision often decide to shift to permanent cosmopolitan expatriatelifestyles they – andmay also employment marketswithin international enjoyand Highly-skilled maypersonnel move repeatedly around mobility opportunities. ofskills; legal safe, in increase return an and from benefit migrants the while remittances from benefit origin All this sounds too good to be true – andit is. to be true All this sounds toogood References Here forGood: Here Keeping Time 63 Modern globalization began15th-centurythe with ofsmall numbers the century, 19th the By colonizer of partsof diaspora and their population Jewish the formationbegan were them in 70 CEthose expelling administrator and immigrant soldiers. Roman powerful also part were of women Often overlooked, all such moves. linking ofofthat with Eurasian-African world the the both ofAmericas, internallyare criss-crossed which migration by in other words) continent, (across the of numbers Tiny routes. armed heavily Europeans population collapse and, after Americas the colonized germs,introduced through unwittingly in motion set is however, This view, migrations. Atlantic-centred vast narrow. Large Chinese fleets connected East Asia with vast growthpopulation Africa, and Chinese East involved and Anatolian In the Levantine migrations. settlement regions – the hinge Asia and Europe – advancing between populations and whole armies,settlers, Muslim Turkish global ‘new’ world, this Into themselves. established as penetrated adventurers’ English and other ‘merchant migrants armedand capital, an overbearing guns, with ofsense Mass migrations superiority and whiteness. macro-regional – resulted: and meso-regional – local, regionally to plantations and mines and transoceanically oflabour to plantation based on regimes the power African men and women. enslaved or resource- migrantsand resulting world, across the in motion set development, economic uneven induced five macro-systems of migration: the forced migration ofofout slaves two last the with continued Africa million of some 50-55 million 12.5 men and women; north migratedmillion men and women transatlantically, Dirk Hoerder Global Migration Global migrations, entwined with investments, investments, with entwined Global migrations, Global mobility, said to be a recent phenomenon phenomenon dating recent said to be a Global mobility, currently is among many who raising fears 1990s, from the Consider borders and closed jobs protected. state want the media, in the issue recent an apparently unrelated ofdecline mobility, Like markets. prices in world coffee and consumption are global. growing,coffee prices, cannot proceedin terms analysis of However, bordered but rather states in terms of globally spread economic The route from producer includes to consumer regions. for globally mobile transport requirement the workers Philippines, men from the in container shipping, often migrant often and also for labour to unload air cargos, and projects life wages are low men from regions where of end producers’ the At difficult. chain, commodity this on plantations lose and women or men families peasant migrateto or their land. Theyjobs their they when have no side, consumers’ On the meet. ends cannot make however, Historically, migrationinvolved. be to seems to Europe consumption had to be introduced and was Ethiopia and Yemen, to native Coffee, elsewhere. 17th-century brought by migrant often entrepreneurs, Armenians,and the houses coffee who established increasing demand, With it. with culture house coffee of multinationals – India Companies’ ‘East the time the migrantwith – established core from the personnel and forced plantation belt global production in the mass migrant labourers to these worksites. imposition of and regionally concentrated power Migration and trade across a long history. have resources, Indian millennia – in the back dates world (known) the China and ofother sections between years, Ocean 5000 The expulsion years. thousand several Asian world the 64 Keeping Time present growth of the service sector, and gendered the service of present growth factories.near lived Withthe residentially segregated industrialfamilies labouring andimmigrant Such migrant jobs whetherthe in Harbin,Ruhr District, or Cleveland. womenindustrial tourban withtheirchildrenmigrated the dislocated and men to beabandoned regions had world market in many prices collapsed. Family farming as to mass-produce grains began Burma, rice-growing Russiavia southern to Australia, aswell as to colonized the 1880s, to the vastAmerica plains fromNorth migrants disparities andthepotentialformigration. better a futurechildren,for thus increasedglobal and decreased options forsustainable lives or projects for colonialism –often in conjunctionwith local elites – southward. Atthegeneration same time capitalist neo- colonized world shifted a refugee- in the formerly often resulting from ‘nationalist’ movements formation, the globe.on region generating Fromthe 1950s, state- mixed refugee- settlement made Europe the largest ‘nation’ state through regionsof borders drawing of origin andthe European world wars20th century of Russian system during the 1880s-1930s. migration The moved51 million China-Manchuria-eastern the north in inthe 1830s to 1930s; and 46- involuntary migrations other colonizer powers’ Asian possessions in free and ‘coolies’ in racist parlance, moved from the British and cities;48-52 anothermillion,often labelled eastern far belttothe and empire’sagricultural Siberian southern movedRussiaEuropean from totheTranscaspianand south, from1815 and tothe 1930s; 12-20 another million Thus evolvedThus global migrations. In the 20th-century Routledge. P.Manning, (2005) Second Millennium Hoerder, D. (2002) , Leiden:Brill. the19th tothe21stCentury Discontinuities from Mass PerspectiveMigrations:Global Continuitiesand Aon Hoerder, D. A.eds. Kaur, and (2013) Gabaccia, D. R.(2000) University Cambridge Cambridge: Press. P.Curtin, D. (1984) glocal movements of people. glocal movements of borders merely present an additionalobstacle in the or,transnational better perhapsput, transstate in regionalsocio-economic contexts, transregional.In life-course options.was and, is translocal and Migration socializationwith a distant local space of local placeof in China’sor manycities. connected their All migrants America, inSpanishandPortuguese South America, with children would nothave in British North emerged communitiesglobe notalways immigrant been gendered, acrossthe Hadmigration migration. of part integral suddenly ‘feminized’ –women have always been an and classposition. dialect, dress, because of are equally Nairobi discernable inmetropoleslikeand small-townor Shanghai migrants and, inwhite societies, arethus doublyvisible. Rural Ever morecome from colonized/neocolonized peoples work across urban spaces in middle-class neighbourhoods. domestic and caregivingin particular, labour migrants Globalization is Globalization notnew. Nor areglobalmigrations , Durham:Duke University Press. Cultures in Contact:WorldCultures Migrationsinthe Migration inWorld, New York: History Italy’s ManyDiasporas,London:UCL. Cross-Cultural TradeCross-Cultural inWorld History, References Proletarian and Gendered Gendered and Proletarian migrations, Hopes and Dreams Sandra McGrath

COMPAS Photo Competition 2012 Second Place 66 Keeping Time is about a man from the countryside permanently permanently the countryside the from Law isaboutman a something for thatnever happens. FrantzKafka’s Before about endless waiting for someone who never comes, and literature.in depicted Samuel Beckett’s Waitingfor Godot the onewhoimposeswait’ (Schwartz, 1975). social worth) is less valuable thanthe time worthand of that one’s anassertion own time (and therefore, one’sof life. To be kept waiting for along time ‘is to be the subject one’s is thefeeling thatoneisnotfullycommand of in waiting waiting’ (1985). consequence Another of time of caught are inthe peculiar,They to happen. the paralytic, use Crapanzano’s words, ‘waitsomething, foranything, groups,vulnerability’. andunprivileged Marginalized to ‘powerlessness and 1975). Waiting feelings of generates is ‘kept ignorant astohow long hemust wait’ (Schwartz, waiting is when a person ‘punitive’2012). The aspect of and subordination’ dependency (Auyero, effects of the less powerfulin society, groups ‘subjective producing other people’s time. Waiting isacommonexperience for power over theirhope,exercise isan without of ruining domination’ (Bourdieu, 2000). Tokeep peoplewaiting, the wait… delaying of without destroyingis part hope power. ‘Making people experiencing the effect of way of other’s time. Waiting,of Bourdieuputsit,isa asPierre social interactions. It is a manipulation the regulation of others. Keeping otherswaiting isalsoatechnique for decisions. Waiting officials’ isexpecting something coming from and turn their wait individuals organizations, bureaucracy; when in contact with is acommonfeature of daily lives, we wait at airports, offices, and shops. Waiting humanrelationships. In our inescapable. It is a feature of time. WaitingWaiting is experience of isaparticular h rirrns n rcroseso waiting is best andprecariousness arbitrariness of The Shahram Khosravi Shahram Khosravi is Waiting waiting eknn f es f oilfnto,ado their social function, and of asense of weakening of youngsters or can result in a undocumented migrants Waiting by the poor, the unemployed, asylum seekers, waiting. individuals act of forced into a prolonged of societies,temporalities in modern and the experiences between isadiscrepancy the speed, mobility,There and waiting symbolizeswaste, emptiness uselessness.and spent, lost, wasted invested’or (Schwartz, 1975). Hence capital, which, similarto money, can be ‘counted, saved, with success money.and of Itispresented as aform how it can be used most of efficiently. Time is associated talking abouttheirlives kept waiting. death’ when like ‘deadtime’‘atime or of use terms people. Undocumented migrants ‘ordinary’ is notthatof time Mondays mean ‘remainingatthe same point’.Their work. Incontrast, for undocumented migrants, week of arepresent ‘moving meaningful forward’, the first day of ‘not beingin-time with others’.Formany others, Mondays indefinitely beforedeportation. can often be kept in detention centres where migrants asylum seekers, and is most palpable inthe case of This makespermits, their lives unpredictable and uncertain. to wait, or what exactly they have their to doget howon they longhave information papers. Lack of of waitingperiods camps, in transit lands, in searchin or asylum and seekersmigrants, refugees –spendextended without having theirhopesdashed. thelaw thatkeeps peoplewaiting inaccessibility and of yet allowed’. ‘notyet’ illustrates the abstractedness This In western societies,In western people approach time in terms means waiting, deportation, Prolonged for papersor displaced people – undocumented numbers Large of before and for the law. ‘not Hisentrance is deferred, Keeping Time 67 . References Waiting: The Whites The of Waiting: South Africa, Pascalian Meditations, Stanford: Stanford Pascalian Queuing and Waiting: Studies in the Social in the Studies and Waiting: Queuing The Ritual Process:The Structure and Anti-structure , Carlton South: Melbourne University Carlton Melbourne, South: University Waiting ambiguity about the duration ofduration the about ambiguity generates a sense waiting This can of depression and anxiety. shame, uncertainty, Dread, pain. lead to sleep and psychosomatic disorders ofare all components angst or guilt ofexperience the a strategy of too, an act can be waiting But waiting. defiance by the migrants. Faileddo so migrantsundocumented in hiding may who wait asylum seekers and in hope of a regularization programme or plans with for and mean passivity, to not have does on. Waiting moving in can be an element a strategy migrants by improve to their situation. and continuing population growth. Given that most that population growth. Given and continuing to short, few want mostly Europeans prefer long lives population to be endless there and do not wish children, demographicincrease, ageingas a can be seen logical ofconsequence judgedbe and could a preferences, these ofmeasure However, life. in extending our achievement Europe a formwill experience ofin the ‘super-ageing’ Patients of Patients (2012) J. Auyero, of Politics The State: the in Waiting Press. Argentina University , Durham: Duke (2000) P. Bourdieu, Press University (1985) V. Crapazano, London: Random House (2009) Hage,G. Press. (1975) B. Schwartz, Organization ofof Chicago:and Delay, Access University Chicago Press. (1969) V. Turner, Chicago: Aldine Pub Co. Chris Wilson Ageing Futures Waiting is often an experience ofan is often experience Waiting what Victor When turned liminality is into protracted waiting, From reading media discussion of reading media discussion From demographic issues, one could getageingthe impression that the of European ofan impending disaster is society apocalyptic almost ofsight to lose is easy It proportions. ageingthat fact the The desirable. and, in certain inevitable both is respects, demographic ageingavoid to either are to only ways substantial or health conditions greatlyto have worsen connections to the larger society, generating of a feeling larger the to connections society, purposelessnessFurthermore, and ‘rolelessness’. asylum migrants and undocumented seekers are constantly others: from coming and assistance for decisions waiting the NGOs, state, legalchurches, firms, labour unions or The dependenceand decisions on others’ employers. migrantthe with a patronizing relationship, to help leads surrendering to the authority of others. transitorythe stage liminality, calls (1969) Turner stages of two between positions, social two between their legal left migrants Undocumented status life. have for a new hopefully, and are waiting, in their homelands and between, betwixt are caught they Meanwhile, status. The and structurallysocially status their ambiguous. ofloss and rolegenerates status social vulnerability. liminality and are between there similarities Turner, For marginality and inferiority. underpinningsthe ofare temporarily/ social life and seekers asylum Accordingly, suspended. temporally undocumented migrants find themselves in a situation by characterized (2009); Hage ‘stuckedness’ calls The uncertaintyand arbitrariness. immobility, invisibility, 68 Keeping Time than thenative-bornpopulation, theynot‘solve’ do the old too, themselves unless they replace more effectively just as much grow astothe native Sincemigrants born. applies tomigrants replacement intergenerational of also onhow have. many children the migrants logic The but the immigration not just on the scale of depends inpoliciesandattitudes.require aradicalchange on such ascale maymigration be possible, but it will European country.period inany large terms, In general a sustained higher ratiothanhaseverfor beenobserved two for every births. isamuchto berecruited This their parents, would one migrant need of as the cohorts the millennium (1995-2005) to be as large of the turn around level.born replacement the forcohorts In order has been about 1.4 or 1.5 (around two-thirdsfertility children perwoman. Inthe EU over the last 20 years, 2.1 level withreference to thereplacement of be gauged needed suchfor trick abalancing toworkcan roughly migrants numberadults, 15-35).of The aged generally areyoung 25 in 2015 (and most migrants aged migrants say, 1990bycan inprinciplebemadeupfor recruiting caused by low fertility.structure in, in births A shortfall ismoreeasilystatedthanrealised. this policygoal ourpresent social systems. However, economic base of century, to sustain the inthe hard longrun it will be very the 20th one before, as was the case for the last third of is substantially smaller thanthe cohort each birth If entrants to themarketlabour each yearroughlyconstant. Europe’s population pyramid,making the number of of is to stabilise the base most sensible goal societies? The European generates. should be the response of What exacerbate any problems that ageing this will greatly old andwhen large, they get 1950s and 1960s) are very inthe (born coming decades; the baby boom cohorts oevr h ogrnefc fthisapproach Moreover, effect of the long run age the in gaps fill can immigrants extent, some To es htmtesi h ieo the labour force. Pensions sense what matters is the size of focus on the costs, especially pensions, general more a in state systemssustainable. with the needed changes to make Europe’sterms welfare slowlygovernments are coming to ceased to betrue, rapidly. Onlynow, over 40years afterthese assumptions the population andthe economy would continue to grow that we have today were based on assumptions that both state systems and welfare pensions The years. five last to reach evenand we havethat level over struggled the cent year, trendisabout2pera since.or long-run The cent a year. was farhigherthanever This seen before by5 per than more grew Europe continental western levels. Between 1948 and 1973 the GDP per headin waseconomic growth and atrecord growth, population a most unusualbaby boomled period. The to substantial the economy andsociety at thattime. However, thiswas War II and the first oil shock,of and reflect the character weremostly World designed in the 25 or soyears between the end of regimes state welfare Europe’s benefits. welfarefocussed on pensions and otherage-related set up forcoping with it. Particular attention has been Europe’s social and economic institutions are notwell is not necessarily a problem. The difficulty arises because immigrants. streamof large there is a continuing as it can help, it can only do so if ’solutiontothecaused problems by ageing. Insofar off asa‘one cannot beregarded later. migration Inshort, convergence varies but assimilation occurs sooner or of speed the host population. The converge with that of tends to migrants of less everywhere, thatthefertility view, ageing. itisclear, Fromthis pointof moreor of than their hosts will they help alleviate the consequences have migrants higher fertility ageing. Only if problems of While attention to the impact of ageing has tended to ageing attention tothe impact of While torealise, however,It isimportant se per thatageing Keeping Time 69 In short, ageingfuture not a problem is to be solved, from woven thus are and deaths, Migrant lives, population who are actually engaged population are actually who in paid employment more Second, can increase. taxes) are paying (and thus be importedcan immigration. by of Neither workers The popular. universally is choices policy two these work to women more persuading formeroption involves in southern(especially retirement Europe) and delaying as controversial be just changesmay Such for both sexes. large scale immigration.as advocating with, learn must live to we that rather a predicament but one be to the likely of are flows migration significant and enables us to do so. that mechanisms with and diagnosis, his heard first he when this for wished imam ofthe greatkindness, agreedmosque this for this prodigal to rest with his father and mother-in- son-in-law his British born so that ease, with visit could children law, maintain to a homeland their emotional ties and thereby is grave grandmother’s My birthplace. not their was that spreads lush that jungle the by reclaimed has been It lost. My father feared village. and green father’s through my able be not would we that him, happening to same the he last, the to A Maoist activist remember. pray, visit, to in hallowed rest to a Muslim funeral, have to also wanted ground,his burial visit to and cousins uncles and for my for his departed to offer prayers place every soul. Friday contradictory yearnings and complex for God, – for home, These with also shift can and remembrance. for tradition passing of and the time, The wishes generations. successive of male first generation migrants such asmy fatherto be by shared are not necessarily homeland in the back buried Nazneen Ahmed Migration, Death, Islam His final journey there, several years ago is one now, ofconsequences the father, my For as a living My father is buried in a little cemeteryMy father is buried in a little heart in the of surrounded mosque, Old Dhaka, next to a 400-year-old who cat white a little by over and watched palm trees by of on mounds the not to walk knows earth that are the ofonly markers the graves. ofis typical that his generation of Bangladeshi migrants, forty carved having England in a life for over out who, years, still wish for their final resting place to be ‘back home’. ofmember when, thought his to key a diaspora were grasping me hand on his hospital bed, he asked my to organise for capital of his body to be buried in the place in Bangladesh should be where Dhaka. His resting born:he was a small villageofin a tangle remote jungle, from capital, on the an middle ofisland in the a river. urban buried in in a tiny remarkably, quite is, he Instead, He cemeteryburial plot ofin the family. mother’s my and other welfare benefits represent a form of claimon ofstream the who are people the by created being wealth ofsize relative the is it Thus, work. at and working the All other relevant. most is that populations non-working fertilitylow the constant, things being held of recent ofshrinking a marked implies decades working the The will, of impact the next 25 years. population over greatestbe course, fertility where countries the in has Barringfallen most. of discovery miraculous some how are essentially there to returngains, to rapid productivity of impact the in which ways two only shortfallthis of proportionthe of can be mitigated.Firstly, workers the 70 Keeping Time debate about death and migration, the interplay between debate about death and migration, when a bodyinembalmed and taken Here,abroad. in the can actually constitute a morepurely Islamic death than within twenty-four hours, arguing that burial inBritain in compliance with the Quranic requirements for burial have begun emphasising overis not thepastdecade that repatriation inBritain clerics Muslim affiliations. and religiouspractices due happening toshifts in migrants’ to theIslam.Rather,homeland or is thischange attachment dilutionof location to agenerational burial cemetery, with spaceforover 10,000graves. Muslim built purpose private, first Britain’s Peace, the Gardens of resulted in the opening in 2002 of Mosque andvariousEast London religious associations the community’s changing needs, fundraisingby the to Responding decrees. Qu’ran the as coffins, without can be aligned to face Mecca and bodies can be buried where graves or roomwithin existing burial grounds cemeteries Muslim new for land find to pressure under haveBritain local authorities, for challenge comeasa space provisionIslamic burial increased callsfor within in Britain, who increasingly wish to be buried here. shared by Bangladeshis many second andthird generation out. Norare they carried these are, wishes are not generally they if or – women generation first of majority the ecno ipyatiueti hf ncoc fWe cannot simply attribute this shift in choice of As the Muslim community in Britainhasgrown, Geographers in the2001London Census’, Peach, C. (2006), Religions‘Islam, EthnicitySouth Asian and from onehomeandmakinganotherelsewhere. migrating nation, andfamily, framedby the experience of faith, byher own hisor of conceptualisation informed similarly is rest, will body their which in home final the their own burial, and decision personal regarding deeply belong -andwhat home meant. Each BritishMuslim’s where he and his family were meant to familiar ideas of patriarch,and individual with deeply butalso migrant political Muslim, activist,an unorthodox unusual kind of different foreach individual (2006). Muslimdeath’ are alsomultiple, and ‘good heterogeneous a of interpretations communities’ means that migrant of group, migrant but a‘communityis not one homogenous the fact that, inCeri Peach’s words, the Muslimcommunity clerics inBritain call forburialsto take place inBritish soil, which may not befollowed accurately inthe UK.So, practices while some specific locally have that sects Islamic back in Bangladesh because they adhere to particular unpredictable results. produces religion, nationalismanddiasporaunexpected, My father’swishes burialshow himtohave been an still wishAt to thebe same buried time, some migrants 31(3):353–370. References rnatoso teIsiueo British the Institute of Transactions of Field Notes from an Icelandic Glacier Robin Boothroyd

Smooth and blue and creased like an unironed shirt, it is for a split second warming, and then freezing needles-in-the-palm cold. I pass through a vault in the azure ice into a courtyard of light and look up to see two shards almost-but-not-quite touching: they are meeting, yet they are also parting. By the same degree I am here, in Iceland, watching a glacier melt in Katla’s molten glare; and in my imagination there, in Kew Gardens, where Henry Moore’s bronze, Oval with Two Points, holds the light in tension. Which is to say: ‘I am here.’

COMPAS Poetry Competition 2013 First Place Representations: Powers and Pitfalls

Windows: The 21st-Century Migration Experience Xiang Biao If migrants in the 19th and early 20th centuries that the interaction between regulator and regulated is remembered migration primarily as physical journeys confined to clearly defined interfaces, based on information that were marked by the smell of the ship, the sound of prepared and presented in designated manners, especially the train, and the heat of the desert, their 21st-century in flat forms and tables. The interaction aims to reach counterparts may experience migration as dealing with an unambiguous conclusion: approve or reject, yes or various windows: the window for visa application, the no. It allows for no contingency or grey zone. Would- window at the immigration checkpoint, and the windows be migrants need to ‘flatten’ themselves into a particular on the computer screen for booking appointments, shape or shade in order to pass scrutiny. submitting information, and applying for verifications of Two-dimensionality creates a sense of transparency documents. and predictability. Kafkaesque gates, which condemn Migration is no longer pursued or regulated ‘on the people to endless waiting in the dark and block road’, but is done so ‘through the window’. As Adam communication and mobility, are no longer acceptable in McKeown (2008) has established clearly, while migratory the liberal world. In contrast, windows allow for partial journeys were the main target of the US regulation of freedom and negotiation space. Windows do not aim immigration in the 19th century, by the turn of the 20th to block mobility, but seek to screen, differentiate and century the policy focus had decidedly shifted to the channel mobility. In this sense the window may be a migrant’s identity as proved by documents at checkpoints more accurate metaphor than the gate for contemporary (the window). international borders. Unlike a gate that is either open or In contrast to Georg Simmel’s (1997) meditation shut, the border is both open and closed. which took bridge and door as central symbols of social Two-dimensionalisation is not a new phenomenon; it divide and connectedness, Catherine Liu (2011) suggests is an integral part of modernity. Bureaucratic forms, legal that in the contemporary era, ‘disembodied and virtual files and statistical tabulations are all about flattening. freedom and trespass have made the window a critical Flattening makes individuals legible to the state and feature in thinking about differentiation and separation’. governable from the center (Scott, 1998). But the The physical movement of a body across a borderline window is somehow different. A window does not flatten may have become a rather insignificant moment in the world itself into two-dimensional presentations. A international migration, whereas what happens at the window view is not an aerial view, or a representation windows can be far more consequential. of cadastral maps, nor does it ‘collapse the life of each Central to such ‘through the window’ management person into a single point, which is connected to other is the idea of multi-two-dimensionality. This form of such points by lines’ as lineage trees entail (Ingold 2000). migration management is two-dimensional in the sense The two-dimensionality of the window is a specific means

72 Representations: Powers and Pitfalls 73 9(1/2): 203-214. References Simmel On CultureSimmel London: Sage, Melancholy Order:Melancholy and the Asian Migration , New York: Columbia University Press. Columbia University , New York: Surveillance & Society The PerceptionThe ofEnvironment: the in Essays Seeing Like a State: How Certainto Improve Schemes Like Seeing The window resembles the Foucauldian notion of notion Foucauldian the resembles Thewindow McKeown, A. (2008) McKeown, Globalization of Borders (1998) J. Scott, University Yale Haven: , New Human the Condition HaveFailed Press. and Frisby ‘Bridge (1997) and Door’, in D. G. Simmel, (eds.) M. Featherstone Publications. a logical outcome ofoutcome a logical of turncultural the much across beginning the are at That we said, human sciences. the of has which in migrationfocus a cultural studies, sociology, hithertodemography, by commandeered been neoclassical by human geographyand, more recently, artifacts and relations to work, they must be related to be related to must they artifacts and to work, relations ways. in multi-dimensional other and beyond each and capillary-like ubiquitous – invisible, diffusive, – power the are Windows power. to shape definite gives also it but and presented is tangibly authority where sites strategic and negotiated.experienced exercised, is directly power a particularpresents only not window the logic such, As of us with but also is regulated, provides mobility how can be power through which window a methodological examined ethnographicallysame the at and institutionally time. Ingold, T. (2000) (2000) Ingold, T. Livelihood, Dwelling, and Skill, London: Routledge. Alcove: and the Window the ‘The (2011) Wall, C. Liu, Visualizing Privacy’, Robin Cohen Migration and Culture The two-dimensionality ofThe two-dimensionality multi- is always windows Thetwo- is thus not only about window Why is it important a capacious Why (such ‘culture’ to connect and abstruse to migration?from word) In a long essay entry this with along I argue which partlyis derived, ofarrival the that Jónsson (2011) Gunvor cultural and analysis into migrationoverdue, is somewhat studies of Instead world. in the multi-dimensional interaction of fixing fluidwindows reality, are like the buttons that or machines, intricate move in order to press engineers the to regulate placed on rivers are dams that strategically unruly water. other with work to have Windows two-dimensionality. create must mobility over regulation Effective windows. passport, the linkages the and monitor the between records, criminal registration, population visa, domestic and so on. The between migrant interconnections quotas, connections is these It invisible. yet are systemic windows unlike virtually and structurally, movements shape that what traffic police or border patrolteams do. Microsoft two-dimensional one in which – a system Windows follow seemingly that in ways another to leads interface the users’ free will but are preconfigured – may become of symbol apt) most perhaps (and ultimate the how migration migration. experience we is managed and how between dialectics dimensionalisation. Theis the key of processes the between or ‘embedding’, and ‘flattening’ of and processes two-dimensionalisation creating multi- start Thingsbeing multi- always connections. faceted processes complex social highly takes dimensional; it to flatten them. Furthermore, in order for the flattened 74 Representations: Powers and Pitfalls Cultures of migration have migration beendescribed in many parts Cultures of known market signals andpoliticalrestrictions. of defiance complete in sometimes abroad, work and live rootedthat youngbecomes so deeply peopleexpect to become mutually constitutive. Insuch settings, migration long-standing movement,have culture migration and relativeand deprivation. communities with Incertain as asolutiontosocialstasis, migration unemployment predilections dispositionsand thatfavour nation), of or levels (family, village, region at a numberthe growth, of culture’, namely migration’a ‘migration or ‘a culture of Benson, 2011). with richer cultural choices (Benson and O’Reilly, 2009, life’ on enhancing orperhapsretaining ‘a better way of ‘flight the work’and whereinmovement paradigm, is predicated to migration’ ‘lifestyle added have scholars ascribed to such migrants. Morerecently, western actors may differ vastly from the meanings andmotives to social migration as it illustrates that the connotation of (Lilomaiava-Doktor, is anunusual 2009). example,This socialnetworksrelationships, and despite dispersion of in orderto sustain a web obliging Samoansto migrate is space. Forexample, Va movement population oscillating characteristically seen overas sustainingkinrelationships Pacific, However, the for work. in search the or flight by driven as in post-settlementquestions. component tothose interested also provides a necessary but migration, complexity to simplestatistical models of layerbase. of Culturalanalysis not onlyaddsanecessary evidential flimsiest the on often flows, migration future demand estimates of immigration, response tofurther manylong-standingresidents’ politicians, fearfulof economics. We livepolitical climate a whereanxious in oeapycvrdi h ieauei h oino amply coveredMore the literatureof inisthenotion Western cultures understandmigration predominantly is an indigenous moral imperative moral indigenous isan describing separate cultures havedescribing separate given way to the affirmation. resistance and powerfulforged has cultures of migration literature, music, dance and religious expression.Forced theirplightthroughart, Africans inconveying a sense of New World success of but alsoby the extraordinary complicity in owning and exploitingslave labour, their historical because of and Americanspartly Europeans been embellished on the consciousness of Brazil to work ontropicalplantations. suffering has Their Mexico and Africans intheCaribbean, USA, deposited Africans provides a clearexample. transatlantic trade The 11 million through racialmarkers. enslavement The of power andprivilege, usually inscribed asymmetries of peoples, and religions were languages embedded in of cultural contact and the subsequent intermingling through syncretism in religiousrituals. Intensifying creolizingsocialpractices. crossover Afurther occurred of in arange to speak to others and engage learned heritage different arosewhenpeopleof aspirations Migration experience. accompany or post-date the migration ‘culture contact’ literature, encounters that may antedate, aspirationsandfantasies. migration shape current incomeandwealththe aroundglobe, arefactorsthat of media, schoolingincreasingly,and, unequal distribution technologies,sophisticated transport access to global previousgenerations. existence of The valuesand of global the ideas greater connectivity, of and arenot just a replica by modified are today people young of suchaspirations predilections arestatic. migration The migration’. We shouldnotassume that ‘cultures of these are notexplicitly labelled observations, even if while and Mali,manyotherstudies India include similar the world, including Cape Verde, Morocco,of Mexico, Early historical and anthropological accounts anthropological historical and Early nexus is also addressed in the migration-culture The Representations: Powers and Pitfalls 75 , Manchester: Manchester , Manchester: Manchester References ) and the Geography ofMalaga Social Routes: Travel and Translation Late in the and Translation Travel Routes: , Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. , Cheltenham: Edward British in Rural France: Lifestyle Migration and in RuralBritish France: Contemporary, 21(1): 1–32. Pacific Sociological Review, 57(4): 608–25. Sociological )’, Va expressed. expressed. Novels, film, poems, dances musicand and succession a wallpaper, a moving provide media digital ofsurroundthat screens and opaque pellucid everyday of Because activities. ofpossibility the or in bilocal living home connecting diasporic practices transnational space, or origin newly and established destination, and away, In simultaneously. can thrive practices, cultural acquired short,into folded become and migrationculture have other in formseach of constituting thus behaviour, social the habitus, the called Bourdieu and later Mauss what nexus of governing dispositions normal social practices and aspirations. Benson, M. and O’Reilly, K. (2009) ‘Migration (2009) K. Search and the M. and O’Reilly, Benson, ofWay for a Better A Critical Exploration Life: of Lifestyle Migration’, Benson, M. (2011) ofWay for a Better Ongoing Quest the Life Press. University (1997) Clifford, J. CenturyTwentieth , Cambridge: Press. Harvard University Connecting ‘Introduction: (2011) Cohen, R. and Jónsson, G. Jónsson (eds.) Cohen and G. in R. and Migration’, Culture Migration and Culture “Migration”:‘Beyond (2009) Samoan S. Lilomaiava-Doktor, ( Movement Population Space ( Migrants constructmigrant are imaginaries that idea that all cultures have permeable have all cultures idea that edges and shared from arising traditions from history and, more notably, of set the a step changein connectivity, social changes as globalization. These loosely described changes include of movement the money and goods, music, ideas, images, students tourists, visitors, as migrants, people – whether (through connections the Moreover, or football fans. telephone internet) the or via by between remittances, that so intense are now movers and the stay-at-homes the affects of experience the or indirectly, directly mobility, ofmost population. Theis that consequence world’s the more permeable. While ever become have old cultures accepted notion ofthe many authors have indeterminate suggestsClifford (1997) James culture that boundaries, itself‘a borderland, has become a zone of– contacts and permitted,blocked policed and transgressive’. Even surroundingspread to and communities. societies people who are immobile areby profoundly affected itselfCulture imaginaries. these and mixed becomes formsPopular ofcreolized. migrants, with travel culture ofmeans become they where also but authentication, mutate, influencing surrounding cultures in unexpected their new from freight and taking on fresh cultural ways journeys The and of experiences origins, ambiance. the migrants are represented,presented, performed and 76 Representations: Powers and Pitfalls and Blinder, 2013). (Allen risks associatedpressures and withimmigration tend to highlight the costs,associated with migration – most commonly,language –andwords as‘illegal’ framedbyshowed negative aregenerally thatimmigrants Observatory’sMigration recent empirical media analysis designed are toshock anger. and immigration The associated with the headlines and images that manyof thepress. of the freedom comes at a price; that price is the abuse of newspapers.Theoccurs problembecause a free press seem to dominate the British news media, particularly ideologically-charged rants that often ill-informed, celebrity scandal and from the regular outpouringsof whoface criticism. the institutions the or publicservants must without onerous interference from be undertaken people’sand rightsprotectedchampionedand this – and taken to task on theirdecisions public servants scrutinised; events and developments;current institutions must be for anyrealdemocracy. Voters about must be informed effectively. to deal with the country’s pugnacious media more scholars andto help migration antipathetic to migration, an insight into the factors that make the British press so piece is designed to give short complicated subject. This like theBritishpress. subjects scholars that seem to consistently vex migration Conversely, British presslike migration. there are few are few subjects that seem to consistently vexThere the Anyone whoreadsnewspapers in the UK will know idealscanseemmiles noble amillionawayThese Let’s a free press isanecessity with afacile truism: start But the British press,is amessy and like migration, Media and Migration Media andMigration Robert McNeil Robert grey. theshades of counter arguments,to presentsomeof and have to present efforts to make some (at least cursory) they will also quite that simple – in orderto be ‘trusted’ it’s never course, Of sensible. and justified are positions want tohear, and to help those readers feel that their their readers’views. challenging to start they notgoing are to immigration products to people who are likely to be broadly opposed newspapers are selling their the market means that if of the content that you provide.trust segmentation This them, and buildingarelationshipwhere they like and buys your product and what they want, giving it to functioning, andtomake aprofit. their content effectively enough tokeep the business responsibility is to sell public servants, and their primary anyissue. are businesses, They not their coverage of aside) don’t have anyresponsibilitytobebalancedin dealing withthesubjectisvaluable. in these organisations the motives and approaches of media organisations, so understanding considerations of the business inescapable consequence of is alargely media. considerablediscussionsocial on is thesubject and of discussed by intomediastandards, theLeveson Inquiry scholarsas disingenuous, even egregious. subject was The stories is seen by some migration for anti-immigration But there is a basic business case for anti-immigration But there is abasicbusiness case anti-immigration for to tell their readerswhat they Instead, they will try Fora newspaper, this means understandingwho broadcasters (terrestrial Most news organisations But the approach taken by the press to migration the British press manysections of appetite of The Representations: Powers and Pitfalls 77 References Anti-immigration pro-(or the at least media outweighs at least hard how, pretty to see Will this change? It’s needs, means thinking about the it’ with ‘Working the place ofplace the as a shorthand‘Guardianistas’ for people and Labour the Party wrong newspapers, the who read are replaced and Lib Dems by bad guys political as the and the old Etonian Conservatives boorish, fox-hunting middle-management of radicals UKIP. ‘non-anti’) immigration a substantial margin media by concerned are people more British because levels about of migrationfor sense business than not, so it makes more of to capitalise on it. the press but any migration future, in the immediate scholars in participatinginterested on debate media the in immigrationnature the acknowledge to UK need in the of with it rather than against it. and work the market of concernsand lives and use buy who people the oftypes different rather than trying media, to pander think a journalist you to what or might want. newspaper The uncomfortabletruth concernsthe that is well may ifbut greatlydiffer own, from your can acknowledge you and anticipate them, you may well find that parts of the if can be, avoided have otherwise may media that you not less of then at least an ally, an adversary. Allen, W. and Blinder, S. (2013) ‘Migration (2013) News: in the S. and Blinder, Allen, W. ofPortrayals and Seekers Asylum Migrants, Immigrants, 2012’, to 2010 Newspapers, in National British Refugees of University Migration Observatory report, COMPAS, Oxford. ‘Thinking al. (2011) et Numbers: Behind the S. Blinder, Understanding Opinion Public on Immigration in Britain’, of University Migration Observatory report, COMPAS, Oxford. takes a liberal line on immigration line a liberal takes because Of champion that outlets are also media there course readers (or your relationship with your Reinforcing ofsection In one are often ‘villains’ these press, the ‘villains’ the on other side the both ways: it cuts But news content. Repeated surveys, including that of that including surveys, Repeated content. news the a for decades, that, shown have Migration Observatory, ofmajority concernedbeen about have people British of levels immigrationthat So stories al., 2011). (Blinder et ofaspects negative the on dwell immigration are more push the that than stories readers with resonate to likely ones. positive they anti-immigrationthe like but ones, liberal policies, The will be appealingwhat to their readers. are presenting Financial Times immigrationto see tend leaders business tool in as a key The a global market; Guardian its free does so because staff and university as teachers readers – such – are often concerned about human rights. Bringing them outlets. for media key is viewers/users) outlets news allows together as a campaigning community With a campaign to rally behind, to do this effectively. ofit is on side the can feel this community angels, the goalsfor righteous battling againstof a tide villains and you that view world who oppose the – those enemies newspaper of(encouraged your by espouse. choice) opposing the media are also often they but immigrants, the right wing media this often For and camps. political ‘Guardianistas’; or the polenta- means wooly-minded ofeating Islington élites ‘opened who Labour the Party the floodgates’; of or the EU apologists the Lib Dems. Migrantsbe broadly may as cartoonishly. are painted just is replaced but their place as villains by as victims, seen take Englander’. ‘Mail readers’ ‘little small minded the Dangerous Journey Home Dominic Burdon

COMPAS Photo Competition 2013 First Place Representations: Powers and Pitfalls 79 … Theofrise has both global networks those who are beneficiaries of global corporatism erosion this preferences, cosmopolitan or have of welcomed. be to is known have we world the ofa dark side is there But globalization and the desire for universal transnationalism beyond corporate the humanism and behind rhetoric. ofsight lose journalA critical should never the ofcosts we time same the at globalization. But openings and many opportunities the acknowledge and for human agentsevents shape or re-direct to processes.… of ideals innovative upon and fostered drawn world shape often now that human solidarity particularlypolitical agendas, surrounding the ofstatus the peace, environment, women, minorities, human rights, corporate responsibility, ofSome and indigenouspeoples. actors these resist globalization; others find alternatives within transnational new actors that is likely It compass. its more importantrole in shaping an ever play will the first decades of century. the twenty-first Theof choice our journal Global Networks, title, reflects the on globalization towards views macroscopic movement away ofan study intense from and networking networks general ofas the lineaments … Though world new the respects, clashing in many differing and even these fields share a sense of networks as human social formsbe accomplishments, may that To according to circumstances. enduring or brittle, the involves across distance connections achieve Alisdair Rogers Global Networks Revisited Global Networks At the same time, the once clear-cut clear-cut once the same time, At the Global networks are a hallmark are ofGlobal networks evolving the ofworld century early 21st the and in recognition ofnew an ambitious are launching we fact this as constituted networks global see journal … We by dynamic and flexiblegroups or organizationsindividuals, between types of connection Thestructure world. the criss-cross that of such interactions, conditions the global networks ofand identities strategies These their members. across territorialburst to begun have networks further rupturing borders, degreethe of cultural integrityand economic nations, prized by once impact of The cumulative and places. regions, societies, that has meant interconnections these tended have and regions, cities their along with merge so as to and become spread outwards to This has vast societies. other with coextensive world understand the we way implications for the it is governed. and how ofsphere domestic the separation between national and the externallife or international ofsigns unmistakeable shows sphere breaking profound present processes Transnational down. corporations, challengesand opportunities states, to and territorially ofactors based cities, all kinds. and People firms, places can and be communities, ofin and out switched board. For global circuit the Twelve years ago, Robin Cohen, Steve Vertovec and I Vertovec Steve Cohen, Robin ago, years Twelve journal, for a new editorial the penned Global Networks: a Journal of Affairs in part,Here, Transnational (2001). is wrote: what we 80 Representations: Powers and Pitfalls globalization, but bred internally. and failings, not engineering by those actors resisting firms, and ‘people places and communities’. are also systemic tremors There of ’ off ’switching selective the than the globalrecession include much more consequences of to come. The the economic turmoil there is no hint of neoliberal capitalism, spectacularly expansionist phase of collapsing orsupply chains snapping. Written duringa communication networks systems rupturing, sense of One thing obviouslythan iswarranted. understated isthe rigidity andpermanence links convey sense of agreater by diagrams,thinking isoften supported whose lines and self-critique. Network three thoughts occur by way of 2013,at least Looking backwards fromthe perspective of Second, the word ‘care’ isalsoconspicuously absent. A transnational affairs? affairs, so the twenty first century heralds an era of international wasof the twentieth anage century world.… Is it too ambitious to claim that, just as citizens throughout the social conduct and of the long-established cognitive maps transforming scale, fundamentally ataplanetary organized assume an autonomouslife. are increasingly They economic change, global networks have begun to global However, whatever the rhythms of trade experienced duringthe last two decades. increasinglyunrestricted free during the periodof networksThese have accelerated been greatly are layered upon andinterwoven with older ones. historical geography. In many cases, new networks resources… social and cultural of and the full repertoire kinship, labour, trust, risk-laden mobilization of …Globalization has a long and complex has alongand …Globalization Statement’, Roger,Vertovec,R. and A.,Cohen, S. (2001) ‘Editorial modulating arejustthreesuch extensions. flows as of sense the care, and of significance the ones), networks (even corporate needs adding. fragility of The generative, butthatdoesnotmeantosay thatnothing and sociologists. Inmy view, its core ideas remain highly workcommunitieson transnational by anthropologists the network society and the new Castells’s theories of or transnationalcommunities. global socialmovements, long-distance family relations which we were, and remain,interested – whether it be the phenomena in many of description of equally good isan whileretainingsome recognisableform together things hanging looser sense of assemblage. The idea of better captured by an alternativedegree metaphor or tosome are networks animating flows of modulations matter,weak, strongor off. or on pulses and The is too physical. Networking isnever simply a binary socialrelations brittle’.or Perhaps thisdescription of that mayaccomplishments, be enduring socialforms globalization’. ‘the costs of inperhaps overlywhat we termed, economistic language, life. Insodoing,it heightens the21st-century sense of early ourcritical understanding of of kinds at the heart all place the practices bodies of that sustain andnurture researchfeminism andpost-colonialism. This hashelped into the journal’s core themes have been inspired by the most acute insights state, market andfamily. Someof care practices in care relations andthe implications of globalcare chains,concern the transnationalization of the journal’s most accomplished articles number of great arosefromthe collision betweenGlobal Networks how networks wereWe ‘human wrote then of Global Networks, 1(1)iii-vi. References Representations: Powers and Pitfalls 81 Over the last 20 years there has the last 20 years been increasing Over ofbe only limited may there scale, socio-economic the for – as is often the case labour migrantsmobility choices backgrounds income but option little with from lower classed those Conversely, migrateto a living. make to migrants’– ‘forced as refugees seekers or asylum may – once especially look to expand their life opportunities, they of a place In a way reached have they safety. relative from refugees or betterment economic to transmute may migrants a measure of once been found. security has motivations has mixed mobility much recognition that of migrationmany and that include streams kinds, these both people who move to escape 2009). Hear, (Van conflictand lives that are better those seeking or distress This is partly because poverty, inequality and often coexist: conflict those who flee a country where conflict, abuse and human rights discrimination persecution, also be trying may for example, dire to escape are rife, feed themselves may – which circumstances economic human and discrimination persecution, conflict, such into life or to escape then move may People rights abuse. intolerable escape to move may they circumstances; death themselves; to better move may they conditions; living for a combination of move or may they and these other which senses, Migration in several mixed can be reasons. to some degree stages relate to of the migratory process: point ofat the be mixed may motivations making the kinds ofdifferent to move; decision migrants make may ofuse travel the same agentsmay they and brokers; with others in mixed migratory flows; motivations may change en route and after arrival; and people may find during their journeys communities in mixed themselves or at their destination. Nicholas Van Hear Nicholas Van Mixed Migration Mixed In the analysis ofanalysis In the migration,is distinction a basic Migration today features a bewildering variety of Migrationvariety a bewildering features today forms of and types The term movement. ‘migrant’ can of types diverse encompass highly people on the move, permanentcountries: between and both within emigrants labour, temporary and settlers; workers; contract and trader migrants; professional, business students; from who move people refugeesseekers; and asylum to larger towns or from smaller ruralcities, to settings for marriage moving people ones; and reasons; and family people who seek safety from conflict within theirown these between people often shift Moreover, countries. categories: tourists enter a countrymay they as students, ask for work, but then overstay, for example, or visitors, permanent or seek asylum, and eventually settlement, internal migrants Likewise, naturalised as citizens. become time in of may search opportunity in or conflict by driven borders cross state and internationalbecome migrants. of greatthis is How diversity migratorybe to trajectories made sense of? and those to move who chose those made between often ‘voluntary’ and between is, to – that who are compelled Themigrants. is particularly‘forced’ distinction salient governance where of world, policy in the international migration conceptualthe between distinction is shaped by ‘voluntary’migrationand ‘forced’ exclusive as mutually categories; this is reflected notfor refugees and architecture other kinds ofinstitutional least in the different ofmigrant. In reality, is far from distinction the course, pointed to a continuum long have scholars clear-cut: and ‘voluntary’‘forced’ migration between (Richmond, who are conventionally those For 1998). Hear, Van 1994; levels lower the as ‘voluntary’,classed towards especially 82 Representations: Powers and Pitfalls ierneo stakeholders, public. includingthegeneral of wide range interest to a political agendas,policy and on are of and issues are high asmigration well placed in this regard, those whostudy itareextremely Indeed, it seems as if their investment. on research inorderto demonstrate a practical return is now funding regularly measured by many organisations academy the beyond impact an Having them. to benefit use for ‘evidence’, but also that our work hasbeen of and providing them with data andanalysis that they can showing that we have been working with research users research meansnotonly is on thathas‘impact’. This ‘exchanged’.or More recently ‘transferred’ the emphasis with how knowledge was later became a concern This know how we planned to‘communicate’ our research. COMPASWhen 2003, funders wantedin our to started motivations –the these kinds of byof a combination may bedrivenhere,reality migration in been suggested entitlements and accordingly. entry – andorganise Ashas labour, highly-skilled, refugee, family, student, and soone a single basedon categories by discrete policy regimes still tend to classify migrants have that remains problem migrants onceadmitted? The entitlements rights and should different types of What what grounds? should beadmitted,on and Who presents populationsobvious policychallenges. migratory ‘mixed migration’. suchManaging diverse the notion of policy, purchasepolicy circles hasledtogrowing inof dynamics, and the challenges they pose for migration The study of migration is not exceptional inthis. migration study of The these complex migration Increasing recognition of motivation– migration for From CommunicationtoImpact Emma Newcombe reports/global/hdr2009/papers/ Research Paper2009/20, New York, http://hdr.undp.org/en/ andT.(with R. Brubaker Bessa), UNDP HumanDevelopment Mixed Migration’ Development: Growing The Salience of VanHear, N. (2009)Human Mobilityfor ‘Managing Press. MigrantCommunities of and Regrouping VanHear, N. (1998) New World Order Richmond,A. (1994) Perhapswhat we doisnotsodifferentwhatwefrom its pursuit. in isfragile,much and crushed gets Proof timing a chanceor meeting.can result from fortuitous impact significant Furthermore, about? know don’t we aboutthe impact we ourevidence? What have that of anyone hasactuallytheirpractice changed because if And how do we prove impact? Can we ever really know research doesn’t come up with answers that anyone likes? toofar.But the clamour for impact can go if What unreasonable to expect a contribution to public debates. we are examiningahighly politicized subject, it is not funded social research) shouldbeuseful. Indeed, if research I believe (and arguablyallstate migration communications workdriven by the impact agenda. have by enthusiasm for been encouraged the growing As someoneresponsibleforcommunicating research, I justifiable. think I field, our in is, usefulness for Asking them. variegated policy approach toaddress correspondingly for study and soon–which pointstothe need for a searchlivelihood,for safety, for family members, torejoin , Oxford:OxfordUniversity Press. New Diasporas:TheMass Exodus, Dispersal Global Apartheid: Refugees,the and Apartheid: Global Racism References , London: Routledge/UCL Representations: Powers and Pitfalls 83 References Thinking Behind the Numbers: Understanding Numbers: Understanding the Thinking Behind Academics working attention-grabbingon less topics working Academics to potential research As someone who helps deliver Blinder, S. et al. (2011) al. (2011) et S. Blinder, , MigrationOpinion on Immigration in Britain Public Observatory Report, Oxford: COMPAS. comes to media coverage, the academic is wheeled in to wheeled is academic the coverage, media to comes where argument and contested furious a fast, respond to really fit. doesn’t analysis nuanced complicated, the migrationthat argue might to have is lucky studies it is often because impact bandwagon pass its way, Therealong behind it. pulling money are dangers that fall into to easy is it for example, though; this with come a state-defined agenda.Take ‘trafficking’, a concept that and political debate in funding calls, regularly features to a great It has been subject of deal policies. intellectual scrutiny remains and misunderstood in public debate. yet ofThe favour ignored in is analysis complicated term the of lots situations. fit different very to adopted be can that Although there is definitely appeal in a simple story over many how wonder you make does it tale, a complicated are ditched. devils are being ignored when the details is good,job to do is easiest when the research my publics, and relevance only trying by achieve and not blinkered to impact. In migration, as in other fields, we aims, sources, to its is faithful that has integrity, research should do methods and evidence, and walks the fine line between and bombast. relevance Theseconcerns go migration beyond social to studies has the topics on controversial research Academic were doing ten years ago, only now we spend precious spend precious we now only ago, years doing ten were impact. and proving time measuring roots in the Themodel’s impact more generally. sciences to it is easy example, For could be to blame. hard sciences a drughow see millions ofcures that of people sickness can be defended and byjustified pointing to its impact – if even way. along the on animals tested be to have did it particularany So is there comes it challengewhen impact on migration?research to and intense the is One problem polarised nature ofin migration the way and the debate, or to be on is seen one ‘side’ any commentator which if tainted can be considered evidence Research another. has personal the researcher views and affiliations outside try may to remain Researchers work. their academic them not protect neutral and but this does apolitical, from judgementalcategorisation as for them places that or against.that migrationto me It is interesting is a topic expect we opinionan on, and yet people have most that to remain aloof. researchers opportunity but to impact on public and policy debate, migrationdata that politicised so highly can be issues Thirtydebate. to shift power limited and analysishave years ofUK public to be found the always polling have wary of immigration, has no and this correlationyet with ofnumbers actual as just country, the people entering public opposition to migrationon is not focussed the it when largest groups Oftentimes, 2011). al., et (Blinder Jerusalem Martin Coyne

