Balkan and Baltic States in United Europe. Histories, Religions, and Cultures II

Sofia 2018 Editors: Ekaterina Anastasova, Svetoslava Toncheva Language editor: Svetoslava Toncheva Proof-readers, publication managers: Ekaterina Anastasova, Svetoslava Toncheva

Editorial Board

Prof. PhDr. Zuzana , CSc., University of Constantine the Philosopher, Nitra, Slovakia

Robert Fletcher, PhD, Sociology of Development and Change, Wageningen University, Netherlands

Dr. Phil. Solveiga Krumina-Konkova, Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, University of Latvia, Riga

Prof. Vesselin Popov, PhD, School of History, University of St. Andrews, Scotland, UK/Institute of Ethnology and Folklore Studies with Ethnographic Museum, BAS, Bulgaria

Assoc. prof. - , Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas, Lithuania

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or other ways, without the prior permission of the copyright holder.

ISBN 978-954-326-372-1 Balkan and Baltic States in United Europe. Histories, Religions, and Cultures II

Contents

Introduction...... 4

Ekaterina Anastasova (Bulgaria).

Chapter I...... 10

History, Memory and Identity

(Latvia). The Interpretation of Latvian History in the School Textbooks and Interviews Ieva Garda-Rozenberga, Kaspars Zellis (Latvia). Remembering Genocide: Extermination of Roma during the Second World War in Latvia Evgenia Troeva (Bulgaria). National Genealogy and Festivalisation of the Past Olga Brusylovska (Ukraine). Post-communist Identities and Their Transformations: The Cases of Poland and Romania

Chapter II ...... 66

Religion, Beliefs and Sacred Places

Victor Shnirelman (Russia). Russia in front of the “End of Time”: The Russian Orthodox Public Fears and the Church Attitude SvetoslavaToncheva (Bulgaria). The Vision of Bulgaria’s Future during Social Crisis in Mantic Discourse Matthias Bickert (Germany). Re-sanctification of Space in Albania – The Case of Sunni Islam Mare Kõiva, Andres Kuperjanov, Liisa Vesik (Estonia). Sacred Places – Destinations of Travel and Pilgrimage in Bulgaria (Lithuania). The Cult of Saints in the Popular Religion of Lithuania (Latvia). Discovering Communality in the Field of Religious Experiences

Chapter III...... 163

Ritual Year and Everyday Life

(Lithuania). The Urban Ritual Year: Religion, Ethnicity, and Ideology Petko Hristov, Elena Petrova (Bulgaria – Ukraine). The Role of the Festival Calendar in the Identity Construction of the Diaspora. (The Case of the Bulgarians in Odessa and the Ukrainians in Sofia) (Lithuania). Modern Holidays in Lithuania. Researching Observance of Professional Holidays

Chapter IV ...... 206

2 Balkan and Baltic States in United Europe. Histories, Religions, and Cultures II

Migration and Identity (Re-) Construction

(Germany – Latvia). The Variability of Migration Systems, or: from Transnationalism to Transregionalism? Experiences from Latvia and Albania Alberto Alonso-Ponga García, María Jesús Pena Castro (Spain). Identity in Construction. Identity Definitions in the Integration Process of the Bulgarian Community in Castile and Leon, Spain (Lithuania). Historical Reconstruction Groups in Lithuania: Searching Identity in the Post-Socialist Society Mariyanka Borisova (Bulgaria). Bulgarian Female Migration to EU – Characteristics and Tendencies

Chapter V ...... 251

Culture, Tradition, and Post-modern Transformation

Marju Kõivupuu, Aliis Kiiker (Estonia). Constructing a Tradition – Cremation in Estonia - (Lithuania). Leisure Culture in Lithuania: an Ethnological Investigation Reet Hiiemäe (Estonia). “What Is This Mystical Bogeyman or Ghost Called?” Sharing Nightmare Experiences on Internet Forums Anete Karlsone (Latvia). Preservation of Traditional Crafts Skills in the Cultural Environment of Modern Latvia (Romania). The Toponymic Heritage of Bucharest (Streets named after Famous Bulgarians) Valeria B. Kolosova (Russia). “Bear” Plants in Bulgarian Dialects

