DOCSLIB.ORG

Vol. 54, No. 6 11 Camp Surgeon- a Modified Maltese Cross USWV and Pre- 1910 Activities Documented by Primary Centered on the Rank Strap

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Vol. 54, No. 6 11 Camp Surgeon- a Modified Maltese Cross USWV and Pre- 1910 Activities Documented by Primary Centered on the Rank Strap Figure 43: Camp Chief Musician. Figure 44: Department Patriotic Figure 45: Department Graves Instructor (1939 addition). Registration Officer (1939 addition). Figure 46: Camp Adjutant Figure 47: Camp Quartermaster Figure 48:Pre-1910 version of (Note the narrow ribbon) (1939 revision) (Note the narrow ribbon) Officer of the Guard Figure 49:Pre-1910 version Figure 50:Pre-1910 version of Figure 51:Pre-1910 version Camp Commander. Camp Quartermaster. Senior Vice Camp Commander. Figure 52:Pre.1910 version of Camp Adjutant Vol. 54, No. 6 11 Camp Surgeon- A modified Maltese cross USWV and pre- 1910 activities documented by primary centered on the rank strap. source materials. Endnotes The Pre-1910 Observed Insignia 1. The author has been unable to locate a primary source with the Junior Vice Commander- Two gold bars, one at date of formation. Harvey S. Eisenberg in his March 1973 article in each end of the rank strap on a white enamel The Medal Collector states that the USWV was organized on April field. 18, 1904 but provides no reference. Eisenberg also gives a January 1, 1904 date for founding of the Military Order of the Serpent, again Officer of the Day- The block capital letters "OD" without reference. Since membership in the USWV was required to centered, on a white enamel field. join the Serpents, the USWV may have formed before 1904. 2. Rules and Regulations United Spanish War Veterans 1910, A number of numismatic variations in officer pin-bars page 2, Addison C. Getchell & Son, Printers, 1910. have been observed over the years. These variations 3. lbid., p. 3-5. 4. Ibid., p. 251-255. include differences in the curvature of the rank strap, 5. Ibid., p. 48-52. the degree of pebbling in the rank strap background and chevron, the size of the colonel’s eagle and other elements of distinctive insigne, the presence or absence of enamel on the distinctive device, the amount of detail in the design elements, the type of catch on the pin-bar, and the presence of maker’s marks. The 1910 statutes provided for Past Officer Medals. Upon retirement from office, members were allowed to wear the distinctive insigne of the highest office held centered between the regulation pin and suspension bars. While the color of the ribbon was not specified, it has been observed that the ribbon usually corresponds to the highest level of office, Camp, Department, or National. Past Officers’ medals are illustrated in Figure 53. The author would like to thank the many OMSA members who allowed examination of USWV medals in their sale cases over the years, especially Everitt Bowles and Robert G. Wilson who recently sold large collections. Ronald L. Fischer kindly provided a photocopy of pertinent sections of the 1939 Rules, which was of value in documenting officer insignia changes made that year. Hermes Belen photographed the medals. Member comments are always welcome. The author would especially appreciate Figure 53: Past Officers’ medals for Department (left) and Camp information on the formation of the Commander (right). 12 JOMSA The Distribution Process of the Polish and Matulewicz,who were the lowest bidders, in September 1920. The first crosses were distributed in Order of the Virtuti Militari, 5th Class, the field during the summer of 1921. The crosses 1920-1941 (Figures 3 and 4) were especially made by W. Wabinski for award to foreigners and high-ranking officers from Zdzislaw E Wesolowski the same dies as the Polish crosses but in sterling silver with a hollow center in which a center disk of gold was Military scholars interested in Polish orders, especially placed. The serial numbers on these crosses were hand the Virtuti Militari, the highest honor awarded during a engraved. Most of the crosses awarded to Polish time of war for personal bravery, have always wondered recipients (Figures 5 through 14) in this period were why there are irregularities in the disposition of the Order, made from brass materials with silver or gold plate, and especially in the 5th class. The Virtuti Militari is the the Ministry expressed dissatisfaction with these crosses oldest decoration of its kind in the world still in use. Its because of their low quality. The harsh economic times stature is equal in importance with the U.S. Medal of and very limited defense budget forced the Ministry to Honor and the British Victoria Cross., continue to accept the lowest bidders as the manufacturers of the highest Polish military decoration. The Polish Ministry of Military Affairs ordered 10,000 silver gilt, 5th class crosses of the Order of Virtuti Militari The firms of Knedler and Gontarczyk were selected as from Polish jewelers between the years 1920 and 1923. prime contractors for the 5th class crosses (Figures 5 They were to be awarded for the Polish War for and 