COMPAS Photo Competition 2011 First Place Representations: Powers and Pitfalls 85 The analysis 1 Extract Extract from St Pancras Bear, by The Dead Secrets, first Because you have a right to know just who it is it who just a right to know have you Because ofstories bedtime the in featuring darling, your sordid the know to want You children. little fat, he Well, truthPaddington? precious your about right, – that’s website brazenly on admits his own good pretty – that actually gotIt’s a website! he’s a on away’ in order to getto England he ‘stowed Illegal lifeboat. immigrant.but Not only that ship’s Pastuso! it’s his real name, is not even Paddington ofAnd most shocking describes all, Paddington himselfPeru’.Racist. as originating from ‘darkest is a So Paddington [SITS CENTRE STAGE] illegalracist, immigrant in England who is living “What other dark secrets under an name. assumed Well, ask. you might he be harboring, Pancras?,” St. Bear got Pudsey how just that eye wondered ever Or anything, about it. talks he never Well, patch? of Traces troubling. marmalade Very in fact. to you leave I’ll apparently, wound found in the conclusions…. own your draw - performed 2013 and break down could very easily go on. It’s also just a also just verycould goeasily and break down on. It’s part of tool. It can Comedy is a powerful a funny sketch. and it is important degrade deride, and dismiss, ridicule, in comedy. taken is a damaging route when recognize to encourage,It can also uplift, and shared highlight the That is crucial.human experience. The disgruntled St Pancras Bear, who feels hard done by Thehard done by feels who disgruntled Bear, Pancras St of success the tries Bear, Paddington his contemporary, untrustworthy making him the by Paddington to vilify can. possibly he as ways many in as ‘other’ Ida Persson How We Laughed… We How went to St. to went I’m a well-wisher. But the question But I’m a well-wisher. VIDEO LINK INTRO OF A DELIGHTFUL A DELIGHTFUL OF INTRO VIDEO LINK TO REVEAL UP OPENING STORYBOOK, ST PANCRAS OF ‘TALES THE WORDS A DISHEVELLED, UP. BEAR’. LIGHTS BEAR TEDDY ANTHROPOMORPHISED HOLDING A RIGHT ENTERS STAGE CONTAINING BAG SHOPPING CRUMPLED AND A ‘BOOK’ TAT me? It’s Remember ‘ello kids. ST PANCRAS: know Don’t Bear. Pancras St. old friend, your know not surprised. I’m you Bet who I am? Well, you?! Bear is though don’t who Paddington to hear a story want about Paddington […] You way bears made their two day One sunny Bear? hope ofto popular London in the train stations One of family. a nice in by taken being set them offthe got station, home by taken Paddington to managed himselfsecure to Browns, a lucrative The darling. the nation’s book and became deal, other bear [INDICATES HIMSELF] Pancras Station and was forced to make the best the to make forced Station and was Pancras of becoming an independent a bad situation by in procurement specialist the area of urban pockets. GIVES AN [HE COUGHS VIOLENTLY, HOLD, TO MEMBER HIS BAG AUDIENCE IT BACK] THEN SNATCHES well, people I wish get wrong. me don’t Now, [SHOUTS] deserve he had? luck the Paddington does is, […] Who’s the real bear behind the duffle coat? 86 Representations: Powers and Pitfalls iest’ars ag fsocialscienceliterature. diversity’ of acrossarange ‘super- these readings of following piece traces some of some downright weird) and usages. interpretations The hasbeen subject to some interesting (and the concept academia and public policy, then, in boththe worlds of ‘super-diversity’. term, Since or what I called a summary that introduced the concept, In 2007, I published an article for example, can in a single moment communicate a funny. Much comedy is universal. things Non-verbalphysical humour, find anyway…) us, of most (well, all we but funny, things different find all may We experience. always matter? it withinyourown cultural socialorperspective), does it the joke, your understanding of own of interpretation your performance, it for whatever reason(quality of you enjoy inthis. wouldcontext. There be truth But if thesocio-economiccultural and havingawareness an of deprivation financial and theiryouth, you donotfully understand it without of social the with other each Men’ sketch, toout-do where they try compare and enjoy MontyPython’s well-known Four ‘The Yorkshire experience. migrant the in influences key all experiences, social shared and culture language, affected by herunderstandinghis orof person’sa enjoyment occasionshould)be can (andon specifically,comedy and where art, all of aspects course, and crossing boundaries anddifferences. are, of There physical by touchingthe individual emotional levelan on The joy of laughter is a shared global human shared global laughterisa joyThe of You could argue, perhaps, that although you might transcending the are capable of art of All forms Reading ‘Super-Diversity’ Steven VertovecSteven 1 origin, butalsowithrespect to: of andcountries languages ethnicities, more reflecting people movements of of terms in not just has occurred diversity’.with it This a transformative ‘diversification of that, over years or so,migration the past thirty has brought global was intended to address the changing natureof it takes to giggle or heartily guffaw. orheartily it takes togiggle the onlyformoment andany otherdivisions - if migrant, andnon- ‘us and them’, migrant eliminating ideas of will alwayswaya long a beuniversal. toward goes This the fact that a genuine smile or laugh to lose sight of perspective and context in comedy, not it is important be said,validly andimportantly, aboutpower struggles, moments where these can befound.Althoughmuch can also remembertheexperiences shared humanand at amigrant’s journey. But it’s Ithink,to important, be considered(culture, movement, status) when looking the individual experience,the manydifferences and to Mr. Bean. as Buster Keaton, andRowan CharlieChaplin Atkinson’s lovedbeen the most internationally and understood, such is a reasonwhy quiet but physical characters have often inwithpost). a lampThere farcical entrance/exit, the run experienceludicrous butsharedhuman(thethe pratfall, status. decide where ‘home’ reallyis, his immigration basedon PaddingtonNow (2008) and where PaddingtonHere tohas Paddington Bearhimself, Michael Bond, inhisbook of humorouseffect by the creator Something donetogreat First, to briefly recap the idea: ‘super-diversity’ idea: the recap briefly to First, A lot of talk about migration is focused (rightly) on talkaboutmigration A lotof Notes Representations: Powers and Pitfalls 87 which which as the sole or sole or ethnicity as the on a focus beyond a changed set ofset changed a configurations social and conditions In a rough typology, we can see at least six ways that that ways six at least can see we typology, In a rough Across all offurthermore, emergent this literature, province of province in Cape Limburg, Manenberg township the city of and Town, China. Enshi in social Some (1) far). (so read has been ‘super-diversity’ as meaning very ‘super-diversity’ understood have scientists much diversity, or and dimensions more pronouncedkinds of – particularly social differentiation cultural identities. ‘super- many writers invoke In way, (2) a more limited new that to mean more merely is, – that ethnicity diversity’ groups brought more ethnic migration have processes a stands in reading contrast to than in Such the past. (3) refer to ‘super-diversity’ authors another in sense which in order to move understanding to approach for a multi-dimensional call contemporaryofprocesses changeoutcomes. their and have scholars this understanding, other Recognizing (5) reassessment urgeda methodological of their respective field academics are numerous there Finally, (6) or discipline. actually term the although invoking ‘super-diversity’, who, rather different mean something not wholly often (though examples originally intended: was to what unrelated) oftheories include mixed non-linear social trajectories, migration,for broadergeographical motivations dispersal of blurred migrants, of distinctions racial categories, practices discursive multiple networking, multifarious and polycentricity of semiotic resources. describe to has turned into an adjective ‘super-diversity’ ofa set to want scholars which within circumstances which with or topic phenomena, process some describe concerned. can read of we Hence are respectively they of characteristics ‘superdiverse groups’, ‘super-diverse optimal category ofThis (4) is understanding analysis. I what and elaborate who describe those by extended original is the meaning of say would the concept, that is to say a multiplication of significantvariables that affect In the last people live. and with whom how where, conditioning proliferation and the mutually decade, ofeffects a rangeof migrationand changing new enough to see that it is not shows variables in termsonly ‘diversity’ of as is regularly ethnicity, wider and the science both in social case the In order understand and to more public sphere. complex nature ofthe address fully contemporary, variables additional diversity, migration-driven scientists, social by recognized better be to need public. and the practitioners policy-makers, Theselegal differential include: and their statuses labour market divergent conditions, concomitant ofconfigurations discrete and gender experiences, age,patterns oflocal and mixed spatial distribution, service by area responses and residents. providers Theofinteraction dynamic what is variables these 2007) (Vertovec, ‘super-diversity’. is meant by Since 2007, the term has been picked up by a wide variety variety a wide termthe 2007, Since by up has been picked of scholars from an array of disciplines (Thisand fields. ofin review a recent is shown publications that 300 These2014.) go Vertovec, see ‘super-diversity’; invoke anthropology, ones – sociology, expected the beyond migration political science, and ethnic geography, education, history, linguistics, – to include studies management, media literature, studies, business law, urban planning and public health, social work, studies, while the original article Moreover, landscape studies. phenomena termdescribed in London and UK, the the social, cultural to describe has subsequently used been as contexts widespread such in dynamics and linguistic states, Jerusalem,Baltic the York, New Venice, Brussels, Cyprus, Egypt, Guiana, Zimbabwe, Nigeria, French Italy, Oaxaca, villages of Hokkaido, Hong Kong, south-west Germanthe Slovakia, of state border the Brandenburg, 88 Representations: Powers and Pitfalls slto n omnt.Ewr adwoeo exile community.and isolation Edwardwrote of Said hostility,met the on way, welcome, the experiences of out elsewhere,behind andthe home(s) the people carved the home left hasaunique tale to tell of Each migrant challenging.’ However, Beck adds: politically and etc.) risks, capital, information, of flows migration, of flows global of (because inevitable ‘both these are that the rise of Ulrich Beck (2011) suggests the21st century’, citiessocieties and of super-diversity of to describe it. Indeed, addressing ‘the are still struggling composite, layeredunequal’ and(2013). However, we increasingly complex, lookingat a society getting of argue,has called ‘ways atdeveloping whatSigona Nando city, neighbourhood, and global levels.national We better, are getting Iwould at configurations and dynamics about increasing and intensifying complexities in social talking describingand avidlyare seeking ways of reasons – social scientists good of that – for arange I would thearticle, original suggest multiple readings of bythe social sciences? Rather surprised the wide and a‘super-diversity lens’ and ‘asuper-diversity turn’ in of diversity’ – leading to what has been called the emergence ‘super- attention, and such varied readingsanduses, of world’. diversity’, ‘super-diverse realities’, ‘asuper-diverseand super- super-diversity’, ‘the era of of ‘astage write of super-diverse nation’;canvas,yet broader ona stillothers diverse population’ , ‘a super-diverse society’ or ‘the settings’; scaled up,‘super- somedescribeanother one or places’, ‘super-diverse circumstances’, and ‘super-diverse What’shere? Why on hastherebeensomuch going tre f irto,teMgaino Stories of theMigration Migration, Stories of Nazneen Ahmed Routledge Vertovec, S. (2014) Studies30(6):1024-1054. and Racial Vertovec, S. (2007) ‘Super-diversity and its Implications’, 10 December2013. http://nandosigona.wordpress.com/2013/10, date accessed Superdiversity’, in Postcards from …weblog, 25 October. of N.Sigona, (2013) ‘ImaginingaNew Research inanEra Agenda Social SciencesinChina the World?’,we Can DescribeUnderstandthe andDiversity of Beck, U. (2011) How‘Multiculturalism Cosmopolitanism: or unsurprising that migrant tales have provided rich stuff tales havethat migrant providedunsurprising rich stuff expression (2001). So itisperhaps creativity artistic and ‘plurality’ that fosters as producinganawareness of though with no possible return) migration, of (one form urn om fsocietal complexification. of forms current the multiple andinterpret modes andimpacts of depict theoriesenhanced andperspectives terms, with which to hopefully useful –placeholder until we develop more (sometimes unintended) ways. It islikely a– variety of ‘super-diversity’ hasbeen widely taken up–albeit ina then, thatIt a is newperhaps notionnot likesurprising, [italics inoriginal] researched understood,explainedand conceptualized, canbedescribed, in the world super-diversity contemporary which the language through have do noteven thesis is: we to orientate ourselves.other words, In my main are changing radically, butwe still use old maps diversity cultural, social and political landscapes of It is in this sense that over the last decades the 32(4):52-58. Super-diversity,and New LondonYork: References Ethnic . Representations: Powers and Pitfalls 89 is a novel a novel is The Satanic Verses The Overwhelmingly, post-Windrush London is a male Overwhelmingly, ofprocess the Rushdie, For migration a entails Chamcha desperately tries to assimilate rather to assimilate than tries desperately Chamcha episode balanced delicately between comedy and tragedy, tragedy, and comedy episodebetween balanced delicately horror to the to kidnap a pigeon,he attempts of much the policeman!” a find must ‘“I passerby: white elderly an she and air, her hands up in the throwing screech, woman races through the turn to the road. Galahad make back Gate.’ for Lancaster park, heading down into his stories writes Selvon women few But the world. They Anna 20 years earlier. are veryfrom different Rhys’s men, black and to be dominated by refuse are resourceful so and bus: ‘She was the tube braves Tanty or white. ofbother to look out didn’t she that frighten window the getshe and when anything, and see off Prince the at of nobody she could tell Now relieved. she feel Wales Selvon’s in London’. bus and tube by travel ain’t that she despite which, city to the letters are migrantstories love does become home. face, his characters all the setbacks ofhybridisation more carnivalesque languages cultures, are forever and ‘traveller’ so both ‘host’ and identities, interactions. their changedby much discussed for events that it provoked, but it is often that it provoked, for events discussed much of as a work overlooked that depicts fiction. It is a novel in all their violence, to Britain vividly travels post-1970s Farishta Gibreel and pain. Both adventure excitement, transformativethe experience and Saladin Chamcha ofpotential migration, and disorientation as well as English, and its hybrid chaotic, The novel’s violence. oflayering ways to the testament pay references, cultural migrantthe forges encounter ofa ‘third space’ cultural made is in theory, least at anything, where hybridity, possible (Bhabha, 1994). out-English to his attempts Alas, his difference. celebrate differences his physical English are hampered by the (transformedstartthe at a devil into of has he novel, the out of Voyage in Voyage Central to novels of novels Central to migrationofquestion is the Stories of migration are as old as the journeys of exuberant stories Sam Selvon’s In contrast, West for novels, particularly era, when post-colonial the in for novels, are either authors who by written been many have migrantsof or children migrants. M. G remade. home is home and how constitutes what of writes Vassangi comprised sack, being a gunny home of languages) rituals, are portable things that (memories, is it But from place to place (1989). that can be schlepped Whatride? the along for everything Can so easy? taken be is lost in translation? years, interwar in the writing Rhys, Jean For themselves. experience. loss and migrant’s pain the are central to ofsensation and the Isolation, alienation being in London life 1930s in Anna’s place characterise by framed journey, migrant’s the telling, In this Dark. the in Trapped colonisation, is a path to madness and despair. fragile stranger the exile, colonial London, Anna is Said’s heartin the of who can never colonial metropolis, the yearning a home, Caribbean, for the a belong or make ofplace warmth returnedcannot be and a home that and her longing for home her lover, by Abandoned to. it is Anna spirals from into a decline which childhood, suggested no will be there return, patterns in which of ‘all over exploitation and alienation will repeatthemselves again’. again… all over men having Indians London in 1950s depictyoung going English women, hungry seducing adventures, in a joyful written novels, His for work. and looking very through their celebrate language positive the patois, ofproducts meeting the colonial encounter: the hybridity, and ofmelding and bodies. identities cultures, languages, protagonistshis contending also struggle Yet city, in the Lonely Londoners, In The cold. and poverty racism, with so hungryGalahad becomes arrived newly in an that 90 Representations: Powers and Pitfalls research inbars andrestaurants among expats who holiday; conducting that I could have a year or two of expatriates so western chosen to study a community of doctoral fieldworkKathmandu, the jokes I had in began: of half a year and after a toOxford Ireturned When the‘done nation pride, its author viewed as adaughterof elite anglophone inDhaka,the novel was received with it caused amongst British Bangladeshis. Amongst the strong contrasttothe Bangladesh standsincontroversy Monica Ali’s positiveThe of reception origin. stories themselves circulate beyond theirplaces of these stories have travelled, the Just as the tellers of fiction. of subgenre a considered be could collectively, tales that, has produced, aplethoraof migration humiliation,violenceandunwelcome. incidents of records how the migrant’s with is often scarred journey attackssystematised and racist abuse.Verses TheSatanic in Selvon’srepresented stories gave way tophysical 1950s to the 1970s, whentherelatively ‘polite’ racism a shift from the in east London, represent fascist gangs and minorities ethnic between conflicts the fictionalise Brickhall that Chamcha’s abuse, andthe riots of police: by the interrogation hooves), which leads to agruelling he oes n hse fthe stories that novels,Three andawhisperof Englishman?” an name isthatfor kindof Sally-who? – What “Look at yourself. You’re afucking Packy Billy. Liverpoolfans, buthe, too, sounded uncertain. the “Who’re to kid?” inquired one of you trying The (Un)Bearable Precariousness of being a Lifestyle Migrant beingaLifestyleMigrant (Un)BearableThe of Precariousness Brick Lane in Roger Norum

Rhys, J. (1934) accessed 25January 2014. www.thedailystar.net/2003/06/21/d30621210390.htm, date Triumph’, The Daily Star,4(24), http:// Roots and Moments of Islam, K.(2003) Ali Denied ‘Monica Bangladeshi Visa:On on me. hard really been have must fieldwork ethnographic with my experience formative serious anthropology; hardly a yearwas 40grand swannedearned and in SUVs around the homeland. distant, scattereddaughters sonsandof experiences of ‘back home’ where they are readwith interest, as the travel to fictions migrant enable festivals, further literary international e-books, aswell as theof explosion of transnational publishingmarket The and the development overseas:good’ Rushdie, S. (1988) Vassanji, G. M.(1989) Selvon, S. (1994 [1956]) and Cultural Essays Literary and Other Exile on Said, E.W. (2001) Reflections twsaljs etu anig fcourse. But many a It was alljust jestful taunting, of level the rest of usshouldaspireto(Islam,2003). level therestof has written a novel in Englishandsucceeded at a Bangladesh.She is agiftedsincere daughter andof us. She Sheisoneof should embrace herinturn. is thefact thatopenly embracedus. shehas We course, But beyond allthese considerations, of , London:Granta. Voyage intheDark The SatanicVerses The GunnySack, London:Heinemann. The Lonely Londoners,London:Longman. References , London:Constable. , London:Vintage. Representations: Powers and Pitfalls 91 The zero-hours contract controversy that rocked that rocked The controversy zero-hours contract for free and eager labour, ‘work experience’ – the norm– the experience’ ‘work for and free eager labour, As budgets and organisationsare reduced do for many. long-term that help people with in the investment away stable who once experienced people them function, are and now social protections occupational identities instability, insecurity, experiences: novel encountering 2013). and Nagy, precarity and risk (Korpela vulnerability, are from As responsibilities shifted public and private and wellbeing welfare the onto individuals, institutions ofofthought often still and their families, workers are often problems, such to as privilegedand immune and organisations. makers policy states, ignored by organised the beyond Precarious labour always is almost structures of social welfare and benefit systems. provisioning outside exist who labour those often result, As a for unemployment benefit, for maternityand mechanisms and paternity insurance, social and security, Thoughdrivers as the seen are frequently they leave. health beneficiaries of globalisation, theirrelatively privileged discontents from its them not shield positions may The(Standing, 2011). across many ‘precariat’ thus cuts lines in society; precariousness no longer discriminates. many of2013 in late institutions educational Britain’s ofto some attention drew skilled’, ‘Highly issues. these no longer was it seemed, a guarantor of ‘highly paid’. of tower, ivory In the rarely educated’ ,‘highly course of prevalence erstwhile the but implied high pay, tenure ofa lifetime guaranteed posts at least academic track employment, if not one of six however, Today, figures. these insecurities may force many people to significantly correspondentslead foreign may It lifestyle. their alter academics under employed babysitters, as moonlight to and on-the-bench, shops, retail in High Street work to at live to consultants thirtysomethingdevelopment home with their parents being as offflown they await to Lifestyle migrationLifestyle has come to encompass a range of been typically have people these while But

truth were The is said in jest. colleagues my presumption off playing ifthat was goes saying the as in the are, you nothing have should you then 21’, and white ‘free, US, ifmigrants, to complain Lifestyle about. at suffer they world problems’, minor frustrations from all, suffer ‘first privileged by experienced are only that and complaints to be that, it may But countries. in wealthy individuals as always the good aren’t ol’ days paraphrase Billy Joel, good seem. as they for different around world the who move people different downsizers, domestic reasons: international students, corporate expatriates, retirees, gap yearers, backpackers, and people owners, second-home humanitarian workers, In fact, married and borders. across cultures who have many of migrants, are lifestyle authors in this volume the perhaps – because a foreign land for work chosen having we findcouldn’t employment in our native countries, or different a life to experience wanted we perhaps because migration see people often Such as a route from home. to a better and more fulfillingway of life than the one ofpursuit behind – the to leave decided have they the this Sometimes 2009). and Benson, ‘good(O’Reilly life’ Across the to necessity. is due it sometimes is escapist; global north,in the UK and elsewhere migrants:lifestyle – internationalworkers and highly-skilled students and other expatriates freelancers, foreign consultants, ofmembers – currently‘mobile elite’ so-called the make up one ofgrowingfastest the migration phenomenon in the world. of high levels by characterised and economic social, opportunitiesthe years in recent for geographic mobility, neoliberal formsGlobalised, slipping. been have some of made limited-term have jobs and zero- employment nothing of say – to hour contracts grand that euphemism 92 Representations: Powers and Pitfalls understood as underprivileged. understood asunderprivileged. human welfare have often focused on those traditionally with 1998), for that matter – andacademic engagements (Nader, 1972) even– or studied ‘sideways’ (Hannerz, Anthropologists, we know, have rarely‘studied up’ scientists for studying so-called like-minded people. distaste many social a among suspect result a of it isalso isarelativelynorth new phenomena? Perhaps. But I precariousness among the upper classes in the global mobility. those from without access to education,social funds or thearevastlyprivileged different that experiences of to contest common presumptions scholarshipcan serve Such that isoften globalisationdisregarded. aspect of highly skilled workers comprises a unique and important higher incomes. and Still, research intolifestyle migrants command than those who cannormally degree greater affected bysociety, in changes neoliberal much oftentoa –peoplewhoareclearlyalso low-incomeand earners lower skilled workers of tended to be discussed in terms that precariousness in labour, has welfare and migration around such work requirechanging too. typical and regularised, the institutional social structures relations suchproduct-based become as projectorjobs economies. work modern in irregular Asatypicaland provisioned and welfarehuman isoftenconceived of how thelimitationsof visible.elucidates Italso some of people might make of than surface-level categorisations deeper run mobility and flexibility of expectations the limited work tenure and show that the implications of for atwo-weekAddis Ababa secondment. Such moves sti ako research due to the fact that Is thislack of reminder asa debate served zero-hoursalso The London: Bloomsbury Academic. London: Bloomsbury Standing, G. (2011) New York: Random House. Studying from Up,’D. in Hymes. (ed.) Nader, L.(1972) the ‘Up Anthropologist—Perspectives Gained 3(1):1-6. SocialResearch to Temporary Mobility.’ of Review International (2013) ‘Introduction: Limitations Korpela, M. andR. Nagy from StudyingSideways.’ Paideuma, 44:109-123. U.Hannerz, (1998) ‘Other Transnationals: Perspectives Gained Expectations, Aspirations andExperiences Benson, M. andO’Reilly, K. (2009) fthosewhoalreadyhave, orwhooncehad,avoice. of notion that there is value in research intothe subjectivities these questions lendcredence also tothe north, global the rise in the (im)mobile precariat across countries in the welfare human work. Framedwithin howmodels of our and periphery, andwould allow us to better understand would enable ustoreconsiderwhatismeantby centre thosewith (perceived)power and privilege positions of they are moreprivileged? Consideringthe roles and if And why should we care aboutthe highly skilled anyway people low inthepeckinglabour ways?in similar order globalised ‘neoliberalism’ affect all Do the vicissitudes of workers across different industries? different types of lived with conflict realities? How among the doresponsestoinstability vary migrants of lifestyles imagined do low and high-skill precarity similar ordifferent? How of questions. For example, in what ways are the determinants interesting comparative workers would raise a number of andhigherskilled welfare among lifestyle migrants oersac nteeprecso precarityand researchMore the onexperiences of The Precariat: The New Dangerous Class The New Dangerous The Precariat: References , Farnham: Ashgate. , Reinventing Anthropology Lifestyle Migration: Lifestyle , , Representations: Powers and Pitfalls 93 , and we had stayed in touch. in touch. had stayed , and we 2 The call in November was urgenthad was – Asmat Thein November call senior in someone needed brains – we my I racked Sometime later, Asmat managed to call Abdul again.later, Sometime I knew UNHCR in Kabul couldn’t/wouldn’t help. But But help. UNHCR in I knew Kabul couldn’t/wouldn’t getto had already tried Asmat that told me activist the and had been arrested and held for days 15 to Pakistan, before being deported to Afghanistan. He had to back of place find an alternative safety. ofin a state phoned his supporterin Norway His terror. and a largehiding place had again group been discovered ofShe had him out. to seek way on their were Taliban to ask ifAbdul called province the in anyone he knew Afghan were contacts Abdul’s But intervene. who could deported– he had been limited in to Afghanistan, but or and had no family had grownhe fact in Pakistan up in Afghanistan. networks I had Afghan the armymonths earlier, Some or police. intervieweddeputythe ofminister Ministry the for and Repatriation Refugees I called him and asked ifhim and I called asked who could anyone he knew so he could get number Asmat’s him Abdul’s I gave help. in the However, forces. security location to send the exact men had the Asmat had phoned Abdul to say meantime phone had gonethe then village,but in the arrived dead. of way Abdul had no other and didn’t him, contacting from where he had been calling. know he was where house in to the had come The Taliban Theyhim him. recognize had asked didn’t but hiding, know he didn’t ifand he said no, ‘Asmat’ had seen he if know them let he would that but that, like anyone ofhad gone, As soon as they two found anything. he mountain to bodyguards took him across the his host’s another village. Liza Schuster The Limits of Research , a young man, himselfa young , recently 1 My research with a has me into contact brought My research In November 2013, I received a call from Abdul. He a call I received 2013, In November I originally heard about Asmat from a Norwegian One ofOne challengesof the is sciences social in the research and this is particularlytrue maintaining boundaries, when on and asylum deportation.working The case following illustrates some of the challenges faced during fieldwork happens post-deportation. what investigating ofnumber and campaign organisations activists who act men pre- young with me in touch putting as gatekeepers, deportationdeported recently or In return, Europe. from I try and advice informationto provide will be that I around Europe. seekers and asylum activists to helpful Abdul with closely work deported,a deportationwho has become activist. ofsome meet we Together at Kabul who arrive those airport, often alone and distressed. worried about Asmat, an Afghan deportedwas from return, he has been moving Asmat’s Since in 2012. Norway and from one hiding place to another as he is discovered in hiding near Jalalabad was he time the and at attacked, again.flee preparingto of friend close a with father’s, his paid a high price: him have sheltered Those have who ofone least at two killed, had been brothers own his ofson and three the have as disappeared, have others the bodyguards of one ofone of At least his hosts. safe the houses has been partially destroyed. She had asking if written activist. I could approach grant who might in Afghanistan embassies a visa Asmat the country that no embassy again,to leave unaware I had that Asmat tryrecommended would. to gather documentary cross the as possible, as much evidence since there, UNHCR and approach Pakistan, border to 94 Representations: Powers and Pitfalls I will use it in expert reports for asylum appeals. for reports But, I willuseexpert it in uscando. nothing anyof him untiltheconnectionwas broken. Fornow, there is He cried. She sat with being tortured. he is afraid of they came himbecause for if would usehimself it on time they spoke, he told her he had agun and that he when they came to the door. next The it off but turned to the had puthisphonewindow so she could see them, with Asmat when the Talibanbeen Skyping came. He theTaliban?”do against us inthis area –what can we told, “Look, there areten of the area. Heasked thehelp,police for butwas out of theTalibancheckpoints leading roads all on because of completely under Talibancontrol. Asmat is afraid to leave is,where Asmatishiding the area areas, like manyrural Of course, this story will inform my research. And willinform course, thisstory Of Later, my Norwegian contact emailed me. She had Abdulbroughtme up to date,When he told me that olwn h atatc,tefin fAsmat’s3 Following fathersent the last attack, the friend of 2 1 especially not at the cost of humansuffering. especially notatthecostof may be necessary, but they should notbefetishized – whatever safety. kind, Boundaries, of him toaplaceof get what Icantohelphissupporters Afghanistan, anddo given the opportunity, Asmat out of to get Iwill try give foranewclaim. himgrounds claim washis original valid,that events and since his return evidence that Europe – this time with sworn documentary waiting to leave to for Turkey to get again and will try with a bodyguard. Heiscurrently Asmat back toKabul agencies.own andreliesoninternational its Afghanistan since 2001. However, it has noresources of who have to refugees million (IDPs) thesix and returned Displaced PersonsMoRR isresponsibleforInternally changed. wishes his realnametobeused. Asmat’s namehasbeen and Abdul writesunderhisowna blog name(Kabulblog) Notes 3 My Children’s Mothers Frances Nagle

We three have never met but there is always a place set for you at my feast-days.

One day you will arrive weary after long years of travel through the kind of hardship that begins deceitfully small.

We will sit together and tell our stories – of a land struck dead by a curse, by a baby.

Of an ache – for something so missing, that the sun turned its face to the wall and earth turned to winter.

When it is time for your leaving I will lend you a child to light your journey home:

a son to defend you from the forest phantoms; a daughter with her dragon-soothing kisses.

Originally published as ‘Their Mothers’ in Steeplechase Park, Rockingham Press, 1996 COMPAS Poetry Competition 2013 Third Place Troubling Bodies

How Do you Recognise a Victim of Trafficking? Bridget Anderson And I have known the eyes already, known them all – ‘the modern day slave trade’. Indeed, calls for a more The eyes that fix you in a formulated phrase, nuanced approach to trafficking can sound ridiculously And when I am formulated, sprawling on a pin, over-privileged and removed when confronted by the When I am pinned and wriggling on the wall, heart-rending testimonies of migrants who have endured Then how should I begin the extremes of human cruelty and abuse, and who The Love Song of Alfred J Prufrock - T.S. Eliot have been ‘rescued’ by the committed graft of NGOs, “How do you recognise a victim of trafficking?” I ordinary people, and immigration officers who genuinely once asked a senior immigration officer. This person are horrified by some of the situations they come across. headed a team at that time responsible for the majority It is all very well talking about complexity and definitions, of referrals into the recognised UK anti-trafficking but what are we going to do? support programme. Since I had spent several months In fact, academic concern with the challenge of exploring the tensions, ambiguities and contradictions definitions is experienced by frontline workers as a around definitions of ‘force’, ‘exploitation’, ‘coercion’ challenge of identification. Put at its crudest, when is and ‘position of vulnerability’ papered over by the 2000 a migrant woman ‘forced’ to work as a sex worker, and Palermo Protocol, I was expecting a long answer. I therefore a victim of trafficking, and when does she thought she would say something about how difficult it ‘consent’ to work as a sex worker? NGOs frequently is in practice to distinguish whether or not young women criticise states for not having proper systems in place have been ‘forced’ into prostitution, when they are often to identify victims of trafficking, and point to the high faced with such limited options. How this is made even numbers claimed in the political rhetoric, and the low more difficult when sex work is so stigmatised that even numbers actually granted any stay or compensation. For acknowledging that it is ‘work’ that women and men can both states and NGOs, identification can be fraught, choose to do is highly contested. Her response took me and it is easy to see how people might be thrown back aback: “You just look into their eyes,” she said, “and you on ‘gut feeling’. For the fewer one’s options, the more can tell.” When pressed, my interviewee asserted the genuinely one will consent to a situation that might be, by importance of experience on the ground, of gut feeling others, labelled ‘unfree’. Getting caught up in definitions over academic hair-splitting. Practice trumps theory. of ‘consent’ and voluntariness, and identifying whether Trafficking is a rare patch of common ground where individuals really were in a position to make certain migrants’ rights organisations and states can agree. Even choices can risk forgetting important questions of special interest groups and media outlets, generally justice. That is while questions like “Did Ayesha consent hostile to migrants’ rights and ‘illegal immigration’, to being a live-in domestic worker in a household where support victims of trafficking, and call for an end to she knew the family abused their employees?” must go

96 Troubling Bodies 97 within which within which scope determinants of migrants’ There are two broad interrelatedThere that considerations two are that the relationship between migration relationship that the between and health is a Whileis more commonly considered it process. way two also health, health is that migration on impacts people’s and – for processes in implicated migration motivations a part plays it in determining example, is allowed who into or out of a country. are importantaboutmigrants’in thinking The health. first has to do with what are the to the relates second the health, while the health ofthe going migrants is, that considered, is made them unquestionable. It is an important unquestionable. made them part of and the very obviousness defamiliarise, to work academic of trafficking, its should uncontestability, invite critique. is And trafficking this in relates which to the second way migrant, the like ofvictim is, The trafficking laboratory. a a policy subject, a figure to be a enumerated, problem to ofa bundle be solved, and that is relations circumstances not is subject a policy But in data. enumerated and captured the political Acknowledging subject. the same as political of subjectivity can entail challenging policy subjects ‘formulated the phrase’ those veryand policies studies, that defines them in the first place. This is particularly difficult in the case of ‘victims of trafficking’, who are defined by victimhood and lack by of politicalagency. But it is not confined to this topic. How both towork of policy subject the with migrant’ ‘the of and victim ‘the trafficking’, andchallenge the reification of this subject, for migrationchallengefor critical is a constant scholars, “Then how and for ‘migrants’ more generally. activists, should I begin?” Hiranthi Jayaweera Social Determinants of Migrants’ Health Trafficking is an important laboratory in migration alongside, “Is it just that these working conditions offer conditions working these that just it “Is alongside, that just it and is option for Ayesha attractive a relatively Whatpersist?” to is allowed are circumstances these ofjust, and both theoretical that is a question is course, eminently practical. the importance it demonstrates of Firstly, studies. theory academics relation between the often, Too practice. to along and lobbying to access and practitioners is reduced intervieweesto access me and a formula give such you as: data, and I’ll give you a lobbying document. Trafficking and that academics that theorydemonstrates matters, practitioners. with this debate to a responsibility have Thisgeneralpractitioners and the is not because public interview In my senior the with no theories. have immigration officer itwas clear that shewas deploying theories of of embodiment, of contract, emotion and she did not think that reason. Theshe that challengewas was she felt she rather all; at theories any deploying was theories the with Familiarity obvious. the stating simply The size and diversity of Theand size diversity global human day present mobility have significant implications there are around health. According to the United Nations, for population in countries live borders to crossing million people 214 born were they other than those in, and more than three Migrants, countries. within moving number this times seekers, asylum refugees, students, workers, whether people in both like or family members, undocumented, who do not migrate,countries and receiving sending health their affecting factors diverse by are characterised is also important It to recognise and health needs. status 98 Troubling Bodies • healthcare, including: affecting health status, health behaviour, and access to interaction ( to consider, and empirically, both conceptually the inequalities, studies have shown that it is imperative health healthand migrants’ of the socialdeterminants inequalities (Lorant and Bhopal,2011). In exploring differences,birth) socio-economic position, andhealth unravel of the relationship between ethnic (or country in health often disappear orarereduced, fails to fully social class is adjusted for inanalysis, ethnic inequalities say, ethnicity and social class on the basis that once conflating, simply out, pointed have critics As picture. economic factors inhealthoutcomes complicates the status) in relationtosocio- receiving society legal and residence in the length of birth, of example, country variables (for 2010). Considering ethnicity or migration et al., social deprivation (Marmot disease in areasof for cancer, attacks, heart strokes, lung disease and liver premature mortality jobs inEngland;andhigherrates of in unskilled manual jobs comparedto those in professional widening obesity rates over time among men and women by area deprivation indicators:forinstance, higherand individual socio-economic social class,position or or in health, whether measured by economic gradient Traditionally, socio- observed an thefocusbeenon has health inequalities/disparities between different groups. health outcomes, socialfactorson on or the impact of people’s healthreferto of biological –determinants process.entire migration beyond perspective areceiving country to include the • Demography at migration –forexample, sex,age age, Generally, or social – asdistinct from genetic Socio-economic position–forexample, educational and and lifecyclestage; occupational background and present circumstances,occupational background ewe ait ffactors intersectionality) between a variety of • • • • • including structural constraintsin achieving healthyincluding structural life socialdeterminants, take intoaccount thecomplexity of linear health ‘acculturation’ models, which do not value of However, otherevidence theexplanatory challenged has some first and secondgeneration ethnic minoritygroups. diseases, disease, such stroke asheart diabetes and among non-communicable associated prevalencewithhigh a of receiving society populations, which are characteristic of diet) or health behaviours (forexamplesmoking patterns change/deteriorate over adopt‘risky’ time as migrants associated with positive health outcomes, which inturn healthier people that is of selectivity in the migration one framework that is used in some studies. It explores effect’, receiving linkingsendingand contexts,migrant is ‘healthy et al., 2011). The social protection (Zimmerman physical and mental health, and health and migrants’ factors for countries/areas – contribute determining tosending journeys, destination, return migration process – pre-departure, the migration of All stages vieweda receiving simplyfrom society perspective. health shouldnotbe migrants’ of Social determinants –ntjs ee farea deprivation, but also the Place – not just level of Ethnic and culturalbackground racismanddiscrimination andindirect Direct integrationand Immigration policies Migration histories income, housingandliving situation; impact onhealth; which to economic socialopportunities and entry,governing access to health and otherservices, and Wilkinson,2008); in the locality: the ‘ethnic density effect’ (see Pickett provided by socialsupport co-ethnics of importance languages andhealth-relatedpractices; languages transnational connections. residence in receiving societies, and below), length of -includingsendingcontexts (see - including religion, – for example, rules example, –for rules ; Troubling Bodies 99 , 8(5). J Epidemiol , 13(4): 321-34. , 13(4): References , 71(5): 1002-10. Skills such as judgement and organisational ability, as judgement and organisationalSkills such ability, paid, and often the least secure, in the labour market. market. labour in the secure, least the paid, and often and workers collar blue essential are ranks their Among cleaners, street to collectors from refuse public employees, well as efficiently, function not would cities whom without termed be to used as what ‘factory hands’. important are that skills tacit – the authority thein even onto mapped typically more – are economy’ ‘knowledge formshigh status of such exhibit who and so those work, traits are defined as highly skilled workers. began industries in manufacturing decline to employment manual As 1970s, early from the economies industrial in advanced by deskilled being were workers’ ‘craft older that a claim technology technologynew replaced computer-based (as example)for industry, printing the in typesetting metal hot Harry by advanced was Braverman. of sense A nostalgic argument a related behind claim and this behind loss lay of decline the about of ‘traditions specific regionally skill’ Jayaweera, H. and Quigley, M. (2010) ‘Health Status, Health Health Status, ‘Health (2010) M. and H. Quigley, Jayaweera, and Among Healthcare Use MigrantsBehaviour in the UK’, & Medicine Social Science Socio-Economic ‘Ethnicity, (2011) and Bhopal, R. Lorant, V. Insights from and Implications Health Research: and Status of Theory of Charles Tilly’s Durable Inequality’, Community Health, 65(8): 671-5. The Lives’, Healthy Marmot, Society, ‘Fair M. al. (2010) et UCL Insitute of London. Marmot Health Equity, Review, Group Us: Ethnic Like ‘People R. (2008) K. and Wilkinson, Pickett, & Health Ethnicity on Health’, Effects Density Zimmerman, ‘Migration(2011) al. et AC. and Health: Medicine PLos Century for 21st Policy-making’. Framework Skills Linda McDowell Skills may be generic or job-specific, and are associated are and job-specific, or generic be may Skills Overall, evidence suggests evidence Overall, a comprehensive that The idea that skills are an objective measure typically measure The an objective skills are that idea market by rewarded are that attributes with associated in conventional argument is a central mechanisms of analyses economic regarded Skills are labour market. the as a measure or reflection ofcompetence to perform a particular or range task of through acquired often tasks, during one’s experience also by and training, but education The of notion life. working less also encompass a skill may clearly identifiablecharacteristics, such asthe exercise of termed been have as what judgement as well or discretion, intelligence. as emotional such skills, ‘tacit’ UK, it the in Thus, labour market. in the distinctions with and semi-skilled skilled, between distinguish to is common basis for is the distinction this Indeed, workers. unskilled the definition ofclass positions in industrial economies, The moral worth. with and is associated – those unskilled lowest the be to – tend credentials recognised without styles, health behaviour and disease patterns and disease behaviour health in countries styles, ofpre-migration and the origin, of health status those who migrate,patterns understanding in of migrants’ 2010). Quigley, and (Jayaweera time health over ofunderstanding migrants’on based be must health that explores the dynamic a conceptual framework ofinteraction of a variety determinants social a within the entire migrationencompasses that context process again. and back from origins to destinations 100 Troubling Bodies it has been argued, for example, that the skills of a female afemale it hasbeen argued, forexample, that the skillsof legislation based onequal pay forequal value work, when has been recognised inthe UK,forexample, inashift to a find to male comparator when makingaclaim forequality. This hard it find often women as effect, little had pay equal such equal policies for significant, as havework market segmentation between men andwomen isso higher pay still remains elusive. As labour of in terms women’s men’, but recognition of skills to ‘the skillsof women’ compared her argument about‘the talents of ago, Jane Jenson (1989) captured this differentiation in market, then they were not well-remunerated. Decades than acquired by training orlongexperience inthe labour employees, andasthese skillsare seen asnatural,rather and knitting weaving –albeit onanindustrial scale, make them ideal sewing, emissions, and fluids bodily with femininity –empathy, emotional literacy, service, dealing iPhones. Inallthese jobs, the ‘natural’ attributes of of workers forassemblingtransistorsorthe components ideal them made fingers’ women’s‘nimble where zones, other states, orthe low-waged work processing inexport bars, with asmile’ inthe USA,UKand providing ‘service school teaching,primary or working in shops, cafes and nursing and the elderly, of childcare and care of labour of tasks that are classified as low-skilled, whether the ‘caring’ undertaking themselves find world the across economies gender, andlow pay have been made plain.Women in classifications, skill between connections the south, the anddevelopingeconomies inthe north economies in inthe labourmarket inboth advanced industrial segregation gender of the patterns the labourprocess. Instudies of is anobjective measure isfoundinfeminist analyses of gifted women textile workers inLancashire. – Britain post-war skilled metal workers inSouth Yorkshire, forexample, in or identified had geographers that The most significant challenge to the notion that skill skill that notion the to challenge significant most The h rnfraino Work, London:Unwin andHyman. Wood (ed.) The Transformation of Men’,Jenson, inS. Women, J. the TalentsSkillsof (1989) ‘The of nursing assistant orablack woman.” they are training me to be a investigator, “Iamnotsure if onceAs a carertold an in a nursing home in Chicago assumptions about their ‘natural’ capacity to care.mirrors that they lack skills, andthe training they receive often into inferior positions inthe care sector onthe assumption colour are often tracked lead to promotion. Women of they are often excluded that fromthe training programmes assumptions about their docility anddeference means that working asnurses inCanadahave shown that stereotypical ‘skills’. Analyses of, Filipina women forexample, migrant their status to distinctions between workers onthe basisof that linksgender, nationality, skincolour andmigrant analysis labourhasbeen extended into amore general of the workers different types who perform of independent the typical employee in these jobs. andrepurchase services. Byawoman andlarge, return is deference, must be pleasing tocustomers sothat they will expression, accent, weight, andskincolour, age aswell as anemployee, such asfacial embodied attributes of The consumers. be attentive to the feelings anddemands of alabour providers must inwhich the service market performance of significance the capture to work’, ‘body or ‘emotional labour’ personal trainers –hasbeen termed by– undertaken shopassistants, waiters, airline crew and the exchange. isknown What asinteractive employment must be present in aservice provider andpurchaser of sector employment, where both the service dominance of workers inthe growing hasbecome increasingly important skill, value, pay that disadvantages women andgender amale painter. cook match those of The recognition that the definition of skill is not is skill of definition the that recognition The argument that there isanassociation betweenThe References Homeward Bound Sarah Crake

