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Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin http://psp.sagepub.com Deliver us from Evil: The Effects of Mortality Salience and Reminders of 9/11 on Support for President George W. Bush Mark J. Landau, Sheldon Solomon, Jeff Greenberg, Florette Cohen, Tom Pyszczynski, Jamie Arndt, Claude H. Miller, Daniel M. Ogilvie and Alison Cook Pers Soc Psychol Bull 2004; 30; 1136 DOI: 10.1177/0146167204267988 The online version of this article can be found at: http://psp.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/30/9/1136 Published by: http://www.sagepublications.com On behalf of: Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc. Additional services and information for Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin can be found at: Email Alerts: http://psp.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Subscriptions: http://psp.sagepub.com/subscriptions Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav Permissions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav Citations http://psp.sagepub.com/cgi/content/refs/30/9/1136 Downloaded from http://psp.sagepub.com at University of Missouri-Columbia on March 31, 2009 10.1177/0146167204267988PERSONALITYLandau et al. / TERRORAND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT PSYCHOLOGY AND BULLETIN SUPPORT FOR G. W. BUSH Deliver Us From Evil: The Effects of Mortality Salience and Reminders of 9/11 on Support for President George W. Bush Mark J. Landau University of Arizona Sheldon Solomon Skidmore College Jeff Greenberg University of Arizona Florette Cohen Rutgers University Tom Pyszczynski University of Colorado, Colorado Springs Jamie Arndt University of Missouri Claude H. Miller University of Oklahoma Daniel M. Ogilvie Rutgers University Alison Cook University of Missouri According to terror management theory, heightened concerns Keywords: terror management theory; terrorism; 9/11; George W. about mortality should intensify the appeal of charismatic lead- Bush; election politics; charismatic leaders ers. To assess this idea, we investigated how thoughts about death and the 9/11 terrorist attacks influence Americans’ atti- It is [fear] that makes people so willing to follow brash, tudes toward current U.S. President George W. Bush. Study 1 strong-looking demagogues with tight jaws and loud found that reminding people of their own mortality (mortality voices: those who focus their measured words and their salience) increased support for Bush and his counterterrorism sharpened eyes in the intensity of hate, and so seem most policies. Study 2 demonstrated that subliminal exposure to 9/ capable of cleansing the world of the vague, the weak, 11-related stimuli brought death-related thoughts closer to con- sciousness. Study 3 showed that reminders of both mortality and 9/11 increased support for Bush. In Study 4, mortality salience Authors’ Note: We thank the reviewers for their helpful comments. led participants to become more favorable toward Bush and vot- Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Mark J. Landau, University of Arizona, Department of Psychology, P.O. Box ing for him in the upcoming election but less favorable toward 210068, Tucson, AZ 85721-0068; e-mail: [email protected]. Presidential candidate John Kerry and voting for him. Discus- PSPB, Vol. 30 No. 9, September 2004 1136-1150 sion focused on the role of terror management processes in DOI: 10.1177/0146167204267988 allegiance to charismatic leaders and political decision making. © 2004 by the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc. 1136 Downloaded from http://psp.sagepub.com at University of Missouri-Columbia on March 31, 2009 Landau et al. / TERROR MANAGEMENT AND SUPPORT FOR G. W. BUSH 1137 the uncertain, the evil. Ah, to give oneself over to their same biological and psychological systems designed for direction—what calm, what relief. self-preservation. Humans are unique, however, in their —Ernest Becker, capacity for self-consciousness, symbolic thought, and The Birth and Death of Meaning (1971, p. 161) imagining possible future events. Despite their adaptive value, these cognitive abilities render humans aware that Starting with Sigmund Freud’s (1921/1965) sugges- their own death is inevitable and possible at any tion that leaders serve as substitute parent figures, psy- moment, a recognition that conflicts with the biological chologists of diverse theoretical persuasions have propensity for continued existence and therefore gives argued that the popularity of leaders depends, at least in rise to the potential for debilitating anxiety. To manage part, on the extent to which they meet the pressing psy- the potential for anxiety that this awareness produces, chological needs of their followers (e.g., Becker, 1973; people deny that physical death implies absolute annihi- Bord, 1975; Ehrhart & Klein, 2001; Fromm, 1941; lation by