Summary...... 335

List of Authors...... 336

3 Balkan and Baltic States in United Europe. Histories, Religions, and Cultures II

The Urban Ritual Year: Religion, Ethnicity, and Ideology

Abstract This paper examines the urban ritual year, where it is possible to look the most clearly at the religious, ethnic, and ideological features and the changes in them over the course of time, focusing on four periods: Imperial Russia, independent Lithuania (1918-1940), the Soviet and German Nacional Socialist occupations (1940-1990), and the restored Lithuanian Republic. Greater attention is directed towards the contemporary situation in an attempt to compare the situation of Lithuania with those of the neighbouring states. The conclusion can be drawn that even in contemporary society, to a certain degree, we live in accordance with the religious calendar. Injected into it are secular state holidays that form the official ritual year, which has a national character and has close ties to ideology. The ritual year structure does not depend greatly on the religion predominant in the country. As was shown by a comparative investigation of several Eastern European countries, history and tradition have a greater impact on the character of the ritual year than the religious environment does.

Key words: city, ritual year, religion, ethnicity, ideology

Lithuanian ethnologists have focused considerable attention on the analysis of traditional seasonal festivals, which has revealed the situation in the mostly mono-ethnic and mono-religious agricultural society. However, the ritual year structure in a poly-ethnic and poly- religious city, where agrarian time has almost no meaning and where festivals are connected with ideological motifs, has still been little investigated in Lithuania, but the regular discussions about the non-work days in the calendar have made such an investigation relevant. Laurent Sébastien Fournier has raised a question ‘concerning the abilities of social actors to understand and to perform their own history and identity through the cycle of the ritual year’ (Fournier, 2008, 66-71). The present author thinks that the investigation of urban culture is an important contribution to the discussion of this problem. However, the opinion that the ritual year is also connected with religious identity cannot be rejected. As Catherine Bell has mentioned, ‘many religious traditions define their whole calendar year through a series of rites that express the most basic beliefs of the community. The traditional Christian calendar is particularly elaborate in its annual chronicle of the birth, suffering, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Additional feast and other holy days have traditionally created an ongoing round of rites in which the rhythms of the year are formed by religious devotions and responsibilities seasonal festivals were frequently intertwined in the 1920s with historical and political events, which were especially important at that time. In the first decade of the Lithuanian Republic’s

164 Balkan and Baltic States in United Europe. Histories, Religions, and Cultures II existence, the publication of the 16 February 1918 Act of Independence in the country’s official newspapers (especially Lietuva) made it available to the public almost every Christmas. The state’s birth was frequently identified with Christ’s birth. For example, the annual Christmas greeting began with appropriate number of years since independence, e.g., “Christ has been born for an eighth time in independent Lithuania” . In analysing the ritual year of many European countries, it is possible to state that the majority of the festivals in contemporary society are connected with the Christian calendar. No work is done over Christmas in any European country1 or over Easter in the majority of them. Even time is calculated according to the calendar approved by Pope Gregory XIII in 15822. But, alongside the days commemorating events in the lives of Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the saints, secular events important to the state have also become non-work days in contemporary society. These are marked especially solemnly in the city, where there is no need to coordinate festive life with agricultural work, and the official non-work days are clearly specified in the state’s decrees and laws. The relationship between festivals and religion is also oted, the Lithuanian words for “celebrate” ( ) and holy (šventas) have to same root, thus celebrations are traditionally connected with holiness, sacrality, and the sphere of religion, but the increase in the number of celebrations in Vilnius in the early 20th In the 20th century, Lithuania was part of various states: Imperial Russia, the Soviet Union, and National Socialist Germany; the Vilnius Region was part of Poland3; and during 1918-1940 and after 1990 Lithuania was an independent state. The changes in the official calendar were easiest to see in the city where public events and celebrations were organised on the occasion of secular festivals, and the city acquired a festive appearance. Therefore this paper examines the urban ritual year, where it is possible to look the most clearly at the religious, ethnic, and ideological features and the changes in them over the course of time, focusing on four periods: Imperial Russia, independent Lithuania (1918-1940), the Soviet and National Socialist occupations (1940-1990), and the restored Lithuanian republic. Greater attention is directed towards the contemporary situation in an attempt to compare the situation of Lithuania with those of the neighbouring states.

