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Principles and Methods of Social Research PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH Used to train generations of social scientists, this thoroughly updated classic text covers the latest research tech- niques and designs. Applauded for its comprehensive coverage, the breadth and depth of content is unparalleled. Through a multi-methodology approach, the text guides readers toward the design and conduct of social research from the ground up. Explained with applied examples useful to the social, behavioral, educational, and organiza- tional sciences, the methods described are intended to be relevant to contemporary researchers. The underlying logic and mechanics of experimental, quasi-experimental, and nonexperimental research strategies are discussed in detail. Introductory chapters covering topics such as validity and reliability furnish readers with a fi rm understanding of foundational concepts. Chapters dedicated to sampling, interviewing, questionnaire design, stimulus scaling, observational methods, content analysis, implicit measures, dyadic and group methods, and meta- analysis provide coverage of these essential methodologies. The book is noted for its: • Emphasis on understanding the principles that govern the use of a method to facilitate the researcher’s choice of the best technique for a given situation. • Use of the laboratory experiment as a touchstone to describe and evaluate field experiments, correlational designs, quasi experiments, evaluation studies, and survey designs. • Coverage of the ethics of social research, including the power a researcher wields and tips on how to use it responsibly. The new edition features: • A new co-author, Andrew Lac, instrumental in fine-tuning the book’s accessible approach and highlighting the most recent developments at the intersection of design and statistics. • More learning tools, including more explanation of the basic concepts, more research examples, tables, and figures, and the addition of boldfaced terms, chapter conclusions, discussion questions, and a glossary. • Extensive revision of Chapter 3 on measurement reliability theory that examines test theory, latent factors, factor analysis, and item response theory. • Expanded coverage of cutting-edge methodologies, including mediation and moderation, reliability and validity, missing data, and more physiological approaches such as neuroimaging and fMRIs. • A new web-based resource package that features PowerPoint presentations and discussion and exam ques- tions for each chapter and, for students, chapter outlines and summaries, key terms, and suggested readings. Intended as a text for graduate or advanced undergraduate courses in research methods (design) in psychology, communication, sociology, education, public health, and marketing, an introductory undergraduate course on research methods is recommended. William D. Crano is the Oskamp Distinguished Chair and Head of the Department of Psychology at Clare- mont Graduate University. Marilynn B. Brewer is Professor Emeritus at The Ohio State University and a Visiting Professor of Psychol- ogy at the University of New South Wales. Andrew Lac is Research Professor of Psychology at Claremont Graduate University. This page intentionally left blank PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH Third Edition William D. Crano, Marilynn B. Brewer, and Andrew Lac Third edition published 2015 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 27 Church Road, Hove, East Sussex BN3 2FA Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2015 Taylor & Francis The right of William D. Crano, Marilynn B. Brewer, and Andrew Lac to be identifi ed as the authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identifi cation and explanation without intent to infringe. First edition published by Allyn & Bacon 1986 Second edition published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 2002 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Crano, William D., 1942– Principles and methods of social research / William D. Crano, Marilynn B. Brewer, Andrew Lac. — Third edition. pages cm 1. Social sciences—Research. 