6) while the firm of Krupski and Matulewicz won Independence against the Germans and the Russians and the contract to produce the first three higher classes of Soviets between the years 1914 and 1923. The Polish the Order subcontracting the 5th class to Gontarczyk. Government in Exile awarded some of these original For a time the firms of Reising and Wabinski produced numbered-crosses from 1939 to 1941. In addition, the several hundred crosses (Figures 13 and 14) delivering awarded crosses did not follow a numerical sequence them to the Ministry on October 4, 1921. One hundred corresponding to the period of the award. For example, specially made sterling silver crosses with gold center the Polish Government in Exile awarded crosses serial disks were produced by Gontarczyk and delivered on numbered 8209-8331 during World War II, while crosses November 23, 1922. These crosses with a lot of the same numbered 9704-9924 were awarded between 1922 and type made by Krupski with serial numbers from 9700 to 1923. 9799 were for distribution to foreigners. The first awards of the Virtuti Militari in the form of In addition to the five official manufacturers of the insignia and diplomas were made on January 22, 1920 regular Government Issue crosses with machine pressed to the highest-ranking officers of the Temporary Order serial numbers, there were over 20 other so-called Chapter, (Kapitula Orderu). However, only the higher jeweler’s versions (Figures 19 through 26) made in classes of the Order were made, the silver crosses of the Poland before 1939. These crosses were sold to 5th class were not distributed to the soldiers in the field, recipients as replacements and duplicates for wear. Since because the crosses were not available at that time. In regulations required all personnel to wear the Order at July of 1920, during the first ceremonies, soldiers all times, some were lost or misplaced and duplicates decorated with the Order were given a short piece of the were necessary. These jeweler’s crosses (Figures 51- cloth ribbon of the Virtuti Militari to wear on their 52) were in many cases identical to the Government Issue uniform with an accompanying award diploma (Figure except that they were unnumbered. Many recipients 1) that was designed by Lieutenant J. Golinski. The ordered duplicate crosses in sterling and gold. Some of insignia in form of the cross was to be issued at a later these crosses bore the jeweler’s initials, hallmark and date. Living recipients were issued an identification card assay marks. The serial number was hand engraved. (Figure 2) that was used to enter military bases and public Government awarded crosses were issued to the recipient events and to use public transportation free. Recipients free of charge, but duplicates had to be purchased directly were required to carry the card anytime they wore the from the jeweler. These crosses are considered to be pre- insignia of the Order and also when collecting their World War II copies. monthly pension. The original government-issued, machine-stamped The Polish Ministry of Military Affairs first awarded Virtuti Militari 5th class silver crosses are extremely rare. the production of the cross to the jewelry firms of Krupski The majority of these original government-issued crosses Vol. 54, No. 6 13 .
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Stanislaviv in the Face of the Polish-Soviet War 1939 Polish Garrison – Soviet Garrison
    Open Military Studies 2020; 1: 70–78 Research Article Maciej Franz* Stanislaviv in the face of the Polish-Soviet War 1939 Polish Garrison – Soviet Garrison https://10.1515/openms-2020-0107 Received Oct 07, 2020; accepted Dec 11, 2020 Abstract: In 1921-1939 Stanyslaviv was one the bigger polish garrisons. The approach of the war the reason for leaving the town by polish troops. In September of 1939 the garrison in Stanyslaviv was rather small, consisting of small logistic units. Until now the historians have been interested in the face of this particular garrison in those few September days of 1939th. This is an attempt to showcase the most important events that happened while the polish troops were stationed in town and were still trying to provide peace and safety it and its people. Keywords: Polish troops, polish campaign, 1939, Second World War The Polish campaign of 1939, as the first episode of World War II, was not the same in all parts of Poland. For the inhabitants of Stanislaviv and a significant part of the Stanislaviv Voivodeship, it did not turn out to be a war against the Third Reich, but Soviet aggression – it is another episode on the long list of Polish- Russian armed conflicts in history. For people who lived in the western, southern and northern provinces of the Second Polish Republic, the war immediately took on a normal appearance. Air raids by enemy planes began, as a result – bombing, and a few days later the front was changed. The symbols of those days were mass groups of soldiers moving through these territories, both Polish soldiers who had to defend their homeland and those Germans who sought to conquer the Polish state.