1 Russia and Ukraine celebrate on 7 January in accordance with the Julian calendar. 2 The Gregorian calendar was introduced into Lithuania in 1586. After the greater part of Lithuania was annexed by Russia in 1800, it again returned to the Julian calendar while the southern part of Lithuania, the Trans-Nemunas Gregorian calendar. In 1915 the revised Gregorian calendar began to be used in the entire territory of modern Lithuania (Gutautas, 1991, 12). 3 The southeast part of Lithuania belonged to Poland during 1920-1939 region, to Germany until 1923 and during 1939-1945.

165 Balkan and Baltic States in United Europe. Histories, Religions, and Cultures II

Festivals under Imperial Russian rule Up until the First World War, Vilnius was a multinational and multi-religious city.The festivals of the different religions, their significance, and when they were celebrated did not coincide, creating a complicated relationship between the communities. About 40 percent of Vilnius residents consisted of Jews who played an important role in the city’s commercial life and their business hours were a constant source of disputes with the Christians. According to L. in accordance with the rhythm of the Orthodox Church.The members of the various religions had an opportunity to celebrate their festivals, but everyone, regardless of their faith, had to strictly observe the Orthodox Lenten seasons when no public entertainment was possible. The Orthodox calendar has four longer Lenten seasons: Great Fast (the seven weeks before Easter – 49 days), Apostles’ Fast (from the second Monday after Pentecost to 29 June – from 8 days – till 6 weeks), Dormition Fast (1-14 August), and Nativity Fast (15 November –24 December – -150). They encompass a wider period than the Catholic Advent (23-28 days) and Lent (46 days). In addition to church festivals, state festivals, which were mainly connected with the person of the emperor, empress, his mother, and the heir apparent, were also celebrated. For example, the following dates were marked in the 1916 calendar as non-work days: New Year’s, Epiphany, Candlemas, Maslenitsa (Shrove, 19-20 February), the Visitation of the Virgin Mary, Palm Sunday to Easter (10 days: 7-16 April), the name day (23 April) and birthday (25 May) of Empress Alexandra, the name day (6 December), birthday (6 May), and accession to the throne (21 October) of Emperor Nicholas II, the translation of the relics of Saint Nicholas (9 May), the coronation of Nicholas II and his wife (14 May), Ascension, the second day of Pentecost, and Saints Peter and Paul Day (29 June),the name day (22 July) and birthday (14 November) of Maria, the Emperor’s mother, the name day (5 October) and birthday (30 July) of Alexey, the heir apparent, the Transfiguration of Jesus (6 August), the Assumption of the Virgin Mary (15 August), the Beheading of St John the Baptist (29 August), the birth of the Virgin Mary (8 September), the Exaltation of the Holy Cross (14 September), St John the Apostle Day (26 September), the Intercession of the Virgin Mary (1 October), Our Lady of Kazan (22 October), the Presentation of Mary at the Temple (21 November), and the first three days of Christmas and were mandatory for civil servants and education establishments. The student organisers at gymnasiums and schools had to participate in solemn praye

166 Balkan and Baltic States in United Europe. Histories, Religions, and Cultures II

2009, 140). Thus not only Orthodox religious festivals (some of which coincided with those celebrated by Catholics), but also festivals, which were devoted to the life of the tsar and his family and lacked any religious meaning, had considerable significance in the Russian Empire. The latter festivals predominated in the city. The festivals during which the peasants did not work were fewer in number in the Lithuanian countryside in the early 20th century.