maintaining faith in a personalized version of a Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1996; Pillai, 1996; Redl, 1942). Ter- cultural worldview: a set of humanly constructed, cultur- ror management theory (TMT) (Greenberg, Pyszczynski, ally derived, and socially validated beliefs about the & Solomon, 1986; Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, nature of reality that provides meaning and the promise 1991) posits that one of the most basic functions that of literal or symbolic immortality to those who uphold leaders serve is that of helping people manage a deeply culturally prescribed standards of value. Faith in cultural rooted fear of death that is inherent in the human condi- meaning and the perception of oneself as an object of tion. Initial empirical support for this point was provided value within that scheme provide a protective shield by Cohen, Solomon, Maxfield, Pyszczynski, and against the potential for anxiety that results from one’s Greenberg’s (in press) finding that reminders of mortal- awareness of the inevitability of death. ity increase support for charismatic leaders in a hypo- The most prominent line of empirical support for thetical election scenario. This analysis implies that TMT comes from tests of the mortality salience (MS) when reminders of one’s vulnerability and mortality are hypothesis, which states that if the cultural worldview highly salient, support for such leaders is likely to functions to provide protection against death-related increase. concerns, then reminders of death should intensify The terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and efforts to bolster and defend faith in the worldview. This Pentagon on September 11, 2001, seem highly likely to broad hypothesis has been supported by a wide range of have dramatically increased the salience of such death- studies demonstrating the many ways in which MS related concerns for most of the American people increases defense of one’s worldview (for reviews of (Pyszczynski, Solomon, & Greenberg, 2003). As one empirical support for TMT, see Greenberg, Solomon, & might predict from the terror management perspective, Pyszczynski, 1997; Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, the popularity of the then and current American presi- in press). This body of research has operationalized MS dent, George W. Bush, increased dramatically in the days in a variety of ways and has included control inductions after the 9/11 terrorist attacks and has remained rela- that prime aversive topics other than death (e.g., physi- tively high well into 2004. In the present article, we use cal pain, social rejection, uncertainty) and that consis- the popularity of President Bush as a context for an tently fail to produce effects parallel to MS on the pri- “experimental case study” of the role of existential fear mary measures of worldview defense. Research also has in promoting support for government leaders. Specifi- shown that effects parallel to MS are not produced by cally, we examine (a) the effect of reminders of mortality heightened self-awareness, the salience of cultural val- on support for President Bush, (b) the link between ues, meaninglessness, or high cognitive load (e.g., 9/11-related stimuli and the accessibility of death- Greenberg et al., 1995). In addition, internal analyses related thoughts (which have been shown to mediate the consistently reveal that terror management defenses are effect of mortality salience on the pursuit of faith in one’s not mediated by the participant’s current emotional cultural worldview; for a review, see Pyszczynski, state. This large body of evidence thus strongly suggests Greenberg, & Solomon, 1999), and (c) the impact of that MS effects result specifically from activating death- reminders of 9/11 on the popularity of President Bush. related cognitions. TMT posits that terror management defenses are ulti- TERROR MANAGEMENT THEORY mately concerned with the implicit knowledge of death Building on the writings of Ernest Becker (1971, rather than with consciously experienced terror per se 1973, 1975), TMT begins with the assumption that (see Greenberg et al., 2003). Based on a large body of evi- humans share with all animals a fundamental orienta- dence, Pyszczynski et al. (1999) proposed a dual process tion toward continued survival, along with many of the model of the cognitive processes through which Downloaded from http://psp.sagepub.com at University of Missouri-Columbia on March 31, 2009 1138 PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN thoughts of death affect behavior. This model posits that skepticism in some quarters (e.g., Alterman & Green, conscious contemplation of mortality first arouses direct 2004; Anonymous, 2004; Clarke, 2004; Dean, 2004; threat-focused proximal defenses involving suppression Frank, 2004; Humberman, 2004; Phillips,
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