    [Show full text]
  • Generate PDF of This Page
    Institute of National Remembrance https://ipn.gov.pl/en/news/4412,It-was-good-to-fight-for-Poland.html 2021-09-25, 16:52 12.08.2020 “It was good to fight for Poland!” We encourage you to read an article written by President of the IPN Jarosław Szarek, Ph.D. for the "Rzeczpospolita" newspaper. “We have the whole world against us” wrote Stanisław Posner in a report for Józef Piłsudski, submitted end of June 1920, after travelling through Western European countries. During his several-week expedition, he visited a few capital cities and returned with observations free of any hope, on the day preceding the breakout of decisive battles in the east. Posner highlighted that even those who had been siding with Poland, such as French President Alexandre Millerand, assuring of his support for Warsaw in the conflict with the Czechs ,“is siding with them and, in other matters, will always submit to the opinion of England, because he depends on her as a creditor. What can I say about the others? The issue of compensation, the issue of Gdańsk, the issue of the plebiscites – are worse than ever.” The following weeks confirmed these observations. Even among recent sympathisers of Poland’s cause there was no shortage of those observing with indifference our battle with Bolshevism, interested, at most, in taking as much as they could for themselves. The year 1920 did not just mean the struggle with Bolshevism, but also a clash with the indifference and reluctance from the West. Hence the assistance we received from those willing to help us at this dramatic time was even more valuable.
    [Show full text]
  • They Fought for Independent Poland
    2019 Special edition PISMO CODZIENNE Independence Day, November 11, 2019 FREE AGAIN! THEY FOUGHT FOR INDEPENDENT POLAND Dear Readers, The day of November 11 – the National Independence Day – is not accidentally associated with the Polish military uni- form, its symbolism and traditions. Polish soldiers on almost all World War I fronts “threw on the pyre their lives’ fate.” When the Polish occupiers were drown- ing in disasters and revolutions, white- and-red flags were fluttering on Polish streets to mark Poland’s independence. The Republic of Poland was back on the map of Europe, although this was only the beginning of the battle for its bor- ders. Józef Piłsudski in his first order to the united Polish Army shared his feeling of joy with his soldiers: “I’m taking com- mand of you, Soldiers, at the time when the heart of every Pole is beating stron- O God! Thou who from on high ger and faster, when the children of our land have seen the sun of freedom in all its Hurls thine arrows at the defenders of the nation, glory.” He never promised them any bat- We beseech Thee, through this heap of bones! tle laurels or well-merited rest, though. On the contrary – he appealed to them Let the sun shine on us, at least in death! for even greater effort in their service May the daylight shine forth from heaven’s bright portals! for Poland. And they never let him down Let us be seen - as we die! when in 1920 Poland had to defend not only its own sovereignty, but also entire Europe against flooding bolshevism.
    [Show full text]
  • The Heroic Destroyer and "Lucky" Ship O.R.P. "Blyskawica"
    Transactions on the Built Environment vol 65, © 2003 WIT Press, www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3509 The heroic destroyer and "lucky" ship O.R.P. "Blyskawica" A. Komorowski & A. Wojcik Naval University of Gdynia, Poland Abstract The destroyer O.R.P. "Blyskawica" is a precious national relic, the only remaining ship that was built before World War I1 (WW2). On the 5oth Anniversary of its service under the Polish flag, it was honoured with the highest military decoration - the Gold Cross of the Virtuti Militari Medal. It has been the only such case in the whole history of the Polish Navy. Its our national hero, war-veteran and very "lucky" warship. "Blyskawica" took part in almost every important operation in Europe throughout WW2. It sailed and covered the Baltic Sea, North Sea, all the area around Great Britain, the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. During the war "Blyskawica" covered a distance of 148 thousand miles, guarded 83 convoys, carried out 108 operational patrols, participated in sinking two warships, damaged three submarines and certainly shot down four war-planes and quite probably three more. It was seriously damaged three times as a result of operational action. The crew casualties aggregated to a total of only 5 killed and 48 wounded petty officers and seamen, so it was a very "lucky" ship during WW2. In July 1947 the ship came back to Gdynia in Poland and started training activities. Having undergone rearmament and had a general overhaul, it became an anti-aircraft defence ship. In 1976 it replaced O.R.P. "Burza" as a Museum-Ship.