Festivals during the interwar period After the declaration of an independent Lithuanian Republic on 16 February 1918, almost all of the equivalent Catholic festivals were celebrated as non-work days in the city, but the emperor-related festivals that had been celebrated in Russian Empire were replaced by Lithuanian state festivals with non-work day status. The first legalised holiday, Independence Day (16 February), marked the beginning of the state’s existence. The international festival of the solidarity of workers and nations (1 May) was officially observed too. On 8 September 1920, the Lithuanian cabinet approved a list of non-work days for state institutions, which, in addition to two “state holidays” (16 February and 1 May) listed twelve “church holidays” (the first day of Christmas, New Year’s, Epiphany, St Casimir’s Day4, St Joseph’s Day (19 March), Ascension, Corpus Christi, St John’s Day (24 June), Saints Peter and Paul Day (29 June), Assumption (15 August), All Saints’ Day (1 November), and the Immaculate Conception (8 December)). It also specified “other non-work days for state employees”: Good Friday, Holy Saturday, the second day of Easter, Christmas eve, and the second day of Christmas. A note was added that the minister without portfolio for Jewish affairs had submitted a separate list of the non-work days of the establishments in his jurisdiction (Cabinet letter no. 1676 of 18 September 1920). The 1940 calendar also shows two state holidays (Lithuanian Independence Day (16 February) and Nation Day (8 September))5. St John’s Day has been dropped from the list of church festivals6. The rest of the list remained unchanged7. On the other hand, analysis of the group of state festivals shows many changes during

4 The feast day of the patron saint of Lithuania, St Casimir, is 4 March. 5 The 1925 Law on Holidays and Rest Days added the non-religious holidays of Constituent Assembly Day (15 May) and Constitution Day (1 August). The 1930 amendment of the Law on Holidays and Rest Days (and article 9 of the 1938 Lithuanian Constitution) left only two state holidays: 1) 16 February to mark the restoration of - , 2010). 6 This festival was very briefly a non-working day. 7 The second day of Pentecost was still celebrated in some years.

167 Balkan and Baltic States in United Europe. Histories, Religions, and Cultures II

1920-1940. Problems arose in coordinating the newly created state’s holidays with the Catholic calendar. 16 February, the day in 1918 when Lithuanian independence was proclaimed, was not convenient for a public festival as it fell in Lent in some years. A bigger problem arose in 1927 when the noted undertone of a day of mourning. Attempts were made to create a new principal state festival. During 1924-1928, Constituent Assembly Day (15 May), which was connected with the de jure recognition of the independent Lithuanian state, was elevated to the first plane, in 1929 an attempt was made to make Assumption (15 August) a state festival, and after 1930, Nation Day (8 September) began to be celebrated. The first celebration of Nation Day in 1930 was to mark the 500 year anniversary of the death of Grand Duke Vytautas the Great of Lithuania. But this state holidays were overshadowed by the predominant Catholic religious festivals. Even though they were work days, Shrove Tuesday and St John’s Day were celebrated in the city 14-21; 136-150). After Polish forces occupied the Vilnius Region in 1920, the proportion of the church and state festivals remained unchanged. But in both Vilnius (then in Poland) and Kaunas (Lithuania’s temporary capital) everyone, regardless of religion, followed the Catholic festival rhythm. For example, after adopting the Gregorian calendar Orthodox and Old Believers had to celebrate their festivals after work.

