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P1: JZP GNWD130-FM LU5031/Wildemuth Top Margin: 0.62733in Gutter Margin: 0.7528in April 20, 2009 21:24 APPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS TO QUESTIONS IN INFORMATION AND LIBRARY SCIENCE Barbara M. Wildemuth r Westport, Connecticut London iii P1: JZP GNWD130-FM LU5031/Wildemuth Top Margin: 0.62733in Gutter Margin: 0.7528in April 20, 2009 21:24 ii P1: JZP GNWD130-FM LU5031/Wildemuth Top Margin: 0.62733in Gutter Margin: 0.7528in April 20, 2009 21:24 APPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS TO QUESTIONS IN INFORMATION AND LIBRARY SCIENCE i P1: JZP GNWD130-FM LU5031/Wildemuth Top Margin: 0.62733in Gutter Margin: 0.7528in April 20, 2009 21:24 ii P1: JZP GNWD130-FM LU5031/Wildemuth Top Margin: 0.62733in Gutter Margin: 0.7528in April 20, 2009 21:24 APPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS TO QUESTIONS IN INFORMATION AND LIBRARY SCIENCE Barbara M. Wildemuth r Westport, Connecticut London iii P1: JZP GNWD130-FM LU5031/Wildemuth Top Margin: 0.62733in Gutter Margin: 0.7528in April 20, 2009 23:17 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wildemuth, Barbara M. Applications of social research methods to questions in information and library science / Barbara M. Wildemuth. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN 978–1–59158–503–9 (alk. paper) 1. Library science—Research—Methodology. 2. Information science—Research—Methodology. I. Title. Z669.7.W55 2009 020.72—dc22 2008053745 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available. Copyright C 2009 by Libraries Unlimited All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2008053745 ISBN: 978–1–59158–503–9 First published in 2009 Libraries Unlimited, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 A Member of the Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. www.lu.com Printed in the United States of America The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48–1984). 10987654321 iv P1: JZP GNWD130-FM LU5031/Wildemuth Top Margin: 0.62733in Gutter Margin: 0.7528in April 20, 2009 21:24 Contents Acknowledgments ix Part I. Introduction 1. Using Research Results to Improve Practice in the Information Professions 3 Barbara M. Wildemuth Part II. The Questions Asked 2. Developing a Research Question 11 Barbara M. Wildemuth 3. Questions Originating in Library and Information Practice 21 Barbara M. Wildemuth 4. Descriptions of Phenomena or Settings 27 Barbara M. Wildemuth 5. Testing Hypotheses 33 Barbara M. Wildemuth 6. Questions Related to Theory 40 Chad Morgan and Barbara M. Wildemuth Part III. Research Designs and Sampling 7. Case Studies 51 Songphan Choemprayong and Barbara M. Wildemuth 8. Naturalistic Research 62 Abe J. Crystal and Barbara M. Wildemuth v P1: JZP GNWD130-FM LU5031/Wildemuth Top Margin: 0.62733in Gutter Margin: 0.7528in April 20, 2009 21:24 vi CONTENTS 9. Longitudinal Studies 73 Barbara M. Wildemuth 10. Delphi Studies 83 Lili Luo and Barbara M. Wildemuth 11. Quasi-experimental Studies 93 Carolyn Hank and Barbara M. Wildemuth 12. Experimental Studies 105 Barbara M. Wildemuth and Leo L. Cao 13. Sampling for Extensive Studies 116 Barbara M. Wildemuth 14. Sampling for Intensive Studies 129 Barbara M. Wildemuth and Leo L. Cao 15. Studying Special Populations 138 Carol L. Perryman and Barbara M. Wildemuth Part IV. Methods for Data Collection 16. Historical Research 147 Chad Morgan and Barbara M. Wildemuth 17. Existing Documents and Artifacts as Data 158 Barbara M. Wildemuth 18. Transaction Logs 166 Laura Sheble and Barbara M. Wildemuth 19. Think-aloud Protocols 178 Sanghee Oh and Barbara M. Wildemuth 20. Direct Observation 189 Barbara M. Wildemuth 21. Participant Observation 199 Barbara M. Wildemuth 22. Research Diaries 211 Laura Sheble and Barbara M. Wildemuth 23. Unstructured Interviews 222 Yan Zhang and Barbara M. Wildemuth 24. Semistructured Interviews 232 Lili Luo and Barbara M. Wildemuth 25. Focus Groups 242 Barbara M. Wildemuth and Mary Wilkins Jordan 26. Survey Research 256 Carolyn Hank, Mary Wilkins Jordan, and Barbara M. Wildemuth P1: JZP GNWD130-FM LU5031/Wildemuth Top Margin: 0.62733in Gutter Margin: 0.7528in April 20, 2009 21:24 Contents vii 27. Measuring Cognitive and Affective Variables 270 Barbara M. Wildemuth 28. Developing New Measures 278 Songphan Choemprayong and Barbara M. Wildemuth Part V. Methods for Data Analysis 29. Content Analysis 297 Kristina M. Spurgin and Barbara M. Wildemuth 30. Qualitative Analysis of Content 308 Yan Zhang and Barbara M. Wildemuth 31. Discourse Analysis 320 Barbara M. Wildemuth and Carol L. Perryman 32. Analytic Induction 329 Kristina M. Spurgin and Barbara M. Wildemuth 33. Descriptive Statistics 338 Barbara M. Wildemuth 34. Frequencies, Cross-tabulation, and the Chi-square Statistic 348 Barbara M. Wildemuth 35. Analyzing Sequences of Events 361 Barbara M. Wildemuth 36. Correlation 375 Barbara M. Wildemuth 37. Comparing Means: t Tests and Analysis of Variance 383 Abe J. Crystal