    [Show full text]
  • Ukraine in World War II
    Ukraine in World War II. — Kyiv, Ukrainian Institute of National Remembrance, 2015. — 28 p., ill. Ukrainians in the World War II. Facts, figures, persons. A complex pattern of world confrontation in our land and Ukrainians on the all fronts of the global conflict. Ukrainian Institute of National Remembrance Address: 16, Lypska str., Kyiv, 01021, Ukraine. Phone: +38 (044) 253-15-63 Fax: +38 (044) 254-05-85 Е-mail: [email protected] www.memory.gov.ua Printed by ПП «Друк щоденно» 251 Zelena str. Lviv Order N30-04-2015/2в 30.04.2015 © UINR, texts and design, 2015. UKRAINIAN INSTITUTE OF NATIONAL REMEMBRANCE www.memory.gov.ua UKRAINE IN WORLD WAR II Reference book The 70th anniversary of victory over Nazism in World War II Kyiv, 2015 Victims and heroes VICTIMS AND HEROES Ukrainians – the Heroes of Second World War During the Second World War, Ukraine lost more people than the combined losses Ivan Kozhedub Peter Dmytruk Nicholas Oresko of Great Britain, Canada, Poland, the USA and France. The total Ukrainian losses during the war is an estimated 8-10 million lives. The number of Ukrainian victims Soviet fighter pilot. The most Canadian military pilot. Master Sergeant U.S. Army. effective Allied ace. Had 64 air He was shot down and For a daring attack on the can be compared to the modern population of Austria. victories. Awarded the Hero joined the French enemy’s fortified position of the Soviet Union three Resistance. Saved civilians in Germany, he was awarded times. from German repression. the highest American The Ukrainians in the Transcarpathia were the first during the interwar period, who Awarded the Cross of War.
    [Show full text]
  • Sacred Places in Lviv – Their Changing Significance and Functions
    PrACE GEOGrAFICznE, zeszyt 137 Instytut Geografii i Gospodarki Przestrzennej UJ Kraków 2014, 91 – 114 doi : 10.4467/20833113PG.14.011.2156 Sacred placeS in lviv – their changing Significance and functionS Małgorzata Flaga Abstract : In the paper, issues of a multitude of functions of sacred places in Lviv are considered. The problem is presented on the example of selected religious sites that were established in distinct periods of the development of the city and refers to different religious denomina- tions. At present, various functions are mixing in the sacred complexes of Lviv. The author tries to formulate some general conclusions concerning their contemporary role and leading types of activity. These findings are based, most of all, on analyses of the facts related to the history of Lviv, circumstances of its foundation, various transformations, and modern func- tions of the selected sites. Keywords : Lviv, Western Ukraine, religious diversity, functions of religious sites introduction Lviv, located in the western part of Ukraine, is a city with an incredibly rich his- tory and tradition. It was founded in an area considered to be a kind of political, ethnic and religious borderland. For centuries the influence of different cultures, ethnic and religious groups met there and the city often witnessed momentous historical events affecting the political situation in this part of Europe. The com- munity of the thriving city was a remarkable mosaic of nationalities and religious denominations from the very beginning. On the one hand, these were representa- tives of the Latin West ( first – Catholics, later on – Protestants ), on the other hand – the Byzantine East.
    [Show full text]
  • 3 Who Is Who and What Is What
    3 e who is who and what is what Ever Success - General Knowledge 4 Saad Book Bank, Lahore Ever Success Revised and Updated GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Who is who? What is what? CSS, PCS, PMS, FPSC, ISSB Police, Banks, Wapda, Entry Tests and for all Competitive Exames and Interviews World Pakistan Science English Computer Geography Islamic Studies Subjectives + Objectives etc. Abbreviations Current Affair Sports + Games Ever Success - General Knowledge 5 Saad Book Bank, Lahore © ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this book may be reproduced In any form, by photostate, electronic or mechanical, or any other means without the written permission of author and publisher. Composed By Muhammad Tahsin Ever Success - General Knowledge 6 Saad Book Bank, Lahore Dedicated To ME Ever Success - General Knowledge 7 Saad Book Bank, Lahore Ever Success - General Knowledge 8 Saad Book Bank, Lahore P R E F A C E I offer my services for designing this strategy of success. The material is evidence of my claim, which I had collected from various resources. I have written this book with an aim in my mind. I am sure this book will prove to be an invaluable asset for learners. I have tried my best to include all those topics which are important for all competitive exams and interviews. No book can be claimed as prefect except Holy Quran. So if you found any shortcoming or mistake, you should inform me, according to your suggestions, improvements will be made in next edition. The author would like to thank all readers and who gave me their valuable suggestions for the completion of this book.