Festivals during 1940-1990

Lithuania’s cultural life, even in the first years of the Soviet occupation (especially after 1944), was not left to develop naturally, but began to be regulated and controlled in the pursuit of ideological goals. Institutions and organisations were created to organise and carry out cultural activities (Petrošien propaganda against Christian festivals was conducted during the first years of the occupation. Special attention was focused on the winter festivals in order to give New Year’s meaning 124–135). During the German National Socialist occupation (1941-1945), this process was suspended. Initially all of the religious festivals were renewed, the celebration of some of them being later moved to Sunday. In 1943 the list of religious and state festivals was radically reviewed. By a 6 April decree of the General Commissioner, only New Year’s, Easter (two days), Ascension, Pentecost (two days), Corpus Christi, Saints Peter and Paul Day, All Saints’ Day, and Christmas (two days) remained non-working days. In 1943, 16 February

168 Balkan and Baltic States in United Europe. Histories, Religions, and Cultures II was dropped from the list of festivals and National Labour Day (1 May), “Liberation Day” (22 June)8, and the Harvest festival on the first Sunday after St Michael’s Day (29 September) were introduced (Laukai After the USSR occupied Lithuania a second time in 1944-1945, the USSR ritual year was established for good. It was distinguished by fairly few festivals and hardly any non- working days. Only New Year’s (1 January), International Workers’ Day (1-2May), the anniversary of the October Revolution (7-8 November), and USSR Constitution Day (5 December)9 were non-work days. On International Workers’ Day and 7 November demonstrations were organised in the cities and participation was mandatory for many people. But many festivals were also celebrated on Sundays. In 1964, ( ), in discussing the formation of the new Soviet customs, in addition to the above festivals, also mentions the Spring, Harvest, and Friendship festivals and that even Women’s Day did not have non-working day status. Festivals characteristic to only Lithuania were also developed. The Song Festival stands out among them. But it was connected with the anniversary of the admission of the LSSR into the USSR and was celebrated -558). In 1965, Victory Day (9 May) and International Women’s Day became non-work days. The 1982 publication, Lietuvos etnografija ( ), in addition to the aforementioned festivals, also distinguishes the Victory Festival, a festival to drive out Winter, which was to replace Shrove Tuesday, and International Children’s Day. Meanwhile, Lenin’s birthday, the anniversary of the re- establishment of Soviet rule in Lithuania, and Soviet Army, Construction Worker’s, Railway Worker’s, and Agricultural Worker’ 332-337)10. and their customs are examples of how old folk traditions were creatively recreated and used in new the old traditions predominated. The 1967 bibliographical publication, Liaudies tradicijos (Folk Traditions), divided the festivals into three groups: 1. State festivals: Anniversary of the October Revolution; May First; Victory Day; Constitution Day;

8 22 June - the day the Soviet government ceased to rule Lithuania in 1941. 9 After adopting of a new constitution in 1977 – 7 October was celebrating. 10 n analysing the Soviet era, has also distinguished Victory over Imperial Japan Day (3 September), which was celebrated during Stalin’s rule , 2013a, 104, 109).

169 Balkan and Baltic States in United Europe. Histories, Religions, and Cultures II

International Women’s Day. 2. Soviet Union-wide, mass festivals: Lenin’s Birthday; Soviet Army Day; Cosmonautics Day; Press Day, Radio Day; Anniversary of the Founding of Soviet Lithuania, Jubilee Song Festival, Student Song Day; Komsomol Anniversary; Soviet Youth Anniversary; Children’s Day; Friendship of Nations Day; First Day of School Festival; Athlete’s Day; New Year’s; Spring and Winter Festivals; Teacher’s Day; Railway Worker’s Day; Construction Worker’s Day; Days celebrating other professions; Harvest Festival. 3. Domestic festivals and traditions: Admission into the Komsomol and Pioneers; Passport Presentation Day; Name Day; Departure into the Soviet Army; Marriage, Silver and gold marriages; Family festival; Funerals, Remembrance of the Dead Day (Liaudies tradicijos, 1967). In analysing the ritual year created during the Soviet era, it is possible to state that it was an urban year. The majority of the principal festivals were celebrated only in cities, while only one, the Harvest Festival, was celebrated in the countryside. Even the Spring and Winter Festivals were celebrated mainly in the city (not even being separated into a separate festival), and the content of all of the festivals was ideologised. On the other hand, it must be said that was given after 1964 to the commemoration of the anniversary of Lenin’s birth, his birthday, somewhat differently than the birthdays and feast days of the emperor and the members of his family had been, was an ordinary work day.On Lenin’s birthday, festive events occurred in Vilnius and gatherings linked attention was focused on the commemoration of the anniversary of Lenin’s death (21 January) 116). In summarising the Soviet ritual year, a similar secularisation process of the ritual year can also be seen in the Russian Empire. While it was fairly insignificant in the early 20th century, it became radical during the Soviet era. No place was left in the calendar of the USSR ritual year for any religious festivals (if New Year’s is called a secular festival). On the other hand, attention to events in the lives of public figures was reflected fairly weakly in the ritual year structure, which focused on facts significant for the Communist state and the ideas it proclaimed.