and Barbara M. Wildemuth Part VI. Conclusion 38. Putting It All Together 395 Barbara M. Wildemuth Index of Authors of Examples Discussed 405 Subject Index 409 About the Contributors 419 P1: JZP GNWD130-FM LU5031/Wildemuth Top Margin: 0.62733in Gutter Margin: 0.7528in April 20, 2009 21:24 viii P1: JZP GNWD130-FM LU5031/Wildemuth Top Margin: 0.62733in Gutter Margin: 0.7528in April 20, 2009 21:24 Acknowledgments As with any other intellectual endeavor, the development of this book relied on the support of many people. I would particularly like to acknowledge the contributions of the following: r The authors of the examples discussed in these chapters. Without a large body of excellent research from which to select examples, this book would not have been possible. Thank you for your scholarly efforts, both in their creativity and their rigor. r My coauthors. All of the chapter coauthors were doctoral students at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill when these chapters were originally written. Thank you for your intellectual curiosity and your high standards for the quality of your work. r My colleagues at the University of North Carolina. Thank you for the many ideas you gave me as I worked on particular chapters in this book and for your collegiality during the process of completing it. r The School of Information and Library Science at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, the Fulbright Scholar Program, and the Institute of Information Studies and Librarianship at Charles University (Prague). Thank you for your financial and material support during my work on this manuscript. r My editor, Sue Easun. Thank you for your willingness to take on this project and for your guidance throughout the process. r My family and friends, with particular thanks to my husband, Gaylen Brubaker. Thank you for your gentle nudges to complete this manuscript and for your never-failing encouragement. ix P1: JZP GNWD130-FM LU5031/Wildemuth Top Margin: 0.62733in Gutter Margin: 0.7528in April 20, 2009 21:24 x P1: JZP GNWD130-01 LU5031/Wildemuth Top Margin: 0.62733in Gutter Margin: 0.7528in April 8, 2009 23:37 PART I INTRODUCTION 1 P1: JZP GNWD130-01 LU5031/Wildemuth Top Margin: 0.62733in Gutter Margin: 0.7528in April 8, 2009 23:37 2 P1: JZP GNWD130-01 LU5031/Wildemuth Top Margin: 0.62733in Gutter Margin: 0.7528in April 8, 2009 23:37 1 Using Research Results to Improve Practice in the Information Professions Barbara M. Wildemuth Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose. It is a seeking that he who wishes may know the cosmic secrets of the world and that they dwell therein. —Zora Neale Hurston (1942) Information and library science (ILS) is a field that includes the profession of librari- anship as well as a variety of other information professions (systems designer, database administrator, and information architect, to name a few). While these professions are diverse in some aspects, in each case, their practice assumes a close interaction between the following: r Information content, that is, the substance of the information being created, communicated, stored, and/or transformed r The people who interact with the content, including the creators of information, recipients of information, or intermediaries in the communication process r The technology used to support the creation, communication, storage, or transformation of the content As with other professional fields, the research conducted in the field of information and library science tends to be oriented toward the improvement of practice in these professions. Basic research may not have an impact on practice for a decade or more after it has been conducted, while more applied research and evaluation studies may have an impact on practice almost immediately. All along this research continuum, the researcher defines questions and conducts research studies that are motivated by the desire to improve practice in the information professions. From the practitioner’s perspective, best practices can often be developed through significant amounts of direct experience. However, they can also be developed through an examination and application of research findings, as noted by Kaske (1993). For example, a study of student and faculty expectations of instant messaging for providing 3 P1: JZP GNWD130-01 LU5031/Wildemuth Top Margin: 0.62733in Gutter Margin: 0.7528in April 8, 2009 23:37 4 APPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS library reference services may guide the development of those services so that they are acceptable to and accepted by the intended users. This type of application of research results—to improve professional practice—is called evidence-based practice,avaria- tion of the term evidence-based medicine, which came into vogue over a decade ago (Cochrane Collaboration, 2004). Two things need to happen for the information professions to profit from evidence- based practice.

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