COMPAS Photo Competition 2012 Shortlisted 102 Troubling Bodies h mlbedinr oe ffamilylife to onewhich the ‘malebreadwinner’ modelof developed countries, this is marked by a shift away from increase in women’s involvement in the labour market. In social change. Firstistheglobal linked totwoaspects of commodity? Andwhataretheconsequences? home. How is it that care has become a transnational back remittances migrants’ of billion US$500 annual an transfer organisations financial countermovement, a in as providers move their operationsacrossthe globe and, business, has become big international care industry The in the developed world. the health services hospitals of developingfrom countries to workin the carehomesand nurses and doctors of increased transnational recruitment richer nations.to these Inparallel ‘global carechains’ isthe looking after children, olderpeople and households in intopaidcare or domestic work,regions from poorergo continents. At the same time, many women who migrate parentsmaychildrenfor Caring stretchageing or across are women –meansthat carehasbecomeissue.a global the world’s 190 million migrants of –half migration female particularly and increaseinmigration The The connection between migration and care workand connection betweenis The migration h ria fBrighteye -Jean ‘Binta’Breeze of The Arrival she gawn deretoworkshe gawn forsomemoney an den she gawn senbackan denshegawn forme My Mommy gone overMy Mommy gone deocean My Mommy gone overMy Mommy gone desea three yeargawn six yearcome A Global Care Crisis A GlobalCare four year two year one year five year Fiona Williams it is less open tocollective bargaining. This, combined where it involves workpaid within private households, considerable people skills and physical strength), and the fact that it often demands than askill(inspite of afemale ‘attribute’ devalued and considered to bemoreof profoundproblems.in effectitreproduces like thismightlook cost. While symbiotic arelationship, meet their needs for care and work/life balance at lower way in which richer nationstates and theircitizens can health workers hasbecome, directly indirectly,or one caring thoseleftbehind. the responsibilities of intensifies this though even opportunities, earning find can women that way one is work, care and often into domestic Migration, support. infrastructural little with very who are expected to care and earn ratio,women, burdenson dependency placeenormous AIDS, chronic illness, natural disasters and ahighchild in developing countries, where atits extreme, inAfrica, a‘carecrisis’less are nopressing costs. issues of These expenditure social on back cut to pressure financial and political made these questions critical, along with greater have society declining fertility and richer ageing regions an employed? for care be paid for?Inthe How can support responsibilities for care be reconciled when women are How can economic concern. social, political,and women breadwinningrole. intoassuming agreater economies, unemployment and poverty have pressed local of the world, the destruction regions of In poorer necessity as much aswomen’s– outof emancipation. assumes that all adults, men and women, are inpaidwork To begin with, care work has traditionally been care and migrant Increasingly, the employment of Second, this means that care hasbecome a central Troubling Bodies 103 Is there an alternative? Global strategies include include Global strategies an Is there alternative? infrastructures. This instability drives migration, This along infrastructures. drives instability and nursing an export-orientedwith which in economy largestthe remittances, through labor provide, care situation this overall, ofsource Yet currency. foreign perpetuatesgeopolitical and the gendered inequalities as well responsibilities, care with associated inequalities ofas the devaluation care as an activity. Internationalthe in 2010 Organisation’s Labour rights of for the convention and the workers domestic of endorsement Health Organisation’s an ethical World recruitment in the to follow for countries code of Theseare important, but there migrant health workers. is a bigger and Common to both developed challenge. is a countries logic ofdeveloping that policy-making offacilitation the on productivism, focuses markets, ‘male’ on labour market the into women and on drawing to be organized around terms,have care needs where to national Although care is central and global paid work. its and human sustainability, and to wellbeing economies, under economic competitiveness are subsumed activities ofin calculations invisible and are often gross domestic goodsocial a collective as care Recognising product. ofprioritizing needs means the and care providers care This would strategies. in political and economic receivers care the be a start a global crisis in which care to tackling ofneeds are being resolved households and countries through a hidden dependencegenderedunequal on the and geopolitical relations of care work. This is accentuated by the ways in which, across most across most in which, ways the Thisby is accentuated problem women immediate the In addition, while Furthermore,that states consider the fact when we with their relative lack oflack their relative with means that rights, citizenship and wagespoor command low usually migrant workers conditions. has become market private the states, welfare developed a ofcentral feature through contracting care provision or out state local servicesauthority sector, to the private or benefits, cash vouchers, with families providing by and and older children’s their household, meet to tax credits or voluntary private through the needs care relatives’ companies and but work, Care is labour-intensive sector. agencies seek to make a profit through cutting on the quality of often compromising costs, labour care. in tryingface household and with to combine paid work women paying by can be resolved care responsibilities this work, or to do that from poorer countries classes ofissue wider from the detracts to responsibility men’s share domestic and care work. recruiting global employers become their health have staffcare geopoliticalthe from poorer countries, apparentdraining become in the ofthen inequalities almost In Norway, from poorer countries. resources care a quarterof services community in health and workers and Latvia Poland, from abroad like come – from places structuraladjustment Philippines, In the Philippines. the state’s the and reduced debt foreign increased have policies and education care health, own its improve to capacity India Suzy Prior

COMPAS Photo Competition 2009 First Place Troubling Bodies 105 Bias in images in newspaper content. is reinforced of communicators as we, do So how academic of collection varied this with Even however, images, readers are left with the impression that immigrants that impression the with left readers are are readers broadsheet criminal, while poor and possibly immigrationthat might assume about border is merely control. Migration COMPAS’s by conducted Research Observatorya textual is there that has demonstrated ofbias in newspaper coverage immigration, with ‘illegal’ being the most common descriptor of immigrants across 2013). (Allen and Blinder, all newspaper types against push back bias? Whenthis COMPAS research, first started, usewe images didn’t on thewebsite, simply an imageto access collection have didn’t we because ofaspects represent to enough multifarious the varied migration.images to source from One solution was startedphoto an annual COMPAS In 2008, public. the photo submissions The competition. invites competition migration, involving themes from on residents various UK of ‘Traces to in Motion’ from ‘Life are Prizes Belonging’. condition that the with for winning entries, offered the publications and in COMPAS any submission can be used Thisus has provided competition promotional materials. a largewith pool of ofsome images, quality are which included in this anthology. An image for a pop- chosen carefully. select still must we from at one an up banner drew comment once attendee of The image ofwas our seminars. man, and the a white an imagehad not used of we why wondered interlocutor a member of This person represented minority. an ethnic migrantwith organisation society a civil groups, working concerned was generalaboutthe and as such dearth of Mikal Mast Illustrating MigrationIllustrating In writing for the web we often take our cue from our cue take often we web the for In writing for immigrationmedia the Scan and you stories only 10 per cent said that people remember It is often The old adage ‘a picture is worth a thousand words’ may may Theold adage words’ a thousand worth is picture ‘a practitioners are and media social web Still, be a cliché. encouragedimages use to written readers to entice to pages that web and media social show Studies content. than often more significantly visited are images with posts ifclearly, Quite 2012). want we MDG, (see without those we web, on the successfully work to promote academic like subject a complicated with But images. to use need migration,an important imageswhich arises: question use? safely can we journalism. the inverted Attention-grabbing headlines, pyramid structure (information placed in decreasing order ofimportance) shortand paragraphs help can readers absorb information. Whento imagery, it comes journalism has a poor record. however, will find a uniformly negative oversimplified or representationof visual migration. The tabloids sensationalise of menacing pictures vaguely with in foreign crowds for out, ostensibly blacked often with the faces dress, ofresult ultimate the but with reasons, privacy furnishing criminal look. Also common are a somewhat with them imagesof obviates which burqa, the wearing women ofa sense convey but helps need to censor faces, the by The foreign and unknown. broadsheets, something goto tend contrast, of and boring pictures safe with lines at immigration control. ofofper cent 20 hear, they what and 30 read, they what ofper cent is no Although there actual see. what they the 2010), (Genovese, numbers these backing research impact. Tabloid a powerful remains fact that images have 106 Troubling Bodies photography providers.photography In doing so, we strive to illustrate competitionphoto entries, somepurchasedstock from images, some sourced from the COMPAS wide variety of bias. existing confirming than rather expressed, a use We that pique the reader’susing images interest in the ideas than thereverse (Vargas-Silva, 2012). livingwere in France some 44,000 more British migrants 2010 there French migrants, asof theof population of could be considered France’s city in terms sixth largest French residents than Bordeaux,and of population Foras ‘migrants’. example, whilehasalarger London who featureless far prominentlyinthemedia popular who arewhite, wealthy and sometimes even British, and aswell,need to include ‘invisible’ namely those migrants we immigration nuancedto presenta order In view of ethnicity.However, is not solely an issue of migration ethnicthemedia. minoritiesin positive of representations unjustifiablyso.and theliteratureonmigration, ‘later-life’ people have been excluded from the thinking economic migrants, ‘guestworkers’, refugees.or Olderor young, mostly male, working-age ‘foreigners’whoare of the or Turkish worker. factory Images, inotherwords, asylum seeker; or,earlier era,the‘navvy’an Irish from mind isthe Polish plumberorthe KurdishSomali or their into floats likely most that image the and migrant atypical Ask anyoneto thinkof Europe inBritainor as the process of ageing, are socially, ageing, culturally and as the process of age, aswell in years, the meaning and experience of is abiologicalreality that may ‘age’ be measured Whilst tCMA etyt rmt tf research At COMPAS topromotestaff we try Ageing is less about life-stage and moreaboutprocess is less about life-stage Ageing Ageing and Migration Ageing andMigration Russell King Russell . Briefing, COMPAS, Oxford. University of Observatory Stocks’, Migration Bilateral Migrants Analysis of Vargas-Silva,Countries: An other EU in C. (2012) Migrants ‘EU Oxford. COMPAS, report, Observatory Migration University of Refugees in NationalBritish Newspapers, 2010 to 2012’, Immigrants, Migrants, Asylum Seekers and Portrayals of Allen, W. andBlinder, S.in the News: (2013) ‘Migration accessed 13January 2014. March, http://www.skeptic.com/eskeptic/10-03-24/, date an Education Myth’, eSkeptic newsletter, Skeptic Society, 24 Genovese, J. Ten (2010) ‘The Percent Solution: Anatomy of accessed 13January 2014. date com/blog/its-all-about-the-images-infographic/, MDGblog,14 May,Infographic’, http://www.mdgadvertising. (2012) ‘It’s MDG Advertising Agency AllAboutthe Images migration research conductedatCOMPAS.migration and the wide variety of migration the complexity of aiyod le epeaepr ffamilies and of familyhood. Olderpeople arepart transnational and migration context especially aof in ageing, enter the debate over of the conceptualisation notional retirementage. physically mentally and activedecades for beyondany independence, individualism and attempts to remain may favour ageing’ hidden away; the or ‘culture of Elsewhere, olderpeopleare marginalised, rejected, may be venerated and looked after by the family circle. even using a walkinga grandparent, stick; ‘elderly’ people related aretolifeexperience, being maturity oldage and In some societies,historically situated and constructed. and relationality Notions of References intersectionality also Troubling Bodies 107 These categories, are not discrete three typologies ofas labour migration well Europe (as in post-war North when millions and so on), ofAustralia, America, in factories, migrated to work men and women young and on in servicesconstruction sites, 1950s, the during this ‘ageing in place’ is currently60s and 70s, a mass return-migrated have some to phenomenon. True, ofcountries labour market, the origin upon leaving and children by anchored stayed, have but most educated been born,grandchildren brought up, have who there are But other, and in societies. socialised the host has (2011) Hunter too. outcomes more problematic, ofwritten plight of the labour migrantsto who went leaving migrants, as single decades post-war in the France Africa, and who behind in Norththeir families and West to built hostels in the lives isolated sad, living are still temporarily accommodate them as workers fifty years ago. and I returnthis. to demonstrate Albanian to the case ofevolution the Looking at migrationthis which stream, than a more has seen decades more than two in little million Albaniansof – one-third population country’s the sequenced following the emigrate– and Italy, Greece to age/ageinginteractions between and migration be can Early departures 2006). observed and Vullnetari, (King crowding or Greece to mountains the over – trekking into boats to southern Italy – primarily young comprised ‘regularisation’ temporarymen seeking Following work. 1990s, late in the countries in both destination schemes short-term,this irregularinto family migration evolved ofabandonment the to leading settlement, older the in Albania. migration family members Next, of the reasons. older generation for several startedto occur, and home Grandparents could undertake childcare management, releasing the migrantthereby mother The or Greek Italian labour into the market. full-time of ageing,brought out in those including relational structuresof Whilst age. research some We can identify three strands of three can identify We ageing on research who migrate are people there Second, life, later in Our third categorywho migrateis those as younger networks; intergenerationality is often the keystone of intergenerationality keystone the often is networks; these intergenerational the has documented rupturesand migrationthat connections entail and transnational living to explore has been done the work less al., 2006), et (King intersectionalities a migratoryintersects later life in which ways the setting; ofother markers with as gender, such social difference and so on. disability, sexuality, ‘race’, class, and migration.who are people are older there First, migration.behind left by As younger age cohorts parents and their reasons, or lifestyle migrate,for work grandparents home country in the remain and a cross- generational rupture and within the family results the the used (2006) and Vullnetari King community. wider term ‘orphanplight ofthe pensioners’ to describe older generationsin rural mass the Albania, abandoned by ofexodus The challenges of adults in 1990s. the young transnational care oflong-distance the have elderly the in the Baldassar (2007) by been thoroughly researched context of migration Italian post-war to Australia. at or often around Internationalretirement. retirement migrantsout seeking migrants, lifestyle are classic colder the From ruralpleasant locations. or seaside ofclimes northern retirees USA or Canada, wealthy of states sunshine head to the Florida and California, the some, For Mexico. or furtherinto lower-cost south is permanent; are seasonal – they move is it for others ‘snowbirds’. Parallel flows of retiree migrantsGermans and Dutch Scandinavians, Europe: Britons, exist in ruralor to migrate and islands, Spanish coasts the to (King et al., 2000). or Tuscany as Provence idylls such histories the ageand who then people abroad. Given 108 Troubling Bodies tews femployment in socially and physically otherwise – of just the low wages but the vulnerability –sexualand (Wolkowitz consequences include not et al., 2013). The intimate ‘body work’ onandwith otherpeople’s bodies of whose paid work isfrequently limited to forms women, theissues facingmigrant the intractability of about ideology are linked to gender-inflected racist assumptions gender how closelyconsequences the rootsand of but we often forget notionsaboutmigration, for-granted the world aroundus. experiencing ourselves, otherpeople, and worldand of being inthe based entities,way buttheyour are also of physical,bodies are embodied forms.Our biologically- in tragedies and who experience andgains who migrate, andbodies are linked: it is embodied persons Migration people leftbehind. those older are unfolding,lessening the isolation of migration living transnational andreturn necessities of Albanians inthe country, and new family settlement of the destabilised has crisis financial Greek the however, often ensued. Recently,to Albania generation older the childcareof rolewas diminished. Return migration became older, second generation the grandparents’ born social interaction; for moreover, asthe Greek Italian- and problem, asthey were solely on theirfamilies dependent thenbecame a generation theolder of the isolation culture and alivelanguage within the household. But family also kept the Albanian migrant three-generation Gender analysis has for some timetaken-for challenged Gender analysishas bodies . The lens of embodiment brings outstarkly embodimentbrings lensof . The Carol WolkowitzCarol Body Work Retirement MigrationtotheMediterranean Retirement King, R.,Warnes, T.Williams, and A.(2000) University Press. , Amsterdam: Amsterdam MigrationandSettlement inEurope of andSettlement’, inR.PenninxMigration et al.(eds.) The Dynamics King, R.et al.(2006) ‘Time, Generations andGender in Older People in Rural Albania’,Ageing andSociety, 26(5): 783–816. on MassMigration Impact of Grandparents: The Migrating King, R.andVullnetari, J. Pensioners (2006) ‘Orphan and Retirement’, at Return Migration Practice and of Hunter, A.(2011) ‘Theory Ethnic andMigrationStudies,33(2):275–297. Ageing’, of Careandthe Migrancy Mobility of The Baldassar, L. (2007) ‘TransnationalFamilies Care: and Aged economic reasons why migrant womenwhyeconomic reasons sought outas are migrant can be understood inseveralparticipation) ways. are There ‘body work’ (andexcuse men from of most forms marriage. of highly commodifiedforms ‘body work’ intohousehold through also recruited are (www.hrw.org/features/costly-dream). women Migrant produced with in collaborationHuman Rights Watch essayby Susan Meiselas’ photographic they travel to work asmaidsinthe Gulf, asdocumented traininggivenhousewifery women toIndonesian before with paid domestic work, pictured quite explicitly in the associated tasks defined the into imperceptibly almost as well ascareworkin people’s homes, where it blends includes work inhospitals, nursing homesandcrèches, isolating work. h osrcin fbodies which tie women to of constructions The others Paid ‘bodywork’ focusingthe onbodiesof Population, SpaceandPlace References , 17(2):179–192. , Oxford:Berg. Sunset Lives: British Sunset Lives: , Costly Dream ora fJournal of Troubling Bodies 109 However, these psychoanalytical readings rarely readings rarely psychoanalytical these However, ofNot all features especially are negative, ‘body work’ work’ and the construction of men’s bodies as dry, solid, solid, construction and the work’ of as dry, bodies men’s firm and contained. our as Bridget that, recognise stresses, Anderson ofunderstanding deeplybody is the From racialised. forced and voluntary been migrants onward, slavery have that argues Anderson (2000) work’. in ‘body involved ‘hatred of the relationship between of … hatred women … and hatred ofbody the groups racialised … is played out in ofthe use labour racialised female to do the work of servicingofthe body and treatment in the domestic These also play assumptions employers’. their by workers (nail salons, workplaces in other and in sex work, out body labour is at risk ofmigrantspas) where women’s when undertakenbeing read as sexual, the more especially as bodies are already coded whose racialised women by particularly sexual (Kang, 2010). opportunities provides as it for migrant skilled highly dentistry medicine, and nursing. in, for example, workers satisfying within place takes work’ ‘body intimate Some long-term, lead may relationships - although these caring to exploitative fictive kinship relations, reliance on gifts and incursions into workers’ rather than proper wages, different Thealso have cared-for and bodies. time own ofexperiences The bodily interaction. of experience ‘a certain confer up after’ may being ‘cleaned magical on 2003) (Ehrenreich, and immateriality’ weightlessness workers where epitomisedsalons, in beauty employer, the both the sustain that are obligedin ways clients to defer to of myth enchanting and racialised sovereignty customer with other hand, working On the hierarchies. and classed social power the not enhance does clients low-status ofcaring for ageing, ‘leaky’, and ‘body worker’: the those stigmatise only to seems bodies disempowered who care for them. Therealso important are assumptions about cultural conscious relatively everyday, these Below cheap labour in modern economies. Theof focus labour modernin cheap economies. much on human bodies is consequential work reproductive pressure on is organised it for how and the downward labour only is it Not al., 2013). et wages(Wolkowitz on only one body at a (one person work can intensive be to has also of it economies difficult), so are time, scale performedofpresence in the so exportingrecipient, the (The not an alternative. is economies lower-waged to it ofbodies case abroad, in the as travel can consumers of goingis never this but tourism, sex and medical to be sufficient to deal with the Moreover, work.) reproductive care crisisnorthnor day-to-day in the global in a higher paid invest to incentives few have employers stockpiled, cannot be output work’ labour ‘body force: nor resold at a profit, and customers are state agencies, for substitutes seeking insurance companies and families or care of unpaid childcare their own the elderly. work intimate for suitable less render men which bodies Theroots of ideological than women. migrant racialised labour go to reproductive with association back women’s if especially Victorian the age Bodies, and beyond. they linked are coded as feminine, or vulnerable, are naked only in to be exposed something emotions, to nature, construction the of Moreover, private. bodies as male predatory sexually and women men both that means women. often prefer to be attended by of‘leakiness’ some argue that the assumptions, the human ofbody is a source especially anxiety, unconscious for men (Widding Isaksen, 2002). Bodily fluids are cast out of the trouble both they because consciousness boundaries ofbody and of the of those social groups French as the and order, system and categories:identity, Thereit. puts Kristeva Julia and writer psychoanalyst the demands ofis considerable tension between ‘body 110 Troubling Bodies workers’ safety. responsibility for male off justified employers’ shrugging offering, rather thanrequiringprotection) that have long male bodies (vigorous, capable, and understandings of disposability,not onlytomigrants’ to particular butalso maleworkers’safety healthand is connected Neglect of WorldCup inQatarfaceworking appalling conditions. South Asian men building the facilities for the 2022 men’s bodies.play outinunderstandingsof Forinstance, and policy agendas that seek to separate questions about that seek to separate and policy agendas political wider reflects also It migration. of and race of within the academy to create space both forthe study trend reflecting the as seen be can scholarsby separation andmovement.global migration In some ways, this scholarshipon bodies of fromthe growing separate debates racismhaveabout raceand remainedsomewhat questions.yet, Andatthesame time, researchpolicy and similar theoretical tools toapproach empiricalresearch used have they and interlinked, closely as sub-fields two Scholarsworking havein thistradition tended to see the racism. the politics of and immigration theboth study of scholarssuch asJohn Rex andSheilaAllenencompasses example, the work of In the British context, by way of racist hostilityxenophobia. racialization,and of patterns have migration also often explored decades, accounts of the past few Certainly, in the scholarly debates of refuge.asylum and linkedquestions toaboutmigration, racismhaverace and on agendas beeninextricably research Fromone vantage point, the development of Gendered and racialised assumptionsaboutbodiesalso Gendered and Racism and Migration andMigration Racism John Solomos Embodied and Sexualized Labour,Basingstoke:Embodied andSexualized Palgrave Macmillan. Wolkowitz, C., et al.(eds.) (2013) Body/Sex/Work: Intimate, Body’, Widding Isaksen, L.(2002) ‘Masculine Dignity andthe Dirty Beauty Service M.(2010) Kang, Workers intheNewEconomy, London:GrantaBooks. A.R. Hochschild (eds.) Ehrenreich, B.B. (2003)in toOrder’ ‘Maid Ehrenreichand Anderson, B. (2000) distinctions in the first place. Within the context of the context Within place. first the in distinctions makingracial behavioural andideationalconsequence of likely to behave inways which give risetoracismasa that society are groups, at least some members of asociety make distinctions between different racial of race, and is a reminderthat, where members of concept is muchracism asaconcept moreclosely tied to the this context, sinceIn its abolition. half a and century in slaveryin the and race the bothduringof USA period of significance social the about now century a studies for over race. Thus, we have of seen a range of physical attributes that are definedof through a language significance attachedgroups that differ in terms to social to understandthe social efforts developed out of particular, In research it agenda. as acontemporary race and racismhasahistoricalfocus as well study of The migration. racism, ascompared tostudies and of race studies of is toseek to understandthe focus of fromthoseaboutraceandethnicrelations.immigration Perhapsone way tobeginaddressingthisseparation odcJunlo Feminist, 10(2): 137-46. and Gender Research Nordic Journal of , Berkeley: University of California Press. California , Berkeley: University of The ManagedHand:Race,the GenderandBody in Doing the Dirty WorkDoing theDirty , London:Zed. Global Woman: Nannies, Maids and Sex References Troubling Bodies 111 The Age ofAge The References Race Relations in Sociological Theory Racein Sociological Relations London: , The development of Thedevelopment agendas policy and scholarly both is a fieldof scholarship and research that can be seen as of study the from differentiated both and racism in race conceptualempirical terms. and a accentuate to has tended 1990s the since period in the ofstudies between a differentiation trend towards race concerned those and and racism global migration.with the same period, it has also evident become over Yet are importantthere that ofstudy the linkages between race and racism and migration. Both race and racism and turn and in changing the shape, migration by, are shaped patterns of globalization and neoliberal economic and the over evident become social policy agendashave that that It can be argued,in this context, decades. past two more engaged need working we scholars dialogue by in these sub-fields, in order to better comprehend the role ofchanging as complex and racism,as well race patterns ofin contemporary migration and diversity Scholars societies. working in both fields can learn from as global economic exploring such issues other by each transformation,and mobilization, multiculture political Such and ideologies. movements and racist urban life, a national frame beyond an exploration to move needs importancethe and situate of In analysis. comparative possible to address also be will it issues such investigating ofquestion the ofrelevance the conceptual the frames ofthat can be used to address both sets phenomena. Castles, S., de Haas, H. and Miller, M. J. (2014) M. J. H. and Miller, Haas, de S., Castles, , Migration: InternationalModernin the Movements Population World Macmillan. Palgrave 5th edn, Basingstoke: (1970) J. Rex, & Nicolson. Weidenfeld Theof study global migration roots in efforts its has British society, the study ofstudy the British society, race to be called what came grewrelations out of on immigration research and the and settlement arrival to the social responses political and early of Rex’s John Thus, minorities. and ethnic racial attempt to define the study of race relations highlights ofpositioning the migrant an underclass, labour as legalharsh exploitation, strict class unusually intergroup segregation,and occupational distinctions differential and diversity and cultural and prestige, power to access grouplimited This interaction (1970). framing of race terms different in somewhat seen relations was from in ways on the premised still was but American scholars which social groups were defined as occupying racially defined social positions. to comprehend the role ofof the wider context changing patterns of migrationthat have and refugeemovements order has emergedglobal to reshape the that done much ofstudy Although the century20th late from the onwards. migration has longerterm has become it roots, historical 1970s, and 1960s the since period the in significant more and has become a more established field of research in ofand empirical focus theoretical the Both years. recent migration research is thus different from the influences ofthat helped to shape the study Although race relations. ofaccounts some migrationcomplex the emphasize offrom processes result that social and political debates migrationformation and minority 2014), al., et (Castles major strands ofto focus tended migration have research ofon experiences the particular migrantor communities ofsections perspective, this From communities. those broad the phenomenon of migration and mobility, particularly global and geopoliticalforms, varied in all its 112 Troubling Bodies economic forces as they screen ethnic Chinese subjects ethnic, cultural and legal, to sift through aconstellation of than oneacting ‘Malaysian.’authorities seem Immigration Chinese personacting‘foreign’ maywelcome bemore ethnic a locally-born smiles, than scorn at the andairport, wearingor speaking Bahasa batik are morelikely to incur relatives livingthat ethnic Chinese returnees abroad 1980s (Ong,2003). evenairports, after I became aUScitizen in the early nationalism, seemed to ease my transit through Malaysian cultural citizenship, atoken display tosomeidealof of performance such Minimally, officials. immigration sure towearbatik dressesspeakMalay and whenmeeting desk. To avoid possible vile encounters thereafter, I made Tampaxscattered and tamponsacrosshis open abox of ripped my bags searching officer customs a reception, by bias. also tinged ethnic and gender In onestartling education.higher Classhostility for was abroad gone having my of privilege resentment, perhaps,The was of officials. border of disdain concealed barely the deflect my didnot Malaysian passport counter. display of The stomach would asIapproached churn the immigration university in New York. Duringmy visits home, my was ayoung (ethnic Chinese) Malaysian citizen attending werecitizenship? Things different inthe 1970s when I their shades, all of regardless by welcomingof Asians Asia’, I wondered, ‘Malaysia, truly practice their motto of country. Haveauthorities putinto Malaysian immigration could expect thinly veiled hostility havingfor left the was Previously, surprised. citizens,re-entry, upon former officers. I immigration by pleasantly greeted was I born, summer, toMalaysia,This where I was uponreturning But on my most recent trip back, I was by warned h ngao Return Enigmaof The Aihwa Ong considers the diminishing Chinese minority asapolitical multi-racial composition, a set-up that still a particular countries, citizenship in Malaysia rests on maintaining national belonging. More thaninother postcolonial asminoritymodesof re-constituted and incorporated new nationalisms. were ‘Ethnic’ categories politics of under colonialismwere forcibly reshaped intothe policed encounter dissolves identity into anenigma. immigration example where ethnicity the linktocitizenship), blurs the (for affiliations ambiguous have to perceived travelers their claims. For of officials as to the ‘truth’ immigration toTaiwan byChinese ‘marital migrants’ areinterrogated identity. that mainland Friedman Sara (2010) observes of unravellingan confusionor arrival is the beginning of persons, the airport however,reveals ‘kinds’ of that for certain specificity, to attention Ethnographic place. sense andof hisidentity with along hisluggage, regains arrivalupon the airport, anonymous ‘non-space’ of traveller the modern who, after moving through the of identity. Marc Auge (2001) paints aschematic picture of arrivalsthe and experience views airport opposing on evaluated, vetted,dismantled. orAnthropologistsgive nationalcheckpoints through which identities are site of movement, a or a placeless cosmopolitanfreedom of vertigo. Different accounts tap into atension between contemporary a charismatic place in the semiotics of theborder guard. of andreception shifting perception the Malaysianmirror citizentodecipherand who has Chinese- arrival point induces disorientation inthe former the at performance and identification ethnic of politics for multiple associations, some desirable, othersnot.This In postcolonialupheavals, multi-ethnic worlds created have airports passage, international As nodesof 1 Troubling Bodies 113 The Cities Notes References The Enigma of Viking ArrivalYork: , New Flexible Citizenship: The Cultural Logic ofCitizenship: Cultural Logic The Flexible Buddha is Hiding: Refugees, Citizenship, the New the Citizenship, Hiding: Refugees, Buddha is , Durham: Duke University Press. University , Durham: Duke As I rush through Asia’s supermodernAs I rush airports, I note through Asia’s I humbly invoke V.S. Naipaul’s richly compelling novel, novel, compelling richly Naipaul’s V.S. invoke I humbly Enigma of Naipaul Arrival memoir, In this melancholy (1988). ruminates the perceptions ofon how the immigrant shape ofsense The mysterious surroundings. new to his sensitivity selfimmigrantfor the and belonging further is by troubled ofhis love a country that has been deeply transformed. a briefFor of account Ong see fraught experience, that (2003), xiii-xix.

1 and N Thrift Pile (eds.), in S. ‘Airports’, M. (2001) Auge, A-Z, London: Routledge. ‘Determining (2010) Border: the at “Truth” S. Friedman, Immigration and Taiwan’s Interviews, Migrants, Marital Chinese Citizenship Dilemmas’, 167-183. , 14(2): Studies Sovereignty (1988) S. Naipaul, V. Press. Ong, A. (1999) Transnationality Ong, A. (2003) of University America, Berkeley: California Press. 2 enactment of enactment personal and particular the the required of immigration by regimes. travellers of map tourist Malaysian the that ‘truly Asia’ is plaiting political a not is and flows, investment and ethnic together ofexpression This window genuine multiculturalism. ofdressing performance ritual the shapes Asian diversity of belonging ethnic in airports, the citizenship while ethnic return next my Envisioning remains in doubt. nation the to I runhome, ‘truly the for playing options through Asian’ game; brace for rejection or misidentifications; project a of dubious identity the or display demeanor; wealthy an of expectation is the It Chinese? overseas historically- such generated strangely rituals that stereotypical de-positions returningthe sickness her motion thus extending person, realm. existentialist the into ). The). ofstatus special Malay bumiputras What to make ofWhat to make cheeryreception neutral or the even with is glossed Chinese ethnicity global In these times, thorn in its side. In Malaysia, the national structurethe In Malaysia, thornof side. in its and fortunescalibrated is carefully favours, feeling, demographic and expand maintain the to of majority ( Malays ethnic Indian racial and other Chinese, bumiputras makes ethnic Maintaining this citizens. minorities second-class ranking, immigrationthe racial ratios the screens regime ofearlier forms to compared But returns and arrivals. of ethnic intimidation, today we find to managing when it comes the play neoliberal at style a slick, perhaps and forthof back flows Chinese persons. offormerdisdained previously citizens Former citizens? ofancestryChinese at welcome an icy faced once calculation a new but immigration Malaysian counters, By ofnow. welcome their shapes advantages political by emigrating,countryare doing the they a favour, reducing the size of and they the minority community, homeland to a beloved not as visitors back, are welcomed as but a major role in building, played ancestors their bringers of enough, Malaysian Still judged cash. as never between a blur, into transmutes minority Chinese the as economy and building its building a nation as citizens former citizens. human and as potential recoded infrastructurewealth With China looming in the resources. for channeling background giant, formeras an economic hostility to returningof citizens ancestry Chinese has been of welcoming the by supplanted with associated money (ofpeoples Chinese and nationalities) ethnicities various be sure I would I visit, time Next over. from world the ofBahasa in favor and eschew to bring more dollars, Mandarin. This intricate maneuver in flexible citizenship impersonal the that paradox the illuminates 1999) (Ong, and internationalof style airportsnot banish does the

I Don’t Remember Ismail Akthar, age 12

I don’t remember the place where the only colour I saw was green where the blazing heat would challenge me – not even the tall twisty trees which they tell I used to climb.

I have forgotten the mangy dogs I used to bark at or the snakes I waited to pelt rocks at, the fish I caught by hand- even the dragonflies I trapped- also the taste of the just ripe mangoes which I would climb the trees to pick and the giant fish which would not fit in the kitchen; and the chickens which would be slaughtered in front of me, and the birds, sling-shotted out of the sky, that would all end up in a pot filled with spices which would soon be empty unless I got there first…

I don’t remember the taste of dried dates or the mangoes, the peaches, the jackfruit, the pineapples, the juiciness of it all. I don’t remember the smells the market filled with men just waiting for a customer or the smell of the cut grasses being stored for the livestock. I don’t remember the view from those huge hills which were so hard to climb. Or the eagles soaring high in the sky waiting to pull something out of the green the cows grazing on the grass all year continuously munching, munching away not even the painted fences standing there in neat rows.

No, I don’t remember the day my life was taken away. I don’t remember the fearless boy I used to be. I don’t remember my country… Bangladesh.