Contemporary festivals in Lithuania The end of 20th century, according to Ekaterina Anastasova, made opportunities to

170 Balkan and Baltic States in United Europe. Histories, Religions, and Cultures II compile “old” pre-socialist and “new” post-socialist feast (Anastasova, 2011, 162). On 11 March 1990, the Supreme Council of the Republic of Lithuania adopted the Act on the Restoration of an Independent Lithuanian State. This day became a new state holiday. After 1990, all of the holidays imposed during the years of the Soviet occupation became work days. But the state and church festival structure was only partially restored. In addition to Restoration of Lithuanian Independence Day (11 March), the 25 October 1990 Lawon Holidays proclaimed New Year’s Day, Lithuanian State Restoration Day (16 February), Christmas (two days), Easter (two days: Sunday and Monday), All Saints’ and Remembrance of the Dead Day (1 November)11, and Statehood Day (6 July, to commemorate the coronation of Lithuania’s first king, Mindaugas, in 1253) non-work days. Mother’s Day was set as the first Sunday of May12. In 1996, after a gap of six years, May first once again became a non-work day as International Labour Day and in 2004, Lithuania joined the European Union on this day. Bonfires are being lit in the cities and the countryside, but no traditions have yet to form and the EU Admission Festival has yet to become established. Mostly International Labour Day is celebrated while Lithuania’s admission to the European Union is recorded only in the list of red-letter days. No distinguishing customs commemorating the latter festival have developed in Lithuania and regular discussions are held about deleting it from the list of holidays. On 26 June 2003, Midsummer’s Eve (24 June) and the Assumption of the Virgin Mary into Heaven (15 August) became non-work days. Father’s Day, which is celebrated on the first Sunday of June, joined them on 13 May 2008 and Christmas Eve on 9 December 2010. The existence of these days as non-work days (except Father’s Day, which is celebrated on a rest day anyway) has also given rise to discussions. Midsummer’s Eve can be distinguished among these festivals. In Europe, this day is celebrated as a non-work day only in the three Baltic States (e.g. Hendersen, 2005, 665, 670). The Midsummer’s Eve festival also had an ideological meaning in Lithuania. In the late 19th century, it was connected with the national revival; in interwar Lithuania, this festival served to tic feelings were nurtured during the Soviet era by Midsummer’ 2014a, 136-150). On the other hand, this festival has also been given a pre-Christian meaning. Besides Midsummer’s Eve (Lith. ), the names ‘Dew’ (Lith. Rasos) and less often “St John’s Wart” (?) (Lith. ), which have a connection with the pre-Christian culture, have

11 In the liturgy of the Catholic Church, the day for commemorating all of the dead and saying prayers for them is All Souls’ Day (2 November) (Kudirka, 1991, 33). All Saints’ Day is only its eve. 12 For several years, holidays falling on a Sunday were compensated by making the next day a non-work day.