    [Show full text]
  • Public of Poland in New Zealand
    NEWSLETTER No 26 EMBASSY OF THE REPUBLIC OF POLAND IN NEW ZEALAND UNUSUAL TIMES May 2020 While most of us have been spending more Polish Embassy in Wellington has faced its In this issue: time at home, we encourage all of you to take biggest consular challenge in history. Since the POLISH RESPONSE TO COVID -19 2 this opportunity and explore Poland using nu- introduction of various border restrictions POLISH BUSINESS PLATFORM 2 merous valuable online resources - see some around the world, including New Zealand and 80 YEARS AFTER KATYŃ 3 links in this issue. the Pacific Islands, we have assisted with the 1945 IN POLISH HISTORY 3 Great prizes are offered in the competition "My repatriation - either by commercial flights or REFLECTIONS ON VE DAY 3 most interesting online meeting with Poland" with the help of our colleagues from the Euro- WW2 MUSEUM VISITS NZ 4 for the younger audience. Have a look at the pean Union countries - hundreds of Polish na- MONTE CASSINO REMEMBERED 4 last page. tionals. Even though we were not able to commemo- We would also like to extend our thanks to all JOIN „L IFE AFTER PAHIATUA ” 4 rate many of the beautiful as well as sombre of those New Zealand -based wonderful Polish WAITANGI DAY 2020 5 anniversaries, we have acknowledged them. people - including Polish Associations mem- AMBASSADOR IN TONGA 5 You will find more details on the next pages. bers, Honorary Consuls, a Polish doctor and MAY 2020 ANNIVERSARIES 6 Some of the events, such as Katyń Massacre many others - who supported us and their POLONIA 4 NEIGHBOURS 6 commemorations have been postponed while countrymen in this unusual time.
    [Show full text]
  • Committee on Rules
    COMMITTEE ON RULES I Mina'Trenta na Liheslaturan Guahan • 30th Guam Legislature 155 Hesler Place, Hagatfia, Guam 96910 • tel: (671)472-7679 • fax: (671)472-3547 • [email protected] SENATOR RORYJ. August 10, 2010 RESPICIO CHAIRPERSON MEMORANDUM SENATOR Judith P. Guthertz To: Patricia C. Santos VICE Clerk of the Legislature CHAIRPERSON MAJORITY From: Rory J. Respicio ~ MEMBERS: Chairperson, Co~ittee on Rules Judith T. Won Pat Subject: Supplement to Committee Report SPEAKER on Bill No. 407-30 (COR) Benjamin J. F. Cruz VICE SPEAKER HafaAdai! Tma Rose Mufi.a Barnes LEGISlATIVE SECRETARY Transmitted herewith is additional testimony on Bill No. 407-30 (COR). Please attach this document as a "Supplement" to the Thomas C. Ada Committee Report on Bill No. 407-30 (COR). Please make the SENATOR appropriate indication in your records and forward to MIS for Frank B. Aguon, Jr. posting on our website. SENATOR Adolpho B. Palacios, Sr. Si Yu'os ma'dse'! SENATOR Vicente C. Pangelinan SENATOR MINORITY cc: Senator vicente c. pangelinan, Sponsor, Bill No. 179 MEMBERS: Frank F. Blas, Jr. SENATOR James V. Espaldon SENATOR To: Thirtieth Guam Legislature Date: 08/10/10 Ref: Bill 407 "The Guam Medal of Honor" Dear Senators, It is with profound respect that we the undersigned Veterans below support proposed bill 407 in Honor of all of Guam's sons and daughter who have given their lives in honor of their country, island and people. We thank you Senators for your heartfilled respect and dignity in honoring these soldiers. However, the name "Guam Medal of Honor" needs to be changed to, not confuse or disrespect our nations highest award the ~~congressional Medal of Honor".