COMPAS Schools Poetry Competition 2013 Second Place Troubling Emotions

Men and the Emotional World of Immigration Detention Melanie Griffiths The refused asylum seekers and immigration detainees of the visits hall. Lost in his emotional turmoil, Basam involved in my doctoral research differed from each gesticulated wildly and spoke in an increasingly loud other in almost every way, except, that is, for their gender. voice, oblivious to the ripples his shouts caused in the Examining the interplay between masculinity and emotion, IRC’s anodyne visits hall. and how people working in the immigration system speak Although I was relatively experienced at visiting of, treat and expect these men to behave, offers insights detainees, the fierceness of Basam’s fury shocked me. I into the imagery of noncitizen and refugee men, and could feel the stares from the DCOs, visitors and other the place of this within the operation of Immigration detainees, and felt pressure knowing I was expected to Removal Centres (IRCs). It was meeting one particular prevent Basam’s outbursts from escalating. At that first detained man that illuminated for me these gendered meeting, I could do little more than listen. It was not until assumptions, the dissonance between expectations and the second, equally intense visit that I suddenly realised practice, and the institutionally problematic place of male Basam’s response was not dysfunctional but immensely anger. rational. His family were trapped in a country entering In 2011, an Oxford charity asked me to urgently visit war, he had no legal representation, his asylum claim a Libyan immigration detainee who I will call Basam. was failing, he was being called a liar and he had been Unusually, Basam had been referred to the charity by indefinitely deprived of his liberty. Basam had every concerned IRC welfare officers. I was warned that he was reason to be incensed. highly emotional and potentially suffering from mental In fact, I realised that rather than being shocked by health problems. A day or two later, I went to the centre Basam’s furious reaction, I should instead be surprised to meet Basam. As I approached the visits hall, a Detainee by how rare such responses are amongst immigration Custody Officer (DCO) came over to reiterate concerns detainees. More commonly, people turn inwards, over Basam and the hope that my visit might help him. becoming passive and despondent. So I stopped worrying Shortly afterwards, a thin man in his mid-20s came and about the watching eyes and instead reassured Basam sat down. that his anger was reasonable. Although I was treating Basam was an intense and agitated individual. He him as an adult with a valid emotional response to an was clearly shocked to be detained, insulted by repeated awful situation, I felt guilty. I knew I was expected to accusations from the Home Office that he had lied, and quieten Basam, and hoped the DCOs did not overhear deeply afraid of their threats to remove him from the my ‘irresponsible’ words. UK. He was also beset with guilt and worry about being Meeting Basam and becoming aware of my complicity far from Libya, a country descending into conflict and in a system that needs detainees to constrain their splenetic whose plight played out on the television in the corner emotions made me conscious of the institutional fear of

117 118 Troubling Emotions of migrant men goes beyond institutional concerns, men goes migrant of detainedmen. of for theanger cooperation threaten the wider IRC. is little room There dissent non- or docile bodiesmeanssmallacts for of than outbursts. Foucauldian The institutional requirement speaking, introspective emotions are easier to manage institutional needs operating within IRCs. Managerially expectations and gendered sometimes contradictory viewed condescendingly. treated heavy-handedly, atthe sametime as they were UK. His nonviolent but outward focused actions were to ahighersecurity IRC, before being removed from the ‘removed from association’ and the next day transferred being resulted him protest andin asa been interpreted – asheacknowledgedagitated an state. –in had This and hadshown this to other detainees,journalist albeit amurdered written that hehaddown the name of a shout.’ Basam explained I later telephoned, When of the yards,up andabit a banner had a protest in oneof boy’, telling me, in apatronisingtone: ‘he’s had abit of I could not visit Basam because ‘he’s been a naughty I arrived at the IRC tobetoldby that the receptionist escalating tensions, for example, After a few weeks of angry,being dangerously emasculated him. repeatedly also was refused. aggression, some private space in which toshout and let out his they move him to a single room, sothat he could have to ‘calmdown’.him imploring Even Basam’s suggestion each conversationto take pillsandstarted sleeping by throughout the day, him they apparently encouraged and sought to restrict his anger. checked They on him Basam, but also feared he might be a trouble-maker DCOsseemedabout worried genuinely men.The angry The problematising of the agency and emotions the agency problematising of The Basam’s treatment provides insights into the However, Basam as the same DCOs that constructed o6,Uiest fOxford. No.60, University of asylum in Britain’, Refugee Studies Centre working paper, Judge, R. (2010) ‘Refugee Advocacy and the biopolitics of tensions-and-male-failed-asylum-seekers. rsc.ox.ac.uk/events/here-man-is-nothing-2019-gendered- Gendered http://www. Oxford. Centre publiclecture, University of isNothing!” Man Tensions and MaleFailed Asylum Seekers’, Refugee Studies ‘“Here, (2013) M. Griffiths, status converge. gender, raceandimmigration age, assumptions regarding these spaces,which onesin problematic ambiguity of detained men’s emotional livesof helps illuminate the infantile. and simultaneously dangerous Recognition and hisactions belittled. As such, hewas Othered as as aticking time bomb, Basam’s emotions were dismissed elsewhere (Griffiths 2013). In parallel to being construed angry, arealsoemasculating, a tension I have explored when asylum seeking anddetained men as dangerous refused the same discourses that construct Furthermore, treatment, depressive responses are much morecommon. and althoughsome men are strong negative emotions from maledetainees, however, advocatesby refugee (Judge 2010). employed generally the feminised victimised and imagery fit imperfectly who seekers, asylum male disadvantages strong, but potentially criminal andthreatening. This as activeto beingconceptualised capable and agents: are prone groups), ethnicities and age certain those of was considered their anger pathological.Men(especially asylum seekers inthe community counselling for because regularly referred way’, claiming that Social Services little space [for asylum seekers] tobebad,inahealthy isvery 2010 inexplained:‘There counsellor Iinterviewed however, toimbue the whole asylum system. As a ept h ytmcfa f h uwr ipa f theoutwarddisplay of Despite the systemic fear of References clearly angry about their clearly angry Troubling Emotions 119 The pattern,ofand outcome process immigrant the novel experience. Many western cities have actively actively Many westernhave cities experience. novel the of or equivalent their Chinatowns commodify to sought ‘Currythe on their and capitalise in Manchester, Mile’ in newly through investment diversity multi-cultural The clustering persistent landscapes. cultural emerging ofgroups minority ethnic in areas of can, deprivation also population. generate the receiving fears in however, symbols of become can spaces Such and a difference lifestyles, reminder that migration brings new identities, rise to that can give and social divisions inequalities exaggerated)(often national around anxieties integration, citizenship and nation building. National politicised. become all too often have settlement concernsrisks ofsupposed about the minority group articulatedvariously in particularconcentration areas, ghettoization, unrest, around through anxieties civil ofuse uneven ofservices, ‘swamping’ and the the state promoted diverse indigenous population, have The regional interventionsprocess. settlement in the dispersal of refugees in westernis not uncommon welfare to linked European and is often countries benefits entitlements. At the local scale, quotas have at patternto shape the used been times of allocation of new migrants to social housing, and migrant have children schools dispersed home areas to from their bussed been of burden’ the to ‘spread in an attempt immigration. ofFear ofeffects negative the concentration, residential for both migrants population, is often and the receiving dangerson the discourse a politicised accompanied by ofsegregation persistent of and the development host and migrantbetween parallel lives disconnected, to learnfailed seemingly groupsrules’. ‘the have that Deborah Phillips Deborah - V. S. Naipaul S. - V. The Dynamics of Settlement Half a Life At the college he had to re-learn everything that he knew. collegeAt the re-learn had to he everything knew. he that He had to learn how to eat in public. He had to learn had to He how learnHe had to public. in eat to how the old rules were themselves a kind of old rulesthe themselves were self- make-believe, to greet people… Yet something strange was happening … happening strange something was greetto Yet people… To the receiving population, distinctive areas of population, distinctive receiving the To Willie began to see in a new way the rules the beganWillie way behind in a new he had left see to saw with great with saw rules old the that clarity no longer bound him. at home. He began to see – and it was upsetting, at first – that – first began at He upsetting, was – and it to see at home. imposed. And one day, towards the end of end the towards day, And one imposed. term, his second he

Migration and settlement are emotive subjects. The subjects. Migrationare emotive settlement and and excitement migration fears, journeybrings hopes, ofbalance the anxieties, depending emotions on the ofcircumstances migration, countryof origin and Whilst country. receiving in the to settlement pathway professional new arrivals may findpassage help to smooth the of networks adjustment, that occupational asylum migrants, poorer as economic moving those marriage refugees, partners single or young seekers, migrants such as Willie can often find that the process ofoffeelings and attendant settlement, and security The achieved. or quickly easily are not always belonging, stagesearly of migrants vulnerable most for the settling perhaps through transit moves, mean multiple may before or streets hostels the reception centres, camps, making Others, arriving security. some with a place at ofuse join earlier may and other connections, family migrantsareas of in established immigration offer that ofelements comfort and support, and, for familiarity, a microcosm ofsome, left behind. the life-world emotions. mixed evoke settlement minority ethnic ofplaces become allure, Theycan hold exotic curiosity, a small outsiders; for curious entertainmentand excursion ofend the at and left sampled entered, can be that world 120 Troubling Emotions reflect the way that their personal characteristics and characteristics personal their that way the reflect settlement are contextualised anddifferentiated. They programmes. to their and dispersal, as well as acculturation, as integral social cohesion have deconcentration often seen migrant and policies integration promoting places), government differentin forpopulations take different forms social and spatialassimilationis contested (and likely to that the relationship betweenAlthough scholars agree communities often face.constraints that migrant in the host society rather thanthe racism and structural apparent unwillingness to adjust and engage immigrants’ livesPopular often rest on for segregated explanations assimilation andweak poor citizenship. as anindicatorof countries,European for example, has widely been seen new as well as settled. Muslim minorities in western of global insecurity, the clustering In the post-9/11 era of could be damaged.’ He that was especially concerned as without them, ‘communities immigration, controls on stronger minister called for July 2013, theimmigration thecommunity. In theparametersof set are outside of as outside its boundaries.part, Today, too, immigrants immigrants, inthis case east JewsEuropean for the most imaginedtheasawholenation asacommunity,This and to the United Kingdom. designed to restrict immigration support the of 1905 Aliens Bill, the first modern legislation in Commons Balfour,Arthur speaking in the House of the community,” and intellectual strength of asserted the community – the industrial, social to thestrength of “We have whodoesnotadd right tokeep a out everybody irns ie xeine n egahe f of livedMigrants’ experiences and geographies David FeldmanDavid Community and belonging. shape the complex pathways settlement to immigrant homewill all help to and imaginingsof constructions the migrant’s place in the receiving nation, andindividual encounters with social difference,understanding of an political rights accorded to migrants, positive or negative status, at thelocalscale. Immigration thesocialand life-chances and associations experiences, by influenced homes. However, people’s everyday lives are still greatly create and identitiesnew their oldand rooted inboth behind, to selectively rules, blend socially constructed to maintainstrongties with remote places they have left settled and minorities connections now enableimmigrants belonging arecomplexandmulti-scalar. Transnational citizenship and own senses of In addition,migrants’ places. particular by themicro-politics dynamicsandof and constraints,opportunities and how they are shaped cross-cut with wider structural individual biographies from notonlydistinct organisation of a form politics’ suggest persuasive‘a warmly word.’ As he noted, ‘community community ‘seems never tobeused unfavourably.’ Itis, socialorganisation’, writes, of ‘unlike all otherterms behaviour, waiting timesatGP’s andlonger surgeries. overcrowding, were generating immigrants anti-social xrsino authentic bonds which develop from expression of community, as the place. idea of in aparticular This the people theunmediated voiceclaim torepresent of andmobilisation, communitygovernance activists In contrast tobureaucratic and hierarchical types of In his1976 compendium national politics but also from formal localpolitics. politicsformal but alsofrom , RaymondKeywords Williams Troubling Emotions 121 An emphasis on shared ownership and origins can An on shared emphasis ownership Thereone other usageis of in relation community objected that “strangers… not only take away… the away… “strangers…that objected only take not and reliefmaintenance poor born to the belongs which of state the impoverish said but… in the commoners the 17th-centuryin early England only ofYet, said City.” the a minorityof town same the in and died lived people Theof a collection or village. population was migrants. far from common. land to common was access Moreover, a point of at times, and, unequally distributed was It relief poor parochial – system welfare The conflict. bitter grudging discretionary, penal, as and sometimes – was The obligations. their minimise to strived payers rate economic disguising fiction a was of languagecommunity social also a vital was It power. and institutional inequality poor migrants. to exclude force when mobilised ofa sense promoteto used be also is that solidarity a less assumes At this point, community exclusionary. language the ofIn this register, benign aspect. community or culture a different is liable to place people who have share in the a pre-existing or who do not have ethnicity, common fund of goods, or who have not qualified for of community the outside The membership, solidarity. 17th-centurymigrants – that complaint draining were has – resources a and other collective system the welfare not directed complaints are the Only now, familiar ring. at but miles, or twenty ten walked who have people at ofthe growing number international migrants who are ofboundaries the beyond placed solidarity, collective contemporaryenter to Britain and strive both as they they arrive. once who manage for those to settle, also, the use mention: namely, to immigration must that we ofterm the an immigrant, to denote ‘community’ ethnic established many towns 1960s, In the or group. religious manageto tried as they Councils Relations Community ofarrival the immigrantsCaribbean from the and South meaning joint ownership or association. communité meaning joint ownership These historical roots reveal why the term the why These is so often historical roots reveal It is one indication ofis one indication It meaning vague, benign, yet the Theseconnotations of run The community deep. By the late fourteenthlate the By century ‘a body ofindicated it sharing a usually place, same in the who live people These or identity’. common cultural ethnic meanings, and culture association, concernedownership, with ofsemantics the do not exhaust ethnicity, – community a body ofcan describe it communal people practising or be applied on religious or ideological grounds, living as the such to a groupa sport follows that or hobby, decade second in the Nevertheless, ‘football community’. of the 21st century they remain central and powerful. migrationin relation to used subtly its and indicate In Chester City Council 1603, qualities. manipulative everyday experience, continues to thrive. We have have We thrive. to continues experience, everyday community care, community councils, community groups, community workers, community centres, and women. spokesmen community ofthe adopted governmentsthat too have community an unpopular term, to invest seek they when not least Conservative when the In 1990 legitimacy. with measure form of regressive fiscally local a introduced government propertytaxation – when the as ‘rates’, based tax, known head ofplaced on a levy the replacedby was almost tax ‘the reviled every much and new the labelled – it adult governmentthe British Since 2006, charge’. community a Departmenthas included of and Local Communities to attempts website TheGovernment. department’s ofarid system the infuse the local administration with nurturing is of juices mission, it states, Its community. to support local government and in doing so to ‘put in charge ofcommunities planning’. Oxford English Dictionaryetymologythe traces of to the Anglo-Norman ‘community’ and Middle French term 122 Troubling Emotions remains commonplace in the present. It pays no regard remains commonplaceinthe present. It pays regard no ethnic religiousminoritiescomprise‘communities’or and in Britain’.inappropriate ideathatimmigrants The Sikh communities’ customs campaign tomaintain 1968. in Here, PowellBirmingham in condemned ‘the Powell’s Blood’ speechdelivered infamous‘Rivers of can alsobefound,however, same language The inEnoch integration. people whowanted manage and topromote founderswere‘communities’. well Their intentioned and the established comprisedseparate population expressed assumptionthatthe an immigrant Asia. They than that. Indeed, the last time I wrote about them I little complicated amore that thingsare you like, suggests attachment, ‘home’, or if have morethanoneplaceof fact that they themselves (and there are otherslike them) sounds more like divergence than convergence, but the Hadramawt, ParisDubai, AbuDhabi, andLondon.This the world: inthe Comoros, Zanzibar,es DarSalaam, religiousleaders,great I meet andthem in places all over EastAfrica’s oneof quite well. are descendants of They Islands, Comoro them during which time I came to know the several of in fieldwork doctoral my doing family Hadrami whose house I hadlived opposite when could easilybedescribedasnexuses. individually and collectively, andwell-connected, who mobile, who arebothparticularly Hadramis of groups may say that I’m just suffering travel fatigue, but there are as Ichaseacross theOcean.Acynic HadramisIndian throughmy head – thatoften runs nexus back andforth’ There’sold Toman alinefrom Waits song–‘the merging nAuDaircnl,Imtu ihamme fan In AbuDhabirecently, I met up with a member of Diasporic Converging Cultures? Iain Walker whole. and contentious population intoanimagined united wealthpotentially aunruly status, and transforms and of exclude them. In bothcases ‘community’ erases divisions to to its use to try yet predictable counterpart regrettable is the groups community to classify immigrant the term inthe country.with others born Inthisrespect, the use of commerce, example, for thatmightunite immigrants of through trade unions, tenants’ associations or chambers interest and association, populations, to nor the bonds of these within conflicts and hierarchies fractures, the to oil-fuelled economies. Most of the former are in Saudi the former oil-fuelled economies. Most of offered by these prosperous,the economic opportunities the drawndiaspora, by of Hadramawt otherparts and era, andthe ‘new’ Hadramis, whohave come both from whom arecitizens,whose andpresence predates the oil the ‘old’families, Hadrami: mostof are two types of links with those in thepeninsula. Arabian Here there regions haveboth limited, in are manyHadramis strong although linksbetween Southeast East AfricaandAsia and other Hadramis call them ‘the lost people’) – and the networks, but they seem to have out dropped of too,peninsula (thereinIndia are Hadramis Arabian in three regions–EastAfrica,Southeast Asia andthe is diaspora scattered across the Indian Ocean, principally in different political culturaland contexts. Hadrami The find themselves in different places at different times, and sentiment, peopletomove; andprompt they marriage project then. called butIwasthem ‘Comorians’; workinga different on Shifting politicaleconomies, aswell asreligion, Troubling Emotions 123 The weaving metaphor apt here: dispersal metaphor seems The weaving not Hadrami in quite the same way that Hadramis Hadramis from that way same the not Hadrami quite in of or East Africa, from Saudi Arabia or, from course, Thiscertain places be. might on constraints Hadramawt ofas Saudis interaction, claims Hadrami despite origin, of kinship and shared cultural practice, find Hadramis Kenyan with share to much as have not may that they Hadramis are Kenyan while thought, have might they as Somali from with Hadramis kin than with more at ease members ofSome Hadramawt. – often the community been have orfamilies whose more mobile, who are those Comorian – servefriend as my as such ‘localised’, less belonging usually groups, different between mediators if(even only partially) to more than one group. subsequent but divergences, from a homeland produces as diasporic groups meet produceconvergences, mobilities and so the process elsewhere, themselves and reinvent if But continues. is a that divergence intuitive it seems I suggest what for prerequisite convergence, here is that is also true:convergence. requires divergence inverse the of The convergence diasporic groups they who believe for recognising a prerequisite is identity a single have be) illusory: is (and must that this singular identity the Arabia, In Saudi ‘Hadramis’ diverge. therefore cultures as) (revealed become or Java from Saudi Arabia, Kenya negotiating both Hadramis, and Javanese Kenyan Saudi, a – constituting their commonalities and their differences merging nexus. Wherever they are, Hadramis maintain their culture. culture. Hadramis their maintain are, they Wherever Arabian Hadramis converge. In the peninsula, Arabia; the latter are Arabia; United Arab also in the the latter Emirates and Kuwait. Thisis partit recognised: is widely of of skill the being Hadrami, againand and time time I hear the refrain, ‘we Hadramis our – and culture’. we keep integrate, but we rarely move women as the men here, are talking about send they – emigrate local wives; and take in this way the but for education, Hadramawt to sons back their behind to absorb more of girls stay The culture. host the next generation then intermarries: Hadrami Zanzibari marry (for example) men Zanzibari Hadrami women. ofTransmission occurs therefore practices cultural (Zanzibari) lines (Hadrami) and female male both in the home and astride sits that into a culture and are woven sometimes but host, belonging in both all when is well, ifIndeed, occur. cleavages when neither belonging to of character cohesive the Hadrami social structuresand both encouragespractices cultural integration and hinders as trueis this assimilation, in diaspora. is as it ‘home’ at integrated well but Hadramis, Theintuitive: seems latter still slightly different, always seem to be identifiable as a group, even if only on rather unrefined criteria such as returning But Hadramawt, to colour. name or skin family remain slightly apart.the foreign-born always Hadramis are products ofthese since However, believe and although they diasporic and sites practices, to be Hadrami, Hadramis from Indonesia are themselves New Lives (Immigrant) Sheida Faroozi

COMPAS Photo Competition 2012 First Place Troubling Emotions 125 Recent Recent diversification in migration patterns and for daily personal prayer. Some cults acquired wider wider acquired cults Some for daily personal prayer. The Virgin ofresonance. rooted in a 16th- Guadalupe, centuryoffusion American goddess, Mary a Native with of embodiment a dynamic became Mexican nationalism and of century, 19th from the Filipino Catholicism cultural and these potentially in Retaining the 20th. a point of and providing connotations, countercultural for Hispanic interconnection and Filipino communities status universal has been given cult the worldwide, by a Catholic hierarchy repeatedly striving controversial, still popular A association. younger, by to benefit to is devotion diffused more extensively and even an image of Mercy, Divine the from Christ deriving Kowalska, Faustina by 1930s in the experienced visions post-war Polish by Spread initially nun. Polish a young migration, the cult, officially banned II Paul John worldwide Pope by rehabilitated was 1979, to 1959 from in a process leading to Faustina’s beatification in 1993 a global phenomenon, Now and canonisation in 2000. imagealongside established sits within cults devotion the and culturally both visually drawing worldwide, churches of popular on existing characterisations as Christ (such Heart),Sacred lives the prayer and structuring private the of millions of Many of Catholics. not faithful have these in it encountered have but growndevotion, the with up different to make them helped has it where contexts, new and sometimes cultural across ethnic, often connections, religious boundaries. even not but complicated, media have communication devotional transformed,fundamentally in which ways the word by travelled once that Many cults work. cultures of move and through print reproductionmouth now Devotion Devotion Jane Garnett Jane In Catholic culture, images – of In Catholic culture, Virgin the Christ, Devotional practices and imagery have always been both been and imagerypractices always Devotional have contexts. in new portablereinvention to and subject cartographies, sacred define to servedjust not Theyhave formal beyond institutional mobile worlds propel to but This true has been spaces. of religions world different Jerusalemin medieval re-enacted who Christians – Yorkshire century; 17th the in Moscow near or Wakefield reconceived century20th the late Hindus who since have of Aire as the holy waters the River the Ganges;early Christian life itself seeing Irish monks who, medieval the across Europe and move the on kept as a journey, the nuclei became founding monasteries which Atlantic, ofMuslim or 21st-century urban settlement; Pakistani ofemigrants to Canada a network who visit shrines in reinforcing India, London, South Africa and Turkey, carrying by diasporic connections material devotional to Northback America with them. focus, devotional a rich constituted – have saints or the very particular associations of at once evoke which place and also transcend space and in time the imagination of given Thesehave qualities devotee. individual the them a special significance for migrants Millions old ones. with and forging links communities shaping new ofmigrants Italian, Spanish and Portuguese to North them took with centuries the and America over South ofcopies reinforced which images, their local cult spiritual confidence, on smallRio and Boston, York, in New Churches larger scales. and sometimes much Madonnas to ofdedicated Aires were Buenos European bounds the marked statues with Processions sanctuaries. of and migrants parisheson new patronal feast-days, shrines and carriedup domestic set small reproductions 126 Troubling Emotions ifrn nteps.I h ot mrc fthe Bracero Americaof different in the past. Inthe North it might not be genuine. were Things quite suggests US-Mexico bordershouldbe doubledorelectrified. migrants, or the debate about whether the fence on the picking upaguntochase irregular weekend hobby of including examplessuchas awell-known Texanactor’s escalation, actorsoftenshareinthe current governmental asylum confine to threat Papua or seekersNew Guinea.Non- Nauru camps in in the and Arizona in Arpaio Sheriff far asthe humiliating anddemeaningpractices of as criminal offense. Measures introduced to combatit go and demonization. Some countries have made it a stigmatization often on borders unauthorized migration prevails in Europeandthe United States. rejection of The that describingthestance towardsmigration irregular of may seem toostrongaword. But ‘concern’ fallsshort it today. anxiety that surrounds Admittedly,of ‘anxiety’ attention,our andithasnotalways aroused the degree itself. Yetmigration it has notalways been at the fore of is asoldthe regulationof migration Irregular shared and affinity emotional memory. of bonds traditional connective amodern join inprayer: ritual built on very Sundaysthe worlddispersed familyaround whenher the devotion tothe Divine Mercy) as the on hour of associated with Christ’s death and instituted as part now in east London hasadopted 3 pm GMT(the time and physical displacement. A womanLeone fromSierra communityand solidarities complement familial, group and electronically; but Facebook mirror Skype and That such obsession is eminently contemporary such obsessioniseminently That contemporary Contemporary AnxietyTowardsContemporary Migration Irregular Joaquín Arango Life McGuire, M. (2008) the Renaissance to the Present Images in Italyfrom J.Garnett, and Rosser, G. (2013) Religion andSpirituality Divine Mercy’, in G. andL. Giordan Woodhead, (eds.) Devotionto the theLivedand Agency Image, Religiosity of J.Garnett, andHarris, A.(2013) ‘Canvassing the Faithful: families, especially in care, terms of which in turn benefits to many market,labour wholendvaluableand services areworkers migrants needed byas most irregular the negative extend to the economy, effects do not generally significant more necessarily bythan othersthatareeasily accepted governments. Its not but sovereignty, of combat itisquestionable. impliesabreach Itcertainly current the the measures to the severityand opinion of climate of justify to sufficient are they whether Yet, immigration. evaluation of to demonizationisbefoundinadramaticallyaltered for the explanation ensuing transition fromindifference the than insubstantive migration, shifts in irregular the Atlantic. Rather both sides desirable on of and was Atthattime, seen as necessary immigration legalized. tolerated, when not easily were as arule migrants the was the case in Europeof Olympianindifference. Similar notof benign neglect, if the stance towardswas oneof undocumented migration the 20th century, duringthe middle decades of Program, , Oxford:OxfordUniversity Press. Irregular migration doubtless deleterious has effects.migration Irregular Lived Religion: FaithLived and PracticeinEveryday , LeidenandBoston:Brill. References Spectacular Miracles: Transforming trentes glorieuses trentes , London: Reaktion., London: : irregular : irregular Prayer in Troubling Emotions 127 Do the negative effects ofeffects negative Do the irregular migration ofIn light would common sense above, the consequences, including displacement of displacement including consequences, points, crossing and crossings. for higher clandestine fees more casualties, and legalMobility affected migrationbe negatively may moral the not to mention more cumbersome, and made that on societies impacts and negative costs and political The often given more diverse. are inevitably increasingly justification that severe control policies help contain the ofrise oftest the far right hardly resists the if reality, fortunethe of partiesxenophobic and populist, multiple movements that have flourished and prosper in dozens of as a measuring rod. In sum, if is taken countries harsh generate many unintended are costly, control policies and are of effects, high the is effectiveness, limited would many How reasonable? them to priority accorded withstand a cost-benefit analysis? currentthe justify ofreally levels and their anxiety correlates?policy unprecedented the justify Do they politicization of migration? sanction practices Do they impinge libertiessometimes that on human rights and civil and test at times the limits of democratic politics? ones control strategies, exploring alternative recommend more reasonable and humane, possibly prove might that the at in vogue than those effects side fewer and with moment. These might not secure large benefits, but at be these whether costs, lower entail would they least financial, social, or political. They would stem irregular migrationtoward stance revised would that from a problems, considerable poses it while that, recognize and not so harmful. it is unavoidable Learning to live irregularwith way more civilized migration in a calmer, potentially offers considerable benefits. Unfortunately, there are plenty of reasons to be pessimistic. One reason often mentioned for the harshness of for mentioned the often One reason correlatespolicy Do the of ofstate present the welfare systems. The drastic removal ofThe removal drastic systems. welfare migrants would to generate chaos. be likely counter irregular which practices migration it is that the case, the indeed this risk. Were a security constitutes reasons for granting irregular migration a high priority could arguably be more understandable and justifiable. Irregular argued. also be opposite could the But migration if risk only as a security seen can be a verybroad concept ofThereis used. security of is no evidence irregular migrantsas long – crime commit to more likely being immigrantsbetween is made as a distinction committing San Diego and and transnational criminal activities. crimes with high US proportionscities of two El Paso, irregular largesafest are among the migrants, urban areas in the remind ourselves us And let FBI. the according to US, that the major terrorist ofattacks the first decade ofthe century21st – those of Madrid, and London York, New of deeds not the – were immigrants. unauthorized Irregular flows do have serious impacts in critical entry the loci in Greece, several as Lampedusa, such points, in termsis this and Melilla, but or Ceuta CanaryIslands, of emergencyand local disruptionsituations rather than by And most countries are unaffected per se. security Theinternational relationship between impacts. such a but one, is a complex and delicate and security mobility be found. better balance than the present one could Are anxiety lead to reasonable policy outcomes? aiming at including those harsher control policies, The are opaque answers ‘self-deportation’ effective? both evidence, available the But and hard measure. to suggests and impressionistic, are not, they objective of increasing costs the high despite and ever control Furthermore, ofpolicies. area number there unintended 128 Troubling Emotions elrto f h ihso the Child when it comes the Rights of Declaration of ignored the UN has repeatedly the UK government childhoodvulnerability, although the discursive ideaof between political-economic this draconiandiscourse and states. child asylum-seeking and refugee is positioned The nation western activity of symbolic boundary-making the material and of acentralpart protection form defined are and state support of ‘undeserving’ or seekers as ‘deserving’ asylum which in ways The them. towardsrights and belongingtheirobligations moral membership, led receiving societies to readdress issues of countries have western asylum seekers of atthe doorstep However, numbers growing and the changing makeup of asylum was associated with compassion. of the concept Britain less welcoming for asylum seekers. Historically, ‘our’ resources; and draining successive legislation makes are flooding ‘our’ country, posing a threat to ‘our’ security, describe asylum seekers and criminals who as scroungers publicdebate. media The has become a matter of ‘barelife’. describes asastateof boundaries. (1998) are living They what Agamben humanity who arepushedwaftedor across national of ‘flotsam’ the waste’, ‘human the them, describes (2004) midst’, asBauman place’ouror – the‘otherin ‘out of asylum and seekers arephysically symbolically and he isunwanted.the ‘other’,and today’s In world, refugees in the UK. Heis an outsider, refugees of representations Farouq, boy, anAfghanirefugee public is well aware of them they just tell you “go backthem they just tell you to your “go country, why are you in England”… they don’t understand why you’re here, sothere is Some English people they just don’t like us. If you argue with youSome Englishpeople they argue justwith don’t like us. If Asylum seeking in the UK (andelsewhere in Europe) opito talking about it. - Farouq, Yearno point of 10 Halleli Pinson, Madeleine Arnot andManoCandappa Halleli Pinson,MadeleineArnot Seeking AsyluminSchools 1 rights human and equality notionsof thein troubleonbasisof justice–offeringhelptothose who are on asense of compassion is based circumstance. Another version of empathy, sympathypity) orforthose who arevictims of shelter.help and is basedon notion This help those who have suffered in their lives and whoseek version expresses compassion asthe need to compassionby their teachers. One different versions of childrenAsylum-seeking and refugee areoffered school comments: to respect and help. An assistant headteacher inacity entitled equally thus and first children are they teachers, for while migrant, a foremost and first as child migrant a sees Office Home UK The schools. to irrelevant and families are anti-educational migrant or ‘undeserving’ teachers, political distinctions between ‘deserving’ of childrenwhatever status. theirlegal Fromthe perspective their professionalduty to educate and careforall children, asylum-seeking and refugee sustaining needs of Schoolseducational the complexemotionaland cater for education system? Can schools offer a ‘safe haven’? access towelfare services. to asylum seeking children andincreasingly restricts their But whenthese what happenschildrenenter the the school, tojudge. would still not refuse because… that’s notforus, here illegally, inaway that’s Weconcern.... not our outthatthey were itturned to behonest even if haven’t had the right documentation.... Because we’ve a place, simply because they got admission if I don’t think we’ve ever refused somebody andrecognising a sharedhumanity with others. (whether concern care forand Troubling Emotions 129 , , London: Palgrave London: Palgrave , Notes References Upheavals of Upheavals ofIntelligence The Thought: Homo Sacer: Sovereign and Bare Power Life Wasted Lives:Modernity and Its Outcasts, Wasted , New York Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University , New York Immigrationrepositions policy institutions educational represent the front line ofTeachers a democratic All quotations are drawn from Pinson et al., 2010. Thanksal., 2010. from Pinson et are All quotations drawn to Mano Candappa for permission to quote from the book.

1 (1998) Agamben, G. Press. Stanford: Stanford University Bauman, Z. (2004) Press. Cambridge: Polity (2001) M. C. Nussbaum, Emotions Non-CitizenAsylum and the Education, al. (2010) et Pinson, of Politics The Child: and Belonging Compassion MacMillan. Such experiences lead certain teachers to be involved lead certain experiences to be involved Such teachers in anti-deportationinto bring them which campaigns and a police, with immigrationcontact authorities, rangeof action is morally Such professional bodies. and politically significant since it unites concernsabout with egalitariancompassionate approaches child-centred politics the Witnessing concernsand peace fairness. about of immigration first-hand reshapes the relationship of state. to the teachers engage critically and which the with diversity value which denial of humanistic and Such and social human rights. be made to easily could cultures school critically-aware ofor out appear unpatriotic fortress-in increasingly line nation states. like conditions for compassion to the creating society, flourish within young generations. and resilience and refugeeasylum-seeking children’s They can validate extraordinary a chance them offering surviveto ability by control of take to This not gettingis task futures. their any easier. …other children [do] not necessarily understand [do] not necessarily …other children happy here, were they gone...well someone’s why obviously There’s been moved? they have why they’ve why Is that us. wrong with something predominantly white (headteacher, them? moved school) ...the word pity always has a connotation of always pity word ...the almost it? [...] All the doesn’t being condescending, a learning have they whether with, I work children difficulty, behavioura difficulty,English as an additional language, with children they are just and refugee asylum-seeking children, or they’re abused or they’re children, after looked or they’re ofa level with to you … will come children need ... needs to [those] response is to react … and my I can. in the best way Different compassionate responses result from result responses compassionate Different Thereoffor bothtypes evidence is compassion These individualising discourses allow teachers to see ‘a see to teachers allow Thesediscourses individualising learnto entitled who is from violence. safe child’ be and to schools’ first-hand experience of immigration policies, and detention deportation.especially Child deportation and and community around school the reverberates manageto ofcrises teachers forces grief in the and loss classroom: Nussbaum (2001) argues that such compassion occurs compassion such that argues (2001) Nussbaum ofat the level psychology individual and of institutional a an emotion, just not Compassion becomes design. or a formmotivation of but a form reasoning, of social especially in relation to diversity. solidarity, inclusion coordinator Here an in a large in schools. notion ofthe rejects school predominantly white in pity offavour for all’: ‘equal treatment 130 Troubling Emotions antsyi mediause causes people’s views to change, cannot say if researchwe although without further to immigration, levels aretoohigh. immigration whiteresidents),London but still a majoritybelieveborn (evenUK- among the country residents as inthe rest of as high amongLondon does not run to immigration Similarly, less immigration. majority support opposition sub-groups, a in the most educated and highest earning with education incomelevels,and correlation buteven issome There likely to oppose immigration. particularly are theStill, British population. somegroups of group sub- every widespread that it can befoundinvirtually been amongthetopthree. has problemsfacing Britain, immigration most important Since then, in monthlypollsasking people to name the public concern. greatest the issues of registered as one of is muchrarely morerecent.to2000, Prior immigration politicalsalience back tothe1960s,goes level thehigh of typicallyfallsbetween 60and80percent. immigration respondents are offered, the number favouring less onthe precise question askedDepending and the choices public would toBritainreduced. like to see immigration British thecontemporary membersof clear majorityof a polls, opinion and surveys from findings consistent to those polled. Little on this has changed front:according registered between 80 and 90 per cent of immigration too manyimmigrants.the mid-1960s, In to opposition have peopleinBritain always thatthere are agreed of attitudes towardthe overwhelmingimmigration, majority researchDating back onpublic to the earliest survey Sources of news are also correlated with attitudes news are alsocorrelated Sources of that thereistoomuchis so immigration belief The that there is too much immigration But, while the belief Public Preferences for Restricting Immigration: Who, Why, Who, Restricting for Immigration: Public Preferences Limitations? andwithWhat Scott Blinder • havemigration beenresearched extensively. reducedimmigration. favour of BBC TVnews broadsheet readersandviewers arealsoin reduced ‘alittle.’‘a lot’ratherthan But clear majoritiesof most and often wouldreducing immigration, like tosee it ITVnews are morelikely than others to prefer of local newspapers, tabloidsand viewers and readers of views. Nonetheless,fairly striking– are thecorrelations their reflect that sources news select simply people if or • • about the nature group of conflict: is it more ‘realistic’ (for debate in the academic literature, but itleadstofurther interactions, especiallyfriendships, lines. across group bythat thisattitude can bechanged Rather, itsuggests not necessarily account for oppositionto immigration. strong for contact theory,Evidence is generally but it does Contact theory holdsthat sustained positiveContact theory contact attitudes toward At leastof threebasicexplanations Group conflict theory suggests that migrants or migrants that suggests theory conflict Group Economic competition theories suggest that Economic competition theories suggest Group conflict theory has a great deal of support of deal agreat has theory conflict Group oiieattdstwr ebr fthatgroup. positive attitudes toward membersof religious,produce more groups national racial,or otherethnic, (such asfriendships) with members of will bemostlikely toopposemigration. threat most acutely that those who feel this sense of and the majority (as a group), identities, or status of to threaten canappearthe interests,minority groups hospitals orschools. such as use public services migrants tax-payers if for burden financial a perceive) (or feel who locals with skillsimilar sets,(conversely) or wealthierfrom (or citizen) workers who compete with migrants native-bornwill comefrom to migration opposition Troubling Emotions 131 American Journal American Journal , 57(4): 841-857. References , 57(2): 391–410. a widespread social norm social a widespread againstin western prejudice The normEurope. and beliefs negative with coexists and, we migrantsabout stereotypes minorities, and in shaping force as an independent acts motivating argue, campaign messagesto and responses choices political to shape behaviour, power Its and political parties. greatly and across varies across individuals however, to follow are Some people more motivated situations. this norm important,than others; equally some political the normplace situations other while at stake, directly greater more ambiguous and allow are situations scope unconscious for hidden or acting on even biases (often anti- one is violating the that feeling the without ones) norm.prejudice ofimpact the Thus, immigration on In particular, and volatile. complex highly be can politics anti-immigrationnew partiespolitical founder on these formed not. Parties than more often dynamics the with purposesole of mobilizing anti-immigrant sentiment partiesfail; existing usually reputations established with for as vehicles domains are moresuccessful issue in other anti-immigrantcan campaign on this as they sentiment, more claiming to be about something credibly while issue than simple xenophobia. Blinder, Blinder, S., Ford, R and Ivarsflaten,Angelsof NormAntiprejudice the E.How Our Nature: Affects (2013) ‘The Better in Great Britain Preferences and Germany’, and Party Policy American Journal of Science Political ‘Economic (2013) C. and Mo, Margalit, Y. Malhotra, N., Explanations for Opposition to Immigration: Distinguishing and Conditional Impact’, Prevalence between of Science Political Economic competition theory Economic competition has found inconsistent workers that finds however, US, the from research New My work with Elisabeth Ivarsflaten and Robert example, ifexample, resources), for scarce competition it involves groupversion, latter In the ‘symbolic?’ or more is it conflict is more closely related to a largeidentity that scale immigration threaten. seems to sensenational of ofsupport Perceptions in the literature. own one’s and of security economic migrants’ impact on jobs and these But anti-migrantto wagesare related attitudes. individuals’ to tied loosely only perceptionsthemselves are it perhaps surprisingly, position. So, economic actual driving are actually factors economic that not clear is people. attitudes for most migrantswith competition in direct appear particularly grantingto oppose the likely of visas to migrant workers. in workers high-tech examine Malhotra al. (2013) et Indian from US facing competition highly-skilled the Americans are particularlythese want to likely workers; visas grantedfewer sorts to these of migrant workers. This supportsbut model, competition economic the form:in revised be highly relevant may pressures these but only for of subset a small for migration attitudes, with competition direct who lack Others public. the this by are not affected migrant(potential) workers on immigrationviews their dynamic; are determined by other factors. importancepoints to the (2013) of Ford anti-prejudice social norms in shaping majority groups’ attitudes immigrationofimpact the and toward attitudes these is there that argue We on broader behaviour. political Waiting Bharat Patel

COMPAS Photo Competition 2010 First Place Troubling Emotions 133 What does Ida’s admission admission ofWhat does Ida’s who she feels about statements Most rhetoric and policy in ways that run that in ways to our values’. counter comfortablecomfort about whose say with zones are live actually people and how public debate in highlighted or my Whose comfortIda’s is typical, zone their lives? Russian- same the from came Evelyn mother Evelyn’s? generation,American second and also grewJewish up York and English. During her New Yiddish speaking German were her parents’ networks childhood City Jews. as Russian as well and Italian Catholics Protestants relations affective had close ThroughoutEvelyn her life in her childhood while However, and non-Jews. Jews with of a circle were friends her closest girls who Jewish motto and jewelry, with complete formed club, their own comfort adult a groupzone was ofEvelyn’s parents – in active who were – and Jewish Protestant, Catholic, as for many mother, my local primarythe For school. others, life cycle changes reconfigured her networks of sociability. assimilation, integrationlittle us and social cohesion tell their lives, immigrants live about how and their children of multiplicities the including and comfort identities immigrantsvarious zones inhabit. descendants their and ofThinking about the variety of ‘ways being’ that people identity public same the or are categorizedwho claim, by, among how us to explore the differences inhabit, allows in terms their lives ofpeople live practices, daily cultural personal and their comfortzones. their public identities, mother share forms Ida and my example, ofFor dress, speech, culinary preferences, and ofculture regional the middle-class York New the décor that reflect metropolitan area of the their generation. They also have Comfort Zones Nina Glick Schiller Nina Glick Yet by all conventional measures, Ida is among the measures, all conventional by Yet as irrelevantdismissed cannot be statements My aunt’s “So, are any of people know “So, You friends Jewish? your in Interested comfortablemore feel kind.” own their with prior, years several settled I had England where in life my by our conversation aunt had begun 93-year-old my basic component most the was felt she asking about what ofagainI when later, months Several home. at feeling returned almost Ida continued, to south Florida to visit, “I she said, know,” as if “You I had away. not been spoke She people.” comfortableonly feel Jewish with oflove about her simultaneous her United States, the ‘country’,and of internalwhose homeland’, ‘her Israel, oftreatment rifts, she foreign policy and Palestinians, the nothing about. knows Although her mother ghettoized. not the assimilated, immigrant, born Ida was Jewish in the a Russian was spent has she Yiddish but She knows United States. ofmost her spent She English. speaking her long life multi-ethnic City York in a New in poverty childhood in a quintessentially neighborhood, lived and as an adult not religious She was suburb. multi-ethnic middle-class an atheist was and her husband, a prosperous lawyer, of personal network professional and a wide with people of all backgrounds. belonging, nationality, to currentabout identity, debates contain many of they because and difference, religious contradictorythe pervadethat tensions contemporary immigration.about debates narrated She to her identity same year that Angelame in the Prime Minister Merkel, ofthat immigrants declared in Germany Germany, British that Cameron stated and David in ghettos, lived segregated in ‘these behaving Muslims live communities 134 Troubling Emotions zone is not publically visible or remarked upon inpublic the nation,then our comfort as belongingtothe core of ancestors ourareseen difference. belongingand If of accordingtocategorizations national acceptable judged everyone’s or choices are equally visible, normalized, zone, that not wewho inhabitsourcomfort learn actively seekout. ourday or week or life, we spend time, and, at times of peoplewith whom we like to zones: a set of comfort stigmatization, discrimination andprejudice. We all have for many people, their past and continuing racialization, zones alsoembody life circumstances including, Comfort andcustom. belief of well patterns as intergenerational city and place, as a particular practices and sensibilities of shaped by class, and the cultural gender, family history communication fromaFacebook toanemail. page mediated by letters, of calls, phone cyberspace or forms physical locations, but can alsoexist within social relations relationships andpractices, andcaninvolve particular social human within exist They space. with conflated be not should locality, by influenced while zones, comfort than ethnicity et (McCreanor al.,2006). However, beingspatiallyathome, rather as apsychic sense of factors that identity,shape apersonal best understood have life. begun to examine the Social geographers studies and daily migration of both the vocabulary of zones.and comfort socialcapital,knowledges, given them different kinds of socialnetworks, which havehave different hadkindsof same public ethnic identity: Jewish Americans. But they However, aswe livemakelife and our choices about Comfort zones express histories specificof childhoods zone needs to become part comfort of concept The New Zealand’, Place and Belonging within Oruamo/Beachhaven, Senses of McCreanor, T. Zone”: isLike et al.(2006) ‘“This MyComfort Incorporation’, ‘Beyondthe EthnicLens: Locality, Globality, Born-Again and Glick Schiller, N., Caglar,T. A.andGuldbrandsen, (2005) be a comfort zone. be acomfort too hotto before it gets from environmental destruction also saveperhaps and concerns… human planet our politicalpundits. we Then could embrace common of fear mongering we could reject the anti-immigrant zones,comfort personal us within variationsof by all of cultural difference recognize thatsociallife and islived we put aside the public obsession with difference. If commonality despite locality by establishing domains of a identities. Others, like my mother, of become part theirsharedascribed Aunt Ida,settle the on basisof zones. settle byThey buildingcomfort Some, like find children their localemplacement despite stigmatization. and pathways of America North and Europe tothe asbelonging nation, socialscientistsandpoliticiansfailtonotice. understood those with affinities sociability built on commoninterests or a domainof are seen asthe ‘other’, even zone is when our comfort nationaldiscourse we the ethnic lens of because of if the nation (Glick Schiller et al., 2005). Moreover, of threat tothesocialfabric a and as refusing tointegrate zone,the same choices we about ourcomfort are seen national cultural/racialised/religious core and we make ‘ethnicthrough anlens’ asdifferentthe from categorized we are we chose ‘our own kind’. But if debates, even if Every day to Every and without fanfare, recent migrants New ZealandGeographer, 62:196–207. American Ethnologist, References 33(4):612-633. Troubling Emotions 135