2. Social sciences—Methodology. I. Brewer, Marilynn B., 1942– II. Lac, Andrew. III. Title. H62.C692 2014 300.72—dc23 2014012586 ISBN: 978-0-415-63855-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-63856-2 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-76831-1 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Apex CoVantage, LLC CONTENTS Preface xi Acknowledgements xvii About the Authors xix PART I Introduction to Social Research Methods 1 1 Basic Concepts 3 Science and Daily Life 4 Theories and Hypotheses 5 From Theory, Concept, or Idea to Operation 6 Role of Theory in Scientifi c Inquiry 15 Conclusion and Overview 18 Questions for Discussion 19 References 19 2 Internal and External Validity 22 Causation 23 Phases of Research 25 Distinguishing Internal and External Validity 27 Basic Issues of Internal Validity 31 Basic Issues of External Validity 39 Conclusion 41 Questions for Discussion 42 References 43 3 Measurement Reliability 45 Classical Test Theory 45 Contemporary Test Theory 53 Conclusion 61 vi Contents Questions for Discussion 62 References 62 4 Measurement Validity 64 Types of Measurement Validity 65 Threats to Measurement Validity 74 Conclusion 78 Questions for Discussion 78 References 78 PART II Research Design Strategies: Experiments, Quasi-Experiments, and Nonexperiments 81 5 Designing Experiments: Variations on the Basics 83 Basic Variations in Experimental Design 83 Expanding the Number of Experimental Treatments 86 Blocked Designs: Incorporating a Nonexperimental Factor 94 Repeated-Measures Designs and Counterbalancing 96 Conclusion 98 Questions for Discussion 99 References 99 6 Constructing Laboratory Experiments 101 Steps for Constructing an Experiment 101 Types of Experimental Manipulations 104 Manipulation Checks 109 Assignment of Participants to Conditions: Randomization Procedures 110 Realism in an Experiment 111 Social Simulations and Analogue Experiments 112 Conclusion 120 Questions for Discussion 120 References 121 7 External Validity of Laboratory Experiments 125 Generalizability Across Participants 126 Experimenter Expectancy and Bias 131 Three Faces of External Validity 135 Conclusion 138 Questions for Discussion 138 References 139 8 Conducting Experiments Outside the Laboratory 141 Research Settings and Issues of Validity 142 Constructing a Field Experiment 143 The Internet as a Site for Experimental Research 149 Conclusion 155 Questions for Discussion 155 References 156 Contents vii 9 Nonexperimental Research: Correlational Design and Analyses 159 Analyzing and Interpreting Nonexperimental Research 160 Multiple Regression 166 Uses and Misuses of Correlational Analysis 167 Multi-Level Models 170 Structural Equation Models 172 Conclusion 181 Questions for Discussion 182 References 183 10 Quasi-Experiments and Evaluation Research 185 Program Evaluation Research 186 Quasi-Experimental Methods 189 Use of Archival Data in Longitudinal Research 211 Conclusion 213 Questions for Discussion 213 References 213 PART III Data Collecting Methods 217 11 Survey Studies: Design and Sampling 219 Selection vs. Assignment 219 Random Sampling 224 Nonrandom Sampling 233 More Sampling Issues 236 Types of Survey Studies 241 Missing Data 244 Conclusion 246 Questions for Discussion 246 References 247 12 Systematic Observational Methods 250 Three Aspects of Naturalism 250 Observer Involvement in the Naturalistic Setting: The Participatory– Nonparticipatory Distinction 253 Coding Observations 260 Conclusion 274 Questions for Discussion 275 References 276 13 Interviewing 280 Modes of Administration: Face-to-Face and Telephone 280 Developing the Interview 281 Interview Structure 286 Conducting the Interview 290 Interviewer Characteristics: Establishing Rapport 293 Group Interviews and Focus Groups 296 Conclusion 298 viii Contents Questions for Discussion 298 References 299 14 Content Analysis 303 Conducting a Content Analysis 304 Representative Examples 314 Conclusion 319 Questions for Discussion 319 References 320 15 Questionnaire Design and Scale Construction 323 Questionnaires 323 Constructing Rating Scales 326 Conclusion 338 Questions for Discussion 338 References 339 16 Indirect and Implicit Measures of Cognition and Affect 342 Indirect Measures 343 Information Processing: Attention and Memory 344 Priming: Processing Without Awareness or Intent 350 Social Psychophysiology: Physiological Traces of Affect and Cognitive Processing 358 Conclusion 363 Questions for Discussion 364 References 366 17 Scaling Stimuli: Social Psychophysics 370 Scaling Stimuli 371 Techniques for Stimulus Scaling 372 Multidimensional Scaling Models 377 Conclusion 382 Questions for Discussion 382 References 383 18 Methods for Assessing Dyads and Groups 385 Dyadic Designs 385 Deriving Dyadic and Group Level Variables 387 Designs to Study Group Structures 391 Designs to Study Multiple Groups 396 Measuring Group Process and Outcomes 398 Conclusion 402 Questions for Discussion 402 References 403 Contents ix PART IV Concluding Perspectives 407 19 Synthesizing Research Results: Meta-Analysis
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