171 Balkan and Baltic States in United Europe. Histories, Religions, and Cultures II also been used13. Like in Latvia (e.g. Rancane, 2011, 57-82), other suspected pagan festivals have also been given meaning in Lithuania: the vernal equinox, the autumnal equinox, Milda’s (goddess of love) Day, etc. As Ethnologist Jonas Mardosa has noted, the accenting and elevation of the pre-Christian Lithuanian religion in folk culture has predominated even in ethnological literature (Mardosa, 2001, 138). But despite the increasing popularity of festivals affirming pre- Christian culture in the cities, especially Vilnius and Kaunas, they remain ordinary work days. Meanwhile, two foreign festivals with established traditions have been adopted to varying degrees in the popular culture, although not in law, namely St Valentine’s Day (in just a few years, i.e. 1993-1995) and Halloween. On the other hand, not only is the form of the ritual year changing, but so is its content (meaning). The secularisation processes have changed the celebration of religious festivals, for

2013, 102-103). Other festivals are celebrated or have been moved to the weekend. On 3 July 1997 Lithuania adopted the Law on Red-Letter Days, which lists 56 such days. Holidays connected with events from Lithuanian history (26 including, for example, Lithuanian Flag Day (1 January), Defenders of Freedom predominate over international and global holidays (23 including, for example, International Women’s day (8 March) and Life Day (last Sunday of April)), and Lithuanian non-religious holidays (7 for example, including Lithuanian Energy Workers’ Day (17 April),Maritime and Fishermen’s Days (last Sunday of July), Science and Knowledge Day (1 September)). Only three of these have clear religious connections (St Casimir’s (Lithuania’s patron) Day (4 March), the birthday of the Virgin Mary (8 September), and All Souls’ Day (2 November)) 14. Based on the Law on Red-Letter Days, it is possible to state that non-religious holidays predominate. The list does not include even such holidays as Pentecost, Ascension, Corpus Christi, or Epiphany. But the greater part of these red-letter days are celebrated by a very limited number of people. Huge public discussions have been raised by the list of non-work days and these days are not permanently established.

13 According to some ethnologists, the name ‘Rasa’ is connected with a description of Midsummer’s Eve in the Vilnius suburb of Rasos in 1835 and has nothing in common with Midsummer’s Eve celebrated in other localities (Skrodenis, 2010, 102-104; Kudirka, 1991, 9). The origin of the word has also been explained in various ways (Skrodenis, 2010, 100-110). 14 Some festivals encompass several function groups. For example, 8 September is the birthday of the Virgin Mary, Vytautas the Great coronation Day, Thanksgiving Day for Lithuanian Independence, and Defence of Freedom Day , 2013).

172 Balkan and Baltic States in United Europe. Histories, Religions, and Cultures II

Structure of the contemporary ritual year After examining the changes in the structure of the secular and religious festivals over the course of time, it is possible to see that during almost the entire first half of the 20th century the relationship between the two groups of festivals was constant, and that the second Soviet occupation and the atheistic ideology, which was implemented by the Soviet governing structure, brought about radical changes (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. The proportion of religious and secular holidays, which are non-work days in Lithuania (besides New Year’s* and festivals celebrated on a Sunday),%.

Religious holidays Secular holidays

100 89 88 80 74 67

33 26 20 11 12 0

1915 1920 1939 1943 1958 2014

*from a historical perspective, New Year’s has had the features of a religious and a secular festival and therefore it has not been

Festivals of a religious nature have once again predominated recently. The question arises as to whether the predominant local religion has contributed to this. In order to answer that question, the ritual years of different countries should be compared. After 1990, the structure of the ritual year changed radically in Eastern Europe. But these differences varied in the various European countries. Russia inherited the calendar of the former USSR and so its calendar changed the least. According to Irina Sedakova in Russia, two new holidays were introduced after perestroika started: Independence or Russia Day (12 June)

173 Balkan and Baltic States in United Europe. Histories, Religions, and Cultures II and National Unity Day (4 November) (Sedakova, 2008, 51)15. The previously celebrated Soviet Army Day (23 February) also became a non-work day while October Revolution Day was abandoned. But connections with the religious calendar formed in another way. For example, by extending the New Year’s festivities from first to the eighth of January (by adding three additional rest days), the eight days encompass not only New Year’s according to the Gregorian calendar (1 January), but also Christmas according to the Julian calendar (8 January), which is observed by the Russian Orthodox Church. Additional days have also been added to other more important holidays (Public holidays in Russia).