Today, communication and travel across vast distances across vast and travel communication Today, it brings with in touch stay able to being Moreover, of Regardless transnational families, within dynamics

family members and the places where they live are live and family members where they the places identities rise to new that give brought together in ways (Cohen, 2007). and cultural practices more available, widely and technologies are cheaper, ofthan in earlier periods text migration. Phone calls, quickly, in touch stay to ways offer and emails messages, Skype while allows video with and easily, frequently, ofa sense approximate transnational kin to co- physical of modes cheaper Safer, presence. family make travel been have Thesetechnologies accessible. more visits incorporateda repertoire into ofthat familial practices of a sense kin to sustain enable across space. relatedness apart living can be an emotionally practices, such Despite ofa sense to and contribute painful experience alienation and who move among both those and disconnectedness rise to genderedmoral It can also give who stay. those what around norms cultural specific reflects that criticism it means to be a good or relative. child, parent, ofexpectation the familial relations Yet communication. irritation,can be accompanied by are complex. Affection The guilt. and shame by distance anger, happiness by generatedmigration by further can mix the complicate the of for some family members, Perhaps, sentiments. (if has welcome distance physical or unacknowledged apart Living can consequences. unacknowledgeable) as as well a greaterrise to and autonomy, freedom give opportunities to negotiate obligations and reconfigure familial relations. are not technologies family-making so-called these has (In)accessibility everyto accessible equally family. Leslie E. Fesenmyer Leslie E. Transnational Families Families Transnational Transnational families cannot be counterposed be cannot families with Transnational Thesethrough which lens a unique offer families ‘Transnational’ families are families who live apart but who live families are families ‘Transnational’ ofand retain a ‘sense who create and welfare collective across national borders’ even in short “familyhood,” unity, They 2002). transnational include (Brycesonand Vuorela migrantexample, (for couples spouse/partner and non- migrant spouse/partner),migrant and parents non- their migrant who remain at ‘home’, and migrants children They non-migrant elderly and their and siblings. parents hand, ofone on the intersection, mark the and individual and on hand, the other familial aspirations and needs, are families structural Such opportunities and constraints. ofconsequence an inevitable migration hardly a and are recent phenomenon. Instead, country. one in remain members whose those encourage families these (implicit) problematize us to is co- instance, For relatedness. about assumptions And, is physical family-making? for a necessity residence primary the co-presence of means and care showing Ifaffection? migrate people some make to in order country in their possible particular of lives origin (Sørenson separation be cannot physical then 2002), and Olwig the Equally, problematic. culturally be to priori a taken of aspect transnational a temporary be only may families phase in the lives of specific families, asthey ultimately country in the reunited be to seek of destination. ofand experiences explore processes to transnational migration. Theyformedare often coming through the together of cultural, linguistic, with different individuals they In doing so, and/or backgrounds. social, religious ofprocesses to contribute may creolization whereby backgrounds ofvarious from the elements selected 136 Troubling Emotions oefl nlec oe te hp sc fmle take families such shape the over influence powerful who live apart. families to understand the lives‘national’ when trying of not to the privilege a priorinationstate or the important scale than the nation state. Accordingly,geographic it is those from locales, which occupy positions lowerthe on are villages, towns, or cities, and relate to each other family members live places, in particular whether they specifically, More families. translocal about debate a as orcompounded. which socialstratificationisarticulated can alsobeavector through migration transnational traveling from othercountries invite less scrutiny. Thus, Meanwhile, familymembers ‘global power geometry’. nation-state order, what Massey (1991) or refers toasthe is positionedsocio-politically in the where their country to move the around world to visit their kin because of may social background struggle every live, families of visa procedures. in which they onthe country Depending socialcapitalto,example, for bureaucratic navigate of lack a resources,by also financial but bylimited only not families poorer may beconstrainedintheirmovement Wealthy families can easily travel to meet each other. Yet families, dimensions. as well asmoremacrostructural both microdimensionsthatrelate to individualstheir and nudryn rv o siiaino people who do an underlying drive for assimilation of there isstill immigration, multicultural countries of worst-case scenarios.some multi-ethnic In and due to ethnic differences tend to highlight crumbling Claims that Australian andBritish social cohesion is Nonetheless, the nation-state system can exert a the preceding discussion could be framed Much of Affinities in Multicultural Neighbourhoods: Shared Affinities inMulticulturalNeighbourhoods:Shared Values andtheirDifferences Ellie Vasta and livelihoods in a Globalizing World inaGlobalizing and livelihoods , London:Routledge. Sørenson, N. N. andOlwig K. F. (2002) 38: 24-29. Massey, D. Place’, (1991) ‘ASense Globalof , Malden:Blackwell Sociology Publishers. of Encyclopedia Cohen, R.(2007) ‘Creolization’, in G. Ritzer(ed.) New York: Berg. Family: Frontiers New European , and Oxford and GlobalNetworks D.Bryceson, Vuorela and U. (eds.) (2002) transnational families. both to the rising prevalence and to the persistence of Increasing state regulation will likely only contribute status. their migration differentiate kinonthe basisof their intimate relationsstill interpenetrate such that laws their kin,such regulations can destination countries of in its ability to stopfamily members fromsettling inthe states which over have the state may little control. Though be constrained channel migration a is reunification inmany countries aroundthe world.(im)migration Family a time when much attention isdirected at the issue of within agiven social andhistorical moment, (particular) regulations long. to place the tightening of It isimportant can move (or visit), under what conditions, andforhow and how they live their lives. State regulations limit who are inferior to Britishvalues.are inferior Ithasbeenarguedthatthe ‘British values’, implyingthat some communities’ values prime ministers have of publically noted the importance Postmajority population. 9/11Britain,threesuccessivein the cultural or traditions of not sharethe same history References Work Migration: Life and The Transnational Marxism Today, The Blackwell Troubling Emotions 137 a strong emphasis on maintaining your culture, on culture, on maintaining your a strong emphasis The group from, there’s I come it strong. keeping you’re ‘This… on that emphasis a strong how is it, protect to want they supposed to be’, because survivesit sure … And to make want and they they’ll or how cope they’ll how know don’t they broadly culture, adapt … whereas in the Australian because on that emphasis less there’s speaking, everybodyare and what they in who secure is doing, and the people around them. they’re I’ve values same the – it’s values Australian So, before about myselfdescribed community, and my experience extraordinary experience of levels uncertainty and must of types numerous with contend migrate risk. People ofa sense to provide precisely and belonging, security Indian One young and their children. for themselves there is his community claims that in Australian a certain Those sense born have bred in Australia and of‘survival where is inherent in that status, security for granted, taken ofinstead survivalthat feeling the (Inglehart,is uncertain’ In addition, Inglehart2000). suggeststhat ‘age (rising and circumstances economic bring about changesto security) and physical economic generations different to due orientations between value formativeThisin their experiences (2000). years’ is similar to the findings ofHussain and Bagguley (2005) who report generation that second Pakistanis British assertto rights upon citizenship draw identity their of and sense Indian-Australian Our young belonging. respondent exemplifies how manyyounger and second assertgeneration Australians of their sense belonging constructing by certainand claiming and Australianness from different however and identities, values Australian … the mainstream, as their own Such concernSuch ofextent the about cultural/ethnic The most significant research onvalues isWorld the loss ofchallengeswestern democracies common values and promotion that the ofonly diversity cultural problem (Goodhart,the exacerbates Recently, 2004). Cameron Minister and German Prime British both the multiculturalism that declared have Chancellor Merkel there In Australia, countries. respective in their has failed ofconsequences aroundthe debates similar been have and citizenship cohesion, for social especially diversity, remains multiculturalism Australian national identity. and elicits unsettling, and ambivalent contested, highly Apart contradictorytest, from a citizenship reactions. in the Statement’ Values an includes ‘Australian Australia in people applying for visas to live to booklet provided Australia. far than wider those ignores social divisions diversity of generations, between differences including ethnicity those between Australians, secular and religious between backgrounds. class and differing education different with Affinities denotes conditions of being alike, This does or comparable circumstances. histories values, based on not mean people are the but same, that they find aspects of in the living a commonality: identify which their lives and so on. children, having same area, being migrants, compassion, conformity as self-direction, such Values are importantand for difference respect mechanisms However and actions. behaviour people’s for guiding than about shared values less be might commonalities circumstances and histories. comparable experiences, Inglehart Survey and Baker Using this, (2010-2012). Values change’and ‘persistence cultural the found both ‘massive ofThis(2000). traditions’ cultural apparent is distinctive the and changesbetween examiningdifferences when generationsof Whether migrant background in Sydney. often generation first the refugees, migrantsor economic 138 Troubling Emotions eult ws rqety ofae wt gne, orelse gender, with conflated frequently was sexuality this a challenging question to answer. Until recently, made have sexuality of definitions Varied another? one shaped andreshapedby How aresexualitymigration and lhuhAinAsrlasmyhv ifrn aso although AsianAustralians may have different ways of married. get encouraging them home andtolive athomeuntilthey not expecting their childrento pay rentwhile living at to work inpaid-employment while they are studying, Examples she gave included not allowing their children and that these are different from Anglo-Australians. havechild-rearing similar practices toMuslimLebanese Lebanese,Christian Greeks, ItaliansandMacedonians a young Lebanese-Australian Muslimwoman claims think they may have more incommonwith. Forexample, they mentionvariousethnic groups. They ethnic groups family practices with what they thought it meant toother family and compared andcontrasted their notionof although itcomes in differentsizes.shapes and People multicultural Australia. in value as animportant that is sometimes forgotten In otherwords, hehighlights ‘respect diversity’for The same Lebanese-AustralianThe womanclaimed that the universal values, Family is described as one of values thatIhold. Australian forawalk … that’sor going of the sort tothe beach toamosquegoing or temple or going of, you know, to a people being vegetarian orgoing them to be definedI’d like by being a multicultural society values]. [Australian define to like would because I’m anAustralian …I’lltell you how I Sexuality and Migration Sexuality andMigration Eithne Luibhéid Australia pilot project, 2011-13 Australia pilotproject, The in research this article was taken the from Affinities in Multicultural University. Government, Harvard Kennedy School of RWP02-015, Civilizations Thesis’, JohnF. of the Clash Norris, P. R. (2002) ‘Islam &the West: andInglehart, Testing Sociological, 65(1):19-51. Review TraditionalValues, the and PersistenceChange of American R. andBaker,Inglehart, W. Cultural E.(2000) ‘Modernization, The Washington, 23(1):215–228. Quarterly R.(2000)Postmodern and ‘Globalization Values’, Inglehart, 39(3): 407-425. Identity: British Pakistanis after the 2001 “Riots”’, Hussain, Y.Bagguley, and P. (2005) ‘Citizenship, Ethnicity and D.Goodhart, (2004)‘Too Diverse?’, ote‘i’qetosaotmgain tde fsexuality Studies of to the ‘big’ questions about migration. commonly understoodasa private matter irrelevant and 2006). disease or (Manalansan, Moreover, sexuality was like crime, deviance,addressed under rubrics morality, more concerned with gender inequality. withgender more concerned Islamic religious values, the cultural faultline is much values between democratic values western and clash of to the Samuel that Huntington thesis about the core contrary find Survey, Values World the from results using (2002), andInglehart ‘Chinese Asians’. Indeed, Norris women has anegative similarity with and inequality of groups,to some European similar treatment thepoor child-rearingthan the girls’. While practices arepositively are similarbecause they do value their boys a lot more was onestrongsimilarity; ‘You know, actually, maybe they up theirchildrenbringing hercommunity, from there References Prospect , 95:30-37. , Sociology Troubling Emotions 139 These processes variously shaped migration. For shaped migration.Thesevariously processes For gendered, and economic geopolitical distinctions Consequently, and ‘colonized’. ‘colonizer’ between was colonies… whom in the wedded and bedded ‘who and migration were possibilities to chance,’ left never to a shift With the 2002). organized (Stoler, accordingly ofworld their controlled supposedly that nation states its importance retained sexuality in creating borders, own constructsthrough time this and naturalizing inequalities, of– and and economy ordering, social nation, citizenry, state migration expanding enforced by controls. migrationhas impelled sexuality individuals instance, by gay and unmarriedmen, pregnant lesbians, as: such discrimination or stigmatization; to avoid seeking women supportmarriedto children; employment seeking people marriageusing and men women as a strategy for legal migration;going those abroad individuals sex; to sell and sex tourists; others. HIV/AIDS seeking treatment; to social networks access also Sexuality shapes people’s the information, and contacts that provide resources, in turn, enable migration.that often Nation states, entryor refuse admit to whether decide migrantsto racial, cross-cut that considerations on sexual based instance, For and geopolitical calculations. class, gender, legal admission often depends on fitting into normative definitions of family, kinship or marriage,fear of or claiming sexualized form that takes persecution or is based migrants legaldenied are often Conversely, on sexuality. status when they cannot fit into normative definitions ofdangersexual present to (for or arebelieved family, carriersas supposed example, ofor loose diseases, sexual or on others, prey sexually who might or men women, sexual ‘perverts’).Migrants to be governed continue in termssexual especially nation state, the entering after welfare, health, economic, with through their interactions respond citizens to Moreover, and systems. education Queer theory, which emerged in the early 1990s, emergedearly 1990s, in the which theory, Queer – globalization processes accelerated Concomitantly, between In exploring context, connections this were often framed around modernistframed the often were belief that though – even identity sexual has an individual everyone this belief times and places. applicable to other is not up new and opened approaches challengedthese for connections thinking about the possibilities essentialist and migration.sexuality between Refusing constructsand transhistorical of sexual identities, theoryqueer the production instead explores of sexual normal between distinctions how and subjectivities, abnormal getand relations of the created, domination as sexuality addresses It involved. and subordination ofa regime shapes families, thoroughly that power and and economies; it institutions, state communities, that sexual norms,underscores strugglesand forms of articulate of governancehierarchies always race, gender, class and geopolitics. histories ofthat extend and colonialism global capitalism – produced a new ‘age offramework the had naturalized which migration studies, of migration.’ The borders, fieldown its controlled that nation state sovereign the of beganimpact of the to acknowledge globalization, transnational lives, migrants that fact the lived often frameworks, analytic nationalist question to need the of impact continuing the and the (neo)colonialism, significance of diasporic experiences. It also recognized that immigrationand dispersed policing has multiplied into national territories, national borders both inward to extraterritorialand outward locations. and migrationsexuality recognition the with begins often global order emerged through colonial that today’s sexual According to Ann Laura Stoler (2002), processes. also material but arrangementsmetaphors, just never were for creating and maintaining racialized, mechanisms, 140 Troubling Emotions mass media, flows,virtual and the internet.Scholars have scholarshave attentionof to therole particular paid refashion theirselveshow and subjectivities, migrants Analyzing that condition migration. economic structures love social and desire andinteract with large-scale of and traditional/modernity, andrethinkwhatbordersdo. that flows global binaries likedecenter the west,local/global deconstruct of models provide also works The and power coloniallegacies inequalities. of negotiation difference, but rather the not anuncritical celebration of – that involvetransnationalism, andmultiple modernities assimilation, towardcomplexity, multiplicity, hybridity, and progress linear Eurocentric modelsof from change.for frameworks These reorientreadersaway own creative adaptationsprovide better explanations ties; transnational and migrants’ barriers; status; language precariouslegal housing andoccupational segregation; that gender,economic and discrimination; racial suggests to dominant culture causes change. But new scholarship cultures), and the presumption that exposure migrants’ (which areheldtobesuperior cultural sexual norms supposed successfailure in‘assimilating’ ortodominant their of sexualities are oftenevaluatedTheir terms in assumptions about their sexual practices and beliefs. over.mapped ontobodiesandplaces, andstruggled become expressed, normal/deviant citizen/migrant, us/them, emulate.these processes, Through binariesof should sexual and moralvalues that the citizenry of anddisease – or asmodels perversion bearers of fertile, exotic, sexually backwards/traditional/repressed, highly throughasexualized lens,migrants often seeing them as Recent studies howalso explore individual feelings complex waysin respond toprevailingMigrants University of California Press. California University of Stoler A.L. (2002) 40(1): 224-249. Studies’, Gender inMigration M. F.Manalansan (2006) ‘Queer Intersections: Sexuality and inequalities atdifferentscales. multiple to transform, reinforce,offer opportunities or maythe connections between sexuality and migration other analysesaskustoquestion and critically how change.for These but nonetheless presentopportunities inequalities gender and racial at oncereinscribecolonial, in asylum cases, includingthose involving sexuality, may problematize howrights discourses human used global lives.to exploitation,violence,shortened and Others in tandem tolegitimize subjecting diverse populations racial, gender, andclass hierarchies,that articulate work sexual norms industrial complex,and theprison rise of unauthorized migrants, the how the criminalization of to endinequalities. Someexplore struggles and migration, questions about interconnections among sexuality, capitalism, andslavery, scholarshave posedchallenging colonialism,global are intimately tied to histories of (lesbians have received littleattention). people men andtransgender gay migrant the lives of intimacies transnational and families; and tosome extent, sexuality, and asylum claims; experiences of migration HIV/AIDS; and childbearing;migration migrants’ sex workers; migrant the politics of experiences of (especially daughters); and the second generation sexualities connections also exploredbetween migration, Given andsexual controls that bothmigration Carnal Knowledge ImperialPower and ,Berkeley: Carnal References International Migration Review International

Bliss in Capetown, 1921 M. J. Oliver

I done find Jim in dockyard lyin on shed floor. He look scare, I close door gentle. No worry, I say, I call Bliss, an I kiss him rose flower mouth.

Pleasure sailor that my job, but this diffrent. I only fourteen, done forget, he fifteen, sixteen most. Old sailor done rape him cabin boy every day, he tell me, so he jump ship. I like you yellow hair, I say.

I bring him string beans an a pear from my step-daddy plot, cassava an rice from ship I work nights, a mango, a plum an a small pickle fish one day.

He love Table Mountain peek upside li’l window wile we eat an laugh lot, roll round. Oh Bliss! he say, Marry me, then you not do this nice thing with bad men you not love – never gain.

You mad sugarbush, No! I say an throw him white arm far way. You desert ship, you got no right, no pass. Law here hang you. Liberty Belle she in dock an I know she sail tonight. You go.

Soon as dark Jim an me we go quiet from shed we lay. Crew on waterfront all busy, all girls an boys they say bye-bye.

Jim he fly like mosquito round me, here, there, he kiss me. Then short time hush, him sweet head in Bliss black hands. Up gang plank he zig zag. Gone.

COMPAS Poetry Competition 2013 Shortlisted Making Politics

Migration, Suffering and Rights Julia O’Connell Davidson About suffering they were never wrong, Libya to Lampedusa. Media reporting of the disasters The old Masters: how well they understood noted that humanitarian agencies estimate that 20,000 Its human position: how it takes place lives have been lost in similar circumstances over the past While someone else is eating or opening a window or just 20 years, and that there are many thousands more men, walking dully along women and children currently in North African countries, Musée des Beaux Arts - W. H. Auden waiting to attempt the crossing (Davies, 2013). People in In an essay about suffering which takes Auden’s Musée Europe heard this news and continued with the prosaic des Beaux Arts as its starting point, David Morris business of daily life, just as the ship in Auden’s poem observes that we witness other people’s suffering from continued on its way after witnessing Icarus fall into the a distance, ‘as if through a pane of thick glass’ (Morris sea. The comments sections beneath newspaper articles 1997). The poem, he says, speaks to the fact that our own on the tragedies provide an insight into their thoughts as lives are necessarily ‘more immediate and absorbing’, and they did so. suggests that our capacity for detachment is ‘the outcome Some certainly recognized the suffering of the of a structural position we cannot help but occupy’. migrants concerned, but comments beneath a Daily Mail However, Morris continues, there is a difference between article included the following: ‘Isn’t it about time these this kind of detachment and an ideological blindness to people stayed to sort out the mess in their own countries the suffering of those groups of people who are excluded instead of running away?’; and ‘Hard as it may seem, the from our ‘moral community’. It is not the same to turn only solution is to send all of them (without exception) away from news reporting a tragedy affecting people far back to the port where they came from’; and ‘As much away and continue to butter the breakfast toast because as this is a sad story, the UK cannot accommodate the there is nothing you can do to help, as it is to imagine world and it’s wife in such a small island, this is unfair that ‘people like them’ do not suffer as you would if for the population’ (Robinson, 2013). These are not the affected by a similar tragedy. The recognition of a person comments of people simply too absorbed in their own or group’s suffering is linked to their inclusion in the lives to dwell on the suffering of distant people. They moral community, Morris argues: ‘Suffering… is not a express an active resistance against the ethical claim that raw datum, a natural phenomenon we can identify and these migrants’ suffering might make upon the authors. measure, but a social status that we extend or withhold’. Suffering occupies an important place in refugee and I was reminded of Morris’s essay when I read about forced migration studies, for in international refugee the series of shipwrecks in the Mediterranean in October and human rights law, those who are understood to 2013, in which some 400 people are believed to have have suffered are often afforded special status in terms drowned whilst attempting to make the crossing from of rights and protections. But much as the connective

142 Making Politics 143 Social (13 Daily Mail The (16 October), http://www. October), (16 References The GuardianThe Unfortunately, it is perfectly possible for states possible for states it is perfectly Unfortunately, Davies, L. (2013) ‘Why Lampedusa Remains an Island of Remains Lampedusa ‘Why (2013) L. Davies, Hope for Migrants’, theguardian.com/world/2013/oct/16/lampedusa-island-of- date accessed 3 December 2013. hope, Genre and Moral Voice, Suffering: ‘About (1997) D. Morris, (eds.) and M. Lock Das V. Kleinman, in A. Community’, ofSuffering University , Berkeley: California Press. Imageof‘Shocking (2013) Hundreds of W. Robinson, African MigrantsEmerges Europe as it Bound for on Raft 20,000 Decades’, Two in Past Died Have May http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2457791/ October), Shocking-image-hundreds-African-migrants-raft-bound- accessed date Europe-emerges-20-000-died-past-decades.html, 3 December 2013. ‘UNHCR ChiefUNHCR (2013) New at Shock Expresses (12 press release UNHRC Mediterranean Boat Tragedy,’ date http://www.unhcr.org/52594c6a6.html, October), accessed 3 December 2013. safe haven in Europe’ [emphasis added] (UNHCR, 2013). added] (UNHCR, in Europe’ [emphasis haven safe of some kinds to recognize simultaneously as suffering a qualification for community inclusion, immigrationlethal to operatethe and border regimes but continue and generateboth deny that controls ofkinds other ship ‘sailed the that fact the poem, In Auden’s suffering. truth.an existential expresses rights until But on’ calmly basis of are afforded on the not nationality or humanity, this depressing ‘human position’ even claims to suffering, to sail on by. are not all free We shared. is not universally worry that Syrians, who worrySyrians, that particular readers were really concernedreally the is readers were contest to

Because suffering is not raw datum, it can be selectively it can be selectively datum, is not raw suffering Because idea that distant others should be able to secure rights should be able to secure idea that distant others of on basis of inclusion in European countries the their And ofon this question suffering. rights and whether considerable person should be recognition as a morally tied up with suffering, I findmyself in agreement with them, albeit for very different reasons. can be people that acknowledge states Thus, recognized. ofas a consequence forcedmove to purposefully suffering inflicted by private or state actors (‘traffickers’,on the basis ofwho persecute actors political or religious belief, upon or consequent etc.) sexuality gender, ethnicity, race, war and armed conflict, but not as a result of suffering Such as poverty. such from that stems impersonal factors, in commentaryinto play came on the even distinctions High Commissioner of– the October shipwrecks the UNHCR ‘expressed tissue between suffering and rights appears suffering as a humane between tissue above, to the rather counterbalance comments callous Though Morrisis a quandary. with us presents also it doubt correctwithout of status that the to say suffering as to those who are is more readily afforded perceived members ofis neither suffering moral the community, a necessary nor membership for community criterion perhaps the what Indeed, to inclusion. route usual the Mail Daily are fleeing a frightening conflict, are resortinga seeking dangerouswere as they and route drowning to this 144 Making Politics claim that it produces impunity by tolerating rather than forgive-and-forget amnesty, inturn, reason. Criticsof this just for beneficiaries potential by opposed been has amnesty settings, some In steep. be may beneficiary the expressive indictment, meaning the symbolic cost to of Notice, however, akind amnesty performs that granting erasing the and penalty. the then pardoningperpetrator offence,an recipient perpetrated has with amnesty and vindication. three versions: forgive-and-forget, administrative reset, valences. Broadly, amnesty arguments tend to come in amnesty’stransgression, has avariety ‘forgetting’ of astransgressive at all?Assuming a issue be regarded a begins with a thresholdquestion: should the act at of forgetting (official) oroffence. Inevitably,transgression of then, the debate kind a as characterized an etymological cognate with amnesia and is often fault, victimization and accountability. Amnesty shares responsibility, policy shouldtake regarding immigration policy.just andnecessary amnesty continues to represent progressives, the idea of ‘regularization’ and‘legalization’. Nevertheless, formany and have including therefore substituted other terms, has been toosuccessfully commandeered by the right marginalized noncitizens. that the concept Some worry previously of to signify the rightful incorporation rights advocates talk about amnesty aspirationally them branding as‘amnesty’. In contrast, immigrants’ by migrants irregular protectionof of variousforms debates over amnesty. Restrictionists seek to delegitimize areoften fought out through immigration politics of The The forgive-and-forgetThe versionpresumes thatthe Arguments overthat amnesty are about the forms Linda Bosniak Amnesty h ita r,sm upreso amnesty draft for of the Vietnam era,some supporters now need Forexample, interrogation. during indebates theUS in transgression the the least, defining policies at very the that and justifiable, not beneficiaries’ was the prosecution that or unjust, was rule violated the approach entailsreframing:the a moralclaimisthat This ‘Amnestyconveys International’ this understanding). theorganization (the indicting wrongdoers nameof as protecting amnesty victims,is portrayed rather than complianttaxpayers’). tax amnestiesaresaidto‘enrage approach rewards the activity in question (for example, inadvertently. Criticsthatthe complain consequentialist and thatit’sthan transparentlyrather better to govern amnesty is the unacknowledgedany case, policyin widespreadnoncompliance, that defacto or society of its bad, orbadnesswas counterweighed by the cost to was not so that the transgression discourse sometimes suggests Associated fines. parking and narcotics, collection firearms, tax of those including mundane, and contexts, politically charged both varietya is appliedin of forward-looking, systemic functionality. conception This administrative failure, in the interests of andis undertaken is unenforceable. Amnesty is treated as aresponseto focusingfault, onthe premise isthatthe law instead of asrespondingto an offence, but likewise views itself as amnesty’s altogether. ‘enforcedforgetting’ the justice transitional context object to what they view apology, public (fines, to underline thatfaultstill probation) attaches. penalties Othersin or conditions with and, atthe least, mustplayed be coupled by the rules punishing offenders’ conduct, is unjust to those who A thirdversion treats amnesty as vindication. Here, In amnesty’s administrative reset version, the state Making Politics 145 However, such legitimation is not inherent in the idea in the not inherent is legitimation such However, by circumstances – usually, by accrual by of– usually, circumstances by in and ties time to assume continue arguments Such state. receiving the initial legal the and that just, immigrationthe that was law has something subsequent wrong, but that violation was link often advocates Indeed, calculus. changedmoral the to heightening a commitment with their call for amnesty of enforcement the borders going This forward. kind of more radical has led is, it as in intent protective argument, immigrants’to repudiate as a amnesty rights advocates tarring goal,political immigrants effectively as it viewing that produce their the border and laws legitimizing unauthorized status. ofMore thoroughgoing, vindicatoryamnesty amnesty. The most radical conceivable. are at least arguments are unjust border laws be that the state’s position would ab , so entryinitio inspection or overstaying without This argument a wrong. deemed cannot properlybe could be made via a liberal-cosmopolitan Rawlsian or critique, a humanitarian ethos-of-hospitality critique, a left-anarcho-libertarianof critique kind advanced the one Alternatively, organizations NoBorders. by like the where that, argument a historically-based could make history with or exploitative has a coercive state receiving in relation to nationals exclusionarylaws sending state, the of those states are unjustified. With all the arguments, ifsame: the is upshot the the then are unjust, laws the immigrantfor instead, is not culpable violating them; An to enforce them. alternative wrong was state the vindicatory even maintain that, position might amnesty if immoral, unauthorized are not themselves border laws immigrants should not be regardedbecause as culpable be position could The excuse their actions are excusable. immigrant’s the termsin duress expressed invoking by – selfto feed need or or suffering; in escape and family, termsinducement or tolerating inviting was state – the … did not mean ‘pardon,’ nor even forgetfulness. forgetfulness. nor even … did not mean ‘pardon,’ Certain ofof the justice simply they their cause, could And this recognized. rights their wanted to reverse governmentthe not be done unless was ‘If itselfsay, speak, to so and, men these publicly, on our we then war, wagethis to not right the have side had no right to declare it’. In the immigration In the ofidea the context, amnesty The argue about far actors thus is that political point ofmatters and yet through amnesty-talk, accountability conceptamnesty the understanding no consistent offers offor no and stands entails, accountability what it. for achieving consistent approach Currentto tend debates directions. in various cuts reset and/or administrative forgive-and-forget feature ofversions The role of amnesty. vindication arguments Most immigrants’ rights defenders, is more equivocal. On about them. ambivalent seem academics, including portrayoften potential advocates one hand, amnesty the ofas victims recipients and callous employers exploitative and as a means ofamnesty governmental actors, releasing status. of unauthorized vulnerability the from beneficiaries rarely claim that On other hand, advocates amnesty the immigrantsemancipates amnesty from border unjust laws ‘undocumented’ as them defined which laws same those – in the first place – nor that immigrantswere justified in hear that more common to is It law. existing the violating immigrants’the superseded earlier ‘wrongdoing’ has been avoiders maintained that the true the that maintained transgressors avoiders the were prosecuted view, In this resistors. the not war-makers, deserved from indefensible protection draft avoiders penalties imposed in an unjustified war. Thisunderstanding of Sartre was Jean-Paul by advanced amnesty the war he wrote, In for calling ‘amnesty’, in a essay: 1973 resistors and deserters 146 Making Politics to locatetheRoma withintheseprocesses. nationalism. rampant and crisis financial try then can We the under incredible pressure as aresult of is currently and that institutional, economic and social restructuring, and transition,enlargement, twoundergone decades of EU, that has an institutional and political construction to examine the picture: broader more particularly, the away ourgaze turn from the Roma. Instead, we need todayEU inrelationtoRomani communities, we must that, toin orderunderstandwhat in the is happening political nature’(Fassin, suggest remarks 2010). These politics is of its source’ and that the ‘explanation of is nottobemistaken phobia for us that the‘object of today?’ the Frenchsociologist Fassin Éric reminded have inFrance the Roma and ascapegoat become a target in Europe. briefly, very suggest, some ways debate on the Roma to reframe the current to like would I Here built. been which theassumptionson past initiatives have some of the Romani people in Europe, it is time to rethink of memberEU states in addressingthe multiple exclusion Given the limited results achieved to date by the EU and indicting the‘culpable’parentsby contrast). act (though note that this last tackthe illegal ends up choice and control–atthe time of incapacity – lack of undocumented youth, by invoking or, inthe case of labour, failing to enforce the employer sanctions laws); to demand for presence (or with regards immigrant The Roma are a testing ground and an opportunity Roma andanopportunity The areatesting ground toanswer the question ‘Why trying In arecent article, as adiversionIn sum, ‘amnesty’-talk need notserve EU Citizenship, Roma Reframing MobilityandAnti-Gypsyism:Timefor theDebate? Nando Sigona Books J-P.Sartre, Amnesty’, on (1973) ‘Sartre foundational myths to redefine the relationship between relationship the redefine to myths foundational capitalism has been characterised by a search for socialist states towards formerly the transition of tensions economic resulting rapidtransformation, from Europe project. theoverallpolitical actorstoscorepointsagainst EU Roma ‘threat’ is manipulatedandused by Eurosceptic member states. The the mountingnationalistdemandsof thetofully EU embraceits mandate vis-à-vis capacity of tensions, structural major calls into question the time of theand,at European Uniona the key pillars of one of establish themselves in anothermemberstate) challenges attempt to curbtheirmobility(as well astheirrightto current The without adequate institutional representation. remote elsewhere; yet they are nonetheless a people alien bodyfroma numerically), and not some kind of muchUnion, like the Swedes or the Danes (including thepeoples thatmakes the European Romaare oneof expulsion, but also cohabitationandconviviality. The bans, and forcedmigration of a centuries long history as exotic and otherto the imagined EU community hide them for the EU politicalproject. Attempts to portrait matters istheusestowhich theideaisput. ‘amnesty’; what and single meaning of isnotrue There elements as well as legitimizing ones.and emancipatory from ultimate justice questions. It contains vindicatory As Ihave shown inRomaniPolitics in Contemporary , 20(6). (Sigona andTrehan, (Sigona from structural 2009) apart References h e okRve fThe NewYork of Review Making Politics 147 , Basingstoke: Palgrave. Palgrave. , Basingstoke: Notes References Romani Politics in Contemporary Romani Politics Ethnic Europe:Poverty, To understand the contemporary the understand spread of To anti- root causes the addressing approach critical A new For more information: http://ec.europa.eu/public_ For opinion/index_en.htm. more information: http://ec.europa.eu/justice/ For discrimination/roma/national-strategies/index_en.htm. ‘justification’ for the ofgenocide ‘justification’ Roma. European the link between the Europeand in neoliberal Gypsyism racial criminalization of and discriminatoryRoma the should bear in mind that anti- we policy and practice, its in phenomenon;not a new nonetheless, is Gypsyism current configuration, it is inextricably intertwined with transformationsthe breakup ofthe followed that the consolidation of the Union, Soviet liberal democracies European principles in the and neoliberal economic ofUnion, and processes by pauperisation experienced communities. many Romani ofis urgently Thisinclude needed. must exclusion Roma an ofunderstanding historyRoma the of exclusion historythe within of successful the place and Europe, participation of core in European polity at the Roma the of belong. the EU project. This is where the Roma 1 2 & Society Culture Theory, Roma?’, the ‘Why E. (2010) Fassin, http://theoryculturesociety.blogspot. October), blog (7 com/2010/10/eric-fassin-why-roma.htm. Romani ‘Introduction: (2009) N. and Trehan, Sigona, N. Trehan Sigona, and N. in Neoliberal Europe’, in N. Politics (eds.) Mobilization and the Neoliberal Order

2 underline just how how just underline 1 The history ofin Europe is communities Romani In contemporary is racism against Europe, Roma episodes of by marked and violence mass persecution, and both institutional discrimination perpetratedby The ofkilling mass agents. non-institutional hundreds of thousands ofcarried systematically the by out Roma the was II War before and during World Nazi regime culmination of The not an episode. isolated a process, constructionof ofas a ‘race communities Romani the a central criminals’ geneticallywas crime to inclined component ofa apparatus provided that ideological the widespread prejudice and stereotypes about this minority about and stereotypes widespread prejudice intolerance widespread this despite Interestingly, are. terms and as anti-Gypsyism the Roma, such towards political vocabulary EU’s entered only Romaphobia has to solution any effective, be To mid-2000s. in the ofnature ‘mainstream’ the acknowledge anti-Romani EU in the for example case is not the this sentiments; integration for national Roma strategies. Framework state and nation. In such a context, nationalist movements movements nationalist a context, In such and nation. state far-right numerous grown and so have stronger, have out marked groupsand xenophobic racist have that large increasingly in the political spaces for themselves oflife to shift This overall European countries. most confusion in the existing the by exacerbated right, the a minority has turned Roma, the camp, social-democratic without significant political representation, into an easy targetin culminate at times campaigns that for racist violence. not just confined to a fewEurobarometer surveys Successive extremist fringe elements. Carrying Water through the Kroo Bay Slum in Freetown, Sierra Leone Sam Strickland

COMPAS Photo Competition 2010 Joint Second Place Making Politics 149 . outside in order to be helped by them. Thus, Thus, them. in order by to be helped outsiders , but, importantly, by acknowledging the agencythe acknowledging by importantly, , but, From a theological point of a theological From of view, this course, Christian missionaryincluding systems, Religious logic is utterly flawed with respect The parable to Testament. New in the neighbourly love the key text on oflarge by I believe, Good known, the Samaritan is still portions of European population. secularized It may the heritage’, ‘Christian most it but Europe’s belong to still is not a storydecidedly one particular to is attached that who an interlocutor tells story the is religion. It Jesus Theneighbour?’ ‘Whoquestion: the my is had asked story ends with two surprises: firstly, the is a migrating a hated foreigner, neighbourly love personshows who it Secondly, territory. Samaritan passing through Jewish homeland, but inhabitingthe person rightly not the is rather this migratinga helping who extends foreigner, One aspect, hand. Theis ambiguous. outcome theological that neighbourly saying can be summarized by however, supportproviding to the by not just materializes love outsiders of these to neighbourly love speaking, to restrict theologically ‘our Austrians’ is to distortthe parable by the recounted ancient Greek writer of Gospel. Luke’s the to deny been misused have through the ages, activities agencyof parable ofthe using However, ‘other’. the the Good Samaritan as a point of that say departure, I would a groundedbrings spirituality togetheran expectation of agency the both of and ofdivine the human the ofcase In the ‘other’. Good the Samaritan, this ‘other’ a migrant. has political implications. spirituality was Such Ifthe notion that the seriously takes system a political sedentaryservesthat best view the is not necessarily view Christians flooding Europe from the flooding Europe Christians Michael Nausner A Spirituality ofA Spirituality Migration? Austrians’. our Austrians’. from migratingthe non- inside Theof strength legacy the of a cultural such Notwithstanding protests by mainstream Christian by protests Notwithstanding garnered Party Freedom the almost in Austria, churches a quarter of of votes the Obviously, people. Austrian the for partythis for aggressivelyits known xenophobic of trick campaigning, the advertisinghad been ‘positive’ Thesuccessful. is wrong to be: what implication seems There is nothing wrong with our Austrians? with loving a Christian protecting Ever since the Enlightenment, the question ofquestion the Enlightenment, the since Ever whether a necessary is spirituality ofaspect viable or even social of understood as a set raised.Faith, has been life beliefs in more or authoritarian rulesless imposed from above, in which a world In increasing suspicion. with has met ofrights the social systems and democratic individuals to be backward- seemed systems religious evolving, were progressthe to looking obstacles of western nations. supportedoften systems religious the time, same the At colonial and imperial ambitions of They western states. mirrored the construction of in terms the world of ‘the on based view propagating by rest’, the a world vs. west ofdivision the into a Christian and a non- world the Christian sphere. epistemologyon attempts frequent the in seen can be partthe of argue for the to theologians and politicians protection of a or ‘Christian Occident’ a ‘Christian ofexample Europe’. An extreme was a mindset such the campaign of during Party Freedom the Austrian country, the run-upthe All over in 2013. elections to largeofleader blue-eyed billboards broadcast the the people of with healthy partyin friendly conversation reading: with accompanying text light skin colour, means this me For neighbour. your ‘Love 150 Making Politics the contact zones between cultures. Andincontrast to all that continuously totravel, is prepared so to speak, into it theSamaritan,isaspirituality Good from theparable of character. Taking hasamigratory clues spirituality itself and moreto do with an awarenessnice to refugees’, that migrant’s doublevision’. Rushdie’s eye may work, now ‘the truest belong to the (1994) Homi Bhabha has saidinreference to Salman the migrant’s vision.After all, as perceptive quality of is indispensible politicalresource: an the missing outon culture sedentary fictitious) (often an to adaptation unilateral people as amatter of its relation to migrating the global village. Asociety that continues to understand of help to shape asociety to be a moreconstructive part the multiple wayswhich in migrant’sa perspective can anew openness towardsmay emerge the common good, loss of countryside to eco-town developments, countryside and loss of needs, networksroad congested andpublic transport, housing ubiquitous issue in public debates about growing has become a onpopulationgrowth immigration of Britain’s impact is not‘sustainable’. The demography levels over the pastdecade has fuelled the idea that Inthe UK, the rise inimmigration by net migration. driven has been(and isexpected to be) largely growth countries where population immigrant-receiving major the debates insome of inmigration grounds are gaining arguments asylum andseekers), demographic migrants family frameworks (forexample, forthe admission of economic objectivesrights human and by short-term policy-making remains mostly drivenAlthough migration A spirituality of migration has less todowith ‘being migration A spirituality of Migration and Population Growth: Future Predictions and Contemporary Politics andPopulationContemporary Predictions Migration Growth:Future Alessio Cangiano ae nvriyo NotreDamePress. Dame: University of A Perilous Journey: Theological Perspectives on Migration , Notre Groody, D. G. andCampese, G. (eds.) (2008) York: Routledge. Bhabha, H.K. (1994) University Press. Benhabib, S. (2004) it needs migrants’ perspectivesit needsmigrants’ inordertobeinclusive. process that is simultaneously spiritual and political. And amorejust dwelling asa I understandthe imagining of just as a lofty realm beyond social coexistence. Rather, future dwelling,it. This however, is not to be imagined as the letter to the Hebrews in the New Testament has the world, but is looking fora‘future dwelling place’, it knows dwelling’ that itdoesnothave in a‘permanent religious empire-building through the ages, attempts of it is desirable to prioritise demographic objectives demographic it isdesirabletoprioritise highly contested evidence – it is legitimate to ask whether –a growth and population and by partial polarised debate that is typically informed immigration of benefits restrictions. and environmentalist lobbies advocate immigration strongly in USdebates where vocal populationcontrol hasalsofeatured growth population and immigration multiculturalism’. associationbetween The ‘failure of asylum seekers,anxieties about migration, andthe linkedabout populationgrowth, to widespread public fuelled a heated public debate 2010, parties both major provision. In the Australian election public of service ihu neigit h eiso the costs and Without entering into the merits of h ihso Others The Rights of h oaino Culture The Location of References . Cambridge: Cambridge Cambridge . Cambridge: , London andNew A Promised Land, A Promised Making Politics 151 One constructive element ofelement One constructive introducing population the regime ofregime the ofcirculation free and EEA non- citizens EEA permanent considerable with combined residents, means in demographic EU, across the trends diversity that it would be difficult to adopt animmigration policy a shared system within demographic inspired by objectives of European migration governanceis that – an argument anti-immigration far-right lobbyists by forward put often Internal mobility, EU. the as a rationale for the UK to leave major for infrastructureimplications and have can which public service provision, is also difficult to manageSome has tried. China, for example, though states, many in categories of foreign immigrantscontrolled, can be Restricting costs. social and economic not without but mobility might have and students’ highly skilled workers’ of implications for competitiveness detrimental the the economy and for the country’s geopolitical Limiting influence. rights to family reunification and international protection can undermineinternational compliance with some clash with and ultimately human rights frameworks liberal values. key growthinto migration marks a move it that is debates from a narrowly-framedmigration focusing debate away on short-termand considering objectives labour market long-termmigration a broader, in isolation, to perspective migrationthat sees as a structural phenomenon and for an integratedneed the emphasises framework policy migrationconsidering other socio- in relation to both difficulties the given However, demographictrends. of formulatingand of desirable demographic objectives migrationnet managing the by them aggregate,achieving rationale emerging the whether it is reasonable to wonder migrationnet to reduce in order to curb population rhetorical or another growthobjective a genuinepolicy is exclusionary argument to justify immigration regulations. Demographic imprecise is a notoriously sustainability Thefor managing scope migration as a policy in migration policies. And, if in migration policies. use to feasible it is so, predetermined migrationof achieve to levels policies migrationnet manage population growth? and thereby of achievement the Taking a particular population size as a goal of migrationpractical and with is beset policies constraints on and there are numerous challenges, ethical attaining a net migration target. a concept(for example, and demographic objectives ofpace ‘desirable’ population growthageor a stable structure)broader their economic, when sense only make into taken are implications and environmental social policy these between priorities exist Competing account. a migration domains: for example, aiming at policy look very growthmaximising economic different may There sustainability. from one prioritising environmental ofis no evidence population size that an ‘optimum’ risk in setting An obvious maximizes general wellbeing. of series a complex is that a number such affecting issues virtuallyevery area of an to are reduced policy public round number. arbitrary, instrument demographic‘desirable’ to meet objectives functional logic not only in the questions: raises ethical underpinning ofthe use migration policies to achieve but national interests, country’s receiving the exclusively risk ofalso in the blame on migrantsthe putting for making population growthIt also has ‘unsustainable’. An important challenge for long- constraints. numerous term demographic planning is that migration trends are to a high degreesubject of uncertaintyand are extremely control no or little have Governments predict. to difficult over significant parts of the flows that make up the net migration aggregate. emigration In liberal democracies, of EU states, member For nationals cannot be limited. Pawel Kelly O’Brien