    [Show full text]
  • The Order of Military Merit
    CONTACT US Directorate of Honours a nd Recognition National Defence Headquarters 101 Colonel By Drive Ottawa, ON KlA 01<2 http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhr-ddhr/ 1-877-741-8332 ©Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, 2012 A-DH-300-000/JD-003 Cat. No. D2-301/2012 ISBN 978- 1- 100-54293-5 The Order of Military Merit Dedication ....... ... ....................... .......... ........ ....... ...... .... ... ............................. iii Message Her Maj esty The Queen, Sovereign of the Order of Military Merit ... .... .................................. ........... ....... ................. .. v Message His Excellency the Right Honourable David Lloyd Johnston, CC, CMM, COM, CD, Governor General and Commander-in-Chief of Canada, Chancellor of the Order of Military Merit .. .... ... ... ................... ..... ............. ............. vii Preface General Walter John Natynczyk, CMM, MSC, CD, Chief of the Defence Staff, Principal Commander of the Order of Military Merit ....................................................................... .. ix Frontispiece .......... .... ........ ................................. .................. ......... ... ................ x Author's Note ..... .......... .. ... ............. ... ....... ....... .... ....................... ......... .... .. ........ xi Acknowledgements ..... ... ................... .... .... .... ............................................................ xii Introduction ...................................................... ............................... .. .......
    [Show full text]
  • Generate PDF of This Page
    Institute of National Remembrance https://ipn.gov.pl/en/news/7087,On-the-night-of-1516-February-1941-the-first-quotSilent-Unseenquot- soldiers-were.html 2021-09-27, 00:00 16.02.2021 On the night of 15/16 February 1941, the first "Silent Unseen" soldiers were parachuted to occupied Poland. They constituted the elite of the Polish Armed Forces in the West. Well-trained in bases in Great Britain and Italy, transferred by air to occupied Poland, they provided invaluable support for the Home Army. Who were the ”Silent Unseen”? They were soldiers of the Polish Armed Forces, trained from 1940 in Great Britain and from the end of 1943, also in Italy. Their mission was to serve in the ranks of the Union for Armed Struggle and the Home Army. After being sworn in to the Home Army, they were transported by air to occupied Poland. Where did the name “Silent Unseen” come from? It was probably used for the first time in 1941 in Scottish training stations. Initially, it rather defined the way in which the soldiers "disappeared" from the ranks of the Polish Armed Forces units, to their future, unknown service. Everything was done undercover. Jędrzej Tucholski, a writer dealing with the subject of World War II, believed that the name "Silent Unseen" appeared for the first time in September 1941, in the training manual of Division VI of the SNW, in charge of the communication of the staff with the country. The "Silent Unseen", the Home Army intelligence officer Stanisław Jankowski argued that the name had become commonplace among Polish soldiers in Scotland by 1941, during night exercises on diversion courses.
    [Show full text]
  • Jewish Soldiers in Polish Armies 1794-1945 Tadeusz Dubicki and Grzegorz Łukomski
    Jewish Soldiers in Polish Armies 1794-1945 Tadeusz Dubicki and Grzegorz Łukomski Jewish settlers started to arrive in Poland early in the reign of the first Polish royal dynasty of Piasts. Since living conditions they found here were much more favorable than in the countries of Western Europe, Jewish population grew rapidly. In the centuries to come there were many waves of Jewish immigrants seeking refuge from pogroms and persecutions in the West. The number of Jews living in Poland in the mid-seventeenth century, at the golden age of the Polish Commonwealth, both politically and territorially, is estimated roughly at 450,000, whereas late in the eighteenth century, during the reign of King Stanislaw August Poniatowski (from 1764), at 750,000, most of them (about half a million) in cities and towns. Their percentage varied notably from province to province, with the eastern territories at the top of the list. Despite being mainly urban population engaged in trade and crafts, Jews could not easily be defined as “the third estate” (middle class) because of their legal and cultural distinctiveness.1 Many Jews became soon adapted to their new environment, assimilating to the new homeland in spiritual and cultural sense, and, with time, in the religious sense as well. Many identified themselves with Poland, contributing their knowledge, experience, and work to the common good. Many sectors of Polish economy, trade and crafts in particular, were dominated by Jews, who thus added to Poland’s development. Still, Jews, along with burghers or peasants, were not obliged (or rather privileged in the then perspective) to serve in the armed forces.
    [Show full text]