Fig. 2. The proportion of religious and secular holidays that are non-work days in some European countries (besides holidays occurring on Sundays),%.

Religious holidays Secular holidays New Year's

73 65 60 58 60 60

30 30 30 25 25 17 18 10 10 10 10 9

Lithuania Latvia Estonia Poland Belarus Russia

The ritual year differs somewhat in Belarus, where Independence Day (3 July), Catholic Christmas (25 December), Orthodox Christmas (7 January), and Radunica (9 days after Orthodox Easter) are also celebrated in addition to the Soviet ritual year holidays: Women’s Day, International Labour Day, Victory Day, and October Revolution Day (Public holidays in Belarus). Among the countries neighbouring Lithuania, Poland is distinguished by a similar ritual year structure; besides the New Year’s, Christmas, and Easter two-day holidays and the first

15A third holiday, Constitution Day, just moved to a new date (12 December) after the new constitution was adopted in 1993. In the official Soviet calendar, this non-work day fell on 5 December. In 2004 the non-work day was abolished, leaving the holiday as only a memorial date (Sedakova, 2008, 51-52).

174 Balkan and Baltic States in United Europe. Histories, Religions, and Cultures II day of Pentecost (Sunday), it also includes Epiphany, Corpus Christi, Assumption, and All Saints Day16 (Public holidays in Poland). This supports the conclusion that ritual year structures are affected by the dominant religion. In adjacent Germany, some festivals are celebrated by only separate regions inhabited by members of one confession or another. For example, All Saints’ Day is celebrated in Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, North Rhine-Westphalia, Rhineland- Palatinate, and Saarland, while Reformation Day (31 October) is observed in Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia (Public holidays in Germany). Judging from these examples, the ritual years should differ in Latvia and Estonia, states, in which, unlike in Lithuania, the majority of the inhabitants are Evangelical Lutherans. But in these states, like in Catholic Lithuania, non-work day holidays connected with the Christian calendar predominate. In Latvia,Good Friday, Christmas Eve, two days of Easter and Christmas, St John’s Day and their eves, and New Year’s eve are celebrated as non-work days alongside New Year’s, Labour Day, Restoration of Independence Day (4 May), and Proclamation of the Republic of Latvia Day (18 November) (Public holidays in Latvia). In Estonia, Christmas Eve, the first two days of Christmas, Good Friday, and St John’s Day are celebrated as non-work days alongside New Year’s, Independence Day (24 February), Restoration of Independence Day (20 August), and Victory Day (23 June, which marks the victory by Estonian armed forces against the Baltische Landeswehr in 1919). May first is celebrated as the Spring (Est. ) Festival rather than as Labour Day (Public holidays in Estonia). So, despite different predominant religions, the ritual year structure in Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia are almost identical. Thus history and tradition have a greater impact on the character of the ritual year than the religious environment.

Conclusions Over the course of the last century, Lithuania’s urban ritual year has included religious and secular festivals – non-work days, the proportion of which has changed little when comparing the situations at the beginning and end of the century. The exception is the radical changes during the years of the Soviet occupation, which offer only the possibility of celebrating secular festivals. Based on the calendar of these festival non-work days, the

16 The state holidays in Poland include Constitution (3 May) and Independence (11 November) Days. Assumption is also celebrated as Polish Army Day.

175 Balkan and Baltic States in United Europe. Histories, Religions, and Cultures II conclusion can be drawn that even in contemporary society, to a certain degree, we live in accordance with the religious calendar. Injected into it are secular state holidays that form the official ritual year, which has a national character and has close ties to ideology. The ritual year structure does not depend greatly on the religion predominant in the country. As was shown by a comparative investigation of several Eastern European countries, history and tradition have a greater impact on the character of the ritual year than the religious environment does.

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