COMPAS Photo Competition 2010 Joint Second Place Making Politics 153 For example, ex-international West Indian cricketer Indian cricketer ex-international example, West For of the sword More recently, evidenced was justice positions adopting such that argued be might It in a workplace or industry. This can they that means or industry. in a workplace of has a diversity wide which encompass a membership a but (in reality) narrow range ofopinions, economic that, expect may members time, same the At interests. those ofis, (that interests’ ‘vested as protecting as well insider their privileged supposedly by members existing ofunions as the ‘sword will also act status), justice’, (Flanders, and inequality injustice to combat seeking roles two the The1970). between contradiction apparent migration.to comes it when displayed is Migrants may (and agents competitors as be regardedof as victims, the to look very not have do and we or comrades, bosses), hard to find examples of all of these in our history. Labour British for the worked Constantine Learie II officer as dealing a welfare War Ministry during World north in the in factories migrant black with workers reportedHe west. Boilermakers’the that union, soured I unemployment ofexperience the by War post-World black admit to refusing were members, their amongst on to report: but went ‘The into membership, workers helpful, most hand, were other on the unions, electrical on places take to coloured representatives and allowed 1954). Union Committees’ (Constantine, General Secretaryby Bill Morris of and Transport the opposition Union, in his outspoken General Workers’ introduction ofLabour’s to New for asylum vouchers supportof TUC’s and also in the seekers, Committee the on for guide education Academics’ Refugee to Assist refugees in 2005. of matters general principles than over over easier is Nick Clark Nick from the east. - Peter Oborne, 2013 - Peter Unions, Migration and the Road Less Travelled MigrationUnions, Travelled Less and the Road The British Labour Party, backed by the trade union the by backed The British Labour Party, movement, fought a great, fought a battle in the last honourable movement, century of for dignity This is all being labour and fair pay. lost, thanks in part of to the arrival of waves labour cheap But Oborne strategyBut pursuing a well-worn is of to fall to continue unions themselves Some expect Daily Telegraph a Daily Telegraph hard imagine ordinarily to be would It of defender as columnist and trade unions their only that one considers Harder when still achievements. Oborne praised had Peter same the previously, four years of defeat Margaret Thatcher’s pages in the unions the oflouder he ‘the it, Emerson put As Mail. Daily the of talked our spoons’ counted we faster the his honour, (Emerson, 1860). and rule. a sort presents He divide of in which hierarchy, (and are encouraged themselves identify to workers migrants. perhaps their unions) as being a step above This is as crude as religious bigotry in Northern Ireland, Eamonn McCann as a ‘tuppence by derided was which McCann went on tuppence’. looking down ha’penny on point to out the function ofciting sectarianism, formerNorthern praising Brian Faulkner Irish PM their shoulder with factory shoulder to marching owners feeling ‘the themselves, guaranteeing thus workforce, of be marching wageearnersthat the security wouldn’t against them’ (McCann, 1986). for called leader even one Labour in 2007, for this; Union Trade the at workers jobs for British British unions are essentially Congress Trade (TUC) Conference. reformisteconomic organisations to organiseseek – they proportionand representmaximum the of workers 154 Making Politics irn okr sapeitro poorones. workersmigrant isapredictorof higherwages andconditionsthanthe presence of of is a better predictor trade union organisation presence of In thiscontext it is worth notingthatinaworkplace, the communities toresist in orderthe race tothe bottom. andactivists from those often seeking out organisers chosencommunities, todraw inmembersfrommigrant privateboth publicand sectors (including the RMT) have muchsolidarity.one basedon honourable more in Unions decline’ (2013). underdevelopment and condemning them to afuture of countries, European eastern in creates drain” a “brain impoverishesEU workersrace tothebottomand a in BobCrow: ‘Free movementGeneral Secretary within the TransportMaritime and Workers, successor to the NUS) Rail, RMT(Nationalof Union byproposed current is not a millionmiles away from the position recently living is jeopardised then it is a different matter’. This of a West aliving, but when my Indian earning own standard minded man;IhaveAsiatic objection toanseamanor no democratically General Meeting in 1958: ‘I am avery explicit atthe NUS reasoning forhostility to migration Seamen made the theof National Union Council of the Executive economic competition. A memberof nation state, although regional organizations maynation state, give although regionalorganizations a constituted, citizenship amounts to membership of the ‘cosmos’. As the world is currently be a citizen of to the city, did consider himself although Diogenes Forthe Greeks, the relevant politicalcommunity was political community. a To citizen memberof be a is tobea e lnsd h itr fprotectionism is another, Yet of alongside the history Citizenship Phillip Cole accessed 14November 2013. bob-crow-explains-why-no2eu-is-standing-in-2014-elections/ 2014 Elections’, RMT website, http://www.rmt.org.uk/news/ RMT (2013) ‘Bob Crow Explains Why No2EU is Standing in November). Open, andWe Can’t even Talk aboutIt’, P.Oborne, Britain’s (2013) ‘Immigration: Doors AreWide Socialist Worker Review Protestant Working(1986) Eamonn McCann, ‘The Class’, Seamen. National Unionof the General Meeting, Hewitt, D. Proceedings of (1958) The IndustrialRelations of Flanders, A. (1970) Fairfords: Echo Library Emerson, R.W. (1860) Constantine, L.(1954) divides, does, asOborne buttowhatunites. all:notbyto what appealing of without the participation or zerohours will benefit all workers, but cannot be won matters.contests those wins who low pay against fight A are contested, and remain places where ideas and strategy themeanstodeliver them. Unions of backterms in equality, althoughfurther to ideasof 70s and with regards ihsaddte iieshl smmeso the state, duties rights andcitizens as membersof hold to additionalrights. it) giveson and member state (although dependent rise EU an citizenship of to national citizenship isadditional rise tootherforms.ForUnion example European We are better placed now than we were in the 1960s iiesi sdfndbt nenly ntrso the of internally, both defined terms is in Citizenship Management and Unions: The Theory and Reform andReform Management and Unions: The Theory , London:Faber andFaber. , 89:19-21. Colour Bar,London:StanleyPaul &Co. References osi n“h odc fLife” Worship in“Theof Conduct Daily Telegraph (13 , Making Politics 155 The first boundary the migrant must cross is to If they national into the territory, do escape they migrant-citizenthe think, might we has found Here, negotiates the national border. We tend to think of tend We negotiates national the border. borders binaries an as simple and with inside an outside, but borders the externalas of markers are membership and obstacles different and identify multidimensional, spaces where the journey premature end. come to a may gainnational territorythe to access space. a physical as partthis In Europe, of journey the more becoming is asdifficult and states dangerous, put up more barriers to Immigration, territoryto access make harder achieve. to southern Africa, borders with Europe’s across especially migrants forcing criminalized, increasingly has become end for many, which, more perilous routes ever to take journeythe where So one space to in death. come may Thosesea. landfall a prematureend is the that do make may find themselves in the spaceMediterraneanthe across scattered of detention and southern Europe, camps strugglea space they may to escape. if may, a fragile in it within exist to need are poor, they form,or ‘illegal’as undocumented the inside migrants, exploitation, to vulnerable legality, outside but territory, and deportation.persecution Iflegalestablish they in a temporarybe may it territory, within the presence form, or with a visa. Thislimited still is as a worker guest a vulnerable and unpredictable space, and they may find as from citizenship, away backwards, travelling themselves legalwas thought they questioned presence the becomes to leave indefinite If achieve state. they the by revised and rather than ‘citizens’, as ‘denizens’ can exist remain, they narrowan increasingly is becoming this but option, as conditions the and tighten revise continually states the This‘denizenship’. to provides it because is attached to the final stagegateway of full citizenship. the journey, in space a predictable have we – here and stability safety ) jus jus jus soli jus jus sanguinis holds, can define its territory, or can or The external rulesof membership vary between be complex and can therefore to citizenship Journeys and externally, by the rules by members distinguish which and externally, concerns debate While internal much from non-members. the external boundary ofmembership, cannot citizenship determinesas it the to who has access overlooked, be goods and burdens of internal and membership, defines undertaketo if journeythe people have to want they the boundary to the inside. from the outside traverse are general but there that most systems features states, is The in common. method straightforward most have territorybirth, ( being born either state’s within the bornor being ( a citizen already who is someone to or the you by not chosen is citizenship Here, sanguinis). state you are a member of: you simply find thatyou are a member of a particular state, and the state finds that The migration:is other main method are a member. you ofaquisition to another and the state from one travel according to legalresidence conditions for membership. and the choice membership is through choice, Here, a choose to runable be can may you direction: in either choice the particularhave may state to join, and the state of Thefor scope as a member. to accept whether you it is end, In the though, can be limited. here, choice retains the position ofwhich the state in that it power, rulesthe decides wishes. it and can vary in any way them to birth, it comes So when whether can decide it soli are who people with have must varyyou relations the Whento migration, it comes it can close already citizens. varyor can the entirely, citizens door on would-be the or it qualify, to meet must citizens would-be conditions when migrants even have right to choose can retain the met all conditions. filled with obstacles and dangers, and it is the migration citizen would-be route that is the most complex, as the 156 Making Politics iwn fthe cosmopolitan, the worldcitizen the and viewing of in the had worldthat hefelthad nationalism (1961). The the impact little cosmopolitan, tonoextent because of public asthegood in war.” Davis recreated himself total dividerepresent us and leadus to the abyss of can give,” sovereign he proclaimed.“The states you people, want the peace which onlyaworld government United NationsGeneralAssemblyParis:in “We, the the renouncing hiscitizenship, a session of hestormed his One World Movement received. Six months after cosmopolitan, the more publicity his status as atrue found that, the more nationstates harassed himabout rarely recognized at national borders,own passport, and the world’. Hethencreated his a‘citizen of himself at theEmbassyinParisUS passport anddeclared inhisAmerican Davis turned 25 MayOn 1948, Garry them apply this to only naturalizedcitizens, and seven the state, eight of totheinterests of behaviour contrary while 14 countries can withdraw citizenship based on vulnerable tothis.particularly IntheUnion, European right towithdraw citizenship,citizen is the andmigrant presence. authorities who constantlyquestion examine andtheir persecution other citizenspolitical and from and them fully.refuse to accept may suffer They harassment citizens other and state the identity, and national a fit to their ‘belonging’ as citizens may be questioned as they ‘fail’ But there are two challenges that remain. firstThe is that same rights and responsibilities as their fellow citizens. which they can develop their life stories and enjoy the The second is that states are increasingly claiming the The Cosmopolitanism Sander L.Gilman qal audadscr a fbeing acitizen. equally valued andsecureway of fragility and uncertainty, rather thanan distinct space of theirparentshavecitizens by birth, beenimmigrants. even and been citizens by where they are migration, their citizenship withdrawn in this way since 2002 have peoplewhohave had the majority of citizens by birth, by the HomeSecretary.to Althoughthiscanhappen powerto be‘conducive This isheld tothe public good’. this is considered the national interests, and from2006, if behaviour prejudicial to of dual citizenship on grounds 2003 citizenship could be withdrawn from those with Although the UK doesnotdiscriminateinthisway, from have this resulting in statelessness. no safeguards against they were;even and whenmixed with other peoplethey other nations,as .remain fathers,in the andmidst of personified the rootless nomad. their Jews ‘in the land of ForHerder, asfor mostafter Europeans him,the Jews institutions,and common origin includinglanguage’. peoplehaving acommon of state nation as‘agroup the defined Herder G.J. theologian German the 1784, theIn rootless nomad. society against ahomogenous of a people,to berootedintheor land asaconcrete expression cities…’ degenerate increasinglyracially centers the cosmopolitanof from Jewish and literati orators of swarm the ‘international 1935, the Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg railedagainst which Davis against fought as apilot.In Nazi ideology citizen without ascorrosive,borders of been apillar had

The danger is that migrant citizenship remains a isthat migrant danger The Fromthe Enlightenment, radical nationalismclaimed Making Politics 157 , South References Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World ofin a World Ethics Cosmopolitanism: A World CitizenHoly Land in the A World We often think of often We as a form cosmopolitanism of Burlington: World Government House. Government Burlington: World Appiah, K. A (2007) Norton & Co. W. W. Strangers, New York: pass issued by the Malian consulate in Jeddah when he in Jeddah the Malian consulate by pass issued from Saudi Arabia. supportedHe had been expelled was Malian the Expelled Migrantsby Association (AME), Ousmane Diarra, by founded in in 1996 Bamako a Malian trader expelled from Angola for helping undocumented migrants for his AME 2012). had searched (Lecadet, did for Davis after World War II. Being cosmopolitan cosmopolitan Being II. War World after did for Davis the potential for movement, have that you simply means place. transformationtake must this that not change, and nation the that sees is a model there But multiculturalism. groupsas state of world the from throughout peoples and collaborating with competing, functioning, living, Thesegroups and shift transform,one another. may languagethe to speak come of and may nation the the third generationin the then (and state rediscover language and learn grandparentstheir that it). spoke, potential is the Whattoday cosmopolitanism promisesus claims ofthe spite not to for change and movement, them to make them, renew but to ever nation the state, flexible. GarryDavis died in the summer of 2013, still a ofcitizen Vermont, in Burlington, died he But world. the not terribly Maine, birthplace far from his in Bar Harbor, a citizen of a New Englander. but very much the world My Country is the World: The Adventures My Country (1961) of World: is the G. Davis, a Putnam. Citizen, New York: World (2001) G. Davis, Clara Lecadet Ghettos – Deportation Without a Voice Ghettos – Deportation a Voice Without On 18 December 2013, Sami Moussa Abdallah in Sami Moussa Abdallah died 2013, December On 18 a fever, with many days had spent Mali. He Bamako, that he could no longer so thin and weak stand and was deaf young, was He known up. Nothing was and dumb. ofdate than his other him about birth names and the ofon conduct safe These written a were his parents. may be distinguished for some generations downward’. generations for some be distinguished downward’. may ‘if Herder suggestedIn fact, ideally, that, everyone of Earththe place, remained in its nations had these might as a garden, considered been spot in one where have bloomed another, one human national another, plant, in in its proper figure and nature’. Cosmopolitanism goes againstof‘nature’ the and are rooted who human beings of was He should be unchangeable. and descent Jewish ofelimination for the his call the rejected simply borders uniform borders idea that and fascist peoples were and The 2001). reality is that the cosmopolitan (Davis, static ofis simply another way potential about the speaking class borders, across for movement for movement, All ofnorms. and cultural boundaries, human recorded historyofspeaks from world, the all over movement such expansion ofthe to states city Greek ancient Han at the to be China. considered is now period into what same the ifnation state the to opposed one be must But one sees of did, as a citizen as Davis oneself, Recently, world? the Appiah that argued philosopher the Anthony Kwame especially to another, obligation ‘whatever I might have that obligationthe does not supersede a foreign other, people most familiar to to those obligations I have being cosmopolitan does not cancel Being (2007). me’ as it century, 21st national, regional or in the ethnic 158 Making Politics group, andby hisdeathhadbecometheiremblem: forgotten a witness to theexistence of nonetheless borne young man.Without a voice and without relatives, he had this the deathof deplored socialactionatAME, head of understand theiranger. his speech, In Coulibaly, Amadou but one intheunderstoodtheirlanguage, they room did found themselves. spoke Arabic, They almost no and to testify to thepredicament inwhichappalling they AME Bamako went with himtothe annual meeting of of area the Kalambancoura housein large a shared had existence. voices belongtotheirsegregated most commonly inaudibleorsilent spoken in Mali.Their the languages without bearings,not speakinganyof and they themselvesexpulsion found Bamako, in rootlessand workers and to restrict employment to Saudis. After move away private from migrant on sector dependence Saudi government’s ‘Saudization’ policy, an attempt to the of in Saudibut Arabia, whohadbeen expelled as part up grown or him, they were ‘Malians’ whohadbeen born had settled. fromSaudiArabia Like expelled migrants Bamako where discovered several places in the centre of avail. However, through their work with him, AME had the of authorities Malian inBamako offices Jeddah, and buttono good the through months, for parents h a fSamiMoussa’s death, those who Malians day of The forces them to regroup inisolated areas,forces them to regroup usually Arabic, TamasheqSonghay. or situation Their commonly usedBamako.in speak migrants These or French,Bamanan which most arethe languages family ties. Inaddition,they don’t speakeither them have no secure Mali where the majority of still live. they have beensent back Furthermore, to where their parents inthe country almost all born areaspecial case because they were migrants here today. whoare other expelled migrants These Moussa’sMr case allowed us to make contact with new destination. to a their journey negotiating again, points and set off assistance family from friendsorcanuse them as transit financial have who Those rebuilt. be can life collective a andghettos are alsoplaces where and organise, regroup to them pushes themselves find migrants expelled many sometimes death. However, the abandonment inwhich resources, illness and marked by exhaustion, lack of hidden, utterly are adestituteGhettos population.are driven mad by expulsion, violent treatment and loss – places where people are blocked, and the weak those – or atown, these ghettos are stopping when inthe centre of as ghettos. Unobtrusively hidden awayisolated even and shelter. withtemporary provide migrants by their owners and often linked to people smugglers, houses,lent or abandoned Guinea, ruined Equatorial with Cameroon Niger, andinKye-Ossi the of on border andArlitin inAgadez on theborderwith Malian Algeria, Tinzawaten in Bamako: to confined not is phenomenon in Bamako Hall,adisused indoor market. Moreover, this boxescardboard in station, andsleep Sogoniko around LibyawanderMauritania and Algeria, from the area from their landandisolated fromtheir language. people being uprooted of basis leads to whole groups citizenship can be anempty shell, andexpulsion onthat process.enabled their expulsion without any legal Formal nationality as amere formality. It was, however, saw their that this ‘formality’ Malians these there, settled firmly to Saudi Arabia a long time ago, and their families were absurdities. can leadto brutal Because they had migrated legitimised, increasingly standardised andinternationally to the nation state remain asstrong asever. Expulsion, For allthe talk aboutglobalisation, the prerogatives attached Amongst themselves migrants refer Amongst to themselvesthese places migrants Bamako hosts many expelled people. expelled Malians building sitesorabandonedbuildings. Making Politics 159 The Social, Political and Historical Political Social, The References Thereofa stream is analysisin migration studies the state is validating breaches of breaches validating is state the sovereignty own its a would Why 2012). (Chauvin and Garcés-Mascareñas, state do that? face that states that explores imperatives the competing manageto attempting when migration trade- and the 2011). (Spencer, made choices policy in the implicit offs Analysis ofof politics the migration the policy-making process itself another that inclusive insight: reveals visibility a low found where be to are more likely policies reformofrisk the minimising made, can be for an blame in politics’ as ‘shadow unpopular – characterised decision ofpolitics’ ‘sunshine the to contrast to popular measures immigrationrestrict (Guiraudon This2004). suggeststhat partat least of the explanation for granting entitlements to irregular migrants may be found in conflicting policy to organise their future mobility. State politics may create politics may State to organisemobility. their future of as places ghettos they yet deportationa voice, without language. and demanding to a subversive are also home Lecadet, C. (2013) ‘From Migrant‘From (2013) to Self- Destitution C. Lecadet, The National Communities: Organization Transitory into ofRevival in Experiences Citizenship in Post-Deportation al. (eds.) Anderson et Mali’, in B. Contours of Springer,. Deportation, New York: au Mali: Parole de Prises ‘Expulsions et (2012) C. Lecadet, Marges’en ses Récrie se Agier (ed.) in M. Quand le Politique Politiques de l’Exception. Réfugiés, Editions Téraèdre. Sinistrés, Paris: Sans-papiers, from paper the translated Rosemary thanks author The French who Masters, Sarah Spencer The Sunshine and Shadow Politics ofThe Politics Sunshine and Shadow Irregular Migrants Europe in We are familiar ofWe while idea that the with course Thus, while the proliferation ofthe while Thus, across the expulsion Many studies have highlighted the consequences ofconsequences the highlighted have Many studies the of exclusion irregularmigrants (‘undocumented’) from on research own services,essential COMPAS’ not least however, Perhaps, 2012). (Sigonachildren and Hughes, states our surprisewelfare when at a time should be that, reined in and migrantsare being the feel to likely most permission those without squeeze, to be here are granted entitlements to any services at all. irregular migrantsfrom most are formally excluded getin practice services,through the access may they informalof practices local service doctors who providers: who or situation head teachers their with sympathise When into school. priority is to getthink the all children itselfstate the see we what however, grantsrights, those formal is formal versus inclusion; in effect exclusion formsnew creating is world of is it hegemony, political also generatingofand spaces modes new organising. and for regroupingfor shelter a need to respond Ghettos also make expulsion, but they following immediately up an underground geographyof people where places to amid hardship and ordeals, organise themselves, One could state. the constraints imposed by circumvent Agamben by used to localisation’, ‘shifting this liken heterogeneousthe describe of nature contemporary formsof a poor to form of camp, ghettos the politics: expelled and post-expulsion self-organisation how show migrants ofrely on resources the the group and their veryon the is that ofmethods national identity, politics, rigoursthe to endure ofperiod and post-expulsion the 160 Making Politics no debateatall(Bachrach andBaratz,1970). debate, even a‘non-decision’ where practice shifts with public when the authorities can avoid the full glare of decisions maycontrol. These bemorelikely to betaken immigration imperatives those of which ineffect trump likely tobefound. migrants, inclusion is more time from regularto irregular has shifted over aservice the fact that the clientele of provision anexclusionary orby overlooking breadth of can betaken by the adjustingreinterpreting the rules, those decisions services. Where pressure on emergency population accurate statistics, healthcare reduces the whileaccess to primary means certificate birth a to child providing access for anundocumented public services: of there is aneed for effective management Furthermore, crime prevention and areduction in street sleeping. policy objectives like publichealth,socialcohesion, entitlements, includingtheneedtoachieve competing there are alsomanypragmaticreasonscitedgranting for the areamongconstraintsthey face but obligations legal at the local level. anddomestic European humanrights provide with those imperatives services, felt most keenly are driven economicsocialimperativesand by legal, to the case: national, regionalandmunicipal authorities has foundthatthisisindeed acrossEurope migrants A COMPAS study Humanitarian and ethical concerns certainly play their certainly and ethical Humanitarian concerns 1 on official responses to irregular irregular to responses official on Vanessa Hughestothestudyonwhich thisdraws. COMPAS researcher In this analysis Iacknowledgeof the contribution responses_to_migrants.pdf. uk/fileadmin/files/Publications/Briefings/B-13-32-city_ http://www.compas.ox.ac.COMPAS 13-32 Status’, B briefing Spencer, S(2013) ‘City Responseswith Irregular to Migrants Spencer, S. (2011) Oxford. University of children andfamilies in the UK’, COMPAS, migrant Irregular N. Sigona, Hughes, and V. (2012) ‘No WayWay Out,No In: , 6:241-259. Political Sociology International Illegality’, Migrant NewEconomyMoral of Citizenship: The Garcés-Marcareñas,Chauvin, Sand B(2012) ‘BeyondInformal Practice, NewYork: OxfordUniversity Press. Bachrach, P. and Baratz,M.(1970) 1 found atthemunicipal level. inclusion to be of brings us closer to explaining patterns authority’s objectivesbroader are to be achieved, however, an inclusion if Recognising the pragmatic necessity of to schoolhealth care. educationatleast andtoemergency states, for instance, do allow access the vast majority of Europe’swhy population,helpingtoexplain section of provision tothis service the of inuneven geography part elwhpi 0221 n non ttetm fwriting. Fellowship atthe time of in2012-2013 and ongoing anOpenSociety under the auspices of Undertaken The MigrationDebate, Bristol:Policy Press. References Notes Power and Poverty: Theory and PowerPoverty: andTheory Making Politics 161 The everyday multiculturalism perspective is both a perspective multiculturalism The everyday provision and legislation, the everyday multiculturalism multiculturalism everyday the and legislation, provision experienced is diversity cultural how explores perspective and negotiatedgroundon the situations in everyday and and workplaces, schools, as neighbourhoods, such are identities actors’ and social relations social how Whileis focus the process. shaped and the reshaped in multiculturalism everyday the interactions, on everyday and cultural social, wider not exclude does perspective Indeed, structures. and institutions processes, political is approach multiculturalism everyday the to key the to understand how these filter through to the realm of and meaning- encounter disposition, practice, everyday The of termin favour is used making. ‘multiculturalism’ and avoid intersections these to capture ‘interculturalism’ trap ofthe to interpersonalinterculturalism equating interactions across difference. of way observingof a way and is as it diversity conceiving ‘ethnicity’ It challenges on the ground people. daily by lived ofunit contained as a singular, and starting analysis point research multiculturalism everyday Instead, for research. to approach an place-situated interactional, typically takes ofnature dynamic the understanding urban multiculture. It incorporates a particularof set methods qualitative and experiences encounters everyday where people’s larger into the are placed difference with cultural, are they in which contexts and social economic political, multiculturalism Operationalising everyday occurring. for a thoroughly interdisciplinarycalls approach, human studies, cultural from sociology, on work drawing ofSome geographyand anthropology. sub-themes the rituals the include field this in working those by explored of underpinthat practices development the and everyday Amanda WiseAmanda Paul Willis Paul Everyday Multiculturalism of ordinary recorded. somehow life, The Ethnographic Imagination - The Ethnographic Everyday multiculturalism emerged as a concept multiculturalism Everyday … well-grounded and illuminating analytic points flow only only … well-grounded points flow and illuminating analytic from bringing conceptsfrom bringing the messiness into a relationship with Angela Merkel’s 2010 declaration that ‘multiculturalism has declaration that ‘multiculturalism 2010 Angela Merkel’s world. the across among conservatives resonated failed’ could multiculturalism idea that naive into the played It ofin favour discarded be integration and assimilation Thoseso’. it ‘declaring would who are different by just learnmagically dominant majorities the to blend in with flourish ideas These settled. they which in societies the in terrain semantic muddled in the is multiculturalism. that is understood as a set multiculturalism level, At the state ofand programmes policies of migrant integration and migrant that allow settlement and minority communities and religious cultural develop maintain and retain, to and beliefpractices also signals questions It systems. ofCanada and like societies in settler national identity imply that these Merkel’s Comments like Australia. un-integrated encouragepolicies to live minority cultures and mainstream, to the multiculturalism ‘parallel lives’ offor a myriad to blame is from terrorism social ills to performance.urban and poor crime school In part such reality lived gainedviews everyday the because traction of political, and remained absent from public, diversity discourse. scholarly of‘fact to mark 2000s out the in the as a diversity’ Everyday object. empirical related, though separate, is a situated 2009) and Velayutham (Wise multiculturalism ofdimensions everyday the understanding to approach As opposed to policy-oriented is lived. as it multiculturalism serviceon groupfocused multiculturalism based rights, 162 Making Politics where everyday encounters with difference occur. This thisapproach. of heart super-diversity is at the multifaceted lived complexity of difference as well as everyday racisms. Understanding the openness to emergent an documenting positive signsof these. Afocusthe on everyday includes through allof wider discoursespolitics institutions and interplay power and difference – andhow relations of made of space and place mediate encounters with and meanings in drawing and overcoming racial boundaries;how practices, code switching andhumour, and their role solidarity and gift exchange; everyday scripts, speech hybridities; civility and incivility; networks, reciprocity, everyday cultural cultural exchange and transformation; emotions, affect and the senses; material cultures; embodied dispositionsinteract and with lived diversity, difference; how (intercultural) habitus communities of theycould havetruth, beenheroes. became the ultimate sacrifice for it. In another regime of citizenship. For morethan300 on 4October2013, it crossed frontiers.their journey was their This act of because that rendered them migrants truth to aregime of these Somalis andEritreans were subjecting themselves By became seeking migrants.better lives, Why ‘migrants’? aship,on board primarily SomalisandEritreansgot they several hundred of to the othershore. agroup When citizenship. must come. Afourth three areactsof Lampedusaunfoldsinthree acts. All of tragedy The h ie f td nld n oano life study include of any domain sites of The The second act wasThe the announcement by Italian Prime The first and original act is the embarking on a journey Engin Isin Acts Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Wise, A.andVelayutham, S. (eds.) (2009) Willis, P. (2000) approaches. qualitative methodologies, ethnographic particularly everyday multiculturalism an orientationtowards and ‘everyday share with cosmopolitanism’. They ‘commonplace diversity’, ‘vernacular cosmopolitanism’, in circulation include ‘mundane multiculturalism’, terms teams neighbourhood associations. or sport Resonant ‘micro-publics’and like schools,transport, workplaces, spaces, parks, markets, publichousingestates, public urban spaces like shopping centres, high streets, public neighbourhoods, including in the everyday places of overinteractions with,negotiations and difference occur how encounters, includes most prominentlystudies of joined a network of 200 cities granting honorary honorary 200 cities granting joined anetworkof theycouldhave truth, beenpatriots. of regime another In detaineddeported. and to becharged, destined werethose who survived immigrants’ now ‘illegal Why not give Instead, citizenship to those who survived? but hadbecome ‘victims’? ‘migrants’ who were nolonger itan hypocrisy to give posthumous citizenship to those act of Was thevictims. for mourning of day official an day today’. was The declared also citizensItalian asof are Lampedusayesterday hundreds wholosttheirlives off to begiven posthumous citizenship. He declared, ‘The Minister Enrico Letta that those who lost their lives were h hr c a hnteIainct fTreviso thirdact wasThe whenthe Italian city of The Ethnographic Imagination , London:Polity Press. References Everyday Multiculturalism Everyday , Making Politics 163 It would be folly not to recognize the complexity ofcomplexity the be folly not to recognize It would European the Union which citizenship, Nation-state As a final (redeeming) act of Europeans this tragedy, European cities granted citizenship to anyone who stayed grantedEuropean cities who stayed citizenship to anyone granted Being citizenship for a year and a day. in the city the libertymeant receiving of the German hence the city, one free’. city air makes ‘the saying, global migration. study There who are many scholars ofaspects complex and this complex issue its equally Theredisagreements are about approach, history. methods, data, findings,are journalsto migration dedicated and its studies and interpretations. There There books on migration are more many dimensions. can we alone read. Yet, let can follow than any scholar of a fraction summon not couragethe of migrants spreads as global inequality one conclusion: to draw and massively Europe contributes which to (something disproportionately)more on it creates pressure millions of not accept people to migrate. that migrants Can we themselves for lives better who are seeking are people them into economic dividing and Isn’t families? their and migrantspolitical as cruel the poor into as dividing deserving and undeservingMigrants 2006)? (Bosniak, are 2011). (McNevin, deed fortune, but by not by citizens regimes frontier security with is met pressure When such of surveillance,deterrence ofrisks the and detention, The more migrationhigher. crossing frontiers become furthermore it spawns the security intractable, becomes measures (Guild, 2009). death in a vicious is and strengthens, both sanctions and Unless Europeans commit member states the cycle. conditional and offering global inequality reducing EU to frontiers ofthe European citizenship, non-derivative but engenderEurope will and more suffering, more death, more tragedy. of European a establish network now must that cities This may be a symbolic act ofThisact be a symbolic may albeit citizenship, Iffrontiers its at who arrive those Europe cannot give citizenship to the children of children to the citizenship It born foreigners in Italy. honoraryis an important‘to award act in a citizenship spirit of and frustrationtheir neighbours, solidarity with ruleswith modernto acknowledge refuse that Italy’s ifI wonder Still, 2013). social fabric’ (Davies, multiethnic this ‘gestureof short hope’ falls well of granting all what offrontiers the at who arrive those Europe themselves this implicitly Instead, hope for: European citizenship. the rule strengthens act of birth and status. autochthony, who those principle that is the recognizes it what Yet fabric ofsocial the in themselves remain and establish a claim to citizenship. the city do have are Somalis and Why consequences. with far-reaching demand, European what they Eritreans not given Ifcitizenship? make to about a chance is citizenship to recognize them than way what better anew, ourselves not Italian citizenship, EuropeanNot with citizenship? not European not Spanish citizenship, Greek citizenship, citizenship as a benefit of national citizenship, but non- not dependent is, European (that citizenship derivative on prior ofcitizenship one ofof the 28 member states ofa recognition be ThisEU). the would our that fact the as birthright common humanity deals us citizenship lottery Nobody 2009). is bornof under circumstances (Shachar, others Eritreans and countless Somalis, choosing. their a chance themselves, to prove for a chance lives risk their and and families, their for themselves a living to make birthrightthat what lottery overcome them. has dealt nearly those as Thattragedy, the is act in the can die one attests. 20,000 deaths at European frontiers can offer a conditional it an unconditional citizenship, Europe has a history ofcitizenship. conditional The is about contribution, taking condition citizenship. a long time For beginning. and making a new chance that 164 Making Politics University Press. Bosniak, L. (2006) even therighttostay inthereceiving country, thereare social movements andcommunity organizations)? andtheir civilby society allies (unions, migrants NGOs, below from engagements.policies Canbetransformed outlined. Secondly, I want toconsider the in adversetheir agency contexts such asthe ones just canarticulate interested in highlighting how migrants this respect, here I will focus on onlytwo. Firstly, I am policy. manyquestions could beconsidered in While aspolitical actors and subjects of and look at migrants discourse isincreasinglyhostile. politicians alike,and inpublic their representation and exploitative treatments by and exclusionary employers often disadvantagedconditions favorprecarious and Their to control,count, contain, deter,deport. detainand policy ‘targets’ routinelymadeintopolitical and are They mainly aspoliticalobjects.feature thepoliticalarena in rights andtightercontrols,border tend to migrants migrants’ In acontext characterized of by the curtailing citizenship. of history European aparticular also honour not only the honour deadbut also the living. It would democratic deliberationwith the network. act would This and following local customs, andsociability, norms, and the city, learning into the social fabric of growing of continent’s frontiers. Each city can decide on aperiod citizenship Europeantothose who arrive at the grant Despite usually lacking the right to vote and sometimes beyond piece I want this approach go In this short The Citizen and the andAlien,Princeton: Princeton The Citizen eonzn irns rcie fCitizenship andtheirImpact Recognizing Practicesof Migrants’ References o their impact of Davide PeròDavide Guild, E. (2009) 2013. October), http://gu.com/p/3kvm4, date accessed 30 October , Cambridge: Harvard University Harvard Press.Inequality, Cambridge: Shachar, A. (2009) Press. the Political , New York: ColumbiaUniversity New Frontiers of Migrants and Irregular McNevin, A. (2011) Contesting Citizenship: PolityCambridge: Press. Treviso Citizens’, MakesHonorary Them as HopeforImmigrants Davies, L. (2013) ‘Italy: Gesture of who felt invisible and thus perceived themselves to be inLondon Latin American migrants of in the struggles element hasbeen an important and recognition. This care andhousing. have They also mobilizedforrespect otherissues suchaccess asfairer to health of a range and abuse across discrimination at work, have migrants struggled exploitation, fighting to addition In 2014). fairpay and conditions(Però, business on the issue of multinational companiesandbig to engage organizations workerscommunityand joinedforceswithunions the Living Wage campaigns where precarious migrant In theUK,examplesinclude the Justice Cleaners and for alliances withlabour, civiccommunity and organizations. occupied churches, strikes, hunger undertaken and formed haveAnderson, 2010). They demonstrated in the streets, papeles vulnerability and exclusion itproduces, seeking status and the irregular against haveEurope struggled media attention. Inrecent years, throughout migrants even though these have received scant scholarly and civic politicalvitality,and migrants’ several indicationsof andpathways to citizenship (see Mc Nevin, 2011; Century, 21st the in Migration and Security The Birthright Lottery: Citizenship and Global Citizenship Lottery: The Birthright The Guardian papiers, (29 Making Politics 165 51: Focaal Ethnic and Ethnic Policy Worlds. PolicyWorlds. , New: York: Columbia York: , New: References Contesting CitizenshipContesting Given Given the significance of the kinds of migrants’ but also supportedbut from compliance in demanding them 2011). (see Però, employers exploitative ofpractices is important it above, outlined citizenship and for engagedin research attention, pay to scholarship Likewise, impact. and their practices the to both teaching, labour and organizations for community time is it to representofinterests the more systematically new this ofand marginalized sector as part population. Finally, the and parcel of their role guardians as of pluralism and fairness in a context of nationalism growing inequality, it is importantand xenophobia, liberal the and that strugglesto the more visibility give cosmopolitan media ofmembers new these involving for justice that society call migrants. we Anderson, B. (2010) ‘Mobilizing Migrants, Making Citizens. Making Citizens. ‘Mobilizing Migrants, (2010) Anderson, B. Agents’, as Political MigrantWorkers Domestic Racial Studies 33(1): 60-74. A. (2011) McNevin, University Press. Press. University Engagements of ‘Political (2008) D. Americans in Latin Però, Debate’, Public and the Strategies UK. Issues, the 73-90. ‘Migrants’ (2011) of Practices D. Però, Citizenship and Policy (eds.) Però and D. Wright S. Shore, Change’,in C. Anthropology and Analysis ofthe ContemporaryYork: . New Power Berghahn. and Migrants. forthcoming)(2014 Politics ‘Class D. Però, in Britain’, among Migrant Action New Workers Collective Sociology 2013. . Article accepted 11 November in Barcelona obtained regularization in Barcelona obtained regularization through a Clearly, when examining and assessing migrants’and assessing examining when Clearly, an unsupported minority in superdiverse Britain (Però, Britain (Però, an unsupported minority in superdiverse also againstfought Migrants2008). the violation of have where in Italy, case the recently as was human rights, their a groupof migrants being at in protest lips their sewed detained. to factor in their subalternneed political engagements, we their appreciate fully to conditions and marginalized idea to adopt an also need inclusive agencyWe and impact. of formal policy change beyond that extends changes. this more comprehensive argued elsewhere, As I have ofidea changes‘smaller’ changecomprise should policy ofpractices everyday the by produced that citizenship migrants or adverse neutralize to cope with, resist deploy of enforcement and to demand the policies, favourable implemented. being not are these when and laws policies a group how discussed elsewhere of I have example, For sin-papeles combination of organized hunger and a well and strikes supportedoccupation of While not repealing churches. immigrationthe policy that had originally illegalized migrantsthese them, manage did successfully to suspend also have I and negotiateenforcement its an amnesty. ofmatter on the illustrated, at exploitation and rights a group how ofwork, from Latin migrant new workers in demand for their the application America succeeded of through establishing law British employment existing the within organization, a migrant LAWAs, workers’ not only This initiative union movement. trade British made a significant number ofcommand of of English aware migrantsrights, employment their with a poor 166 Making Politics ‘nationals’ or ‘foreigners’ ‘nationals’ orwithin anygivenstate. nation hierarchies nation state. Nationalistimaginationswork toconstruct but, in reality,territories national coexist within any nation states. lines are drawn not only between nation states but difference belonging,thus, draw lines of ideas of belonging) believed tobeexclusively ‘ours’. Nationalist have the things (rights, entitlements evenor asense of created by such ideas. should not,‘we’ ‘They’ feel, treatment under the law or to outright exclusion is for subjecting those said to ‘not-belong’ to differential legitimacy consanguinity’ (2000). The of kind by virtue exactlyownour with anyone else unless theyof are us to imagine that we do nothave to share ourspace David Morley argues that a nationalistdiscourse ‘allows creates a sense that there are personswhonotbelong. being‘athome’,it also creates ‘us’ an with a sense of to belonging (Anderson, 1991). Nationalism not only nationalbelonging. Nationalismuniquely sets of doesn’t isespecially the case ideas for belonghere’. This idea that some do notbelong: ‘s/he is a stranger, and is, inotherwords,. relational to fit in, one must be seen to belong by others. Belonging to just enough not is It environment’. or place specified a in ‘fit ways. tells us thattobelong,we needto dictionary The other, and to the social worlds we inhabit in quite specific belongingconnect us toeach mind:ourideasof state of beingathome. It is, however, morethananindividualof Belonging is often associated with a search forasense ‘Nationals’ and ‘foreigners’ exist not only in separated ‘Nationals’ and‘foreigners’ exist not onlyinseparated belonging,then, is the Lurking within ideasof be in a particular place; one must in aparticular between people differently classified as either as classified differently people fit in and,order . Such Nandita Sharma within limits Belonging

nothing but crises. Tellingly, does this (state) category produce – ‘migrants’ as classified those and – migration nationstates,today’s sense that there is adeep worldof is alwaysthat human migration already pathological. In so have or the past century helpedtoproducethe view mobility enacted human bystates nation overagainst the ‘righttohave rights’(Arendt,1951). asnotbelongingand, therefore, asnothaving thought of came to be contrast to new ‘national subjects’, ‘migrants’ came tobedefinedbycontrols. border Consequently, in War II–that state sovereignty andsocietal membership Worldarguably, and, century onlysecured attheendof became Indeed, it was onlyasmonarchicalstates imperial or nationalbelonging (Mongia, 1999). to the creation of nationstates and mobility were central tothe creation of over workers. free human Indeed, state restrictions against elites, the bourgeoisie, particularly the free movement of also favoured andsexualized. They racialized, gendered highly were controls national first very The ties’. ‘family can best be defined through ‘bloodlines’, ‘genealogy’, and ‘nation’. Hence the idea thatanygiven ‘nation’ those of andsexuality with ‘race’, gender –ideas of normalizing – and normative of by the intertwining they are informed capitalist competition, and context situated aglobalof in historically belongingare Nationalist ideasof random. timeless natural, does notisaprocess.is it Nor citizens seenasnot‘fittingin’. foreign worker’ as wellto ‘temporary as co- to‘illegal’) resident’ (‘permanent ‘migrant’ statuses of legal varying constituted as ‘foreigners’ can include those with Those The growing number of regulations and restrictions regulationsand number growing of The The process of sorting out who belongsand sorting processof The nation states – aprocessbegun in the late 18th Making Politics 167 The Origins of, New Totalitarianism References , 11(3): 527-556. of cannot indulge in We borders. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin the on Reflections Communities: Imagined Home Territories: Media, Mobility and Media, Identity, Home Territories: White Nation: Fantasies of White Fantasies Nation: White Supremacy in a Public CulturePublic Thedoes competition route to ending this cut-throat competition depends competition can be being persons who on there more dangerous wagesor under for lower work to made on human migration Restrictions are one, conditions. very significant,way that this competition is organized. It is indeed difficult tooverestimate the significance of ofideas they that differences belonging and the national and system economic world capitalist materialize to the the political formation of within it. nation states oferection in the not lie against more borders ‘foreigners’ elimination but in the can stop human (or vigilantes) that states fantasy the migration:goodare too many there reasons for people and no amount ofto move, or guns or is vitriol walls a enacting by Instead, goingthis movement. to prevent – all ofmight belong, we all equally we in which world from in a strongerbe – us ourselves protect position to ongoingand dispossession our resultant displacement, impoverishment. Anderson, B. (1991) Anderson, B. and Spread of Nationalism, London: Verso. (2000) D. Morley, Routledge. London and New York: A History Mobility: of Nationality, ‘Race, (1999) Mongia, R. V. the Passport’, [1951]) Arendt, H. (1973 Harcourt, Brace and Co. York: (2000) Hage,G. and and Annandale: Routledge York Multicultural Society, New Pluto Press. everyone national boundaries, across moving , oppression and heightened exploitation oppression and heightened , Such ideas are, however, very helpful to some. Along very to some. helpful however, ideas are, Such (Hage, 2000). Nationalist ideas of (Hage, 2000). unwanted belonging not include not as ‘foreign’ to be seen who come only those but usually devalued been have lives whose those ‘nation’, the to association ofclose the by ideology the of nationalism of with the ideologies racism, sexism and heterosexism. ofideas Nationalist belonging are particularlyand regardlessprofoundly dangerousof persons, for these immigrationtheir citizenship or status. with producing certain people as national subjects, national ofideas a group belonging produce of persons be deemed that would in who can ways be treated applied to those they unacceptable – illegal – were even categorizedthose example, For ‘nation’. the to ‘belonging’ employers to their are tied as ‘temporaryforeign workers’ ofthose not unlike in conditions servitude, indentured conditions considered illegal when applied to ‘citizen’. Theof consequences ‘migrants’ denying mobility, social, and political rights – and consequence the labour, of ofglaring the lack ‘migrants’ solidaritybetween and citizen workers – is that those classified as ‘foreigners’ wages Theyservices. and social less are lower receive to a degradationalso relentless subjected of every aspect of from trying Far ‘foreigners’ to keep their being. immigrationout, then, nation-state and citizenship as a means of viewed are best policies ensuring the subordination of perspective the From not belong. to imagined those of ‘migrants’ wanted are best and employers, state the as are as they ‘nationals’ or workers’, do not protect ‘citizen Theofglobal is that the system fact to. thought capitalist 168 Making Politics as a basis for asylum, including the threat of torture torture as abasisforasylum, including the threat of humanrights grounds of countries now a range accept simply to the 1951 Convention on Refugees, western themselves confining from Far significantly. expanded which on individualsgrounds canclaim asylum have America,thelegal developedNorth and acrossEurope entirely without substance. Asrestrictive measures have have similar admirablehistories. claims are not Their alone. US, The Australia,all claimto Canada and offering asylumthose forwhoneed it. isBritain Nor the UKBA website lauds Britain’s tradition’ ‘proud of asylum altogether. On the contrary, the institution of doing away with the idea of state has publicly entertained absurdum UKBA’s offerwas remarkable, itwas onlyasthe the to access asylum. If Afghanistan andSyriaarriving places fromlike Bosnia,Iraq, stop forcedmigrants states have putinplaceover thelastthreedecades to regimes,sanctions, carrier interdiction and – thatwestern measures and mechanisms –including visa of battery the culture seems merely extensionof an cynicism. This in which asylum claims are met with incredulity and UK government’s asylum decision-making processes, the ’pervading disbelief havedescribed ‘culture long a of states could havein western Academics beensurprised. status.refugee Noonewhohasfollowed asylum’s travails individuals beinggranted systematica against had bias Office Home the that suggested it controversy,because challenging negative decisions. public generated This financial received asylumseekersrewards against winningappeals for staff (UKBA) Agency Border UK that newspaper reported In JanuaryGuardian 2014, The Yet for allthis hostility to asylum seekers, no western of states’ current restrictive states’current responses. of Asylum: PrincipledHypocrisy reductio ad reductio Matthew Gibney h osrcino the state as a community facilitates of construction The principles thatprovidethem livingfor reason a together. value, whoshare somecommon but ascommunities of status, people sharing alegal collections as random of themselves simply states not portrary do Contemporary resilience is thatitreinforcesthe state as community. states, buttovalidate them. the prerogatives of asylum exists not to limit In this view, the institution of world. bounded a of legitimacy the affirm helps so and these harsh realities, or persecution takes off the edge asylum for those who would face death provision of The power ratherthanright. are typically arbitrary, of artefacts states boundariesof is still harder because the territorial average life expectancy) or 47 (Sierra Leone’s). Justification whether one liveslikely to be85 (Monaco’sto determine of egregious aworld is birth inequalities between states, where one’s in state of justify to difficult intuitively state discretion. controlsare Border of rule the general reside in their territory. As anexception, asylum supports that states have the right to decide who can enter and rule necessity – to the normal founded on conditions of immigration of controls. Fundamentally, asylum worksexception asan – legitimacy the affirm helps asylum of butexpanded. only survived, asylum has not towardsasylum seekers, the institution of antipathy needs to be explained is why, in the midst of 2009/10. visas inWhat humanitarian and 14,000 refugee cynosure for asylum restrictive practices, almost granted 80,000 people in2011 alone. Even Australia, surely the (or similarprotection) to almost refuge countries granted treatment. Moreover,and degrading and inhuman EU A somewhat different for asylum’sexplanation One possible answer is that the continued existence Making Politics 169 The result is the schizophrenic response evident across evident response Theschizophrenic is the result reconcile do we how a question: us with This leaves entreprenuers (and sections of (and sections entreprenuers whip up media) the grievances against and racist anxieties newcomers. importancethe where of western states, principle of the ofcosts the but denied, not is asylum are it respecting governments. by public and evaded often the by resented ofwestern fabric institutional the into built is conflict This states. Courts often find themselves as the defenders of of human rights because seekers’ asylum in role their who while politicians – interpretinghuman rights law, claim to represent judicial criticise bitterly – demos the to constrain their effortsattempts refugee to deter claims. Some argue that this conflict the for tabloid newspapers or politicians, cynical weren’t is not inevitable.of acceptvalue the If it public would tension and the asylum, what human and demos rights require what the between Whileis no there doubt that the evaporate. would wants more environment the make politicians and some media tension is fundamental and close that the I believe toxic, to irresolvableinternational within the as we system state to generate continues hugeas long as it least (at it know of numbers ofneed in people Ultimately, protection). demands heavy make claims to protection will universalist will communities and these on communities, democratic to resist them. want moral ofthe claims with need in desperate non-citizens some requires which politics, democratic a meaningful degreeof of and a privileging closure ofclaims the of know I don’t outsiders? insiders over any compelling heart perhaps take can one though question, this to answer are academics) more people (including that fact from the meantime, In the before. thinking about it than ever now states continues: response to asylum the paradoxical to embrace asylum but spurn continue seeker. the asylum . exclusion (with its (with (electorate) liberalism demands the provision ofprovision the demands asylum democracyofanimating ideal its (with collective Each ofEach states explain why helps explanations these are simultaneously states Liberal democratic are likely to judge the entrance of significant numbers ofinterests own their to as costly in need non-citizens in terms (for example, of and housing, job market, the public services).This is particularly truepolitical when by the state, for ifstate, the by are any there human rights at all, the meet can individuals that ensures (which asylum to right one of surely is needs) security basic their On the them. in controversial potentially other hand, this right is always the demos where political systems, democratic respect for the individual as the bearer of as the for individual respect the human rights) and self-rule).to pull in verytend These different values ofissue on the directions one hand, On the asylum. for human rights respect effective rule ofdivision the and makes effective world’s the One obvious appear arbitrary. less population states into through is values collective such ofaffirming way of the practice example, For deportationthat illustrates of certainare not worthy non-citizens or residence hard- honest, unlike because, state membership in the But or ‘takers’. are ‘fraudsters’, they nationals, working the significance of state membership can a state asylum, offering By through inclusion. well equally be affirmed ofcan fashion a vision as ‘generous’,citizens its ‘rights- (re)constituting thereby or ‘sympathetic’, respecting’, ofidea the again, Once asylum a national community. than bolstering a vulnerable the protecting about is less bordered world. if even asylum might need seekers. asylum want don’t they is another there explanation currentBut for the responses This ofseriously. values takes one that western states, are are discussing we states that the on fact the focuses liberal democratic states. of values through the legitimised

Landing Claudine Toutoungi

Before they emerged from their capsule they never imagined birdsong or the sound of the ocean crashing upon the shore.

The jerk of recognition it induced in the pit of their spacesuits; so many harmonies courting each other across the coldest of stratospheres. And even if it later proved a simulation, designed to reduce cortisol in the blood-stream of long-haul voyagers, no-one could explain the salt on their lips, the soft specks of sand on their lashes.

COMPAS Poetry Competition 2013 Second Place Rescaling and Re-placing

Steal Away, Steal Away Back Home AbdouMaliq Simone “Steal away, steal away home, I ain’t got long to stay here,” particular kinds of life. was the lament of African slaves situated in between Rather, it seizes upon the conceit of self generation, the urgency to run away and resignation that spiritual inserts itself as the machine that enables individuals to see redemption was the only escape. It could also be the themselves as, what Claire Colebrook (2010) calls ‘that lament of many urban dwellers faced with the immanence which feels and knows itself as nothing other than self- of dispossession. For slaves, the act of running away was affecting life’. Disentangled from diverse material and always fraught with dangers, not only of recapture, but social environments, and stripped of the skills needed to uncertain alliances with other marginalized people of all intermingle with creatures and formations of all kinds sorts – Amerindians, outcasts, vagabonds, and felons. that once circulated across urban spaces, residents must Hastily assembled kinships, ‘nations’, and roadshows calculate their every move through constant exposure sometimes managed to stay off the radar for long periods to and enfoldment in proliferating networks, but where of time, but were most usually prone to betrayals and these instances of contact do not really affect much of misunderstandings that prompted further dispersal. Still, anything. Meanwhile, individuals are encouraged to ‘steal there was always something fecund in the imagination of away’ as much as they want. For the only place to circulate such constellations, amplified by the dense entanglements is in abstracted, media-saturated exchanges incapable of of bodies with diverse rivers, streams, bush, earth, eliciting either desire or dread. animals, and foliage. Here, sustaining life was not a When people returned to Phnom Penh once the failed process of striving and fruition, but an intermixing of Khmer Rouge laboratory had finally run its course, for decay and generative forces, of inexplicable events and most it was not really a return home. Emptied of almost monstrous circulations. all of its inhabitants, the subsequent vacancy was also If, as Anna Tsing (2012) claims, the plantation was an erasure of claims, memories and orientations. Bereft the initial model for projects that can expand without of its intricate interweaving of ties, the recuperation of changing their form and function, the contemporary place had little meaning, and with no authority or records spread of the mega-development – with its standardized to back them up, securing a place often meant uncertain integration of residence, shopping, leisure and services alliances with those whose very continued survival – is its continuation and aftermath. The product is no rendered them outcasts of a particular sort. The return longer sugarcane, or any product in particular, but rather to the city was then an extension of running away, and the control of freedom – the ability to control the the need to revise expectations continuously was only process where life can become anything at all. For the tempered by the initial period where the Vietnamese ran mega-development signals the end of the myth that the the city as a camp. city was interested in creating particular kinds of persons, Under such circumstances it was understandable

172 Rescaling and Re-placing 173 18: Common Knowledge References The Southern Journal of 48: 109-132. Philosophy The ofdemonization intense poor has been the that are running all over each other, stabbing each other in the stabbing each other, are running each all over aspirations when strong-willed own pursuing their back, learning implicitly are they in reality from and adjusting looking like it without other each affecting other, to each they are doing so. in part decade past for the in Phnom Penh underway reflects the inability of the urbanall of do with to and, to surreptitious, the inexplicable, elite to what know and that circulations consolidations monstrous them, A population city. in remaking the work at been have genocideby and largelytraumatized supposedly seeking refugehas carried nevertheless quietude in spiritual on constructing quartersviable residential as in Prek such Gang ofthe As Salang. Pra or Boeng and other Hun Sen gomen) oknha (big of out the that to prove their way with it filling – life urban about right were Rouge Khmer of mega-developments dubious economic viability – it demonization as a aboutthis think to not far-fetched is formof of a way capture; circulations the up breaking of underpinned effort and have experimentation that And this effort efforts city. the everyday to resettle interminablea seemingly breakageunlike not is towards networks, illicit demonic possessions, preoccupation with of vectors transmission, and dangerous disease circulations. Colebrook, C. (2010) ‘Creative Evolution and the Creation ofand the Evolution ‘Creative (2010) Colebrook, C. Man’, Not Is World The‘On Nonscalability: (2012) A. Living Tsing, Scales’, Amenable to Precision-Nested 505-524. Sometimes neighbours would silently agree silently not to neighbours would Sometimes how residents stuck closely to family connections even even connections to family closely stuck residents how Family suspicions. mutual with ridden were these when a also at but other, each to close stay had to members a for example, If, spreading out. so this meant distance, built up area, yet a plot in a not secure to family needed important usually was it carryto not for them many too tryingto be seen so as not to be them, with members found a they quick Rather, much. to consolidate too ofway the radar under as staying inserting themselves, on which for other places and scouting as possible much This consolidation did not mean that chance. a to take did interests family securitizing that place, taking not was forms various not operate through of expansion. Rather, ofas a means spreading out, interests consolidating family projects these on subjecting also predicated was and ties, ofto a process undertakenthose by by being affected others – of being turnedand revised, around, altered, then not everythingSince redirected. had family was the on ifany one project, staked things got out of hand, not steal away. be lost. One could always all would Still, at other times, efforts. other’s with each interfere run other – for each screens would residents smoke or projects events pretending that certain conditions, in order were, they in reality when not underway, were paid outsiders to them attention much to control how offward and to any harmful In all of intrusions. these more than one thing is occurring and strategies, practices ofreality to be the and what looks often at once, the are they look like People else. is really something situation ifas acting are just they in reality but cooperating, they freedom to do the are doing so in order to win themselves they look like may people or conversely, thing; own their Infrastructure Facilitating the Migration Flux Donna Tzaneva

COMPAS Photo Competition 2013 Shortlisted Rescaling and Re-placing 175 (2011), This changed in the wake ofThis wake in the changed and riots mill town the The integration British characterised has been debate Migration Debate book The in her Sarah Spencer, proposes proposes a useful alternative definition: integration refers of processes the to migrants between interaction and the ‘not ‘not as a flattening process of assimilation in an diversity, cultural by accompanied opportunity, but as equal atmosphere of mutual tolerance’ (1967). This definition emerged a particular at of that moment, historical the Windrush generation of migrants. citizen (post-)colonial a as designation its with strugglewas first generation’s This generation of emergent the Hence anti-racist immigrants. informed consensus academic the later (and movement of notion the rejected movement) that by integration as insufficiently distinct from assimilation. Thus theconcept largely time for a long and from political absent was in Britain. debates scholarly terrorist of attacks of as a result 2001, and also European a time at This however, has happened, Union debates. integrationwhen is in danger of a zombie becoming concept, has passed. lifespan its after stumbling and politicians often, of a profound lack by Too clarity. term the freight unconsciously pundits baggage the with of and values’ ‘British functionalism. Durkheimian of way ‘British the to commitment the taken have life’ ofrole of religion civil Durkheim’s a betraying state, the that Britishness for a monochrome nostalgia melancholic integration Europe, As across existed. never probably imagining migrants streak: had a punitive have debates integrate’ to willing Prime (as or even wanting really ‘not full made have politicians it), put Cameron David Minister participation contingent in citizenship migrant on the duty in. fit to Ben Gidley Integration Classically in this tradition, though, the question has question the though, tradition, this in Classically Three approach sociological classical for the problems ofAll three in Emile present were problems these The concept of integration the to introduced was Integration stuff – the migration after happens that – The migration to relationship studies. has an ambivalent integration in relation posed been has historically question of context the to the within reception and, therefore, disciplinaryof boundaries The tradition. sociological the born was tradition emergence the sociological with of modernthe of question the city; stranger the the within tomorrow, stays and stranger the – today city comes who of one – has been (1950) it put Simmel as Georg its problems. constitutive invisible and renders out brackets that in a way posed been migrantthe journey. society a receiving takes it First, from this. follow a migration developing by as noted scholars perspective, Second, perspective. or cosmopolitan transnational more as the national state’s role is redefinedby the turbluence of an integration globalisation, like ‘sees which discourse the raises And, third, it inadequate. is increasingly a state’ ofquestion migrants it is that what integrate into. Durkheim’s reflectionsat the start of the For 20th century. Durkheim, in an age definedintegration,migration,for mechanism some bywithout mass rural-urban of a pile than ‘is no more society or jolt least the sand that the slightest puffForms of will sufficeto scatter.’ organic of religion civil and the required, were solidarity nation the binding strangers of abstraction the to answer, the was the state. Secretary Home agenda political 1960s by in the UK’s who Jenkins, definedRoy it in a far less functionalist way: 176 Rescaling and Re-placing rigorously engaging with difference. engaging Werigorously need a more which glibly boosts putative practices’ rather than ‘good Jones andI(2013) have called a‘soupy transnationalism’ and researchers have often glossed over inwhat Hannah profound open up governance. These of colonialism, structures race and of of migration, histories of integration, of philosophies terms, key of definitions level: national the isstriated by differences yet at the terrain integration, nation state is the wrong scaleThe to consider integration? comparative research andpolicy transfer around perspective,nationalist receiving country to develop to local policy. local variations inattitudes, to neighbourhood effects, and settlement, to of need to attend better to new geographies most often onascale smaller than the nation-state. We take place ondifferent scales, integration and domains of countries, but people move between places. Different move occurs? Migrants on which between integration methodological nationalism to understand the local scale questions. which Iwill summarise here assevenon integration key agenda policy a with us presents It in. fit to responsibility debate focused solely onthe migrant an integration scales.different related, but ultimately autonomous, domains, of at arange processes across anumber of asaseries of integration do,migrants but rather about interaction. It acknowledges multi- the it isnot something which integration: emphasises directional nature of definition This belonging. and identity andaninclusive migrants sense of of participation facilitate the socio-economic, cultural, social and civic the receiving society that individuals andinstitutions of Second, how can we escape the methodologically First, how beyond can we the limitsof go of drift authoritarian the challenges definition This translation problems which EU-funded officials officials EU-funded which integration? Especially given betweenintegration? the what people gap we overcome this addiction. integration can attention fromethnicity to sites andspaces of social relations andbeliefs are studied. Only by shifting our andsoon) before their identity,in Germany’, actions, (‘the Bangladeshis inLondon’,an ethnic group ‘the Turks nation state orregion constitute froma particular migrants methodological ethnicism: the assumption that accused of using areductive ethnic lens? Anthropologists have been authorities andcivil society can make. enough about what difference leadership by public attitudes matter, and what shapes them. We don’t know is it? We don’t know enough about how much public themselves, migrants whose responsibility just the duty of isnot integration the receiving society? If institutions of trade-off. rights andresponsibilities rarely consider the integration – inalldomainsisbuilt. Yet policy debates onthese responsibilities are the foundations onwhich integration rights and Ourlegal possibility forintegration? migrants’ how these different domainsinfluence each other. Social science understands little about paths to integration. are multiple There while socially integrated. segregated while excluded fromthe labourmarket, orresidentially other each of not (Gidley et al.,2012).Similarly, – but you can be civically active Britain with identification of feeling at home inaneighbourhood are strong predictors these domains?Both inter-ethnic friendships and of multiple domains, how can we understand the intersection comparisons. contentious transnationalism to develop more meaningful Finally, how can we attend to the lived experience of Sixth, how research can we without dointegration the public and Fifth, what isthe responsibility of Fourth, how do(restrictions to) entitlements impact on in processes occurring isaset of integration if Third, Rescaling and Re-placing 177 , , London Urban Salon. Transnational Soup: Translating Soup: Translating Transnational Diversity, Cohesion and Change in and Cohesion Change Diversity, , Concordia Discors Report for , New York: Free Press. Free , New York: References Citizenship and Integration in the UK in the Citizenshipand Integration London: Jenkins, by Roy and Speeches Essays , Bristol: Policy Press. , Bristol: Policy The Migration Debate It is increasingly obvious that cities in different states in different cities that obvious increasingly is It philosophies. From a sociological perspective, this a sociological perspective, From philosophies. that local level at the is as it sense, makes development on. so and children, have job, a find others, meet migrants sides as positive well as that negative It is also at this level we of Finally, most concretely. are experienced diversity more migrants that from research much identify know in than with the nation. easily with the city they live suggestmore in common than national models would have like cities Caponio (see and Borkert,Hyperdiverse 2010). as part diversity Berlin, Amsterdam and London embrace of point anchoring and as a positive identity city’s the ofin spite sometimes for local policies, their respective and Manchester like Industrial cities national models. their traditional emphasis on connected have Rotterdam challengeof andnew housing to the Thiswork diversity. supportsBenjamin Barber (2013) sociologist the what Gidley, B. et al. (2012) al. et B. Gidley, Oxfod: COMPAS. (1967) R. Jenkins, Collins. (2012) B. and Gidley, O. Jensen, South London Neighbourhoods Two Oxford: COMPAS. the European Commission, (2013) B. H. and Gidley, Jones, Across Policies Borders Local Integration ‘The[1908]) (1950 Stranger’, Wolffin K.H. G. Simmel, (ed.) The Sociology of Georg Simmel (2011) S. Spencer, P. W. A. Scholten A. Scholten W. P. The Multilevel Governance ofThe Multilevel Migrant Integration One ofstrongest the national has challengesto models I suspect that an ethnographic that I suspect integration to approach Public debate on migrant integration has often fixated migrantapproach countries different and why on how integrationGermanthe differently: state welfare and the the British race relations approach approach, It approach. or assimilationist Republicanist French migrantidea that the has strengthened integration is primarily national. In their depiction of ‘methodological showed (2002) Schiller nationalism’, Wimmer and Glick ‘national’ dimension that this preoccupation with the of integration being had also pervaded, even or was academia. reproduced by, European than from the level local more from the come migrantwith integration involvement the where level, and intergovernmentalmostly rather has remained weak a leading role taken have than supranational. cities Big integration their own in this policy area and developed in interviewssay may there life: in real do people and what migrants between interactions meaningful and deep, be interviews the where in places people settled settled with suggestedpeople of high levels attitudes xenophobic This 2013). is a methodological and Gidley, (Jensen suggests and challenge, importance the of ethnographic integration the in neglected hitherto relatively research, field. of feature unremarkable a mundane, as complex today’s contrary– rhetoric politicians’ the reveal might to societies, of and migrants communities dislocated tounwilling integrate migrants – that and non-migrants getting are on us. without it with 178 Rescaling and Re-placing special law enabling it to adopt amore effective strategy area, andRotterdam’sGlasgow successful lobbying a for asylum seekers to the ondispersalof Border Agency strategy,integration Glasgow’s with the UK agreement the Greater LondonAuthority for arefugee advocacy of at other policy levels.agendas Take, forinstance, the relations, set political andpolicy where localgovernments down. Indeed we are increasingly witnessing bottom-up establish relations between them that arenot simply top- integration. of terms often havemigration distinctly local consequences in the regulationof of decisions terms national in and is becoming increasingly localized. European integration becoming increasingly Europeanized, whereas migrant policy is is becoming especially relevant asmigration effect at the local level as well.multilevel This challenge leveldebates thenational on canhave performative a by national politicalandpolicydiscourses: politicized the centripetal forces unleashed havesome of to repair showsseveral thatin feel they countries localgovernments researchgroups. Recent migrant to messages conflicting levels in onesingle policy domain, this risks conveying there are different policies at different policy coherence. If policyand coordination involves of a challenge interms (Scholten, 2013). It integration migrant of governance what policy scientists describe as the multilevel of heart level and the nascent dimension, European lies at the the national combined with the continued salience of andparticipation. trust strategies with a much emphasisonpragmatism, greater diversityand cities that promptstodevelop theirown democracies to develop effective responses tomigration national thatitisprecisely the inabilityof suggests, One way to ensure that policies do not conflict is to to is conflict not do policies that ensure to way One policies, integration inmigrant localturn This and theSocialSciences’, Nationalism andBeyond: Nation-State Building, Migration Wimmer, A. andGlick Schiller, N. (2002) ‘Methodological Policies’, Integration Migrant Dutch Case of The Integration. Migrant Level Governance of Scholten, P.W.A. Dynamicsthe and Multi- (2013) Agenda , Amsterdam: Amsterdam UniversityMigration Policymaking Press. Caponio, T. M.(2010) The LocalDimension andBorkert, of Rising Cities Barber, B. (2013) another dimensiontothis already wicked policy problem. levels may just as well addyet contrast, this multiplicity of effective multilevel governance. In immediately speak of to a multilevel policy setting does not mean that we can that thisleads and that there is alocalturn Observing produces. challenges that this local turn governance understanding andmoreempiricalresearch onmultilevel but we need a better theoretical integration, in migrant funding programmes. these networks through European aresupported many of multilevelespecially a from perspective, governance Interestingly, policies. on local practices effects best significant of have definitions Their learning. policy of motor become important institutionalizedare an and Policiesnetworks(CLIP). These have Migrants for Intercultural Cities, and Cities for Local Integration developed, including Eurocities, Cities, Integrating Over the last decade, variousnetworks European have networks. horizontal international and national in policy entrepreneur. policy implementer to that of role of the beyond ventured have Cities gentrification. toward There is a welcome local turn inacademic interest isawelcome There local turn Cities are alsoexchangingexperiences and knowledge , London:Yale University Press. fMayors Ruled the World. Dysfunctional If Nations, , 2(4):301-334. Global Networks References Policy Sciences Policy , 46:217-236. Rescaling and Re-placing 179 Taken together, factors such as the growing as the such factors together, Taken polarised, comprising highly-skilled professionals such professionals such comprising highly-skilled polarised, or estimators construction cost managers as engineers, top ofat the employed and workers wage the scale, jobs such manual and more insecure waged in lower as concrete finishers or general labourers. a diverse In range of Lumpur ranging from Kuala meanwhile, cities, to Singaporeal., 2012) et (Abdul-Rahmana (Debrah construction and Ofori, 2001), deregulation sector has led to increased inter-regional migration flows into emergencesubsequent and the sector the of highly a flexibile, insecure and internationalisedworkforce inthe urban construction Intranationally, constructiontrades. an important provided income supplement jobs have In partsof in some countries. for rural workers India, contemporaryfor example, eroding agrarianpressures (oflivelihoods urbanisation is itself which led one) have temporaryout seek to and women and seasonal both men patterns As a result, in urban constructionwork markets. of seasonal, circular migrationconstructionthe between site and the farmer’s fieldrapid where urbanisation is fuelling common in countries have become increasingly both formal and informal construction markets. ofprevalence ongoing de- chains, long subcontracting international increasing unionisation, among competition of casualisation and the contractors, at employment of end lower the led cases in many have wage scale the in security job and conditions employment poorer to This hasprocess paid occupations. lower construction’s disproportionately temporary affected (im)migrants over and insecure, unstable be can work their decade: past the offer limited rights, protections, and benefits, and allow over or control recourse, autonomy, limited workers Michelle Buckley Construction, Migration and Urbanisation In cities across the globe, constructionglobe, across the In cities a is not just Who builds our cities, and under what conditions? Over Over conditions? and under what Whoour cities, builds has this question been at the forefront years, the last few roles ofin me has led it the as a geographer.Answering research my explore to been has first The directions. broad two city-building. in everyday play constructionthat workers question the that Theconviction the includes second manner ofin a whole answerable while above, ways, some engagementrequires ultimately process the with of ofand livelihoods migration,lives and the migrants very often Migrants have cities to city. the to themselves Irish and Italian role in building them. a central played immigrants of formed and 20th-century 19th York New ofbackbone the that produced its skyline. workforce the rural migrants to rapidly urbanising Chinese cities Today, in the comprise a construction numbering workforce oftens In addition to bringing crucialand skills millions. expertiseto the construction of labour markets many immigrants temporaryand cities, migrants in employed importantbeen often to city-building have trades the to jobs no wants that one else taken have they because do – a great deal of construction and has long been, work dangerous status. and low dirty, to be, continues significant sector for the incorporation of migrantand a rapidly growingbut one (Erlich immigrant workers, This2012). has trend Wells, 2005; and Grabelsky, gonedeepeningthe hand-in-hand with and insecurity casualisation of construction internationally over work In Europe and North America, last three decades. the ofsegments urban constructionthe such labour market heavy to subject been constructionas residential have Thede-unionisation. and outside within both sector Europe and North heavily America has also become 180 Rescaling and Re-placing

new strategy of going offshore(Urry, going 2014). of new strategy rich class is indeed waging class war through the striking making war,we’re and winning.” Idescribe here how this warfare, all right, but it’s my class, the rich class, that’s Warren isclass Buffett recently maintained: “There building activities to flows of steel, cement and other tin, plywoodother materialsin and corrugated aggregates, cement steel, of flows to activities building economies, construction tying migrants’ informal of part anintegral needs forshelter,migrants’ but they also form address urban not onlydoes subsistence construction reproductive activities are often closely interlinked; productive construction, socially and these acts of aretakingshape. tomorrow Within ways that the cities of the most important new for arrivals tothe city are someof activities both by and construction informally-waged or ‘substandard’ dwellings,‘unauthorised’ and/or self-built residents in the world will be living in ‘informal’, that by 2020, overand suburban onebillionurban in cities.infrastructure With globalestimates forecasting neighbourhoods, streetscapes, marketplaces and of activities that playthe physicalin central role a production building non-profit-oriented or non-waged ‘illegal’, of inmanykinds alsotake part migrants urban construction, these layoffs. workersmigrant were consistently at the forefront of any other sector, but precariously employed job losses of markets worldwide not only posted the highest aggregate construction when crisis, financial 2007-08 the following their working conditions. reality was This starkly visible It had been thought, especially in the 1990s, that the In addition to waged formal and informal workin informal and formal In additiontowaged h irto ftheRich of Migration The 1

John Urry Developing Countries Developing Countries’, in G. Ofori(ed.) Wells, J. Activity Developingin Construction (2012) ‘Informal 46(4):421-445. the Building Trades in the Twenty-first Century’, Erlich,Grabelsky, M.and J. (2005) StandingataCrossroads: Industry’, Workers Job and Construction Safety inthe Singapore Y.Debrah, G.Ofori, A.and (2001) ‘Subcontracting, Foreign 36(4):433-443. Habitat International, Foreign Workers: Sector’, Evidence in Malaysian Construction H. et Abdul-Rahmana, al.(2012) ‘Negative ImpactInduced by borderlessness. But the 1990s were notthe harbinger through increased cosmopolitanism and transformed of aspects societies were believedcontemporary to bepositively Most beneficial. culturally and politically, ideas, andobjects was economically, images, information money, people, movements of massive ratcheting up of the physical and social contours of the 21st-century city. the21st-century the physical andsocialcontoursof implications forboth political act, one that has important material and isatoncea by migrants construction forms, citizenshipurban among migrants. In its many different of unequal forms of closely connected to the formation is often unauthorised construction or a result, illegal resources,to urban amenities. and infrastructure, As building activities canoftencement unequal access unauthorized ‘illegal’, or activity as ‘legal’ construction kindsof by designating certain migrants urban among the city. often ‘producing’ informality With governments Asia Pacific BusinessReview, 8(1). , LondonandNewYork: SponPress. References New Perspectives on Construction in New Perspectives on Construction Labor History, History, Labor Rescaling and Re-placing 181 This rich class is the beneficiary. Almost all major ofworld the how Offshore is works. now power 70 tax havens, which one-quarterentail which of 70 tax havens, contemporary include orislands’, ‘treasure Thesetax havens, societies. Islands, Manhattan,Cayman the Jersey, Switzerland, Singapore, Hong Dubai, Liechtenstein, Panama, Monaco, ofCity the Gibraltar, Kong, The London, and Delaware. of development are core to the jurisdictions’ ‘secrecy neoliberalisation ofaround from economy world the be ending of and the 1980, To controls. many exchange high- the with contrasted in paradise, offshore is to be are havens Tax onshore. experienced high-tax life state, ofplaces ofa paradise and freedom, escape excises, low nice and often management, secrecy, deregulation, wealth beaches. more offshore accounts/subsidiaries, have companies than half ofalmost through them, trade passes world offshore accounts possess individuals all net worth high enabling tax ‘planning’, and 99 oflargest 100 Europe’s As a consequence, offshore subsidiaries. use companies one-quarter to one-third of is held all global wealth ‘offshore’. Offshored money has grown from billion US$11 in 1968 to US$21 ofGDPs combined the to equivalent trillion States United the in 2010, or a about one-third ofand Japan, income. world annual sum than 10 million people currently this offshore own Fewer fortune. Thissource of is the of and wealth power the in parttheir fortunes, who almost all owe super rich of moving rapid the and secret to least, at and money ownership. suitable exception, onshore is almost the Money staying Most big money tax. paying still people’ ‘little only for the US is the how Shaxson describes Nicholas offshored. is most importantjurisdiction’ ‘secrecy far the world’s by ofstate diminutive In the (2012). is a there Delaware the companies, houses 217,000 single building which

2 Offshore worlds have been made possible by the by made possible been have Offshore worlds reorganising dynamic, is Theoffshoring world rise ofthe Since later 1980s neoliberalism in the There are many ‘secret worlds’ ofThereworlds’ are many ‘secret offshored emissions, property ownership, and taxation. Offshoring propertyownership, emissions, monies and peoples practices, resources, moving involves from one territorysecret within them hiding another, to rules,laws, evading involves Offshoring jurisdictions. regulations or norms. It is all gettingabout around taxes, rulesare illegal,that or goingin ways againstspirit ofthe to underminein one jurisdiction or using laws law, the based upon are often Offshore worlds in another. laws secrets and lies. of development systems, mobility sociotechnical new of cargo container-based aeromobility; the shipping; electronic traffic; lorry and car worlds; virtual and internet growththe money transfer systems; of taxation, legal and financial expertise orientedregulations; and the proliferation of ‘mobile lives’. avoidingto national relations between social, political and material economic, and and within them, more and societies more resources, secret. or kept and monies are made peoples practices, The global order opposite of is the – a simply open world ofone is it ofconcealment, gardenssecret many mainly patternscasual and its class rich and for the by designed of migration. has been an there astonishing growthmovement in the of finance andwealth to and through the 60world’s to of Migrating borderless future. and an optimistic across borders consumer goodsare not just and new services, but terrorists, environmental risks, trafficked drugwork, women, outsourced runners, international criminals, propertyspeculators, seekers, asylum traders, slave smuggled workers, waste, financial risks, andincome. untaxed CO torture, pleasure, energy, waste, work, manufacturing 182 Rescaling and Re-placing their lives dump in oceans; oceans are aglobalrubbish work driven lose to the bottom; many migrants poor of conditions with convenience, of flags flying oceans sail oceans contain many unregulated ‘treasure islands’; ships sight. The surface. Almost all the ocean world is out of the earth’s humans arecrowded of onto one-quarter ‘network capital’. for encountering other super rich andextending one’s distinction private jets, destinations, luxury and places of get-togethers, private lounges,leisure clubs, airport travel, private schools, episodic around family life structured class first world, the throughout dotted homes sustaining andsuch anetworkedin forming rich class: and powerMeek, 2006). Place, property areintertwined ‘you don’t live anywhere,neither anddoes your money’ in‘taxshaming’. increasingly engage as revealed by protestors, NGOsandcharities who hard forsmall and medium-sized companies to compete, US dollars. offshoreworld The makes it billionsof of taxationishundreds building in the world. annual lossof The unethical speaking) (fiscally most and largest to get out, anordealfortheor outsider.to get Today, this is a reason lifeacompulsion,habitor and was away of mediating local animositiesdisputes.and Neighbouring world a ties with familiarities and of then aspart exchanges,reciprocal through or friendly manner not ina eachwereother and expected to behave ways:certain in if and identified strongly with the locality, neighbours knew In days when people lived gone, in settled communities Central tothese offshore worlds iswater. Seven billion how,One commentatorreports forbillionaires, Urban Neighbours Urban Neighbours Ash Amin Urry, J. (2014) Stole theWorld, London:Vintage. N.Shaxson, (2012) www.theguardian.com/money/2006/apr/17/tax.g2. Meek, J. (2006) ‘Super Rich’, The Guardian 1 fsocietiesmoving towards alow carbonfuture. of democracy,for transparency isbad the for possibility and be reshored? Offshoringandthe associated lack of what hasescaped at theirperil.Canoffshoreever tsunamis, rising sealevels andflooding. hurricanes, more intense storms, heightened unruliness: outlawsubjects seaalsoto humans to thebottom.The companies survive, withtherestoftenliterallysinking and laws, andwhere onlythe powerful ships andtheir the world taxesalmost without government, a visionof France.the for rich seaparadise isaneoliberal class, The of size the twice Patch’ Garbage Pacific ‘Great the with and feeling.and iswhattravel, television, This the internet, affiliation multiple of worlds in dwell subjects sedentary intimate contact with people far away, even the most real-time else. mediated by In an age all mannerof without much contact, often moving on to somewhere commonfate interest, or as communities together of asstrangers,eachhold other largely placesthathardly in neighbouring. People live nextto expectation not anof a short videoonoffshoring.a short See http://www.morphstudio.co.uk/work/offshoring/for The socialsciences neglect these offshore worldsThe Offshoring Treasure Islands: TaxTreasure theand Menwho Havens , London:Polity. References Notes (17http:// April), Rescaling and Re-placing 183 The first is sensibility a of respectful distance. Thecare for has to do with the sensibility second bridges or facilitate contact between strangers. I have have I bridges strangers. between or contact facilitate in work can engineering such about whether doubts my a society of multiple identities and affiliations.Greater but intimacy breed more to neighbours could exposure of environments designing while also more hate, shared uncomfortably strays and interests sympathies to close ofethos the to like. not tend gatedwe that communities of an ethic However, good neighbouring that builds around real habits ofsensibilities modern urban living to come Three sensibilities such exploring. be worth may mind. who share a gardenneighbours Immediate or a fence should learn common entrance – to ignore difference – and also not to expect and ideological cultural bodily, could learnthey Instead, to other. from each too much share a fragile they understanding that by peace, the keep of A politeness line. dividing party the or privet wall hedgestructured be can aroundrespectful small things: the keeping mail, greeting,neighbour’s in the taking Ofnoise down. opposite, the is often reality the course, of complaints by punctuated disputes unruly behaviour, encroachment. sly and for common repairs, who pays over a relations are often and bad not easy, is this Reversing quirk of but neighbours), your choose cannot (you fate combination ofthe authorities in the call able to being as a last resort,manners in the of schooling party the additional two and social regulation through the wall, Who might do the trick. below, discussed sensibilities lead to studied might even distance respectful knows, care. margins neighbourhood. to the Bad relations are pushed about strongly in a neighbourhood feel people when togetherto work when they especially local patch, the work Thisit. protect volunteers happens when is what The neighbour is just the person next door, and Theperson next door, the neighbour is just kind ofis this It a has prompted that possibility mobile phones mobile phones and the intimacies advertising,alongside of religion materialism, and ideology permitted.have Neighbours or strangers who find inquisitive being avoid other, ignore each can space same themselves in the sticks up or even or ways, suspicious in indifferent except when necessary. no longerneighbouring is art a required of with living ownership This when private more so is all the others. Theof intensity proprietary. people makes neighbourly probably is particularlyand indifference self-interest high majority of the where in cities, do as they living people, in suburbs, high-rise flats, or inner cityareas, and on frequently, of worlds move multiple dwell in connectivity, negotiating hard at ofcomplexities the work urban living. a culture neighbouring to become allow Should we ofof an ethic and social avoidance, self-interest The cohabitants? dangertowards indifference is to here ofcourt isolationist ways turning with difference, living neighbourhoods into zones of Additionally, discipline. ofway this to accept a further the provides excuse living ofculture 9/11 to us tells which to difference, aversion neighbour:disruptive the or eject be wary discipline, of, beggar,the Muslim, the welfare the seeker, asylum the immigrant,the dissident, the scrounger, does one who the not fit. The logical extension of this cultureby – backed elaborate systems of surveillance and vilificationof the strangerofneighbourhood a place the becomes is that – fear and suspicion of the other. community, for policy quest neighbourliness and mixed backgroundsfrom different people where for places build interdependencies. and perhaps even can meet ofEmblematic mixed turna policy is desire this towards that housing schemes schools, twinned neighbourhoods, build to and projects and contact, promote visibility 184 Rescaling and Re-placing be adifference between pull areasinthe push areasand whyfail toexplain They there should lead tomigration. but fail to make clear how the various factors together models usually destination list andareas,factors inorigin is somehow stating the obvious.opportunities Push-pull reallifemigration. drivers of does not really helpus to understandthe complexity and have reasonstomove.migrants good However, this school theories. as well as neo-classical migration Most underlying the ‘push-pull’ models taught at secondary istheimplicit assumption expression.This freedom of opportunities,or such asjobs, higherwages, safety or that most people migrate hoping to find better conditions question. On the one hand,it seems to assume reasonable difficult a and simple a is This migrate? people do Why and human-scale development on civic behaviour. The busy streets, low-key functioning services, surveillance, spaces,design, green good understood theimpactof Architects, have long plannersandsocialreformers capture theimagination. smallrewardsprojects and that through the promise of the in thelocalcommonsamongdisinterested, perhaps interest cultivating of ways finding in lies challenge The too frequently it isthe same oldpeoplewhocome out. the residents will not play ball, andall course, many of may even intostudied care for one’s turn neighbours. Of take responsibility fortheiranethic neighbourhood, that these acts,local amenitieschildren.for Through people to clean uppublicspaces, make streets safe,set orup To say that most people migrate to find better find to migrate people most that say To place. the aesthetic of thirdsensibility concerns The What DrivesWhat HumanMigration? Hein deHaas which migration issupposedly aresponse.which It is therefore migration to havegaps the spatial wage andopportunity generated insight intothe social, economicpoliticalprocesses and usually sustain economic inequalities (Castles et al., 2014). assumption naively ignores how power asymmetries the wage convergence development.Furthermore, capitalist by-product of is notatemporary and humankind of has beenaconstant factor inthe history migration convergence. wage However, process of a through between origin anddestination countries, and will decline response to development ‘disequilibria’ is a (temporary) to maximise their income or wellbeing.migrate Migration Skeldon, 1990). also (see best’ at platitude ‘a therefore are place,first and acommunity. of part might be catalysed, where neighbours see each otheras with difference of living alchemy a new identification, place an atmospherecombines with astrongsense of thisisreducible to place aesthetics, but when such of before makingsomeone’s again life miserable. None come out when the aesthetic is threatened, and think shared by everyone, nodunthinkingly to the passer-by, the for better,turn aspeopleappreciate the commons social life in public space, neighbourlyrelationsmay that inadecent with neighbourhood plentiful signs of aversion. Chancesare, however, strong feelings of solidarity, and pristine suburbs can yield feelings of place comes with clear guarantees no –slums aesthetic of Both push-pull and neoclassicalBoth push-pulland modelsfailtoprovide theories assume that people Neoclassical migration that Rescaling and Re-placing 185 aspirations to For instance, how can we explain why development development explain why can we how instance, For capabilities generallypeople’s increases Development emigration overall get as societies wealthier, However, globalisation changemigrationglobalisation patterns and migrants’ experiences. of instead more, with associated is often migration? less, views sterile beyond move must we this, understand To of migrantsgeographicalto ‘respondents’ as predictable opportunity Conceptualising migrationgaps. as a offunction and capabilities people’s of understanding a richer achieve can help to move of Processes migration behaviour. human and economic material to access expand people’s typically development same the At and knowledge. social networks resources, in infrastructure transportation,and improvements time, less travel make development, accompany usually which costly and risky. not does it but larger migrateto distances, over migration.lead to necessarily Migration aspirations as well more generalaspirations, life depend on people’s as their perceptions of are ‘here’ and Both life ‘there’. subjective and likely to change under the influence ofbroader processes of access structural Improved change. to information,through imagesconveyed and lifestyles mental and to broaden people’s education media tend changetheir perceptions ofhorizons, ‘good the and life’, processes Development material aspirations. increase and capabilities both people’s increase initially to tend often development explaining why move, aspirations to boosts migration. Once sizeable migrant communities costs the to reduce tend social networks settled, have and risks of migrating,migrantssettled with frequently functioning as ‘bridgeheads’. more because to decrease aspirations are likely country, their own within people can imagine a future is Although it immigrationwhile to increase. is likely , . . Important processes migratoryregion of non-linear least Analyses ofAnalyses historical and contemporary data show conceptualising by achieved can be rethinking Such move from the poorest to the wealthiest countries, countries, wealthiest the to poorest from the move not not surprising ofpredictions the that models push-pull odds with at theories are and fundamentally neoclassical migrationlife in real seen is migrantswhat Most patterns. do of lower levels to have tend and poorest countries the emigrationcountries. wealthier and than middle-income migrationreduce to from only way the that said It is often this However, boost development. to poor is countries and levels development ignores that the relation between of emigration is fundamentally Turkey Morocco, emigration as Mexico, such countries poorest. the not among are typically Philippines and the Going against popular perceptions ofon the a ‘continent sub-Saharan is the Africa move’, the world. is initially that human development and economic 2010). emigrationincreasing with associated Haas, (de Any form ofpoorest countries in the development of accelerating to lead to likely therefore is world the emigration. This suggests explanations need that we that move to or motivations factors individual do not confuse opportunities)refer to better often indeed, (which, with macro-structural explanations of migration migration as a constituent part of broader development and change rather than as a problem to be solved, or as the sum ofsum or as the solved, be rather than as a problem to geographical (unexplained) to given responses individual modern in the instance, age, opportunity For gaps. migration and across borders has been within much It broader to urbanisation processes. linked inextricably is difficult to imagine urbanisation without people migrate’ migration, Rather than asking ‘why and vice-versa. processes how therefore is question more relevant the as imperialism, nation formation,state such the industrial urbanisation and development, capitalist revolution, 186 Rescaling and Re-placing eeso around3percentover recentdecades. levels of the world population has remainedremarkablystable at of share as a migrants international why the numberof is rather ambiguous. explain on migration may partly This commuting, tourism andbusiness travel – but its impact mobility – such as boosted non-migratory certainly lifestyles. times, In modern has technological progress tomoresedentary to shift from huntingandgathering some 12,000 hasenabledpeople years ago, technology (‘Neolithic’) revolution Ever began since the agricultural hasfacilitatedtosettle humankind down. technology historicalperspective, In fact, from along-term migrate. reduce the need to outsourcing and trademay also partly enable peopletocommute workor fromhome, while communication and mayeasiertransportation migration, increases often assumed thattechnological progress how actuallylive individuals andgroups thatdiversity. lived diversity site of settlement. Accordingly, thedoublesasa neighbourhood and immigration by diverseincreasingly blurred stories of difference, with us-them distinctions of negotiation everyday an ongoing settlement dynamics, also the site of and immigration socially produced.Itis,the incontext of loaded with individual meanings. It is, inotherwords, space is ageographical – aneighbourhood planners that canbelongtopoliticians,urban or demographers government closeness. And unlike a ward – a means of English for‘near’) emphasizes spatial proximity and centre,urban itsdistance an from neigh of terms in Neighbourhood is personal. Rather than a suburb, defined and Multiculturally Yours:Multiculturally NeighbourhoodasLived The Diversity alens that provides insights into (Old Ole Jensen London:Belhaven Press. Reinterpretation, Skeldon, R. (1990) Oxford. Institute, University Migration International of Migration’, IMI Working International Paper No24, of into the Developmental Driversand ImpiricalInquiry de Haas, Transitions: H. (2010) ‘Migration ATheoretical MacMillan Press. WorldPopulation Movements in the Modern , 5th edn, London: Castles, S. et al. (2014) ean–a nvtbepr fthehumanexperience. of remain –aninevitablepart has therefore alwaysMigration will been –and migration. drives humankind.Development itself of the history on view flawed, ahistorical fundamentally a reflect ideas – equilibrium is achieved.– an equally illusionary Such once that willdisappear phenomenon is atemporary into a Westernoutlet Union and abeauty parlour. In lived shop,Brazilian and the building is now divided down years ago, an Islamic school opened, then a short- & Traditional hair cut’. the When local post office closed Asian Caribbean, as‘specialists Afro European, in itself downnature, theadvertises road the shopfurther barber the increasingly diverse selling alcohol. Emblematic of food shop)acrosstheisnowroad the only localoutlet Polski years, (Polish sklep the andIndian-run number of thehasbeencloseda road, for Club, atthe top of ‘native’ residents, Wokingnumbers of Working Men’s the declining Perhaps London. indicative of west of Woking,inner in is basicallyroad a town a 30milessouth It is illusionary to think that large-scale migration migration to think that large-scale It is illusionary neighbourhood, as a researcher and an immigrant, as aresearcherMy neighbourhood, immigrant, an and Population Countries: A MobilityinDeveloping References The Age of Migration: International Migration: International The Age of Rescaling and Re-placing 187 Untouched for years amongst all the comings and comings all the amongst for years Untouched Whatthe neighbourhood fabric is rather constitutes memories of that showed research my Overall, the at noticeboard goings glass-covered road is the on the defunct holding messages from a now roadside, the faded. but undated, notices – the association community the fluidityCommunity lost? and Evidently, discontinuity serves area the if question to characterising is anything there termsin solid of bodies. associational inclusive and lasting of is indicative and it no, be would The answer make- the ofup well-established most the that neighbourhood the Kashmiri and the organisations welfare Pakistani the are theBut 1970s. early the to back dating both organisations, ofabsence organisations neighbourhood-based thebelies So causes. specific around together coming sporadic more school in a Victorian situated centre, community local the local by led a campaign after existence into building, came Pakistani, Spanish, Chinese, Italians, groups. minority groupsMoroccan association a community established up and running it was No sooner purpose. for the than dissolved. was association the episodesroutine public become whereby dynamics the transgressions’‘banal and the familiarity are partthat of remain It unnoticed. often and, therefore, life everyday may be the fish curry from our a Kurdish with play-date Sri Lankandaughter’s road, my the down neighbour the sharing of mate, school retired Italian the with a joke aged himselfhas bought 70, who, shopkeeper a sporty for a lifetime ofLamborghini to show toil. ofpast and narratives neighbourhood the present share a oflot explanatory ground. the nostalgic One was ofmemories remembering the residents, white elderly era, a neighbourhood comprehensible past as a coherent, The the other was underpinned strong local ties. by born locally Pakistanis. younger, shared by experience Many of where same school pupils in the erstwhile them But what is that community about? “We’ve lost the lost about? “We’ve community is that what But in part, ofnature in the This is, turnover the this manner, images of manner, this provide street changing the continuously and into, is built diversity into how insights unclear, is before there transforms, Whatarea. the was of indicative is and it longest-servingtwo the area that the when 1970s in the opened Italian deli, local shops are an area, and a Pakistani in the immigrants many Italian lived supermarket,years ofwith a board ‘25 commemorating service to the community’. herselfshe – us opposite living woman said the track,” pointing She was Swiss-born, a for resident 30 years. but of row the to recalling Victorian terraces live, we where I could in them. living name everyone could when she days in France to point. Whenher see our neighbours moved moved couple Australian an first house: the let they 2007, Pakistanis two engineers, house-sharing three in; then remaining on, and the moved two and one Palestinian; who moved wife his Chinese shared with then Pakistani from Glasgow;bought a when they house nearer down in IT. in, he working couple moved London, a Polish to Abu Dhabi she where then moved a year, They stayed Enfield from couple British black a year, this work; found in London. church and attending working still in – moved part cheap neighbourhood, being the this of and town point ofthe thus – and increasingly for newcomers arrival ofnumber the with so, and rented, in private households thus flexible, accommodation in this area doubling ‘churn’, as know we a process is It period 2001-11. the in term,not a helpful is that though from the distracts as it ofnature diverse instance, in this as, well as newcomers on. This is to move them that allows resourcefulness the immigrantsunskilled in contrast to the very of much the moved job, local a found typically who and 70s, 1960s got a mortgage – altogetherthe family, actions signalling long-term intent. 188 Rescaling and Re-placing mlmo ‘Fortress Europe’. emblem of most politically contentious and symbolically charged the EU’scoasts soonbecame the Mediterranean km of border’.Overand with it the ‘common external 34,000 was latertobeknown Club’was asthe‘Schengen born, borders’.What customs and police controls at ‘internal economic and civic freedom through the suppression of achievestrategic anotheracommonspace priority: of to were felt alsonecessary harmonization targeted and enforcement to become effective. Systematic cooperation needed joint low-skilled on the ban migration labour that to agree more decade for European governments one took it but discontinued, been officially had labour basins. asrecruitment –which emerged in particular shores–Yugoslavia,eastern and Turkeyand theMaghreb as aside effect, it was increasingly and partly the southern to receiving countries.migrant-sending Inthe meantime, from metamorphosis extent promoted, their surprising to some accompanied,and the Market.Common This – intotheCommunity andSpain European Portugal and eventually Greece, later much first, Italy – southerners the the continent’s inclusionof First came the gradual of problematicborder.to deeply labour significance of reservoir crucial political and Europe hasshifted for dramaticallyfrom Mediterranean economic The in manydifferent ways, characterised by bothexperiences community andthepeopleeverything’. zone’ where ‘you knowas a‘comfort neighbourhood the they later sent their own to the children, they referred By the early 1970s, active recruitment of migrant migrant By the early1970s, active of recruitment So yes,is personal.But neighbourhoodit is personal Mediterranean Mediterranean Ferruccio Pastore migration, Europe has turned into the largest and, by intothe largest Europehasturned migration, anxiety aboutunwanted and growing interdependence and perceived) (alleged forgeries. scanning Under the pressure of persons, profiling vehicles, screening spaces, and detecting anomalies and for infrastructures and in invested developing ever moresophisticated techniques, methods been have resources financial and significant human Very actors. private and public of plethora more orless technological means, and by a heterogeneous at multiple stages, through avarietyare performed of emptive andrepressiveactivities surveillance controlsand borders, bounded by blurred where pre- , itself border zone rather awide (and constantly widening) and complex and tourists’ cars queue, which but trucks in frontof line and simpleborder border.neat a Notanymore since newkindof then isa the eastandcloseddown tothesouth. project tookshape: the openedupto Union enlargement afew years,eastern and the grand in the course of between Europe’soutside insideandmarkedly changed where the line was drawn socialist bloc, of perceptions the for outsiders. In the meantime, with the collapse of freedom insiders wasfor enhancedattheexpenseof outside checks:was the price for lifting internal freedom nesadnso how diversity is lived and experienced. understandings of everyday lifethatwe arrivenuanced atmore context of how in the these experiences come together observing community.it isby And without any onenarrative of settlement processes, short-term localbelongingand of The European border whichborder European hasbeendevelopingThe andreinforcingcontrolstowards the Harmonizing punctuated by guarded checkpoints, Rescaling and Re-placing 189 over the connecting function of over the Furthermore, the relative effectiveness of Furthermore, effectiveness relative the such exaggerated proved anxiety Such or premature, at least techniques required by enhanced controls had as a side controls had as enhanced by required techniques reach estimates (conservative sea at in deaths a rise effect ofa figure two decades). over 20,000 victims around epochal transformation integrally was related to the ofauthoritarian nature main ‘partners’operating Europe’s Thesouthernon the and capillarystrong shore. control their ‘moderate Arabhad regimes’ over that so-called disregardto capacity and their territories and societies, controls and exit popular opposition to widespread success factors in critical the were readmission policies, ofThis became externalization European strategies. of collapse the when transparent in 2011, regimes those ofstirred a wave among migration anxiety control bureaucracies, amplified by the media, contributing to Europe’s precocious (and to some extent self-fulfilling) scepticism on the destiny of revolutions’. ‘Arab because – in negotiated a effectively and agreements quickly were first phase the between for instance, as, players, key between at least – cooperation Tunisian and Italian governmentLibyan new and the authorities. But the intensificationfactors (from the of escalation of regional the Syrian push conflict to a deterioration ofnew Horn in the situation the of Africa), conflict into ofLibya relapse and Egyptthe with together a is fragile how more showing are once and instability, European migration management strategy gives which priority to the separating Mediterranean. Theof weakness European in responses ofwake the tragedy Lampedusa the of 3 October 2013, surroundingtensions and the ‘European what solidarity’ are another circumstances, in such mean actually should urgentreminder of long-term the of unsustainability reducing the Mediterranean to just a border. According to the letter and the spirit of to the letter According European formalyears after the a few It was incorporation of the borderization ofMeanwhile, the Mediterranean some possible measures, the most advanced laboratory advanced the most in measures, some possible Mediterraneanthe with for migration world the controls, testing ground.as prime of every inch treaties, the external border is understood on behalf established as ‘common’: of all member states and benefitting them all. It is only due to the hazards of is stretch geographythat each and territorial sovereignty agents the by primarily controlled of one specific state. of law in the principles such European Union the that an unprecedented in such embedded imbalances the distribution ofamong and responsibilities duties with Border countries, clear. nations became sovereign to called Mediterranean were ones on frontline, the performcommon according to a common function, The distribution means. but using their own standards, ofespecially heavy, potentially border surveillancecosts, ofcase in the turned into an issue maritime activities, policy agenda. startedwhich to climb up the EU’s in although sometimes unforeseen effective, proving was The efforts of ways. the with usually EU states, coastal crucial cooperation of closed neighbouring transit states, irregularprominent once several migrationdown routes, Otranto Channel,Gibraltar Strait and including the the the crossing to the Canaries. Thisborder upgrade successful applauded in was there but and in public perceptions, politicians’ discourses nature ofmixed the Given some collateral effects. were the deterred flows – where ‘economic migrants’ share boats with minors, victims of – externalizationseekers of trafficking controls implied a substantial and asylum thwarting ofinternational the obligationforced to protect the more risky smuggling more seriously, Even migrants. 190 Rescaling and Re-placing at Gatwick and 50,000 at Stansted. Six hundred thousand average passengers 180,000 at Heathrow,airport 100,000 year. every dayevery of writers, artists, doctors, nannies,traversing all theglobe families, students, business people, leaders, crooks,of Perth; New York to Mexico City. Millions andmillions to it. London to Accra; Singapore evokes the wonder of arcs, that flight and outlines pinpoints,continental its of thinkable all find ourglobalage, and yet it is this map, full of can articulations we engine search a of At click from. the and to flies airline the destinations of A4 image asingle in contained flight, hour 11 the in offered curiosity at the back, reach the map. one element of The finally,Toblerone;and of packs giant and jewellery faux perfume, on offers reviews; city and restaurant past flick the breakfast charade, I to resort the in-flight magazine. I flight the attendants. Atthispoint,having in refused to take part of cheeriness determined the and hours, 24 that has been sitting in microwavable foilsforthe past egg lights being put back on,theof unpalatable aroma of set full the by greeted are we 5am Around floor. the bodily in various oblivionblanketsand that have slithered to states of passengers with filled seats passing sprawling bodiestowalkdown upand the aisles, row of 3am Islinkpastthe book.Around movies and agood in-flight with hours the mark I year, each with shrinks plane. in aneconomy seat that Scrunched perceptibly as aday. you don’t well sleep on a Except, like me, if to CapeTownfrom London without missing so much made throughthe night, allowing the traveller toget usually flight, hour half a and eleven an family.is visit It yearsince 2004, I travelEvery backto toSouthAfrica So porousareourcity borders that on any one day, World Wide Street Suzanne M.Hall one would like tosee: workersthe NHS, in example, for Vietnam. Pakistan, Leone, Trinidad, Sudan, Sierre Turkey and Italy,Ireland, Iran, Jamaica, Malawi, Malaysia, Nigeria, England, Ghana,India, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus stunningdiversity: Afghanistan, China, of origins of streetone London at onepointintime,aggregation an was no less captivating to me than the airline original.On connecting to another.monochromein appeared What onepoint colour, justsimpleblacka white andtracingof shop. I elected to leave out any visual distractions: no in oursurvey, and drew a line to the corresponding on the mile length street who were willing to participate the 93 shopkeepers pinpointed the worldwideof origins My colleague proprietorsThiresh the independent of the Walworth in aface-to-face survey Road, engaged thestreet directly above it.Fortwo weeks we walkedof the world below and amap with a mapof set out an image map, so, and a colleague’s relyingon computer skills, we that airline travel street. I hadinmindthe connections of the on proprietors independent to traceof the origins day-to-day retailand convenience, Idecided ecosystem of peoplewhoactivate this linear intrigued by the diversity of above theWalworthflat RoadA yearlater,in southLondon. a into moved I 2004, In city? the of making the in arrivals and departures of generations accumulation of that is just on oneday. How could we comprehend the Buckingham Palace. And their pictures taken infrontof galleries, jostle up anddown Street, Oxford and have attendance. Four its hundredthousandtourists peruse the city’s university lecture rooms andlibrarieswith daily London each year, filling students arrive from outside of hr r ayadt n rcnso thiskindthat aremanyaudits and tracingsof There Rescaling and Re-placing 191 demanding ‘Go home demanding arrest’.or face But go far that who would a dead-end such down street? return On my flight from to London Town Cape I pass through the border African South I control. Because am a dual nationality I am citizen, required of in and out to travel both Africa with South a minimal passports, obligation on which, I had occasion, this forgottento respect. border As I handedthe maroon UK guard my passport,ofinstead Springbok green-my and-goldhe one, frowned: is the one you wouldn’t forget.” wouldn’t is the one you This “You have forgotten your passport,” he stated. forgotten passport,” your have “You I replied sheepishly. “Yes,” you?” forget would this one, wouldn’t you “But he insisted. “ In today’s world, we are all migrants we of world, perpetually In today’s We sorts. phone mobile through in airplanes, borders across travel borderas the But internet along signals. satellite networks, migrants; equally all not are some we me, guard reminded are permitted others. than access more London: Routledge. City, Street and Citizen: The MeasureCity, of the Ordinary, A map of the origins and destination of the diverse proprietors on a south London street, surveyedproprietors on a south London street, in 2009. Source: Hall, S. M. (2012) Source: Hall, S. or London bus drivers, or London bus drivers, students or even and staff own in my I chose university. it because street the so commonplace, is urban an everyday currency ofeach that where no matter us, from, has a are we The with. familiarity intention is to reveal what is common to our urban landscapes everyday the and how in an increasingly alters Our mobile world. the survey reveals of diversity people that is integral way to the in our life day-to-day deny To works. cities this commonplace or the conviviality porosity of world the require holding, at all costs, would live, now we in which to another truth.a moral claim for the require would It oftightening an expedient accompanied by borders, for a discriminatory allows pragmatism that ofsystem access to those with high ofexperience the counteract influence we world, wider in the living and income. To apparatus a cynical of to circulate have would hierarchy cross- based on a singular national above allegiance ofdistinctions the make To border interdependencies. need to be vans would there insiders and felt, outsiders parading around London neighbourhoods billboards with The Great Divide Juliet Davies

COMPAS Photo Competition 2009 Second Place Rescaling and Re-placing 193 New urbanismsgenerateNew commons in liminal new This invokes a potential tragedya potential of Thisinvokes as commons the become has Detroit spirals metropolis into decline. the of site the emblematic and malaise post-industrial such the less is also possible to see it at times But shrinking. tragedyof banality ofcommons than the the repertoires of offace in the social closure Competition scarcity. least the who have those between resources for scarce structuresoflogics the – for example, intolerance ofresponses an ageingwelfare a challengedEurope to very the migrantsby staffed paradoxically state who are popularly representedas threatening its survival; Mumbai; to againstsponsored violence Bihari movers policing of heavy the emerging in the enclaves African of economy market 21st-century Istanbul. and restructuringurban and rural-urbanat the spaces the as in USA, as well in Europe and the interface emergentof economies China, India and Brazil. As of sense make new arrivals that is not their own, a city are and publics ecologies metropolis mutates: the ofand the calculus reconstituted, change economic is Thesechallengethe resynchronised. changes inevitably oflegitimacy rule and governance of existing common partswhich But of interests. metropolis, future the be properly of should thought and times, spaces which are When(CPR)? pool resources as common and how in needs the the collective rights challenged by private Migrationcity? future fore to the questions brings such to have decision-makers and municipal mayors when ofdemands balance the ofneeds and the present the This is particularlypronounced in metropolis. future the and expansion are rapid most – where development cities in emergentmegacities Shenzhen and Sao as Delhi, such Michael Keith Arrivals between Bildungsroman Commons and the City between Arrivals Migration provides a lens through which dilemmas Migrationthrough which a lens provides as the analytically process this to see is possible It The Athenians believed that the moral imperative was to was moral imperative the that The believed Athenians on departure place a better city the than on arrival. leave The what a moralis obligationthere that sense towards famously present, the who inherit those to next, comes ofdescription informsAristotle’s ofconstitution the genesisthe to central is and of Athens, ancient a political vision of the metropolis as the good city. It prefigures a notion ofand foregrounds intergenerational ethics, a ofsense and both the new arrival obligation towards the in which way the with uneasily sits it But citizen. the ageurban of flow steady centurythe 21st the treated has of– ofcity people to the from rural those urban areas to as of and as well spaces, across national those boundaries. of particularofmoments to the speak human mobility in one people arrive human condition. Characteristically, an a job, seeking than not as adults more often place, They and skilled schooled arrive or education, family ties. they work, they that extent the To degreesome to already. as their even economy, metropolitan to the contribute strains on commons of place the may arrival city the the ecology, the share – we that resources public – the for scarce competition the nets, neighbourhood welfare land, housing and shelter. transitional strains ofThe economic development. long-term return on mobility of the labour optimises growth, economic powers distribution, resource factor social change – in 21st-century Shanghai and and drives may it in 19th-century grows, city the as London. But underminethrough ecological sustainability own its waste, plan to failures and traffic, and ofpollution hazards exploitation ofand the water, resources. public scarce 194 Rescaling and Re-placing • shifting community andCPRshouldbeheld: use’ through the following questions to which a of ‘rules diversity to legitimacy also and the putative threatof both by incorporating migration empirical challenges of Shesynthesised the ethical questions and and migration. to address heterogeneity,population shifts, generational the community by leaders seeking should be asked of with stable resourceincludingquestions pooling, that community theattributes of worktowards analysis of an (1990). But in herlaterwriting Ostrom oriented her use on of,access andto,agreements and resources of asapotential threat to collectivemigration understandings Commons, Nobel laureate Elinor Ostrom briefly discusses worklandmark her in Thus urban. turns revisiting the subject becomes more pressingasthe world context. But commons hasfocused primarily on the rural realities. principleswithinformal formal that is, of rights,property redistribution: demands for popular and space, of settlement with the organisation rational of pressures demographic requiring the reconciliation of trade-offs between what is plausibleandwhat is ideal, and city, thegood implyingpolicy calculus moral with aof the affluent metropolis mayorganisation of sit in tension or Londonreinvent themselves. Optimal economic Paolo –but alsowhen old metropolises such asMoscow • • • Is there general agreement on the rules related to therules on agreement Is theregeneral economicspoliticalscience and literature the on The otemmeshv hrdudrtnigo Do the membershave asharedunderstandingof How are the rules transmitted from one generation transmitted one generation from Howthe rules are consideredlegitimateandfair? Are theserules responsibilities? and benefits both with member a as included is who omleue o itiuino benefits? usedfordistributionof formulae what their mutual responsibilities are aswell as the (Ostrom, 2009) into the group? to the next or to those who migrate Governing the Governing downloads/ostrom_governing_a_commons.pdf. Perspective’, Heinrich BollStiftung, http://www.boell.org/ Ostrom, E.(2009) ‘Governinga Citizens’ the from Commons Press Action Institutions for Collective Ostrom, E. (1990) that isyettocome. those near anddistant in bothtime and space in the city to obligation belong inoneplace,and butowe adebt of economic restructuring. We may identify processes of the everyday in spaces of of by the transformation trumped placeare of knowledges that vernacular rapid is the chameleon-likemodern propensity so for change the somehowto ourselves. strangers facility of The arrival. Ethically, we arrive inthe present as sense of public issues. moralprivate problems and instrumental mixing of life, andinstead points toward the good the inevitable of does not isolate empirical diversity from contested ethics new arrivals to have rights.in otherwords, It the rights of the city also invokes tothe stranger, the ethical obligation legitimacy in land-based resources. But the question of may shift, appropriate,alter the orpremisesaccess for to groups the global south, is complicated, as migrant of eviction in much protection against component of crucial legitimacy, a central are notfollowing’.question of The that others there can be little reason to continue with rules because arrival, migrant significant of face the in tenure ‘can bequick waysto change or toabandon groups of settings,urban or tenure-insecure, local whetherrural in communities join that mayBecause migrants alreadybe the for city. migration challenges of normative and questions, Ostromhighlightsbothanalytical In thisset of The contemporary city consequently reframes the contemporary The oenn h omn:TeEouino the Commons: The Evolution of Governing References , Cambridge: Cambridge University Cambridge , Cambridge: Rescaling and Re-placing 195 New migrants typically voidsfill in the housing stock Themany migrantsthat fact struggletheir meet to of migrationIn England, anti-immigration has coalesced. groupsparties housing at place frequently far-right and ofcentre the political the criticising their campaigns, for its for and failing to protect provide establishment The and housing shortage, rising house prices, citizens. problems of are affordability blamed on international migration. Thethat migrants accusation are unfairly ofallocation in the advantaged one social housing is ofalleged the most frequently of injustices migration. governmentshave successive why Rather than asking a supply offailed to ensure accessible, reasonable quality, and secure affordable housing, the housing crisis has been blamed on migration. Themigrantsthat is irony here of in some living be to tend housing conditions worst the of all. Consequently, other households. by aside or left avoided migrantsin unpopular neighbourhoods up living end often rental and in poor in housing, usually the private quality and in a poor housing is often overcrowded Such sector. Difficulties ofproblem. state major a is Insecurity repair. funds public to recourse and limited rent the paying with risk ofthe can increase for and homelessness eviction that possible is it but vary, Estimates many migrants. ofupwards ofper cent 20 sleepingpeople in rough London are migrants. a precarious occupy and basic material needs frequently for major a cause is system housing position in the concern. The 1951 Geneva Convention ofrights social specifiesrefugees for goodhousing in relation to the ofquality to fundamental reason. Housing is and life provides Housing that integration the to critical process. Housing Housing David Robinson England is suffering a housing crisis. Rising house Rising crisis. a housing suffering England is this crisis should be on the pledge card ofTackling Housing is one of popular around which issues key the Migrationmirror holds a and prompts society up to reflection about social issues that might otherwisebrushed under the carpet of political and popular debate. be So it is with housing. prices and restricted access to mortgage ofreach the beyond homeownership put finance increasing have of numbers There shortage a desperate is households. of More million households than 1.5 affordable homes. are reportedwe yet housing, for social waiting to be 1945. since time any than at houses fewer are building is on rise and than the more 600,000 Overcrowding in overcrowded living households in England are now The ofrising cost conditions. many leaving is living households strugglingand housing costs facing to cover ofpossibility the repossessionHomelessness or eviction. is increasing and more and more families are homeless suitable because being placed in bed and breakfast hotels accommodation is simply not available. housing provides stable Decent, every party. political a roofmore than just a provides It head. someone’s over place of environment living a healthy and security, safety and well- health promotes It community. to and links rarely housing issue the Yet chances. being and life press and media while politicians, warrants a mention by for appetite news the public’s feeds merely coverage interest the However, figures. price house latest the about ofcan be housing crisis in the public politicians and the they emergesfolk devil which when a convenient piqued can blame for these miseries. and consequences impacts about the debate and political 196 Rescaling and Re-placing of living. Of course, this is true not justmigrants,for course, this is true living. Of of employment. It is fundamental to an adequate standard It improves life chances, promotes health, education and safety, security and stability provides a home. a place of differences in incomelevels between countries; in the in migration economics, which located the drivers of approaches: in neoclassical be foundinanumber of the to how explanations of theories pointed migration synthesis of Their migration. of perpetuation and accountingtheinception for of book the ways by accretion. their In which in form diasporas crisesandmoreroutine migration. migration less catastrophic events, or by a combinationof result of been designatedas a as such: these were often formed themselvespeoples havehave or diasporas come to term dispersed Subsequently, amuch number of greater events that forced them into exile (Cohen, 2008). of were scattered following a catastrophic event or series Africans, Irish,andlaterthe Palestinians Armenians, – (Van Hear, classical –Jews,diasporas 1998). The cumulative processescrises and result asaof emerge choice, compulsion and diasporas and of combination a from result also may Dispersal persecution. or conflict other forciblemovementexpulsion or resulting from brought aboutby crisis, involving coercion, catastrophe, alternatively, or routinemigration, or ‘voluntary’ be of by accretion, emerging as aresult gradually may They form across severalpopulation a destinations. being dispersalof two in ways,main form Diasporas ground thecommon h ieaueo aormgainpit osm f pointsto some of literature migration on labour The Worlds in Motion, Massey et al. (1998) traced ways initiation of migration could migration of Diaspora Formation Diaspora Formation Nicholas Van Hear sustain asafeandsecurehome. and housing crisistosolvingit, so that everyone cangain attention awayfor the from blamingmigration focus of but for everyone. We need to shift the therefore urgently (Massey etal.,1998). made, often movementmaking additional more likely decisions are context in which subsequent migration alters the social migration highlighting how each act of causation strikes achordwith behaviour, diaspora by cumulative context. Likewise,the migration the notion of ways in which socialconnections can bedrawn uponin diasporas, by pointingto of reproduction and formation capital andnetworks arelikewise helpful the in explaining stress. Ideas about social in circumstances of particularly formation, in diasporas chimes withthebehaviourof risk; this spreading income, maximising of butalso of households and communities, with the object not just to decision-making not just by individuals, but by approach points (labour)migration new economics of diasporas, relevant. but some are particularly The of consolidation and formation the inception, help explain these approaches could be applied indifferent ways to social capital,networks and‘cumulative causation’. All of theories about could befoundin migration of perpetuation the a politicaleconomy approach.of Explanations power worldwide through the unequal distributionof in migration theories, which sought explanations of and world-systems historical-structural and invariants of industrialised societies; demand in stemmed labour from marketlabour theory, which heldthatmigration in segmented (labour)migration; new economics of Rescaling and Re-placing 197 Current , 2nd edn, Oxford: Clarendon Press. References Worlds in Motion: Understanding International Worlds New Diasporas: The Mass Exodus, Dispersal Exodus, New Diasporas: The Mass Global Diasporas: An Introduction Forced Migration and Global Processes: A View from Forced Migration and Global Processes: A View from Forced Forced Quite often, diasporas are formedare diasporas often, Quite of mixes from formed diasporas have been from or new Major betterment, for economic refugees move who and people marriage ‘mixed called – sometimes reasons or other study, international As the migration’. migration refugee and ‘regime’ has become more stringent and access to affluent or socio-economic class limited, more destinations elaborationassociated and resources, to access standing, of more migrate. to to Access capacity the shape networks increasingly are destinations desirable and prosperous tends there simply, Put resourced. better the to limited of hierarchy a be to by reached be can that destinations – resources the to according migrants seekers, and asylum call upon.can they that – and network-based financial augmented by both economic migration and of – or mixes conflict- population induced movements two the Theseor new resurgent decades. two past the – over transnational social formationsare consolidated, have undertakenor existing new extended enduring, have forms of and are becoming transnational activity, integrated particularlyin respect global order, into the of relations between affluent countries 2009). Hear, in the global south (Van powers and emerging History, 108(717). Cohen, R. (2008) London: Routledge. al. (1998) et D. Massey, Migration at the End of the Millennium, (1998) N. Hear, Van and Regrouping of London: UCL Press. Migrant Communities, take would money as far as my went ‘“I (2006) N. Hear, Van me”: Conflict,Forced Migration and Class’,F. in Crepeau et al. (eds.) and Littlefield. Lanham: Lexington/Rowman Migration Studies, ‘The (2009) of Rise N. Hear, Diasporas’, Van Refugee near ) (Van Hear, 2006). With their With their 2006). Hear, ) (Van ), and those spread further afield (what might be While offrom analysis insights ‘voluntary’ so-called Among people fleeing these and other conflicts, migrationfor the helped account in and 1980s 1990s the formation and perpetuationof sources other diasporas, of diaspora formation increased in the found were of numbers global from the moving seekers asylum global north,the to south of result and also as a major migrationforced end ofthe with associated crises the emergenceand the of Cold War from a unipolar world break-up ofthe – among them onwards early 1990s the Gulf1990-91 the in 1989-91; bloc Soviet the the crisis; in Central refugeeand mass genocide,movements wars Africa from 1994; protracted conflict and displacement Hornthe Afghanistan, ofin Palestine, Sri Lanka, Africa, refugeethe and Colombia more recently and elsewhere; and migratory wars the with associated movements and Iraq the (from 2003), in Afghanistan (from 2001), the especially from 2011, Arab in the world upheavals in Syria. war a common pattern has in been for safety most to seek other partsof for number a substantial their country, and for a to look for refuge in neighbouring countries, smaller number to seek asylum further afield.Some of of countries neighbouring in those later may asylum first or migrate to onward other continents, in resettled be gone there have who joining those destinations, new If directly. transnational relations complex persists, exile locations ofdifferent among the develop will the those home, at among those diaspora: is, that developing in neighbouring territoriesthe called be might (what diaspora termed the wider diaspora dispersal comes the establishment ofestablishment the dispersal comes transnational groups, dispersed among the relations and networks and relationships that and it is through networks these ofcountries their origin. on influence exert can diasporas 198 Rescaling and Re-placing subsistence. of increasingly forced to lookbeyond the region formeans approximately 300,000 in 2000, with the local population tripled, to 1905). has Since then,theBaltipopulation (Knight, appearance’ half-starved a scanty rags, andof Balti migrants [en route to Simla], ‘…clothed in filthy and with encounters chance described and ‘overflowing’, as tothe local population referred the late 19th century of explorers western Early people thatthecansupport. land the number of resource base hashistorically curtailed the local the scarceness of melt water forirrigation, on access to glacial contingent with subsistence farming desert, mountain a as Classified Mountains. Karakorum some 25,000 square kilometressituatedthe and in practices.state-building andBaltimigration examinethebetweenrelationship in Karachi, Pakistani mountain valley in Baltistan, and amongBalti migrants a Thalay, in out carried fieldwork on based here, will I dynamics.the political landscape has impacted migration there has been little emphasis on how this reshaping of in Pakistan have evolved largely since Partition in 1947, Punjab.patterns migration present day Whereas internal in thecities and of Karachi in supposedor opportunities economic andlandlessness,hardship or migrants, pushed have out, migrants beenperceivedbeen carried aslabour inPakistan. migration In the studies that haveto internal states. hasbeen little attention There to the Gulf migration international countries,European in the orcontext of social cohesionin and to integration relation either in havePakistani patterns principally been analysed migration At the same time, the Baltifor manoeuvre room has Baltistan is a highaltitude mountainarea, covering out from their rural environments due to outfromtheirrural h yaiso Pakistani Practices State-BuildingandBaltiMigration Dynamicsof The pulled by actual Ole Jensen ngvrmn evc nterrtr.Tepopc f prospect of The on their return. service in government educationalfor purposes,to qualifyajob inorderfor investments.long-term Young men would to Karachi go villages,the mountain from themoves wereas explained Seen theBaltipopulation. estimated cent 8 to10per of hometoan the mountain region–mostly toKarachi, subsistence strategy, moves away arethe long-term from make aliving. to thingstodo the totality inof cycle, solidlyintegrated asubsistence away over of winter thus becomes part away,journey Punjab. or to coal mines in northern Going Gilgit, an eightbus hour towards thecentre regional of in, typically heading most households in the valley engage move is a recurring which seasonalmigration period. This wholeavemigrants labour duringthe bitterly cold winter waya and suppliesdownfood from Balti outfor country Nurbakshis), thishasbecome and alifeline, providing controlled byMuslim tribes(theShi’is SunniBaltisare previously only rarely used, as it passed through territory Highway and the PakistaniKarakorum plains. A route Skardutothe 1980s, linking the capitalof regional the early in theIndusGorge through was constructed Pakistan (thoughnever officiallyrecognisedassuch). of part Baltistan asanintegrated that construes emerged has cut. Instead, a physical and political infrastructure Kashmir to southern migration tradeand routes of seen has itstraditional theBalti population Kashmir, over conflict ongoing the to Due Kashmir. Indian-held dividing Control Pakistani and the Line of of north andislocated Kashmir, immediately of disputed territory the of dramatically changed since 1947. Baltistan is part esrcgial,adol nietypr fa Less of recognisable, and only indirectly part route access an all-year however, significantly, Most Rescaling and Re-placing 199 , London: References Where ThreeEmpires Meet But Balti migrationBalti But to Karachireduced cannot be ofIn the mechanisms conclusion, state- Pakistani thirds of Balti migrants32 the I interviewed Karachi in of most and city, in the years ten more than had spent the city. their families to moved eventually them had to the sum of of trajectories individual return or is also in Karachiconsolidation. It from – at a distance primarythe that constitute villagesthe and valleys points of identification – that the idea of Baltistan as a political against Protesting quo where a status emerging. is entity Baltis the without Pakistan controlled by is Baltistan immigrants from citizens, acceptedbeing as Pakistani domination againstdemonstrated Pakistani have Baltistan ofand in favour in Indian-held Ladakh, with ties closer Kashmir. and nature of, the impacted clearly building have migration behind, Balti – to the practices motivations So are being questioned. mechanisms these point where by driven seem Karachi to would initial move the whereas oneselfavail an ambition to of opportunities livelihood it process, state-building Pakistani the by brought about questions that from Baltistan, at a distance is also here, Pakistani the within place emergeconcerning Baltistan’s state. Spottiswoode & Co. Spottiswoode Knight, E. F. (1905) (1905) E. F. Knight, The picture looked somewhat different among Balti among Balti different The somewhat looked picture go up to Thalay and take eventually back Ali would government service using the many with here, is key when snow; the job is like private metaphor:same “A A government it a fountain; job is over. is it melted, is it certainty the into translated of “Forever” forever.” lasts a monthly salary, a significant lump sum payable upon – Pensioners pension. monthly and a modest retirement, retired from armythe or from government service – were proof living ofgraduates unemployed But ‘fountain’. the positions. for vacant waiting the valley, aplenty in were migrants in Karachi. “You finish studies,you go home, Ali, a migrant how from was Thalay, the system,” that’s 26 years old, Ali had he didn’t. Except, explained it to me. moved to Karachi eight years prior. After finishing his in shared living as a typist, he had been working studies, The migrants other with accommodation from Thalay. migrantsBalti most Like in on, however. was pressure Karachi,and marriedAli had home, back a visit during in his father’s living now son were and baby his wife house. the job in government servicethat his father – with good and connections a solid bribe – had for secured torn be in a similar situation, between him. Others would and opportunitiesfrom home expectations in a now “Whatfamiliar urban context. do to for me there is two- Altogether, argue. would many what was there?” 200 Rescaling and Re-placing according to laws localauthority practice, governing and Homeless children inBritainare‘childrenin need’ from families see parents,abroad: their childrentheir suitcases.and to offices services social authority arerefused? when thosebasicservices what happens and accommodation, and help financial such as basic services and their children are in need of in Britainforsolong. actually happens when people What practice,in those whohave includingfor lived unlawfully implementing this so-called hostile environment means the UK.But up inlittle brought thoughtisgiven towhat notdecades, and often with children born for years, if manypeopleremain in socialservices, with migrants working these restrictions. From my experience of of doesn’t, with many peopleremaininginBritainspite inpractice, sometimes it worksreturn; andsometimes it is supposed to force the issue of migrants irregular and the right to rent accommodation inthe private sector. healthcare this approachrestrictions through to primary Britain’s is seeking to consolidate government current statutory from – predates the coalition government, social services support and benefits housing, public healthcare, – free secondary access to basic services migration.”environment Although restricting for illegal aimistocreate here inBritainareallyhostile 2012: “The Telegraph with The in May May in an interview Theresa – assummed upby abovemigrants others –irregular all people policy,of one group for hostility is reserved social of that they are intentionally hostile. Asagoal are rarelythe most welcoming places, yet it isdoubtful local The authorityoffices social of departments services ti o nomni h atn om flocal the waitingin It isnotuncommon of rooms In theory, to denying basic rights and services The HostileEnvironment The Jonathan Price up foryears, until a crisis situation (an argument, rent that people can prop support constitute a network of worship,their street, on in schoolworkplace,or of create overtheir communities, theyearsin their place in pupils, friends, andfamily members. bonds families The individuals have been neighbours, colleagues, fellow when working insocial services. Up to this point, these for some time, andagain asituation that I saw again to families who have beenliving unlawfully Britain in immigrant’. However, it illustrates the policy dilemma asit relates the ‘illegal of construction unquantifiable confused can itclarifywhatisoftenaand nor population, Britain’s migrant irregular of for the heterogeneity authority narrativethe local cannot speak This department. social services of offices the at arrive they before can be, itisworthto families lookingatwhathappens support. informal of worshipfriends,for the provision a charity, or aplace of to a referral origin,or of to the parents’ country return tickets being provided anyway, to services offer of an theassessment can resultstatutory in outcome of The afamily’sin the claimtoremainUK. the strength of ‘destitution’, of definition the child, the of interests best andpractical considerations to be made: the legal of advocate and the duty social worker. is a plethora There between a parentandthe state, mediated by his/her brinkmanship services. It is the site of the provision of against or for justifications legal lengthy bureaucracy,of the hostile environment, a festival of administration of policy. immigration government Here, then, begins the central this being an impact of their heads, in spite of over they cannot lawfully be left to live without a roof In order to understandhoworder In fraught thisprocess Rescaling and Re-placing 201 References but by descent from a British parent; they have an have they parent; from a British descent by but unqualified right of abode here; they lived have here; are being educated they lives; here all their community the with links social other have they a good their with relationship have they here; that a young not enough to say is It father here. readily adapt life in to another country. may child particularly if so, be Thatwell may with moves she a countryto both her parents know they which re-integratecan easily and where they well in their it is very But in different the community…. own ofcase lives all their here lived have who children to a country which to move and are being expected and will be separated from know a do not they (2011). well parent whom they also know The story of people’s relationship with their community, Thestory of community, their relationship with people’s – worshipers fellow neighbours, family, friends, with ofirrespective their immigrationthat – shows status as has social as well environment a hostile implementing of question the begs It legal limitations. Britain whether a hostile place after all. can be so easily made into such Birmingham 460, Civ EWCA (2010) v Clue Council City http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Civ/2010/460.html. v Secretary(FC) ofZH (Tanzania) for Home State the Departmenthttp://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/ UKSC 4, (2011) UKSC/2011/4.html. They are British children; they are British, not are British, They they are British children; ofthrough the ‘accident’ just being born here, The right to private life entails considerations far considerations entails life Theto private right Importantly, life. family right to than the wider relationships and the the includes life private that a as the family ties as well social, cultural person forms. It is perhaps in court where these issues have been in courtperhaps is It have issues these where Theofcase added the illustrates (Tanzania) ZH ofcomplexity in this case status’, ‘mixed with families of care in the relating to children refused a Tanzanian but with a British father: asylum seeker, arrears, loss ofarrears, forces violence) domestic employment, and situations housing and living into precarious them into the offices of their local social services department or voluntary sector advocate. that found most depth.in considered Many have cases ofthe strength bonds families’ with their communities ofhas the effect creating a legal obligation for local whether In looking at services. provide to authorities Birminghamarticle Council had breached City of8 and private right to the – 1998 Act Human Rights the withhold accommodation to decision – in its life family and support family that had been living from a destitute judgethe (2010) Clue in UK for years, in the unlawfully said: Routes and Reading out of this Anthology

Alongside the contributions made to this Anthology, challenge of future research agendas. We are attempting to and in addition to the huge body of work produced by offer eclectic bibliographic trails to follow. Consequently, its contributors, we decided to provide a bibliographic the scholarship that informs the text contributions is supplement for readers wishing to read in further depth reflected in this bibliography under the sub-headings of about the topics covered. We have included a selection of the volume as a whole. the many insightful and easily available novels and films Third, we have tried to include a number of pieces about migration. We would also encourage those who that are landmarks in migration studies, without defining are interested in engaging with the study of migration to a canon of literature as such. For this reason, some of the take a look at Global Networks and Migration Studies, two authors of some of the more canonical pieces have been journals that COMPAS has established relations with included in subject areas that do not always reflect the over the years. substantive nature of their research focus, or in categories With this bibliography we wanted to achieve four which they might not recognise. This is deliberate and, we things: hope, a helpful way to rethink their ongoing relevance to First, we have deliberately avoided conventional new theoretical debates and emergent research agendas. reference practices for the academic contributors to the Fourth, we have attempted to include a volume, in order both to make the volume more readable disproportionate number of contributions of work and the combination of prose, poetry and imagery more from colleagues and researchers past and present at the sympathetic. Centre on Migration, Policy and Society in order to give Second, we hope to help readers who are interested a representative flavour of the much greater volume in developing interests both looking back at the growing of scholarly publication over the last decade and in body of migration studies scholarship that accumulates recognition of the support provided in this decade by in the rear view mirror of history and forwards to the the Economic and Social Research Council.

Beyond Rules Balibar, E. (2004) We, the People of Europe? Reflections on Transnational Citizenship, Princeton and Oxford: Princeton Anderson, B., Gibney, M. and Paoletti, E. (eds.) (2011) University Press. ‘Boundaries of Belonging: Deportation and the Constitution and Contestation of Citizenship’, Citizenship Studies, Special Banting, K. and Kymlicka, W. (eds.) (2006) Multiculturalism and Issue, 15(5). the Welfare State. Recognition and Redistribution in Contemporary Democracies, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Anderson, B., Gibney, M. and Paoletti, E. (eds.) (2013) The Social, Political and Historical Contours of Deportation, Immigrants Benhabib, S. (2004) The Rights of Others: Aliens, Residents and and Minorities, Politics and Policy, New York: Springer Science & Citizens, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Business Media. Betts, A. (2013) Survival Migration: Failed Governance and the Crisis of Displacement, Cornell: Cornell University Press.

202 Betts, A. (ed.) (2011) Global Migration Governance, Oxford: Gamlen, A. (2008) ‘The Emigration State and the Modern R outes Oxford University Press. Geopolitical Imagination’, Political Geography, 27(8), 840-56. Blom Hansen, T. and Stepputat, F. (2005) Sovereign Bodies: Gibney, M. (1989) A Critique of Norway’s Refugee/Asylum Policy

Citizens, Migrants and States in the Postcolonial World, Princeton and and Proposals for Change, Oslo: Institute for Human Rights. Oxford: Princeton University Press. and Hall, A. (2012) Border Watch: Cultures of Immigration, Detention and

Bommes, M. and Geddes, A. (eds.) (2000) Immigration and Control, London: Pluto Press. R Welfare: Challenging the Borders of the Welfare State, London: Hammar, T. (1990) Democracy and the Nation State. Aliens, Denizens eading Routledge. and Citizens in a World of International Migration, Aldershot: Bosniak, L. (2006) The Citizen and the Alien: Dilemmas of Avebury. Contemporary Membership, Princeton and Oxford: Princeton Hemerijk A. C., Palm T.P., Entenmann E. and Van Hooren F.J. University Press. (2013) ‘Changing European Welfare States and the Evolution Castles, S., de Haas, H. and Miller, M. J. (2013) The Age of of Migrant Incorporation Regimes’, IMPACIM Background Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, Paper, Oxford: COMPAS. Fifth Revised Edition, Basingstoke: MacMillan. Inda, J. X. (2006) Targeting Immigrants: Government, Technology, and Cole, P. (2000) Philosophies of Exclusion: Liberal Political Theory Ethics, Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. and Immigration, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Kanstroom, D. (2010) Deportation Nation: Outsiders in American Costello, C. (2014) The Human Rights of Migrants in European History, Harvard: Harvard University Press. Law, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kubal, A. (2013) Socio-Legal Integration: Polish Post-2004 EU Costello, C. (2011) ‘Citizenship of the Union: Above Abuse?’ Enlargement Migrants in the United Kingdom, Surrey: Ashgate. in Rita de la Feria & Stefan Vogenauer (eds.) Prohibition of Morris, L. (2003) ‘Managing Contradiction: Civic Stratification Abuse of Law: A New General Principle of EU Law, Oxford: Hart and Migrants’ Rights’, International Migration Review, 37: 74-100. Publishing. Mountz, A. (2010) Seeking Asylum: Human Smuggling and Costello, C. (2009) ‘Metock: Free Movement and “Normal Bureaucracy at the Border, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Family Life” in the Union’, Common Market Law Review 46(2): Press. 587-622. Ngai, M. (2004) Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of De Genova, N. and Peutz, N. (eds.) (2010) The Deportation Modern America, Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Regime: Sovereignty, Space and the Freedom of Movement, Durham: Press. Duke University Press. Oliver, C. (2011) ‘The Global Governance of Lifestyle De Genova, N. (2002) ‘Migrant “Illegality” and Deportability Migration’, in Betts, A. (ed.) Global Migration Governance, Oxford: in Everyday Life’, Annual Review of Anthropology, 31: 419-47. Oxford University Press. Dummett, A. and Nicol, A. (1990) Subjects, Citizens, Aliens and Ong, A. (1999) Flexible Citizenship: The Cultural Logics of Others: Nationality and Immigration Law, London: Weidenfeld & Transnationality, Durham: Duke University Press. Nicolson. Parekh, B. (2000) Rethinking Multiculturalism: Cultural Diversity Düvell, F. (2011) ‘Paths into Irregularity: the Legal and Political and Political Theory, Basingstoke and London: Macmillan. Construction of Irregular Migration’, European Journal of Migration and Law, 13(3): 275-95. Shapira, H. (2013) Waiting for José: The Minutemen’s Pursuit of America, Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. Fassin, D. (2011) ‘Policing Borders, Producing Boundaries. The Governmentality of Immigration in Dark Times’, Annual Sigona, N. and Hughes, V. (2012) No Way Out, No Way In, Review of Anthropology, 40: 213-26. Oxford: COMPAS.

203 Torpey, J. (2000) The Invention of the Passport: Surveillance, Brettell, C. (2003) ‘Migration Stories: Agency and the Individual Citizenship and the State, Cambridge: Cambridge University in the Study of Migration’, in Brettell, C., Anthropology and Press. Migration: Essays on Transnationalism, Ethnicity, and Identity, Walnut Creek, CA and Oxford: AltaMira Press. eading Van Hear, N. (2005) ‘Diaspora, Immigration and Asylum from

R 1900 to the Present’, in Gibney, M. J. and Hansen, R. (eds.) Carens, J. (2008) ‘Live-in Domestics, Seasonal Workers, Immigration and Asylum, Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. Foreign Students and Others Hard to Locate on the Map of Democracy’, Journal of Political Philosophy, 16(4), 419-45.

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